Indonesia Report

Use of the Arts as Stimulus for Economic Growth
Strategies for Sustainable Economic Development and Cultural Preservation
Summer 2010
RESEARCHERS
Michael C. Romanos, Ph. D Professor of Economic Development, School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Flvia M. C. Bastos, Ph. D Associate Professor of Art Education, School of Art College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Laura Jenkins, Ph. D Associate Professor of Political Science, Department of Political Science, McMicken College of Arts & Sciences
Emily Casagrande Graduate Student, School of Art College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Victoria Fromme Undergraduate Student, School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Alexandria Hancock Undergraduate Student, School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Emily Lewis Graduate Student, School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Andrew Neutzling Undergraduate Student, School of Planning College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning
College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning School of Planning / School of Art McMicken College of Arts & Sciences Department of Political Science University of Cincinnati PO Box 210016 Cincinnati, OH 45221-0016 (513) 556-4943
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: References Appendices:
Project Description Context Description Yogyakarta Findings and Bali Findings Questions Remaining Recommendations for Further Research
Appendix A: Yogyakarta Batik Case Study Appendix B: Kotagede Silver Smith Case Study Appendix C: Yogyakarta Painting Case Study Appendix D: Yogyakarta Performance Arts Case Study Appendix E: Ubud Art Forms Case Study Appendix F: List of Interviews and Interviewees Appendix G: Interview Transcriptions Appendix H: Data Tables
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT In the last twenty years, local economic development strategies have been increasingly focusing on the establishment of art districts, the enhancement and promotion of cultural heritage of localities, and the use of both artistic and cultural assets to promote tourism as an economic growth sector (Florida 2002, Goldbard 2006, Grodach and Loukaitou Sideris, 2007). These strategies are not new, but in recent years they have been used in much more intensive ways, and have had applications at various scales of interventions: At the local level, they have been employed to revitalize neighborhood business districts in declining central cities (First Suburbs) and small towns of the US, Europe, and Latin America (Grant 2006; Vossman 2002). At the regional level, they have been used to revitalize and stimulate economic growth and development of entire cities and their regions. An excellent example of this model of economic growth and development can be observed and studied in the Indonesian island of Bali, where the regions cultural heritage and artistic traditions were used as the trigger for tourism-related investments first by the Dutch Colonial administration in the late 19th and early 20th century, and subsequently by the Indonesian government since the 1950s (Martopo and Mitchell 1995; Pringle 2004). This model of economic development however, has been considered controversial, because of its potential repercussions for the integrity of culture and traditions in the targeted areas. As such, it has not been universally accepted as a proper strategy for the enhancement of the economic potential of declining or backwards regions. Its criticisms, in the case of artificially designated art districts without a previous history of artistic activities or traditions, center on the effects of the development model on the characteristics of the local neighborhoods, the lack of integration of these activities with the rest of the neighborhood, and the fact that, while such efforts may generate business transactions, they may not necessarily result in development improvements to the neighborhood itself. But where the model has been even more criticized is in cases of its applications in regions which already have long and significant artistic and cultural traditions. In these cases the criticism is that the exploitation of the local arts and cultural heritage for economic growth purposes results in the adulteration of the cultural characteristics and strengths of the local area, commercializes significant aspects of these strengths, and introduces the seeds of deterioration in the quality and significance of the artistic expression of the targeted community. In other words, the tourism-use of significant cultural characteristics,
Chapter 1: Project Description
PROJECT DESCRIPTION especially in the case of developing regions in need of employment, investments, and enhancement of local revenues, can be damaging for fragile forms of local cultural expressions (Cohen 2000; Lippard 1997, Martopo and Mitchell 1995; Shepard 2002; Wherry 2006; Yamashita 2003). On the other hand, a strong argument can be made for the attractiveness associated with such art and heritage districts, and the inducements they provide for visitors, residents, and investors, as well as for the potential for higher demand and therefore higher incomes for the individuals and households employed in such arts-based developments. Thus, the issues revolving around the use of arts and cultural heritage for economic growth and development purposes are not clear-cut. On the one hand, they may pose cultural threats for the local communities and their populations, but on the other hand they have the potential to support and enhance the economy of a local area or a region. The question then arises, how could such districts be protected, and their cultural heritage safeguarded, while economic growth is promoted? These issues to date have been of little concern to policy makers and economic development planners. Even though the detrimental effects of tourism on local cultures have been recognized and measured by research in the field, local and state governments overlook them in the short run, in favor of quick economic growth successes2. Yet, both experience and research indicates that it is possible to promote cultural-resources-based economic growth models, and at the same time not only safeguard, but enhance and support local artistic and cultural expressions. Our research intended to provide an increased understanding of how to utilize culturalresources-based economic growth models while safeguarding and enhancing local artistic and cultural expressions. We investigated two case studies of artistic, cultural, and economic development in the Republic of Indonesias provinces of Yogyakarta and Bali. Yogyakarta and Bali boast rich, but complex cultural and artistic assets. It was not the intent of this project to comprehensively detail every aspect of the artistic activities of these provinces as they relate to economic development. Rather, we created an exploratory framework of the arts, culture, and economic development activities occurring in the study areas. Specifically, the framework intended to provide further insight into: (1) How the arts and culture have evolved in the study areas; (2) How tourism impacts the arts and culture in the study areas;
PROJECT DESCRIPTION (3) The role that arts and culture play in economic growth in the study areas; (4) If and how economic development is being achieved through arts and culture in the study areas. Analysis of the framework revealed key patterns and trends occurring in the study areas. From these trends we identified subjects in need of more detailed research.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION SITE SELECTION: YOGYAKARTA AND BALI Southeast Asia, and Indonesia itself, have been promoting tourism-based economic growth models since the aftermath of WWII, and have used local cultural resources heavily, with occasionally disastrous results for the local populations, as well as for the tourism investors themselves (Britton, 1981; Britton, 1982; Brown, 1989). As such, they are appropriate for the study of a variety of alternative development models. The model of culture-based development we investigated has been intensively employed in the two Indonesian regions on which our study focused: the ancient capital of the Mataram kingdom in Java, today known as Yogyakarta, also the location of our partner university, Universitas Gadjah Mada, and the sole survivor in Indonesia of the ancient Hindu/Buddhist culture, the island of Bali. Thus, these two regions are especially suitable for the study of several alternative cultural heritage backgrounds and the ways in which these heritages have been used for development purposes. The fieldwork for our study consisted of extended site visits to Yogyakarta and Bali provinces in the summer of 2010. In Yogyakarta, our team lived in a kampoeng (Indonesianstyle neighborhood) in the northern area of the city for approximately one month. In Bali, we conducted operations from a local hotel in the village of Sanur in the city of Denpasar. In both locations we gained important contacts and conducted interviews with leaders and practitioners involved in local arts, culture, business, education and government.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION CULTURAL PROTECTION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT In their recent article Economic Development in the Shadow of Angkor Wat: Meaning, Legitimation, and Myth, Eric Heikkila and Philippe Peycam provide one of the few examples of a scholarly investigation that integrates models of economic development with models of cultural preservation. The authors explore rapid tourism-related urbanization in the rural area near Cambodias Angkor Wat World Heritage Site and examine how the meaning of place at Angkor Wat has changed over three eras: the ancient Khmer period, the French colonial era, and the postcolonial era (Heikkila and Peycam 2010). Locals near Angkor Wat successfully generate income from tourism (Heikkila and Peycam 2010). Unfortunately, local interpretations of the monument are being overshadowed by external perspectives that cut away at the sites cultural value to locals (Heikkila and Peycam 2010). In essence, external influences like tourism support local art and cultural financially but also may undermine traditional meaning and value associated with that art and culture to locals. With a specific focus on just one cultural monument Heikkila and Peycams study had a far narrower focus than our exploration of the countless aspects of art and culture within our study areas. However, their work deserves some credit for setting some useful precedents for our investigation. Like Cambodia, Indonesia boasts an impressive history which includes sophisticated ancient civilizations, a disastrous period of European colonial rule, and a modern era of postcolonial independence. Art and culture in Indonesia also reflects influences from all three of these eras. Our examination of Yogyakarta and Bali cultural processes was careful to include historical context whenever possible. Interestingly, Heikkila and Peycam found that the primary consumers of cultural tourism at Angkor Wat were domestic tourists rather than international visitors (Heikkila and Peycam, 2010). Findings like this helped to set the stage for our own study. Can domestic tourists create the same distortion of cultural meaning that international tourists seem to create? Do government initiatives that capitalize on arts also diminish the quality of the arts? Heikkila and Peycams research methods and findings provide a useful starting point for approaching questions like these at a single cultural monument. However, their study of a World Heritage Site monument does not investigate how living artists or other active cultural players impact economic development or how economic development impacts art and culture. Through direct interviews, our study investigated these areas.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION Overall, our preliminary exploration revealed that little has been accomplished in directly integrating cultural protection and preservation practices into programs of economic development of cultural regions (Duval, 1998; Picard, 1996). We can identify three reasons for this: (a) Tourism development based on local cultural resources is considered to bring about rapid economic prosperity where there are few other alternatives for the generation of employment, and, as a consequence, it is considered the fastest road to the development of local infrastructure. Because of that prospect, local governments and residents tend to support tourism development practices, and disregard the extent to which they may affect their local culture; (b) Cultural resources and characteristics are nebulous concepts which are not easily defined and quantified. Thus, while it is recognized that they are likely to be affected by economic growth, especially if that growth is rapid, quantifying these negative impacts and their magnitude on the artistic expressions of a local community or a region such an island, is difficult, lacks acceptable models of impact assessment, and is usually not a priority of local governments strapped for economic benefits from that growth; (c) Economic growth and development are planned and carried out by government agencies focusing on economic variables and objectives. The professionals involved in these plans are not trained and are not sensitized on the fragility of local cultural resources, and thus tend to marginalize cultural and related issues and concerns. Our research focuses on integrating models of economic development with models of cultural protection and preservation. We believe that our work avoided the complications listed above for several reasons: (a) As outsiders to Indonesia, we approached art and culture-based economic development initiatives without the same biases that some local government officials and residents may unknowingly harbor. (b) Rather than leaving artistic and cultural resources as nebulously defined concepts we attempted to define them through direct interviews with local art and culture leaders and practitioners. From these interviews we created a general framework that identifies key artistic and cultural processes occurring in the study areas and explained how these processes interact with economic development. Though no amount of interviews could
PROJECT DESCRIPTION provide a truly comprehensive assessment of the complex cultural processes of our study areas, we hope that our framework provided a useful summary of the main processes. (c) We approached the issues of development and preservation from a number of different disciplines, and by employing assessment tools and techniques specific to these disciplines. Our team members came from diverse backgrounds including economics, urban planning, art education, and political science.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The nature of the problems we wanted to address in this project is inherently interdisciplinary. Economic development and cultural resource conservation are domains that interface mostly under conditions of conflicting interests. Government agencies aiming at economic growth perceive cultural resources as a means to the goal of economic development, while those responsible for the protection of a regions cultural heritage see development efforts as clear threats to the preservation of their wards. Our team studied these issues from the perspectives of economic development and tourism investments (Michael Romanos) but under conditions of respect and concern for the various modalities of artistic creation within existing local cultures and traditions (Flavia Bastos); and aimed at defining ways by which government policy can become coordinated among government levels and across jurisdictions (Laura Jenkins) to achieve the coordinated objectives of development and protection simultaneously, ensuring the long term preservation of the resources and thus achieving the sustainability of that development.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study addressed a significant issue in the field of economic development, and one that has attracted little attention among objective researchers. Much of the information about the impacts of development efforts on the cultural character and resources of regions is either anecdotal or representing particular interests. Development professionals and government agencies have an interest in downplaying the negative impacts of insensitive programs and policies on the cultural environment, while ardent preservationists may oppose any form of development, thus depriving impoverished populations of opportunities to make a better living. We explored the potential of programs, policies and strategies that would have the potential to achieve both, the development of a region, and the protection of its resources. We believe that our study can contribute to this debate in a positive way.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION METHODOLOGY, CHALLENGES, AND TASKS Researchers have spent decades examining single areas of the arts in Yogyakarta and Bali. However, few have attempted creating a comprehensive picture of arts and culture in these areas and there have been even fewer objective assessments of how arts and culture impact the local economies. The intent of this study was to create a preliminary framework outlining the contributions that culture, the arts, and artists make to the economies of Yogyakarta and Bali. Our framework was not expected to create a truly comprehensive assessment of the arts and cultures of the study area. In addition, we expected to draw few concrete conclusions from the framework. Rather, our framework was created for the purpose of identifying areas of promise for additional research. Approaching this voluminous research goal had interesting methodological implications. Previous studies conducted in the United States demonstrate that the economic contributions of artists extend far beyond localized artist-consumer relationships. Artists have linkages to each other and many other components of the economy through their demand for materials, services, and human resources. Artistic or cultural economic contributions may even be exported or consumed by tourists, making them a part of a regions economic base. Reliable data on artists and their economic impact was difficult, if not impossible, to obtain in much of Indonesia, so we relied on qualitative information gained through semi-structured interviews with individuals who contribute to, influence, and are otherwise knowledgeable about the arts in Yogyakarta and Bali. The artistic and cultural processes of our study areas were essentially limitless subjects. Even the most well-informed person could not have made a comprehensive list of who would be best to interview or the types of questions needed to be asked of interviewees. Therefore, we made sure to leave both our interviewee selection process and the types of questions we asked during interviews very open-ended. Naturally, artists were a critical target group for interviews. For the purposes of this study, artists can be defined as any visual or performing artist who self-identifies as an artist and has found a way to earn income from art, even if it is not their sole source of income. Many artists are unable to earn a living from art alone or are self-employed making employment data representing all artists included in our definition difficult to find. Our definition of artists excluded more universal definitions of artists that encompassed everyone involved in any
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION creative, skilled, or innovative process. Therefore we did not pursue interviews with athletes concerning their involvement in the art of the game or speak with automobile mechanics about their creative process. However, we found that the line between craftspeople and pure artists was often blurred in our work. To account for confusion in this area we interviewed a variety of individuals along the continuum between pure artist and pure craftsperson. In addition to artists, the study targeted as many people as possible that were involved in supporting, influencing, and preserving the arts in the study areas. These included academics, gallery owners, museum curators, propinsi- and city-level government officials, tourist agencies, directors of arts-related Non Government Organizations (NGOS) and NGOs that use art for local community and economic development, and local business owners involved in art production, sale, and export. Interviewees were selected through referrals and suggestions from leaders in the arts, education, government and non-governmental communities, networks and connections developed throughout the interview process the Internet, books on museums and art galleries, and encounters made in the community. Assistance from our colleagues at Gadja Mada University in Yogyakarta and Udayana University in Bali was indispensible in the process of selecting and contacting interviewees. Maintaining an open-ended questioning format during interviews was important to ensuring that we didnt filter out useful information with questions that were too specific. In general the types of questions we asked could be divided into eleven categories, listed below: 1. General background information on the interviewee, his/her specialty, and information on others in the same field. 2. Historical Evolution: a. How have the histories of Yogyakarta and Bali influenced their position as centers of arts and culture in Indonesia? b. What role did the preferences and policies of various government administrations play in favoring certain art forms over others? c. What was the role of the Dutch colonial legacy in shaping preferences and demands for certain art forms? 3. Education: (Especially pertinent to Yogyakarta) a. What are the roles of educational facilities in attracting artists to the study areas?
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION b. Was it common for artists to come to the study areas for education and then stay to practice art throughout their lives? c. How were artists able to leverage universities to secure more stable sources of income and employment? d. What is the relationship between a high concentration of artists in the study areas and the opportunities available to educate the public about the value of art? 4. Artist Views and Perceptions: a. To what extent can craftsmen be perceived as artists? b. Where do the people who create design motifs for batik or designs for wayang kulit (shadow puppets) fall along an artist-craftsman continuum? c. How much tension exists between art that can be used for sale and fine art? d. To what extent does the need to earn income from art relate to the diminishing quality of art, particularly art with a high consumer demand (i.e. batik or silver)? 5. Artists and the Economy: a. To what extent do artists view themselves as influential to the economy? b. How easy is it for artists to make a living from their art alone? c. What kinds of artists have an easier time making a living only from their art? d. What are some examples of opportunities artists have found for entrepreneurship and creative means to use their art to earn an income? e. To what extent must artists be dependent on outside sources (i.e. gallery owners and agents) to earn income from their art? f. How do these competing sets of interests influence artistic freedom and quality of art? g. To what extent does the presence of artists support other elements of the economy through artists demand for material, service, and human resources? h. Are there any opportunities for artists to use their skills to contribute to, and increase the productivity of, local businesses? 6. Philanthropy: a. What are the prospects for receiving philanthropic support funding for the arts? b. How much attention and financial resources do philanthropic organizations provide to support artists in Yogyakarta?
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION c. Is this an important factor that contributes to the motivation of people to pursue art as a major source of income and employment? d. Do the presence and strength of philanthropic organizations contribute to Yogyakarta/Balis position as an attractive center for art and artists? e. Do the availability of grants and other resources from philanthropic organizations create more opportunities and time for artists to express themselves, or does the constant pursuit of grant funding inhibit the production of art? f. To what extent does philanthropic support for the arts enable artists to create works of art that are of benefit to the community? 7. Networks: a. What resources exist for artists to collaborate, exchange resources, learn from and support each other in Yogyakarta and Bali? b. How formalized are these networks and how do they develop? c. To what extent do they help artists find new opportunities to earn income from their art? 8. Amenities: a. To what extent are artists attracted to Yogyakarta/Bali for the presence of artists and cultural amenities? b. To what extent are artists attracted to Yogyakarta/Bali for the presence of large scale tourism investments? 9. Contributions of the Public Sector: a. What are the contributions of the public sector in supporting the arts, fostering the artist community, and preserving Yogyakarta as a center of arts and culture? b. To what extent do public art events and festivals provide increased visibility for artists and opportunities for them to earn income from art? c. What is the role of public art events in educating the public on the value of high quality art and increasing public appreciation for the arts? d. In that regard, how effective are public art events for preserving the elements of cultural heritage contained in various art forms? 10. Statistics:
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION a. Do you have any statistics on art or artists or know if any such statistics might be available? 11. Additional Contacts: a. Do you have any suggestions of other people we should contact that might be useful to our study? Places to visit? Our questioning was based heavily on a case study of the Twin Cities, Minnesota conducted by Markusen and King (2003) to begin understanding the factors that influence artists decisions to locate in some areas over others. While our study bears many similarities to theirs, the Indonesian context posed a unique set of challenges that require adaptation of Markusens and Kings model. First, and perhaps most significant, our study was inhibited by a lack of reliable, consistent data on the number of artists, kinds of artists working in a community, employment patterns, and income levels. As a result, we were forced to rely on qualitative information gained from interviews almost exclusively. We can describe the presence and significance of artists in a community, but will have difficulty (particularly at an exploratory stage) using methods of economic analysis to evaluate artist contributions to the economy. Additional challenges include the following: In Indonesia there are few copyright infringement regulations and almost no enforcement of those regulations. Artists cannot protect and profit from exclusive right to their intellectual property as they do in places like the United States. For better or for worse, profits for artistic innovations are often shared with illegal copiers. System of land ownership and market is complex because the majority of land was inherited by the independent state of Indonesia in the 1950s, when Indonesia achieved its independence from the Dutch colonial administration. Both public and private land has use and marketing restrictions, especially when foreign users are concerned. The Indonesian Constitution does not allow outright ownership of land by non Indonesian concerns, but Indonesian government policy encourages international investments on land. Studies in the United States often quantify the attractiveness of an area to artists by measuring immigration of artists to a study area. For cultural reasons, many Indonesians choose not to move frequently, so the question of how artist concentrations develop and the factors that influence artist concentrations/migrations may be less relevant.
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION Many Indonesians consider giving a negative answer to a yes or no question to be impolite even when a negative response is justified. Cultural considerations like this were essential to consider when constructing interview questions and while interpreting their answers. Employment-based studies use data organized by industrial sectors, using a standard Industrial Classification (SIC) or a North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). These studies are often criticized for combining various types of employment into one industrial sector, just because different employment types are employed in that sector. For example, managers, engineers and workers working for an automobile manufacturer are all reported as automotive labor. The alternative, namely analyzing employment by occupation types, would resolve this issue, bur in most instances it is not feasible, because data are rarely reported by type of occupation. It certainly is not possible in the case of Indonesia, because no data is reported by occupation in that country. There are few opportunities for artists to contribute directly to the improvement of productivity, efficiency, and innovation of the local businesses in Yogyakarta, because the local economy is very traditional and has few linkages to the artistic and cultural traditions and activities in the city, or to the individuals involved in them.
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION OUTCOME-ORIENTED TASKS Detailed notes of each interview conversation were taken. Transcriptions created from the interview notes were the primary raw data inputs of this report and have been included in the appendix section. Finally, to ensure that our time in Indonesia produced meaningful results, we divided our research into the following outcome-oriented tasks: Task 1: Yogyakarta Field Work. Our first stop was Yogyakarta, on Java, where we collaborated with faculty and students from the Departments of Architecture and Planning, Geography and Anthropology of Gadjah Mada University. Here we stayed in close contact with our partners, led by Professor Leksono Subanu, past director of the Department of Architecture and Planning, and current director of the Center for Urban and Regional Development Research. Professor Subanu and his team provided essential leads for interviews in Yogyakarta as well as assistance in many other areas. We worked in Yogyakarta for about one month collecting data from government agencies and conducting semi-structured interviews with local government officials, persons involved with cultural and artistic activities on the island, representatives of Non-Government Organizations, and identified activists, informed citizens and development-related activists. The outcome of this phase of the project was (a) a report describing and analyzing our Yogyakarta findings, and (b) a work plan for the preparation of the field work to be conducted in Bali. Task 2: Bali Field Work. Our team next proceeded to Bali, where we collaborated with faculty and students of the Departments/Schools of Cultural Studies, Development Economics and Tourism at Udayana University. The organization of the team and the local arrangements were again made by Professor Subanu, and capitalized on his contacts and long time association and collaborations with Udayana University, especially Professor Desy Apriliani. In Bali we followed similar research practices as those in Yogyakarta, i.e., we collected secondary data from available records and conducted semi-structured interviews with individuals from a list assembled as in Yogyakarta. The outcome of this Task was a report describing the field work in Bali, tabulating and organizing the information collected, and analyzing the components of the economic
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PROJECT DESCRIPTION development programs and processes against the cultural protection and conservation framework assembled in the earlier tasks. Task 3: Data and information analysis. The interview process at the two study areas provided a wealth of raw data in the form of interview transcripts. However, an analysis was needed before useful patterns could be drawn from the data. Assessments were made of the detailed components of the following: the development strategies used in the two study locations, the ways in which they used or capitalized on the artistic traditions and the cultural resources of the two regions, the safeguards devised to protect these cultural resources, and the positive and negative effects of the safeguards. Assessments were also made for the strategies studied, for, on the one hand, the economic development of the affected regions, and on the other hand the protection of the invaluable cultural resources of these two significant places. The interdisciplinary nature of our team was an invaluable asset to the analysis process. Research leaders, student assistants, and local partners gathered to assess each set of the interview findings and organize them relevantly. Task 4: Design of a framework for the analysis and assessment of cultural resource protection and preservation. Following this detailed analysis and assessment, our team focused on modifying, refining, and categorizing the arts & cultural resources-based economic development findings into issues, special circumstances, or perceptions. This framework was devised specifically for our findings due to the nature of our research methods. The outcome of this phase was a final report describing and explaining our projects intentions based on our original desk findings, the context and setting of our study areas, our categorized findings from Bali and Yogyakarta, remaining questions, and finally recommendations for the further research and development of these arts & cultural resourcesbased economic development studies. Eventual research seeks to gain specific insight into the economic and policy guidelines that could be used for the protection of the development art and cultural heritage, while incorporating our understanding of development programs that exist to promote or threaten the integrity and long term sustainability of that heritage.
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION INTRODUCTION This chapter provides a general overview of Indonesian history and culture, and continues on to explore the history and culture of two distinct areas of study. Yogyakarta is the second largest city on the island of Java. It is a center of education, culture, and the arts that attracts creative youth and innovation. The island of Bali is a tourism epicenter that promotes the arts-focused city of Ubud. Bali struggles with its demand for tourism-based development. Yogyakartas culture developed from the civilization of the Kraton and the Sultanate, while Balis culture is based on Hindu religion and tradition. These regions are of particular interest to our project because of their respectively unique styles of development based on art and culture. GENERAL INDONESIAN CONTEXT BACKGROUND Indonesia, a country comprised of over 13,000 islands, includes over 200 million people and over 500 languages. Of the archipelago, Java is the fifth largest island in area and contains nearly 100 million inhabitants (Saunders, 2007). Because of the history of trade and colonization, many outside factors influenced Indonesia, creating diversity in the country. HISTORY The original inhabitants of Indonesia migrated from Australia and Asia approximately 500,000 years ago. By the sixteenth century, trading kingdoms emerged in Indonesia. Because of trade economies, Hinduism and Buddhism began to infiltrate into Indonesian culture. The Srivijaya Kingdom controlled the sea trade of the region for several centuries until the Javanese Kingdom of Majapahit suspended their control in the fourteenth century. Islam arrived through Arab, Indian, and Chinese traders and gained a strong presence in Java in the fifteenth century. The Portuguese established trading ports in Moluccas and the Dutch in Batavia (Jakarta) in the seventeenth centuries. In the early 1920s, a nationalist movement evolved, promoting three main goals: integrating Islamic culture and law, reordering society through Communism and social revolution, and establishing Indonesia as an independent republic (Saunders, 2007). This movement progressed during World War II when the Japanese collaborated with Ahmad Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta to instill Communism in Indonesia. Yet, the Communist
Chapter 2: Context Description 15
CONTEXT DESCRIPTION Indonesians expected no mercy from the Japanese and created an underground movement. Sukarno bolstered support for a nationalist agenda within the limitations of the Japanese authorities (Saunders, 2007). In 1943, as the Japanese lost their stronghold in World War II, Japan looked to Indonesia for support. Sukarno used this as leverage to establish his position, and he declared himself president of an independent Indonesia in 1945. Yet, a bitter war with the Dutch resulted. It was not until 1949 that the Dutch recognized the new Republic of Indonesia; however, the Dutch did not completely withdrawal from the country until 1962. Sukarno headed a non-aligned movement in the 1950s that balanced Muslims, Communists, and the military to defend the Republic of Indonesia (Saunders, 2007). Yet, as the economic crisis of the 1960s shattered the popular image of Sukarno, a new leader, General Suharto, gained power as president. Suharto presided over three decades of swift economic growth and an era where the elite came to power and exhibited acts of corruption and autocracy (Saunders, 2007). The self-seeking aim of the Suharto government and the economic crisis of 1998 prompted the overthrow of Suharto in 1998 (Sunders, 2007). RELIGION Today, Indonesia is predominantly Muslim and is the largest Muslim country in the world. Before Islam was firmly established in Indonesia in the fifteenth century, Hinduism and Buddhism were prevalent religions and exist in some forms today. Many of the artifacts and structures that represent religions from Indonesias past are not torn down or destroyed, but instead preserved and commodified by the tourism industry. For instance, the impressive ninth century Buddhist temple of Borobudur and the Prambanan complex of Hindu temples still remain today as tourist destinations near Yogyakarta. In addition to Buddhist and Muslim influences, Portuguese explorers introduced Catholicism in the sixteenth century, and the Dutch introduced Protestantism in the seventeenth century. Although religious influences layered and altered the culture in Indonesia, spirituality and religion are a large part of everyday life for Indonesians. Customs and behaviors that define status and societal roles developed out of religious beliefs. While Islam is the major religion in most of Indonesia, Hinduism survived as the dominant religion in Bali (Saunders, 2007).
Chapter 2: Context Description
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION YOGYAKARTA CONTEXT Yogyakarta, located in central Java, is in the foot hills of Mount Merapi to the north and the Indian Ocean to the south (Oey, 1992). Yogyakarta, or Yogya, is a dense city with a density of 2,537 people per square mile (Dwiyanto, 2010). This is striking because the urban form consists mostly of low rise buildings in an area. The social and physical development of Yogyakarta is based on development of traditional expressions of culture. The local Yogyakarta government views development as a product, a directly intended program of cultural protection. Tourism is seen as a byproduct of development in Yogyakarta, even though it brings in direct money to the local economy (Dwiyanto, 2010). HISTORY The area of Mataram was settled over 2,000 years ago, and later established as the capital and renamed as Yogyakarta by Hamengkubuwono I in 1755. He built the Kraton palace as part of the new kingdom. The physical and social development of Yogyakarta is based on the values of the Kraton Empire of the new kingdom. The city was developed according to the North-South Axis, with Mount Merapi at the north and the Indian Ocean at the south. All streets follow the orientation of this axis. In the past the Kraton served as the center for religious power, tradition, and culture. The sultans role was of major significance (Dwiyanto, 2010). When the Dutch colonization occurred, land disputes, rebellions, and quarrels with the Dutch and English erupted throughout the nineteenth century and fueled the Java War of 182530 that resulted in thousands of deaths. The Dutch were attracted to central Java because of the silver trade in Kota Gede, a village just south of the city (Sulistiyanto, 2006). Yogyakarta was the scene of important social movements in the twentieth century. Muhammadiyah Organization was founded in 1912 devoted to the preservation of Islamic education and health services. A year after Indonesian independence in 1945, the capital of Indonesia was moved from Jakarta to Yogyakarta. Gadjah Mada University was founded shortly after in 1949. The tourism industry boomed during Soehartos reign, and many tourists came to Yogyakarta for cultural performances and the purchase of arts and handicrafts. The Reformation of 1998 created an openness and expression in the arts. The ability to exhibit art in public spaces became easier (Warsito, 2010). In 2006 a major earthquake destroyed many buildings (Rhami, 2009). Today,
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION the Kraton is still a role model and reference for all the art around the city, and the Kraton conducts its own traditional ceremonies to promote culture in Yogyakarta. CULTURE Yogyakarta boasts diversity. With roots deeply engrained in Javanese cultural heritage, Yogyakarta attracts large numbers of foreign and Indonesian painters, dancers, and writers. Furthermore, the 130 institutions of higher educationincluding Taman Siswa, the Islamic Muhammadiyah, and University of Gadjah Mada Universitysupport and add to the artistic base of the city. Students come to study in Yogyakarta from all over Indonesia, bringing a range of Indonesian cultures to the city. As a result, Yogyakarta is a center of education with a powerful group of young students and artists with progressive and innovative philosophies. Even after graduation, some students remain in Yogyakarta and others move to other cities, transferring Yogyakartas culture to the cities throughout Indonesia. ART The diverse student population of contrasting backgrounds influences the art of Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta is not only a cultural and artistic scene, but is viewed as a networking scene. Not only has the reformation attributed to social reforms, human development through strengthened community development in art forms evolved. Some forms of art (i.e. batik) are commercialized but are still recognized as a valuable part of the cultural heritage. Conservative and modern social groups co-exist to protect the cultural expressions of Yogyakarta (Warsito, 2010).
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION BALI CONTEXT Bali, the smallest province of Indonesia, represents just .3 percent of the total area of Indonesia (Daroesman, 1973). Bali is a significant destination for tourists and a center for both local and foreign artists (Saunders, 2007). Bali is a densely populated island. Even though tourists concentrate in the city centers, most Balinese reside in rural villages and commute to the capital of Denpasar (Berkmoes, 2009). Because of the prosperity of the tourism sector, Bali attracted immigrants from Java, Sumatra, and Nusa Tenggara. The diverse Balinese populations coexist harmoniously and possess a remarkable tolerance. Despite the harmonious relations among the people and the prosperous tourism industry, many fret that Bali will choke on its own success, especially because the island places most of the resources in one sector: tourism. HISTORY In the seventh century AD, traders from India brought the influence of Hinduism to Bali. In 1019, Javanese cultural influence spread to Bali with the influence of King Airlangga. In 1520, Java was converted almost completely to Islam while Bali remained isolated as the only island practicing predominantly Hinduism. Bali attracted priests and artists, which strengthened the islands cultural resilience against the conversion to Islam (Berkmoes, 2009). In the sixteenth century, Nirartha, a Hindu Priest, built numerous temples throughout Bali, invigorating the religion. In 1597, Dutch explorers arrived in Kuta as the first European explorers to reach Bali. Many trade treaties were established in the seventeenth century, and the Dutch consequently controlled much of the spice trade in Indonesia. The Dutch were more interested in profit than culture. In 1846, the Dutch brought Balinese kingdoms under Dutch power. At the end of the nineteenth century, the Balinese fought the Dutch in battles that lasted over the next few decades. Balinese rulers broke away from the Gelgel Kingdom and the Dutch used the weakened state of Bali to fragment and conquer the Balinese. In 1906, the Dutch attacked Denpasar, which resulted in the death of 4,000 Balinese. The Karangasem and Gianyar kingdoms, though defeated, were granted some exercise of power. Yet, Bali was under Dutch power as a branch of the Dutch East Indies. Despite the change in rule, the Balinese people realized little differences between Dutch rule and rule under rajahs.
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION The charisma and glamour of the exotic paradise of Bali brought many tourists to the island in the 1920s. The development of hotels changed the focus of the economy from agriculture to tourism services. In 1936, Robert and Louise Koke constructed a hotel on Kuta Beach, which polished the touristic image of Bali. In 1942 the Japanese landed in Sanur and founded headquarters in Denpasar and Singaraja. Most Balinese accepted the Japanese as anti-colonial liberators; however, after the Japanese pulled out of Indonesia after the World War II defeat, extreme poverty resulted in Bali. At this intervention, Sukarno proclaimed Indonesias independence and it was not until 1949 that the Dutch realized they would not get their colony back. A decade later, Bali experienced the most disastrous volcano eruption of the twentieth century in 1963. Gunung Agung erupted, killed 1000 people, and destroyed 100,000 peoples homes. East Bali was isolated from the rest of the island for quite some time. Two years later, bitter rivalry between conservatives and communists exploded, leading to the purge of tens of thousands of Balinese. Shortly after this, Suharto gained power and lead a period of great economic development in Bali. The International Airport at Denpasar was built in 1967, allowing tourism to flourish. As a result of the new airport, tourists had the ability to fly directly to Bali instead of transferring through Jakarta. The prosperity of Balis tourism was crippled in the Southeast Asian economic crisis in the 1990s, especially when the Indonesian currency collapsed. Suhartos resignation in 1998 brought a time of political instability, which contributed to the decline in tourists. In October of 2002, bombings by Muslims in Kuta killed 200 people (both tourists and Balinese), while injuring hundreds more. Tourism immediately fell in half, and Bali suffered significant monetary loss. Balinese Hindu and Muslim tension increased. By 2005, tourism almost recovered; however in October of 2005, three suicide bombers killed 20 people. Once again, the tourism industry suffered. In 2007, Bali tourism, the spine of the local economy, recovered and new resorts and visitors were in record numbers (Berkmoes, 2009) CULTURE Women balancing trays of burning incense and flowers as offerings, cremation pillars tower high in the streets, the plunk of gamelan ripples through the airthese are just some of the cultural expressions of Balinese life. Religion and the arts permeate nearly every aspect of
CONTEXT DESCRIPTION society. This resulted in the founding a strong sense of Balinese community. A myriad of tourists come to observe Balinese daily rituals, and the Balinese go about their daily rituals as they would without spectators, but are bemused by all of the attention to entice millions of people in their daily lives. Pace of life in Bali is unhurriednothing, not even jobs take precedence over community and religion. Lives focus on family bonds and deep spiritual ties to their home (Berkomeoes, 2009). TOURISM Tourism is a significant industry in Bali, an industry that is intertwined with Balinese arts and cultural expressions. The Balinese culture is a major tourist attraction; simultaneously, tourism is often believed to perpetuate the arts and the local culture (Saunders, 2007). Because the tourists observe or participate in Balinese culture, many locals revive their own appreciation of the arts and culture. Yet, the quality of the arts and culture are often altered to cater to mass tourism. For instance, performances are shortened and made more visually appealing for the tourists. Also, emphasis is put on quantity instead of quality. More people are making paintings that satisfy the market instead of satisfying the soul. Dancers perform for tourists but are scared to perform for locals, because they perform a lower quality performance for tourists. Some locals perceive tourism as killing the island and turning Bali into the milking cow of Indonesia. Because of the misuse and lack of policies to protect the island, investment in infrastructure such as roads, water, sewage, and garbage collection, is threatening the current prosperity of the island (Berkmoes, 2009). THE ARTS Balis pulsating art formsdance, music, paintings, sculptures, woodcarvingsallure tourists to the island. The natural, artistic talents are innate in many Balinese people. Yet, there is no Balinese equivalent for the word artist (Berkmoes, 2009). Before tourism was prominent in Bali, art was exclusively for religious and ritual functions, meaning that artists did not seek to be different or individuals. Their work depicted traditional styles or a new idea, but not their own personalities. This practice changed in the late 1920s with the significant influences of foreign artists that settled in the city of Ubud. The Balinese and foreign artists exchanged their knowledge and established art as a commercial enterprise. Art in Bali is currently a large
CONTEXT DESCRIPTION business. New ideas are quickly replicated and sold to tourists at low prices. Ubud remains the artistic epicenter of Bali. Artists come from all over the world for inspiration (Odek, 2010). RELIGION Balinese culture is centered on Hinduism, the official religion of the island. The typical Balinese life involves rituals, processions, celebrations, and offerings to the gods. Temples and shrines are found on nearly every corner. Balinese Hinduism is specifically Balinese, identifying pre-Hindu spirits and philosophies, but absorbing new gods and forms of outside influences and changing traditions to maintain the religion in Balinese everyday life. This mirrors the same method in which Balinese art forms adapt without losing the specific style (Saunders, 2007). Balinese Hinduism, even though derived from Indian Hinduism, is distinctly different, because Balinese Hinduism is richly entwined with animism. Balinese Hindus place less emphasis on karma and reincarnation than the Indian counterparts. Furthermore, Balinese Hindus do not follow an untouchable caste and rarely conduct arranged or child marriages (Berkmoes, 2009). The Balinese venerate the trinity of Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. The trinity is a part of the ancestral gods, village organizers, gods of earth, fire, water, and mountains; gods of fertility, rice, technology and books; and evil spirits who dwell in the sea (Berkmoes, 2009). There are four stages in Hindu life: A student who is dedicated to studying; a married man who is dedicated to creating a family with his wife, including the responsibilities of looking after and supporting people of all other stage; a retirement stage in old age no longer has responsibilities of the household or for other people where the person can choose to be secluded or to more actively worship the Hindu gods and goddesses; and the final stage is the detachment from life and preparation for death (Berkomes, 2009). Government offices and businesses close to accommodate time for worship on Friday afternoons. Religious ceremonies include banquets, dance, drama, and music to appease the gods as they continue the defense against demons. Ceremonies are performed to overcome black magic, a potent force of illness and strife. SPIRITS A common belief of the Balinese is that all living things are endowed with semangat, a life force, or spirit. The semangat is also believed to be endowed in a sacred object, such as the
CONTEXT DESCRIPTION places of ritual or ceremonies. Places distinctive in form and appearance or are associated with holy or great men or with mythical beings; objects which are in some way distinctive, malformed or out of the ordinary, old artifacts, heirlooms, weapons, or reassures: all may contain a soul or spiritual essence that needs to be appeased or revered. Spirits, good or bad, are found throughout Indonesian folklore (Berkmoes, 2009). HARMONY AND BALANCE Harmony is of the utmost importance in Balinese life. The concept of tri hita krana harmony between humans (Pawongan), harmony between the individual and the environment (Palemahan), and harmony between the individual and the gods (Parhyangan)conveys balance. Balinese culture expresses that harmony is obtained through the balance the forces within the self, the community, and the world following the path of Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva. Many Balinese follow the devotional path, Bhakti, attaining balance through Hindu rituals, especially daily offerings. The concept of tri hita krana is that balance yields harmony and harmony yields happiness (Solnick, 2005). CASTES Despite the fact that Balinese are tolerant and generally democratic, they still observe some of the rules of the ancient caste system. In the Hindu-based Balinese society, castes and statuses are integral to community. People are very aware of their status of society. The name identifies them of the hierarchical; for instance, they are identified by name. Ninety percent of Balinese are a part of the Sudra cast and use the highest form of Balinese language when speaking to anyone from the three highest castes: royalty, priests, and generals. Women are prohibited to marry a person of a lower caste. Marriage between cousins is quite common to maintain the caste system (Berkmoes, 2009). FAMILY COMPOUND Architecture in Bali is designed to pacify ancestral and village gods. An undagi, an architect-priest, utilizes the principle of Tri Hita Karaman in the design to create harmony between god, men, and nature. If the design is not successful in yielding harmony, the universe may fall out of balance, causing hardship and poor health in the community. There are several
CONTEXT DESCRIPTION rules that the undagi adhere to: hierarchy of space, cosmological direction of the mountain and ocean axis, balanced cosmology, human scale and proportion, open air, precision of structure, and truth of materials (Berkmoes, 2009). Balinese homes represent the communal life style and are traditionally in the form of a family compound. Several buildings, occupied by as many as five generations, are generally surrounded by an inward-facing wall with a gate that protects from evil spirits from entering. The gates, entrances in the south, are representative to the status of the familythe taller and more ornate the gate is, the more prominent the family is in society (Devine Laws Govern Balis Unique Architecture, 1992). Within the hierarchy of space of the compound, the northeast space of a compound is the holiest and is designated for the family shrine. The head of the family resides in the house located in the northern portion of the compound. Rituals and ceremonies are conducted in the center of the compound. The southwest corner of the compound is utilized for kitchen, the eastern portion is for sleeping and the garden, and the western portion is for guest pavilions. Even through the transfer of property from one generation to another, the foundation of the compound is not altered. Yet, the new generations may rebuild the structures. Generally, these compounds are three hundred years old and may be in the family for two hundred years (Saunders, 2007). The highest areas, in the compound and natural landscape, are governed by gods and designated for temples; the middle areas are inhabited by humans; and the low areas, the seas for instance, are occupied by evil forces. For this reason, buildings do not face the seait is quite ironic that many tourists build villas with ocean views (Siwalatri, 2010).
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION UBUD, BALI CONTEXT Ubud is a village in the Gianyar district in southern Bali. Ubud is the undisputed epicenter of artistic expressions. The village is famous for the presence of renowned artists. Ubud is a popular tourist destination, and the economy heavily relies on the sale of art to the tourists. Art shops, souvenir shops, cafes, and hotels line the streets of Ubud alongside historic temples and family compounds. Persistent values for the traditional and sacred customs protect the innate personality of Ubud. The hotel, art shop and restaurant owners of Ubud are committed to protecting tradition while allowing the tourism industry to flourish (Rusli, 1992). HISTORY Priests that visited the medicinal town of Ubud, Bali when some of their men became ill, established Ubud in the seventh and eighth century. In the 1800s Ubud conquered Silakarang (south of Ubud), which made Ubud a major city that included lots of rice paddies and access to the ocean. After the war, the government built many temples and palaces in Ubud. The 1906 and 1912 wars were civil wars in which women and children were being killed. Because Indonesia was under Dutch rule, the Dutch received a bad reputation of having a colony of savages. The Dutch made a major effort to turn around their reputation by sustaining the Balinese culture. Because the king at the time welcomed art development, there was an influx of international artists in Ubud. Every year in Europe there was a colonial exposition to display different countries colonies art. Also, in the 1920s the book Dance and Drama in Bali was published and Walter Spies moved to Ubud, which brought international exposure to Ubud. Other artists living in Ubud made it attractive to outsiders, many of which married Balinese people and stayed. The golden age of Ubud occurred in the decades of the 1920s and 1930s. Ubud started developing in this period; yet, Ubud remained without electricity, infrastructure, or water distribution systems. At this time, European artists Rudolf Bonnet and Walter Spies, in addition to the Indonesian Cokorda Gede Agung Surapati, formed the Pita Maha, an organization to revive the arts. A new style, Ubud Style, was created, and many people began to collect these paintings. In 1936, artists created an artist cooperative in Bali. Meanwhile, the Museum Puri Lukisan in Ubud, was the first museum dedicated to Balinese art. At this time, painting went
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CONTEXT DESCRIPTION from a ritual based activity to a commercial use. An art school was developed in the 1930s, and art masters and teachers established another museum in the 1950s. In 1967, the airport opened in Denpasar and brought tourists directly to Bali. After the airport opened in Denpasar, Ubud became the center for art because it was the only place for artistic style development on the island. In the 1970s, artists received the biggest benefit from tourism from the purchase of art souvenirs bought by tourists. By the late 1980s, Ubud had become a tourist destination and consequently became wealthier and benefited local entrepreneurs. After the 1980s, artistic styles shifted from traditional to a mix of traditional and contemporary. Also, junk art and counterfeits became popular to sell to tourists. Traditional forms like the Ubud style are disappearing. Ubud suffered after the decline in tourism from the Reformation and terrorist bombings. Yet, Ubud still serves as the artistic epicenter and draws international and domestic tourists to view its artistic expressions (Odek, 2010).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS ISSUES GOVERNMENT The Role of the Sultan as Governor The dual role of the Sultan as Governor and Royalty creates serious social problems because there is so much hierarchical difference between him and the people (Djoko). There is a ceremonial symbolic role of the sultan that has come down through the centuries and has been dominating the culture, religion, and politics of Yogyakarta. The sultan is interested in arts and culture, so is on the side of promoting and supporting arts and culture (Djoko). Because of Yogyakartas unique political situation with the sultan, Yogyakarta has been a center of traditional art (i.e. wayang kulit, batik, and silversmithing). However, because of the role of education and openness in the city, contemporary art has also thrived in Yogyakarta. Government Priorities for the Arts During the Suharto years, the government used Kotagede and silversmiths as a source of state gifts. Silver products were marked with the crest and were given as gifts to foreign dignitaries. Since the Reformasi, the government does not buy silver for state gifts like Suharto Government funds frequently go toward bricks and mortar projects and historic preservation (Djoko), not community development and supporting the people. The government has policies to support the arts, but few direct actions are taken. The government does not provide financial support for wayang kulit (Sagio). The government promotes cultural preservation and development through cultural events and festivals in order to promote community, economic, and physical development in Yogyakarta. Festivals include the annual Tamanbudaya Arts Festival, held every June-July. Increased revenue from tourism is seen as a by-product, but not the main objective, of festivals (Djoko). The government provides spaces but not funding for the arts. This may not be altogether negative because the provision of space enables festivals and opportunities for artists to exhibit and sell art in more informal and inexpensive ways that are accessible to the public (Samuel). Festivals can also be used for community development, especially when they are held in the villages and outside the cities, because the traffic for the festival provides opportunities for local people to earn money by selling food or charging for parking (Djaduk). The government does not necessarily understand what the artists or communities priorities are or where the money should go (Djokopekih, Selim). There is a gap between perceptions of what artists believe would be the most effective use of funds and what the government provides. (Djokopekih, Selim)
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS The government is aware of its importance in promoting handicrafts. But, either they do not have enough money, do not understand where the priorities are, or where the money should go (Selim). The value of government support for the arts cannot be proven or disproven. If an art form dies and is not documented, it is not possible to know how much that art contributed to the economy. Government officials have a very focused and fixed view of Yogyakartas art scene based on the Kraton. The art scene is broader than what the Ministry sees. (Djoko) The Ministry of Industry provides support to the villagers in Kasongan and has a training program to improve the quality of art and design (Kaboel). However, they appear to be more interested in small handicraft businesses that cater to the export market than art.
Government and Religious Censorship Under Suhartos police state, art was not free. After the Reformasi, more opportunities arose for freedom of expression and public participation in the arts (Nasirun and Djaduk). Since the Reformasi, religion has become a more dominating force in censoring art. o Example: Community murals painted by Samuel and his community group are sometimes controversial if located too close to mosques. Depictions of people and animals are prohibited by Islam. (Samuel)
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS TOURISM Fragility of An Economy Based on Tourism Tourism is fragile and highly subject to external forces (Selim). Community economies that are not well diversified (i.e. Kotagede, Imogiri, and Kasongan) are at particular risk of being destroyed by disaster or other events that cause a decline in tourism. Example: Kasongans reliance on pottery A disaster could wipe out the entire pottery industry in Kasongan. In the pottery village, buyers order wholesale ceramics. The village has not developed a mixed, diversified economy yet. Events that have affected tourism in Yogyakarta The Reformasi created a leadership vacuum in Indonesia, which caused a decline in tourism. (Selim) The economic benefits of exports to foreign markets remained strong during and after the Reformasi, whereas the benefits of exports from tourism faded. Selim saw the Reformasi as a blow to the economy. After 9/11, tourism dropped 75% due to fears of terrorism (Sagio) Despite the dramatic decline in tourism, tourists do continue to come to Indonesia because people think terrorists will target everyone (Desy). Effects of Tourism on Local Art and Culture The social and physical development of Yogya is based on local culture and traditional expressions of culture (the invisible line and various forms of arts and crafts) (Djoko). Art today often caters to tourists who are not necessarily interested in the cultural heritage of the product. However, tourism can preserve some cultural traditions by bringing continued interest in an art form and allowing it to continue to exist. See Delicate Balance (Flavia) Tourists in Yogyakarta are mostly either domestic tourists or as foreign stopover tourists. Most of the foreigners in Yogyakarta are there for long-term reasons or working with NGOs. As a result, many of the foreigners in Yogya may have a different mentality or appreciation of the culture than typical tourists (Djaduk). As the scale of tourism has changed, so have the ways in which tourism interacts with local culture. In the 1950s tourism was small scale and did not have enough strength to topple local culture. Today, tourism is a much larger-scale industry. People coming on cruise ships are not necessarily interested in local culture. Exploitation of Artists and Galleries by Tour Guides There are exploitative tour guides who take people to certain galleries because they get a large commission (Soebakjuno). There are no certification programs for tour guides (Soebakjuno).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS Similar to the land broker system in Bali, very informal sectors control and influence what happens and where people go (Soebakjuno). Artists get exploited by the tour guides because they lack organization and marketing skills.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS ART CATERING TO MARKET DEMAND Demand of International Markets Demand for expensive art is not in Yogyakarta and mostly not in Indonesia. If it is in Indonesia, it is in Jakarta. There is not enough demand for high-price art in the local market Today, the art market decides the style of what is produced, not the artist. (Djokopekih) Some artists go overseas to show their work in art exhibitions. Many evolve their style in the process Major locations for international expos include Europe, Hong Kong, and Singapore In exhibitions they also benefit from their interactions with the international artistic community through exposure to new techniques and movements. Pak Sunaryo and Pak Ledgar were invited to teach, work, and exhibit art in Germany and the Netherlands Periodically there is money given from the government for silversmiths to attend expos abroad. (Selim) Emphasizing Quantity Instead of Quality The market for arts and crafts is persisting but stores are selling fakes and low quality products from outside Yogya. Handcrafted, high quality silver has been replaced with low quality machine made pieces imported from West Java. Most of the stores in Kotagede sell silver to tourists that is of poor quality. The fakes even have replicated stamps to match the high quality brands. Kasongan, the pottery village, is doing the same (MCR based on M Natsir). When there is no money there is less inspiration for creativity, and artists end up feeding into the Coca Cola phenomenon. Artists can choose to make what they feel inspired to create or what they know will sell. There is a tension between using art as a form of creative self-expression that gets rewarded or using art as a means of economic survival (Djaduk). Catering to market demand is commonly perceived of as selling out. More people are fulfilling orders for batik and other low quality versions of traditional crafts in order to support a family. Copied Art Copyright violations are common. An artist is only considered to be a good artist if he/she is copied (Warsito). Art in Yogyakarta is not considered exclusive. Copying is accepted and sometimes encouraged, as in the case of Dagadu (Dyan Anggraini). Selims silver products are high quality. Because there is so much counterfeit trade in Indonesia, he wants to sell to an international market. (Selim) Exploitation of Artists by Galleries De Goreng- Fried Artists
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS Sometimes galleries hire artists and over-promote them (de goreng), turning them into instant celebrities. After the market and demand settle, the gallery leaves the artist behind and does the same thing to another artist. The once-promoted artist is left with nothing because the quality of his work was not a strong enough foundation for long-term success. (Djokopekih) Many galleries do not care about the quality of the art they sell. They are not responsible for the quality of art itself, making art a commodity. (Djokopekih) There are few artist-owned galleries in Yogyakarta that could help mitigate this.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS INTEREST IN TRADITIONAL ART FORMS IS DECLINING Reasons for Declines in the Arts and Crafts Industry Factory jobs in crafts o Many craftsmen have shifted from handmade to factory work. There are better conditions (i.e. health coverage and minimum wage) in factories. Those who stay with crafts have moved away from traditional forms to more industrialized and commercialized ones (M Natsir). o There has been a shift in the workers who continue to make batik from individualized handmade work to factory produced, mass produced work. Low wages, status, and job prestige In 1980s, when the economy was good, many people sent their children to college for further education; consequently, many did not learn silversmith trade (M Natsir) Sales and incomes for crafts like wayang kulit have declined (Sagio) The remuneration for artisans is low compared to the price for which product is sold. Many people have left wayang kulit and other crafts for more lucrative (or stable) jobs (Sagio) Artisans can make more money doing low skilled labor (i.e. bricklaying) than silversmithing, which requires skills and training. (M Natsir) This is also true in other forms of craft (batik, wayang kulit, etc.) that require long-term training and do not afford a high social status to craftsmen. The perception of batik as a low status activity is a threat to the preservation of batik (Nia). Batik as a fine art isnt respected because it is more commonly considered a craft. However, the line between art and craft can easily be blurred. These may not be useful categories (Flavia). Prices are too high for arts and crafts. People are leaving the trade of wayang kulit, which results in materials for production becoming more expensive and less accessible for craftspeople (Sagio). Example: artisans can only produce one wayang a week and then raise the price to compensate for the others lost. (Sagio) Wayang kulit performances have also gotten very expensive because they require a whole gamelan orchestra, puppets, stage sets, singers, electricity, etc. and there isnt enough interest in paying such high costs. In the past, shows were free because the government funded them as part of festivals. (point mentioned during Nastir discussion) Prices for silver have risen in part because the government has imposed a special tax on silver (10%) in Indonesia. Other competitive countries (like Singapore, Malaysia) are not imposing a similar tax. Jewelry typically has a strong foreign market, but either the kind of jewelry silversmiths in Kotagede make here is not fashionable, the craftsmanship is lacking, or the marketing is not there.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS Wayang Kulit Interest in wayang kulit is declining. It is a dying art unless it is preserved (Sagio). Wayang used to have educational and political purposes. During Suhartos regime, Indonesians were able to express their political opinions covertly through wayang kulit performances. Today, the performances are viewed mostly as a form of entertainment because people are able to express themselves and information on politics and other issues comes from elsewhere (Sagio). Local demand has declined due to the high price of wayang kulit. If tourists do not come to buy wayang kulit, few will. (Sagio) People are not interested in being a designer for wayang kulit. Very few people know the old designs for wayang kulit Sagio has published a book containing 100 wayang kulit designs. However, more than 400 exist. There is a risk that knowledge of these designs could disappear if he does not publish a more comprehensive book. TV and the Internet have made Indonesians less interested in wayang kulit but brought heightened exposure to foreigners who are more interested in the art form now (Sagio). More information is contained in the performing arts case study Batik Demand for batik has risen across Indonesia with the UNESCO declaration. However, the rise in demand has not created a concurrent rise in interest in the creation of batik using traditional styles and techniques. The batik sold on Malioburo does not represent the community anymore; it is machine made in China. More information is contained in the batik case study Silver The silver industry today is catering to domestic demand, but since 1998 there is not enough demand for high quality silver in Yogyakarta. (Selim) Selim receives many orders from foreign and domestic jewelers for high quality jewelry. But, he has to travel to Bali to meet his buyers and sell his goods. There is no market to support him in Yogyakarta. Jewelry typically provides a stronger market for silver than traditional silver products such as miniature gamelan sets. Selim diversifies and expands his stock and trains additional employees to respond to this changing demand. More information is contained in the Kotagede case study Tension between Traditional and Contemporary Art Technology and the Internet have contributed to disinterest in traditional arts and crafts among younger populations (Djoko). There are multiple ways by which the art of Yogyakarta is interacting with the art of the rest of the world: Globalization and heightened cultural interaction/exposure
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS Modernization of the artists themselves as they desire to break with tradition. There is tension between those who argue for the preservation of old art and those who argue for the advancement of contemporary art. Both traditional and contemporary arts exist in significant magnitudes in Yogyakarta, but there is a tension between them. One side argues for heritage preservation by taking a view that traditional art forms should retain their original integrity while others argue that tradition should be adaptable and in a state of flux as styles evolve. Humans created traditions so it is okay for humans to deconstruct and change tradition (Djaduk). Batik today wont necessarily be what it was hundreds of years ago. Ibu Suliantoro complained about the traditional techniques of making batik getting lost along with natural dyes. Some motifs are dying out but perhaps there should be room for modification and change with time (note from brainstorming). This tension between contemporary and traditional art persists in Yogyakarta because it is more conservative than other cities in Indonesia and values its cultural heritage more. Bandung also went through this struggle and old art lost (Warsito). Example: People dont like murals because they are more contemporary. They would prefer to see traditional art, which is too complex to paint in a mural (Samuel).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS MAKING A LIVING FROM ART Formal v. Informal Economy Art is generally part of the informal sector. Artists frequently do not report their incomes so there are no statistics on their economic impact (Djoko). According to Eddy, all the art in Yogyakarta is part of the informal sector (Eddy). Because it is difficult to quantify the economic contribution of the arts, it is not easy to document what would be lost if the arts were lost. Markusen: Using statistics and multipliers underestimates the economic contribution of the arts because so many artists are part of the informal economy, are self employed, or produce art as a secondary source of income. Meeting the Demands of a Modern Business Climate The Internet can be leveraged to promote community development, as in Kampoeng Cyber Kampoeng Cyber developed because the market for batik art has declined and people need a way to market their products better while lessening their dependence on exploitative tour guides Kampoeng Cyber is developing from the bottom up. It is a real example of building social capital and using technology in a positive way. See the section on Suggestions for Future Proposals for more information The Internet is a major component of globalization, both in contributing to what artists know and are exposed to, and how they can sell their work. Artists are Lacking Marketing and Promotion Skills Multiple people suggested that marketing and promotion by artists are lacking in Indonesia. Artists are not organizing and marketing themselves. This is difficult for artists unless they are very entrepreneurial by nature. Artists are developing social capital, which is beneficial for networking but does not sell paintings on its own. (Ibu Sita) Marketing is often more easily done by a third party. Artists market through their networks, but there are few artist-owned galleries in Yogyakarta. Perhaps because there are so many outside variables, there are very few options for Indonesian artisans except to build up outside markets. (Selim) Mrs. Suliantoro says that her network of people is most beneficial. She had an expo at her friends house, which was made possible by this network.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS NEED FOR PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE Need for Renewed Interest in Crafts and Training for These Crafts The world is suffering from a loss of traditional techniques. It is difficult to find craftspeople who still take meticulous care in their work. The pace of modern life is faster and there are deadlines artists have to abide by (Nia). Selim is trying to train a few children in silversmithing, but this is an individualized attempt at preserving cultural heritage. Despite all the potential for silversmithing in Kotagede, there has never been a formal attempt to train, educate people or to showcase the communitys talents to perpetuate the trade (MCR based on M Natsir). Even though there is such an incredible cultural heritage in Kotagede, no formal government initiatives or local organized initiatives have developed to build the skills needed to preserve heritage through arts and crafts. Passing Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom Formal education ignores the skills and contributions of village artisans. (Nia) Academia does not respect batik as fine art; rather it considers batik a craft (Nia). If you really want to preserve heritage, you cant ignore the people who are actually preserving heritage by passing down knowledge of the craft through generations. There is someone teaching batik at ISI but it is not someone who has training in batik, making it a marginalized art form in formal art institutions (Suliantoro).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS HISTORIC PRESERVATION Enforcement of Laws The government has a top-down model of spatial planning. The Indonesian Ministry of Public Works makes and approves master plans for the cities (Leksono). Historic preservation laws at the national level are suggestive, but cities are charged with enforcing them. Cultural heritage/historic preservation laws at the national level create the legal framework but do not impose rules or criteria; they leave that to the local level. At the local level, the government may be reluctant to impose controls so there is no real protection of physical cultural heritage beyond individual buildings (MCR and Leksono). Nominally there are laws to protect certain areas of land but they are not really enforced. There are laws for some buildings (individual buildings or complexes) Depending on how the city views them, the laws can be applied to individual buildings or districts/areas. Buildings above 50 years old can be declared as heritage sites, but the declaration depends on the local government. Architecture and Historic Preservation in Kotagede Kotagede is an ancient village with a plan and many assets including its historical wooden architectural structures, kings tombs, old mosques, etc. It has not been identified as a protected heritage site. The crafts and heritage of Kotagede are threatened. The buildings and structures have survived many natural disasters but are not surviving market forces today. People are buying and dismantling houses and moving them elsewhere. The Propinsi government in Yogyakarta has programs intended to preserve and protect the historical neighborhood of Kotagede. The government offers to lower property taxes on historic buildings and provides financial support to preserve them (Dyan Anggraini). However, individual buyers of historic homes offer more money than the government, so people sell their homes to the highest bidder (Dyan Anggraini) The government does not have the creative initiative to think how they can protect cultural heritage like the preservation of historic houses in Kotagede. It does not try very hard to prevent people from deconstructing houses and moving them elsewhere. Archaeological Preservation in Kampoeng Taman/Taman Sari Kampoeng Taman contains a cohesive community with a strong social structure, but it is located on an archaeological site. The entire property belongs to the Sultan and there is a plan to relocate the neighborhood. There is a piece of land on the southwest side of Yogyakarta that has been donated by the Sultan and is designated for the neighborhoods relocation. The sultan/government decided that the cost of doing the relocation should be borne by the Dinas of Culture and Tourism.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS On the one hand the decision has already been made that the neighborhood should be moved, but on the other hand, because the funding relies on the tourism industry it is almost certain the relocation will never happen. The people are in a state of flux as a result; they are probably reluctant to invest in their own homes and the government will be less likely to invest in infrastructure because the current living situation is temporary.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS LACK OF ARTISTS ORGANIZATIONS Artists Are Not Organized by Large-Scale Professional Organizations There are no guilds, chambers or other formal mechanisms to support and protect artists (Djaduk). Not only are artists not formally organized, but there is a complete lack of information about the importance and benefits of organizing as well. Umbrella organizations can play a very important social role. Through them people become members of a community that helps them survive and share information. Organizations of artists are developing only at the grassroots level and are not coordinated. o Sanggar Bamboo is an example of an organization for artists, but it is not popular because the Javanese do not like to participate in organizations like this. Some people are recognizing that formal means of organization and artist protection are missing and are trying to do something about it. Samuel spoke of a voluntary communal fund for artists to help each other pay hospital bills in case other artists get sick. The issue of artists helping the community is a very important part of this project. Nasirun wants to build housing for elderly artists, which is an indication of social capital. There is a lot of valuable social capital in Yogyakarta because there are a lot of artists in the communities and the kampoengs, but not many are creating formal organizations. o Nasirun kept his roots in the community; the artist caf and the kampoeng cyber are social capital indicators.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES Potential for Community Involvement in the Arts Yogyakarta is an environment that fosters community efforts. There are many ways for artists to be involved in the community in Yogyakarta. With more public appreciation for the arts, there is greater awareness of art activities (Djaduk). Young artists are interested in using art to do activism. Art can be used as a tool for community development involving children Entrepreneur kids is a program to educate children about art and give them the opportunity to create and sell their own art. This allows the children to gain appreciation for the arts, in addition to learning business skills (Samuel). Schools can also be used to expand art awareness among young population (Djoko). People in the neighborhood choose where they want public murals. (Samuel) Murals are a manifestation of community art, providing opportunities for community participation in art. Samuel gives out books to people in the village to spread the word about community efforts in public art. The Role of the Sultan in Yogyakarta Yogyakarta has historically been governed by the Sultan who is also the governor today (Warsito). The Kraton has been the center of religion, power, and culture and is a model for all the art and culture around the city. The Kraton has its own traditional ceremonies and is trying to maintain them (Djoko). Wayang kulit and batik are both supported by the sultan. Artists around the Kraton want to claim validity and quality in what they produce by claiming association with the sultan, even if it is not true. o We observed this in two wayang stores near the Kraton who both told us they work for the Sultan. Yogyakarta is an Educational Center UGM is the oldest university in Indonesia (Warsito; Djoko). Yogyakarta has 130 institutions of higher education (Warsito; Djoko). Yogyakartas educational role influences everything including culture and the arts (Warsito). The contributions of arts and culture to the economy in Yogyakarta are small compared to the contribution of education (Djoko). Half the population of Yogyakarta is students (Warsito). Yogyakarta has one of the lowest costs of living in Java due to its large population of students. The low cost of living is also attractive for artists (Warsito). Yogyakarta is a spot for students to come learn, live, and leave. This produces a mixed influence from students all over Indonesia.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS Because students come to Yogyakarta for school and then return home, the city is a stopover destination. Most artists are proud of having received their education in Yogyakarta due to the prestige of the city and its educational facilities (Warsito). People come from elsewhere to study in Yogyakarta and leave but continue to carry the Yogyakarta identity with them throughout their lives (Samuel). Economic growth has occurred because of both education and tourism in Yogyakarta (Warsito).
Yogyakartas Openness to New Influences in Art Over time, art in Yogyakarta has moved from catering to the exclusive tastes and demands of the Sultan to more contemporary tastes (Warsito and others). Art became less of an elitist activity after the Reformasi because the art community became tighter (Djoko) Today, Yogyakarta is a place of experimentation and expression, not tradition (Warsito). The student and artist population helps make Yogyakarta an art incubator (Carla). Artists who come to Yogyakarta are not necessarily coming to stay but get exposed to culture and then leave. People come to Yogyakarta to improve their skills and contribute to artistic fellowship (Warsito). The influence of Yogyakarta as a city and cultural center on the evolution of arts in Indonesia is widespread even though the influence in Yogyakarta is not as pervasive (Warsito). Symbols of Cultural Heritage (UNESCO) UNESCO created the World Heritage program for intangibles. Traditionally all listings were sites. Wayang kulit, kris, and batik are all listed as intangible cultural heritage items for Indonesia. Indonesia could lose the designation if the government doesnt show evidence of preserving the heritage (Sita). There is no money granted with the declaration, it is just a stamp. It is interesting that everything from Indonesia on the UNESCO intangible cultural heritage list is native to Yogyakarta. Market Failure and Mono-Specialization In Yogyakarta, some villages are completely dedicated to one craft. In the last few years, many enclaves have suffered economic decline This is an interesting contrast to Markusens argument that cities are better when they have concentrations of artists (the creative city phenomenon in the US). On the one hand, the specialization creates community identity. On the other hand the community is made more vulnerable by its specialization. Example: Kampoeng Taman has experienced this phenomenon with batik art. It was almost exclusively dependent on batik and has lost its market in the last few years. In Kampoeng Taman, many buildings used to be galleries but have since closed.
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS
Mono-specialization of one trade in enclave results in: Great assets, competition, improvement of techniques, vulnerability to large multinational corporations, and a sense of identity. Economies of scale, lower transportation costs, and incubation of ideas are also results of the concentration of craft.
Disasters Can Create Renewed Interest in Traditional Crafts There has been an upsurge of interest and funding coming to Yogyakarta as a result of the 2006 earthquake and the damage it caused. There has been a rise of NGOs, clubs, and interest groups that have taken on arts and culture preservation projects through grassroots development after the earthquake. These NGOs, clubs, and interest groups have begun to notice crafts as heritage assets. Example: Silver NGOs and the government noticed the silver craftsmen in Kotagede and witnessed them as cultural assets after the earthquake (MCR based on Natsir). More information contained in the Kotagede case study Example: Batik Projects such as those in Imogiri are trying to transform the village batik industry from a piecework economy to a more comprehensive (conception to sale) model. Of the several cooperatives that were created, a couple were dissolved because the women preferred low risk work than the higher risk work of being involved in the entire business process (Dwita). More information contained in the batik case study Immediately after the earthquake the government needed to address the destruction of shelter and mosques. Cultural heritage issues were lower priority. However, the government still has not created formal programs to educate, train, and help revive traditional craftsmanship in the areas harmed by the earthquake. All the work is being done by NGOs with the assistance of foreign organizations (Sita). There might be some kind of conflict between large government initiative and the solutions to preserving heritage (Flavia). There is a perception of mistrust or disconnect between artists and government. Perhaps the government could create pilot projects to fund NGOs to do their work (MCR).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS PERCEPTIONS Perceptions of Being an Artist Many artists say they live their art, art is a spiritual calling, and that art is a major part of their spiritual lives (Djaduk and others). People define themselves as artists by connecting to their culture. Art is very integral to Javanese culture and ceremonies. Spirituality helps move Javanese artists into being creative and producing good art (Djaduk, Nia/Ismoyo, and others). Art should be a community-focused endeavor. Artists should use their talents to help the community. If people work with art only for themselves, they are selfish (Samuel). Perceptions of what it means to make a living from art There is a distinction between those who work only with art related activities and those who do art completely on the side (Djaduk). Working with art-based institutions is still living with art. This is different from an artist who works a full-time job that is unrelated to art and does art completely on the side. Art and making a living can work together. In the case of Nia and Ismoyos studio, sometimes the art supports the studio, and sometimes the studio supports the art (Nia). There are multiple ways of making a living from art. For instance, Eddys sells paintings for Rp 40 million and makes his living by selling one painting a year (Dyan Anggraini) Asni, the batik maker in Kampoeng Taman, sells art pieces to friends and her community, but she makes her living through orders from stores. Artists are generally poor (Eddy) Supporting a family requires approximately Rp 3 million/month (US $300) (Dyan Anggraini) Perceptions of who can make a living from art Artists dont tend to be economically driven. Instead, they believe that if they make good, unique products the economy will support them (Warsito). However, artists should be perceived in the same way as anyone else. They need to make a living at the same time that they produce art. This places the arts scene in Yogyakarta on the same plane as the rest of the world. The starving artist phenomenon exists here too. According to Djaduk, most artists cannot make a living from their art alone. Only about 10-20% of his income comes directly from his art. The rest of his income comes from art-related activities, not just creating art. Most artists have other jobs and income coming from other sources (Djoko) It is very difficult for artists to earn a living from art alone. Those who do are mostly fine and visual artists. Performing artists cannot sell what they make (Djaduk, Dyan, and many others). Be cautious of distinction between performing and visualit always looks like the grass is greener on the other side (Flavia).
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YOGYAKARTA FINDINGS In contrast, Dyan Anggraini said most artists in Yogyakarta live fully with their art (Dyan Anggraini) About 10 percent need supplemental income, meaning 90 percent can live from their art alone (Eddy, Dyan Anggraini). Many painters can be supported by the sale of their art alone because many people in Indonesia can afford to buy expensive paintings (Dyan Anggraini).
Perceptions of Tourism Some locals consider tourism for arts and culture as art prostitution (Warsito). Fine artists do not consider tourism as a way to influence and develop the arts. Fine artists are not catering to tourism but to the international art market (Warsito) If this is true, is their resistance to tourism a missed economic opportunity? Tradition is being polluted by tourism. The culture is collapsing (Mrs. Suliantoro) Quality of Art Education The quality of art education at ISI and other universities is declining (Djokopekih) In part, this decline is attributable to the institutions resistance to employing professors of art who do not have formal educational training, even though they might be masters in their field (Djokopekih). o This may be indicative of how artists feel about each other (brainstorming note) Trends such as frying artists are supplanting the importance of high-quality academic training in the art world (Djokopekih). The Importance of Heritage and Tradition Both the government and people in Indonesia are generally unaware of the importance of arts and culture in Yogyakarta (Dyan Anggraini). The problem with heritage preservation is that people and the government in Indonesia think that development is modern and tradition is something of the past (Leksono). People like Sita and Mrs. Suliantoro are a new breed of people who are actively promoting interest in tradition and the past. Many people are beginning to realize the value of heritage preservation in Indonesia (Leksono). Tradition is not static, but is continuously evolving (Nia). The Pursuit of Status In order to preserve traditional art forms in a more sustainable and economically viable way they need to be associated with high status so people will pay more money for them. The marketability of certain types of art expression has something to do with the status of the art or craft. Status is what drives the market for art, not necessarily the quality of the art (Djokopekih). Wealthy people who buy expensive paintings are buying them for the prestige. Collectors want to buy what they think is famous. (Djokopekih) The Role of the Government in Supporting the Arts *See Government Priorities for the Arts in the Issues section
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BALI FINDINGS ISSUES GOVERNMENT The Banjar and Government Structure The banjar is the traditional government organization, while the desa adat is the cultural organization for the community (Odek). The banjar is the smallest community unit made up of older married men. It is administrative (Rio Helmi) o Banjars are still active in local Balinese communities (Rio Helmi) o Once a man establishes a household, he is part of the banjar (Rio Helmi) o If a person is not a part of the banjar s/he cannot live in the community (Rio Helmi) o A banjar contains approximately 30 households. (Rio Helmi) o The head of a banjar does not get paid, but has a very tough job (Rio Helmi) Traditionally, land belongs to the banjar. In order to receive land, one must be a member of the banjar (Odek) Informal taxes are paid through contributions to the banjar. This money is managed by the desa adat. The money stays in the community so artists do contribute to the community economy through their contributions to the banjar even if they dont pay formal taxes (Koman). Many community ceremonies use the banjar facilities (Odek) There is a strong family and extended family system in Ubud. People follow their families desires and have a strong connection with their banjar and desa adat patrons. (Ramawan) Government Priorities and Their Effects It is still very difficult to divert the national governments attention from mega-scale projects to ones that are smaller, more workable, and benefit more people (Yuyun) Need for Architectural Standards as Policy o Too many people at the national level try to violate the ancient rules of architecture. There are sacred rules of how to protect and preserve local architecture. Original architectural rules come from local wisdom (undagi). In creating national architectural standards, acknowledging the value of local wisdom is key. (IAI) o The Propinsi government launched a law encouraging Balinese style architecture in 1974. The law has produced appropriate and inappropriate applications of architecture in Balinese hotels (Siwlatri). o The Udayana University architecture department is encouraging this move but is studying traditional Balinese architecture to know what styles can be reasonably applied to modern buildings (Siwlatri). Too often, Balinese government officials are focusing on intangibles and vague theories in their plans for the future without an implementation plan. o Example 1: The Denpasar Bappedas office has a vision as part of the five-year medium term plans. The attempt to enhance peoples cultural awareness begins
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BALI FINDINGS with the idea of a strategic plan (identifying the strengths of people and capitalizing on them). The vision is divided into five components (Anindya): First, improving the character/building character of the people in Denpasar based on Balinese culture Second, the Kotamedea government empowering people in Denpasar using local and customary organizations (i.e. banjar, desa adat, subat) so peoples lives can be improved without losing the character of being Balinese. Third, improving good corporate governance by law supervision. Fourth, improving services by the government to be able to give prime service for the public Fifth, when all the missions are combined the economy of people will be improved (there will be real improvement of regional economic development) Brainstorming note: the component that will likely have the most impact is improving the legal structure; however, without any mechanism in place to require enforcement of the laws, such a vision is not promising. o Example 2: Denpasar is pursuing a creative city model based on Balinese culture (IAI) Balinese culture has many dimensions based on horizontal and vertical axes. The soul of cultural philosophy is Balance: Man to God, Man to Man, and Man to Environment (IAI) Lax Enforcement of Regulations Existing Laws o In 1974, the Propinsi established laws #2, 3, 4 to regulate buildings and law #6 to regulate the environment. (IAI) Environmental Regulations o The big hotels are required to do water recycling, but there is no monitoring of who is doing good things, and the requirements are not enforced (Yuyun) o Environmental Impact Studies are required to be provided by the investors that apply for building permits. Little is done to check if false claims are made on reports. (Dharma Putra) o Activists and community members must rely on architects (not the government) to design more environmentally friendly and sustainable resorts (Yuyun) Building Codes and Permitting o Bali, like much of Indonesia, doesnt have strict building codes. At most, there are lax standards that often go unenforced (Siwlatri). o Many people do not obtain IMB/ License to Build because it is difficult to do so (Enny Ni Made) o You have to have a building permit and must have an architect for commercial/ residential building and you must have an Undagi (priestly architect) if you want to build a temple. (IAI) o The final decisions for the approval of building permits and environmental impact studies are at the discretion of government officials. Officials frequently accept
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BALI FINDINGS bribes rather than by using a systematic checklist of whether or not certain criteria have been met. (Dharma Putra) The corruption and bureaucracy only to the expense of attaining a building permit o The government has the same permitting process for small homespun hotels that it does for large international hotels (Dharma Putra). o Permits have many specific criteria that are expensive to follow. Many small businesses cannot meet these criteria (Dharma Putra). Micro loans are not available for smaller developers because they are only meant to assist the poor (Dharma Putra). Land Use and Zoning o Architects are pushing for government zoning, but only about 10% of zoning codes are enforced (IAI) o Land use regulations exist but are consistently broken. For example, many homes and businesses are built in green belts (green belt refers to any areas where development is restricted, not necessarily in a belt shape) (Siwlatri). o In Bali there are setback requirements and building coverage ratios of about 60%. They are often unenforced (Siwlatri). Example: More than 75% of the land cover in Kuta is buildings (Ramawan)
Government Corruption Indonesia is the 5th or 6th most corrupted country in the world (Rio Helmi) o Leadership is extremely important in Indonesia and much needed (Rio Helmi) People follow their leaders (the kingdom and the family) (Ramawan) There are people who are highly educated and well qualified to improve the government, but they do not earn enough money working in government, so they work for the World Bank. (Rio Helmi) o The government is supposed to be the body that makes the rules but there is corruption and mismanagement in the government as well as in some public private partnerships and NGOs (Koman). o Laws are not well enforced (Anindya). Example: There are many laws to protect the land but people still build illegally (see section above on law enforcement for more information) Since the Reformasi in 1997 the government has been more careful in implementing programs, but challenges remain because anyone can interpret these programs any way they want (Anindya). In public hearings there are oppositions to big development, but the government overrides them (IAI). The Bappeda is working with the Kapeka, but the commission is in trouble because of poor leadership and membership. There is corruption, money is being lost and people do not trust the government. o Example: Money was taken from eight schools in Denpasar by people posing as a fake Kapeka. The schools paid because they were afraid of being investigated or of doing something wrong (Anindya).
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BALI FINDINGS Indonesias Dependence on Foreign Investments Indonesia has its own silver mines, but they are owned by foreign investors. Silver is mined in Indonesia and sold abroad. Silversmiths then are forced to buy silver from abroad and pay tax on the import. They are not allowed to buy silver directly from Indonesian mines. (Made Rasma) The government has no capital so it says it needs the foreign investors who sell to their chains abroad. The government wont do anything about this because doing so means losing foreign money. (Made Rasma) There is a lot of talk about reforming the policy but there is no action because the policy is made at the national level. There is a gap between what the national level does and what the local needs are. (Made Rasma) Bureaucracy in the Government Programs like Bali Creative Community (a professional network for artists, designers, and architects) can be difficult to achieve if they are initiated by the government (Ayip). o BCC is led by practitioners who do not have time to wait around for the government (Ayip). Organizations can pick and choose when to work with the government and do not need to be directed by the government (Ayip). Before the Reformasi, it was easier to have problems taken care of by the government. Since the Reformasi, funding requests have to go through Parliament, and it is not as easy to get the funding allocated from different sources to fix problems (Wayan Diguayusa). Need for Absolute Democracy Development requires all people to work together and agree because both the government and the people own the culture (Anindya) Each village has to agree for major building projects (IAI) o Example: Ubuds traffic congestion could be alleviated by creating a bypass, but an absolute decision will never be accomplished because of the need for a unanimous decision. Government and Religious Censorship Before the Reformasi, there was government censorship, but not as much Islamic censorship. Since the Reformasi, religious organizations have attempted to fill a gap in strong leadership. The move toward Islamic conservatism in Indonesia could hurt development throughout the nation (Emile and Popo) One year ago the central government forbade women from being outdoors topless. The Balinese held a protest in response because they feared this would hurt tourism. Also, traditionally Balinese do not wear tops and many people bathe in rivers. (Emile)
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BALI FINDINGS THE PURSUIT OF STATUS AND SYMBOLS Status and Society There are approximately 2,000 different classes and subclasses in Bali (Rio Helmi) o Status is where you stand in the cosmology The prince said he believes that when material and business aspects of life improve, so do religious and social aspects of life (Prince) Traditionally status was measured by the size of the gate in front of ones house. Now, with a democratic government anyone with money can have a kingly gate, though kings still have special meaning (Siwlatri). Land and Status In Balinese culture land is associated with status, identity, and pride (Ramawan) People are selling land for quick cash to buy physical symbols of status like BMWs. But, once the land is gone, there is nothing left. The money gained from the sale does not last forever and the land was the only asset people had (Popo). Many landowners do not have any marketable skills besides farming so selling their land can be a risky move (Dharma Putra). Many people in Kuta are rich because they sell or rent their land, but this state is only temporary because they get rich quickly and then have nothing left (Ramawan). The son of a family is not technically allowed to sell the familys land because it is supposed to be preserved for future generations. This has become a source of conflict because of the need for money. (Odek) o Selling something with a temple inside is not allowed at all (Odek). Some of the temples now have safe deposit boxes to keep offerings from being stolen (Odek). Some farmers spend their money on status symbols like cars and cremation ceremonies. This quickly burns through their savings and in the end they are left without enough money to support themselves. Many also choose to abandon the farming lifestyle after selling their land. Most land sellers end up on this path (Dharma Putra). Land is also being sold to fund large ceremonies, which have become a status symbol (Dharma Putra). o Though locals sometimes know how to host impressive AND inexpensive ceremonies priests sometimes demand that they host the most expensive ceremonies possible. In some cases corrupt priests are doing this to extort money out of people. (Dharma Putra). Related Notes from Brainstorming: Land is becoming a primary means of wealth in Bali. Foreigners are now able now to lease (and thereby take control of) land and transform its traditional values and meanings. Therefore, when people sell their land they begin divesting themselves from the traditional community structure. In Balis Hindu-based religion, caste and status are integral to being part of the community. As society modernizes, the status symbols are changing to include cars, etc.
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BALI FINDINGS
Awareness of status is everywhere in Bali. Even a persons name identifies him/her as a

member of a certain hierarchical class. This will never go away, but people believe that expensive cars or other status symbols will make a difference. Projection of image is very important. We have heard repeatedly that the Balinese are very showy people and need to show wealth and success.
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BALI FINDINGS TOURISM High End Tourists vs. Mass Tourism In Ubud, boutique hotels normally go for $200/night while bungalows and home stays normally go for between $25-50/night. There is nothing offered between these two choices. (Odek) There are about 26 boutique hotels with 20 rooms in each in Ubud. (Odek) It is good that there is no large hotel in Ubud because the community would not support it. (Odek) There are many day trip tourists who come to Ubud on organized bus tours who are cheap and do not buy anything. They do not stay in Ubud. Many times they just come into the stores to use restrooms (Odek). Tourists often prepay their tour in Japan or elsewhere, come to Bali and use the water and pollute the environment (Budiasa) People come to Ubud to spend money but do not stay for enough time for cultural activities (Prince). Tourists at 4-5 star hotels normally stay for one week. Those who purchase the mass tourism packages spend about three days going out, while the remaining days are spent at the resort or hotel. In this way, hotels and resorts can customize the tourists vacations by sending them to certain destinations, subsequently making a commission. (Djinaldi) There are organizations that promote forms of socially and culturally conscious tourism similar to eco tourism. There are classes offered to tourists to learn cultural activities (i.e. dance, mask making, batik, silversmithing). Threads of Life offers an expensive (high end) 10-day annual trip for 15 people (Americans) to go to various islands to see weaving and its co-operatives (Lolet) Infrastructure to Support Mass Tourism and Further Development in Bali Balis population is about 3.5 million, and the island receives about 4 million tourists a year (Prince, Yuyun, Djin) Lack of Planned Infrastructure o Yuyun spoke about the difficulty to divert the governments attention from megascale projects to ones that are smaller and more workable in terms of water and sewer infrastructure projects. (Yuyun) o The need for more infrastructure eventually destroyed Ubud. However, Ubud grew no faster than Kuta (Ramawan) o Ubuds layout is unfortunate in that there is no flat land and the land is cut by rivers that run through the city (Anom). o It is expensive to build bridges every 300m. There is a controversy ongoing in Ubud surrounding the possibility of cutting through the rice fields to connect a roadway to the north (Odek). Water Consumption o Bali hotels use 550-1,700 liters of water/room/day (this includes watering the grounds and the swimming pools) (Yuyun) o Local resident water use is approximately 70 liters/person/day in rural areas and 120 liters/person/day in city areas (Yuyun)
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BALI FINDINGS Land Consumption o Real estate trends are foreseen to continue increasing until no more land is available in Bali (Enny Ni Made) o There is no crisis or speculation about the supply of land depleting. (Enny Ni Made) o Already, more than 75% of the land cover in Kuta is buildings (Ramawan)
Land Scarcity Open space for each family is necessary because the relation between the sky and the earth is very important for temples and ceremonies (Siwlatri). Land is becoming too limited to maintain an ideal sky-earth connection for everyone (Siwlatri). Bali is not like other places and people do not live in large multifamily buildings (Siwlatri). Some low-income housing is provided by the government. Such homes are just 21m on plots 60m (Siwlatri). Brainstorming Note: the government is beginning to establish regulations determining how much land is appropriate for a Balinese family. Its regulations may or may not be adequate given the land needs of Balinese culture. There are no controls on how much land can be subdivided except in villages with communal land ownership (Siwlatri). Foreign Investment/Economic Leakage Many hotel owners are not Balinese, so money goes outside the country (Prince). The residents of Ubud get most of the benefit from investments made in Ubud. This contrasts with Kuta where many of the investors are foreign and local people are left jobless (Ramawan). o Many locals cannot identify Kuta as Balinese any longer because there is so much foreign investment and influence (IAI) Most investors in Kuta are foreigners, but this is not true in Ubud because there is strong regulation for land ownership (Ramawan) There is a huge amount of leakage from investments made in Bali (Dharma Putra). Fragility of an Economy Based on Tourism Tourism is very fragile, and Bali cant rely on tourism to prosper (Ayip) o When something goes wrong (disease outbreaks, terrorist attacks, earthquakes, economic crises in other countries) the decline in tourism has a huge effect on Balis economy (Ayip). Tourism and economic growth are unpredictable and depend on the political situation. (IAI) After the 1997 financial crisis and the Bali bomb blasts, many painters could not make money and pursued bricklaying or other more stable forms of employment than painting (Pande Ketut Bawa).
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BALI FINDINGS The Bali Hotels Association (BHA) is a group of hotel managers owned by the Indonesian Hotels and Restaurants Association, which was founded as a result of the decline in tourism that occurred after the 2002 Bali Bombings. (Djinaldi) o The BHA is funded through the hotels that participate in the association. There is an annual fee of 6 million Rp per hotel, though this is not enough money for all of the projects the BHA would like to accomplish. o Security and Safety are high priority in preparation of natural disasters and terrorism. By focusing on this priority, BHA members are able to hold a standard of security to their guests. The Government Industry Pariwisata Indonesia (GIPI) in an NGO that gives advice and recommendations to the government. This program in Bali is a pilot program for all of Indonesia so that each province may eventually have a GIPI like Bali. (Djinaldi)
Who Can Make A Living From Tourism? Working in tourism is often considered the best avenue to make a living, but sometimes people from villages want to be designers and architects (Ayip). o There should be more effort to spread awareness of options for good careers, so tourism is not viewed as the only lucrative career path (Ayip). With the rise in tourism, children are not being sent to school but work in businesses (Koman). Most hotel workers in Ubud receive Rp 1.5 million/month. The lowest amount needed to support a family is Rp 1-1.5 million/month (Koman). Due to growth in tourism and related construction projects, migrant workers coming from Java are coming to Bali to work and often stay. o In the past construction workers were all Balinese, but this is not true anymore (Koman) o New construction projects are ongoing frequently. New construction jobs employ anywhere from 200-1,000 people, at least 50% of which are not Balinese. The jobs use migrant workers, which are cheaper, and have more skills. (Rio Helmi) o Many people in Denpasar are not registered, but come only for work (Rio Helmi) o Migrant workers often continue to live in Bali after they have finished working. o Slums are made up of migrant workers from Java who come for construction jobs and stay because they can make more money in Bali (Koman) o Migrant workers from outside Bali pay a visa fee to work in Bali (Rp 5,000/person/month) (Made Rasma) Effects of Tourism on Local Economies There is no mechanism in Bali to spread the economic benefit of Kuta and Sanur to the rest of the island (IAI) Tourists go to Kuta. Denpasar can only compete by offering good prices, great service, and great accommodations (Budiasa). In Ubud, tourism really started to grow in the 1960s, which improved the quality of life for the people of Ubud (Prince). Tourists often stay in their hotel and never leave that area. Many tourists come to Ubud and dont contribute to the local economy (Wayan Diguayusa).
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BALI FINDINGS Exploitation of Artists and Galleries by Tour Companies The art economy covers many professions and can be hierarchical. Some people gain status by working in art markets (Rio Helmi). o Gallery owners are at the top (Rio Helmi) o Painters receive only 25% or less of the money earned from the paintings (Rio Helmi) In the past tourists went to galleries. Now as part of a tour package, galleries pay tour guides to bring customers (Koman). o Tour guides get 50-60% commission (Koman). o If the gallery makes 40% the artists make next to nothing (Koman). o The majority of tourists go to the markets in Ubud and not the galleries (Koman). Tour guides exploit stores with foreign travel agents that use local transportation (Budiasa) 10-20 years ago buses didnt come to Ubud because there was no benefit. Buses couldnt come to Ubud if there were more than 20 seats. Since the Reformasi they are allowed (Koman).
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BALI FINDINGS ART CATERING TO MARKET DEMAND Who is Buying Art? Only art collectors buy art, never regular people. (Emile) People in Indonesia have great interest in art but rarely can buy it. Emile finds that Indonesians always examine art carefully and give honest feedback, a trait uncommon in Western art observers. (Emile) As the Indonesian economy continues to improve Emile believes more Indonesians will begin to buy art. (Emile) Westerners and other foreigners now buy art in Indonesia because it is inexpensive by Western standards. (Emile) Collectors from the West sometimes come to Ubud to buy inexpensive art and then make a profit by selling it in the West. (Emile) Some Western art collectors order art using the Internet, but many have networks in the Jakarta market. (Emile) Art dealers from Jakarta are thinking ahead about what will sell at auctions like Christys. They buy large amounts of art to sell internationally. (Ketut) The Hong Kong, Singapore, and Jakarta markets cause prices in Bali to inflate (Ketut) It is better to sell art in Holland than in Bali for two reasons: (Emile) o Art supplies are cheaper in Holland because they manufacture them. o The Bali art market is oversaturated with very cheap paintings. Art That Sells Focuses on Aesthetics and Not on the Spiritual Meaning. The Balinese people want to satisfy others, so they do what tourists want instead of what represents the real identity of Bali (Ramawan) Westerners understand Balinese art forms differently For example: Traditionally, Balinese masks each have a story and spirit inside, and are tied to personal expressions, but Westerners are more interested in the aesthetic appeal without understanding the cultural symbolism. (Anom) Many of the foreigners from Japan, Australia, and other Western countries seem to care about art, but wont buy from the real artists (Bendi). Many Balinese paint what they know will sell. (Emile) More artists are making paintings that satisfy the market instead of satisfying the soul. (Odek) Sometimes new generations do not care to know the story behind the figures so they do not care to have their heart and soul in the figures (Odek) Only four or five people still make masks in Bali. Of the many mask makers in Bali, not many work seriously. They do not make art. They do not understand the story behind the masks, the dance, and the emotion. (Anom) One of the criteria Threads of Life uses when establishing new co-ops is that the textiles made in the village must be an interesting product to sell in the tourist market in Ubud (Lolet). Emphasizing Quantity Instead of Quality Chapter 3: Findings 56
BALI FINDINGS The emphasis is now put on quantity instead of quality. (Odek, Anom) Machines are increasingly being used to make jewelry. They help in making mass products but reduce the value and detail of the products (Made Rasma) People who have machines can be consistent in the trade and can respond to changing trends more easily. Silver work has become more specialized due to technological advances. People do piecework and the silversmith has the last part of the process. The people doing the piecework are mostly from outside Ubud and are unskilled. There is no sense of creativity (unskilled factory labor). This reduces the chance of employment for people in Ubud (Made Rasma) Tourists are mostly interested in buying cheap goods and are not interested in the quality (Anom). The Sukawati market is full of reproductions, copies, and low quality work that should be sold for Rp 30,000 but is sold to Americans for Rp 300,000 (Ketut).
Copied Art There is a problem of low end, copied junk art to sell to tourists for almost nothing. Brainstorming Note: Flavia referenced the book, Instant Art, Instant Culture. There is a message of how much you value culture by how much you turn it into a commodity. Art is being copied because it sells (Koman) As soon as Anom created the happy/sad mask, there were numerous counterfeits (Anom). Many factories make paintings in the styles of famous artists (Rio Helmi). Painters can make three copied paintings a day (Rio Helmi). Sometimes factories print paintings from a computer and people paint over the image (Koman) Many painters copy the work of famous painters to make money. (Emile) Many Balinese get into painting just for the money. Today it is difficult to tell who is a real painter because many copiers are highly skilled. (Emile) Artists dont want to register their products as copyrighted and dont realize there is a threat outside. It also takes a lot of time and money to fight copyright violations. (Made Rasma) Artists also have the philosophy in Bali that art is about the process not the final product itself. (Made Rasma)
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BALI FINDINGS CHANGES IN ART FORMS DUE TO TOURISM AND MARKET DEMANDS Mask Making In 1965, few masks were made for tourists, because tourists were more interested in sculpture instead of masks (Anom). In the 1980s there was an explosion of mask makers in Bali (Anom) From the 1990s to 2002, mask making declined (Anom) Tourists do not buy because masks are overpriced and the quality is poor (Anom) There are no special designs (Anom) After the Bali bombings the mask making industry collapsed (Anom) Since 2007 the industry has been recovering (Anom) Painting Tourists are not looking for traditional Balinese paintings but like more contemporary painting styles (Koman). Traditional paintings take more time to complete and are hard to sell. Many tourists are not informed about the complexity and time required to complete a painting (Koman). Abstract painting is the most difficult to sell in Indonesia and is mostly sold abroad. (Koman) Figurative art sells well in the contemporary market. (Koman) An inconsistent art market makes it difficult to make a living from art. (Pande Ketut Bawa). Pande Ketut Bawa does not want to produce low-quality art and does not want to copy or follow popular trends in art. Others who cannot make high quality, unique paintings that sold, turned to landscapes and common paintings (Pande Ketut Bawa) Silversmith Industry in Celuk In the 1980s the silver industry had its own artists and worked as a community. The silver was all handmade. In the 1990s, along with the tourist rise in Kuta, more machines and technology began to be used. (Made Rasma) Nearly every shop in Celuk was a silver shop in the 1990s. After the 2002 bombs in Bali, most shops closed. With more shops, the original sense of community held by the three original silver shops in Celuk broke down. There was a move toward individualism among silversmiths. (Made Rasma) Before 2002 there were 350 households in Celuk involved in the silver industry (4-5 people per household). Now only 25 households in Celuk continue to make silver. (Made Rasma) The Germans invested in small silversmiths in Celuk after the bombings (Made Rasma) The coming of foreign investors affects the fluctuation of styles (this is similar to the influence of the Dutch governors wife in Kotagede). (Made Rasma) The quality improved with more shops because there was more competition. Tourists and foreign buyers who were also silver sellers helped improve the quality as well. (Made Rasma) Chapter 3: Findings 58
BALI FINDINGS
Foreign buyers come to Celuk and ask silversmiths to make something. Then they take
the design and turn it into a mass produced product, claim it as their own, and sell it abroad (Made Rasma) There is an increasing number of Javanese coming to Bali (Celuk) to make silver (Made Rasma)
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BALI FINDINGS MAKING A LIVING FROM ART Formal v. Informal Sector It is difficult to determine the economic impact of artists because they are part of the informal economy. Artists are largely part of the informal sector and typically do not pay taxes for their work (Koman). Most artists do not pay taxes. Westerners pay taxes on art but many Indonesians do not pay taxes. (Emile) Benefits to Artists from Tourism In the 1970s, the artists got the biggest benefit from tourism (a big boost economically) because people bought art souvenirs (Koman) In the 1970s the range of who was considered an artist was smaller. Now it seems to range from junk painting to high end, fine art (Koman) Emile is unsure who receives the money that is generated by festivals but believes that much of it flows to Westerners. (Emile) SMK III (an arts school in Denpasar) started a new tourism department because many students (presumably those with performing arts skills) want to make money by working in the tourism industry (Kawi). For Threads of Life, it is a good time to sell textiles in Ubud. Ubud is a good location because it is an art center. The organization is using high-end tourism in Ubud to help support village economies (Lolet). Art Exhibitions Some artists can be successful in earning money from art if they socialize and network to find a place where they can sell (Bendi). Artists have to be involved with exhibitions to show people their art and get recognized (Bendi). If artists have good work, curators will call to show their work in galleries (Bendi). Bendi had an exhibition to showcase young artists (Bendi). The Puri Lukisan hosts an annual exhibition to find new artists and help them sell their work. (Soemantri) o The museums invite list for the exhibition has 300-600 names. (Soemantri) o The exhibition includes art from artists of all ages (13 and up, including those who have passed away). (Soemantri) o From each exhibition, the museum purchases 1-2 paintings to add to its permanent collection. (Soemantri) o The prices range from Rp. 200,000- 35 billion. (Soemantri) Artists Do Not Know How to Determine Prices or Market Art Artists do not know how to promote their art (Ketut) Artists dont have a good business model so they dont understand cultivating a clientele (Koman). Marketing is important in Bali, especially via the Internet (Emile).
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BALI FINDINGS Some artists can make a living from their art by charging very high prices, but some often go bankrupt because they rise and fall too fast. Artists will always take a chance (Koman). Artists will probably ask more than a gallery. Self-determined prices are often more than what the art is actually worth (Koman) Good artists will self control and self adjust prices because they have confidence in their work (Koman). Artists that arent as good take advantage of buyers out of fear that they wont be able to sell in the future (Koman).
Meeting the Demands of the Modern Business Climate Learning By Example and Through Experience o At the Sanur Arts Festival, many sellers gain important business skills, international exposure, and business contacts. Participating artists learn the importance of basic business practices such as having an email address or website. (Tommy) o Threads of Life has incorporated business management (accounting, finance, sales) skills into the kind of training provided to the weaving co-ops in selected villages (Lolet). Educational Training o SMK III, a school for the arts and tourism in Denpasar, is working to meet an international standard. One component of this includes achieving a target enrollment of 1,500 students by 2013. The school now only has 400 students (Kawi). Right now about 150 students are admitted yearly. They will need to admit about 400-500 yearly to meet the standards (Kawi). o SMK III added a Tourism department to its curriculum to increase enrollment. The school expects most of its growth to come from this department (Kawi). o Today, most students from SMK III continue on to university; some go to ISI (Kawi). o Earning an architecture degree in Indonesia requires four years of school. Architects are considered practice-ready after just 1 year of training (Siwlatri). Note: the qualifications for architects in Bali are much lower than in the U.S. even though Balinese architecture is world-renowned and desired. As an example of the demand for Balinese architecture, people are dismantling temples and structures and rebuilding them in other parts of the world. Could it be that qualifications are lower in Bali because so much is learned through the old script and tradition? o All [architecture graduates from Udayana] have jobs within 3 months (Siwlatri) In the U.S. there are strict regulations for who may design. Here that is not the case so there can be more architects. Architects may begin practicing after their first year of study. Many foreigners want to build villas in Bali so our students design for them (Siwlatri). Using the Internet to Sell Art o Last year 15 paintings were sold from Seniwati Gallery online. Women began selling paintings online three years ago (Jero). Chapter 3: Findings 61
BALI FINDINGS o Donations for sponsorships to fund childrens art classes at Seniwati Gallery can be made online (Jero). Using the Internet to fundraise, market, and sell art keeps international tourists connected to Ubud and the Seniwati gallery, and creates connections with potential buyers and sponsors all over the world. Competing in an International Market o Bali Sustainable Development Foundations (BSDF) Green Hotels Initiative provides ratings to hotels on the basis of their commitment to spirit, the environment, and the community. They can earn Green Certification, which can make them more competitive. (Dharma Putra) o One way the hotels attempt to achieve a higher score is by involving the community in economic and cultural activities (Dharma Putra).
Balinese Women in Art In Bali, women are typically busy making offerings, kids, farming, housemaking, and many other tasks. Therefore, they have little time for art (Jero). There are few women artists, about 5% of all artists. Bali needs 30 years or so for there to be more women artists (Koman). There are not many women who study the arts (Bendi). Pande Ketut Bawa has three daughters but does not allow of them to study art because he thinks art is not an appropriate profession for women in Indonesia. Seniwati Gallery of Womens Art in Ubud is the first womens gallery of art in all of Asia (founded 1971). It only exhibits art by women and allows the artists to set the prices for their paintings (Jero).
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BALI FINDINGS SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES The Balinese Culture is Open to Outside Influence The Balinese have always been interested in arts and culture, but when tourists came they began trying to learn how to cater to tourists (IAI) Denpasar is a city with a lot of people coming from outside. This includes Balinese people coming from outside Denpasar, Indonesians coming from outside Bali (including migrant workers) and the sector of society coming from abroad (Anindya). The Balinese appreciate diversity and respect the culture of others (Anindya, Ramawan). Historic Preservation through Spiritual Tradition In Western culture, things, buildings, and structures are preserved so they can be historical memoirs. In Eastern culture, the ability to create the temples, houses, and buildings is preserved. It is a right to exercise the ability to create these structures (Odek). Bali has an important intangible living culture that needs to be conserved (Siwlatri). Bali cannot keep all its old architecture. Some of it should change to accommodate new things while conserving the skills and values of a traditional house (Siwlatri). For example, the gates to homes have been widened to accommodate cars while maintaining their traditional aesthetic and meaning (Siwlatri). The historic preservation of buildings is not a Balinese tradition. Traditionally, the Balinese are expected to hand down the skills of creating an artifact, not the artifact itself. It is expected that every generation builds or rebuilds their building (Siwlatri). If the Balinese do not rebuild homes every generation the knowledge and tradition of building skills is lost. However, when Balinese homes are demolished, traditional styles are lost (Siwlatri). Programs for Historic Preservation Legal protection for Balinese historic structures is provided under the 2000 Unang Unang Sotouana law (Siwlatri). Universitas Udayana is cooperating with the government of Badung to preserve a large wooden building (Siwlatri). Jl Gadjah Mada in Denpasar was declared a heritage zone two years ago. No construction is allowed in the historic zone. There is a master plan to maintain the main buildings but build new facades (Ramawan). Over the next 5-6 years the vision for Jl. Gadjah Mada is to be entirely pedestrian with no cars or motorcycles allowed (Ramawan). The city aspires to have an annual street festival in the historic zone. The festival incorporates dancing, cars, music, textiles, recycling, etc. The aim is to draw people to the district as an attraction and generate interest in the historic district (Ramawan). o The first festival was held two years ago. There is now a plan to clean the area and make it ready for annual festivals from 2010 forward (Ramawan). Efforts to Preserve Cultural Traditions Painting
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BALI FINDINGS o The Seniwati Gallery of Women Artists holds painting classes for 35 girls every weekend. The classes are free because the gallery obtains funding through sponsorships. One sponsorship is Rp 300,000 per year and funds supplies and teacher salaries (Jero). Sponsors are typically foreign tourists who visit the gallery and make donations online (Jero). o Through these classes, the girls learn the traditional styles and skills of painting that they do not learn in school (Jero). o The children can sell their paintings. Fifty percent goes toward the class and fifty percent to the child (Jero). Exhibitions Traditional art is being encouraged through exhibitions held every two years at the Neka Museum (Koman). New generations are being encouraged to use the traditional Balinese technique in their own styles (Koman). Archaeology Artifacts need to be identified to form an inventory of archaeological and cultural artifacts. (Anindya). o They can be privately owned but must be registered and cannot be sold abroad. (Anindya). The Denpasar government is working on a project to inventory all historical heritage items (Anindya). Museums o Curators at the Puri Lukisan are trying to restore the museum because the climate is not appropriate to store artwork. They are either going to try to seal the paintings and woodcarvings in a thicker glass or change the buildings climate. (Soemantri) o There is no air conditioning and it is humid inside the galleries. (Soemantri) o The museum does not obtain insurance due to its slim budget, but has hired extra security to compensate for this. (Soemantri Gamelan Music There is a form of gamelan music (jamar pugulian) with an ancient rhythm. It originated in Denpasar but is extinct. An initiative of local people is trying to revive the rhythm based on a recording found in a Paris museum (Anindya). o People in the banjar are playing the music again and training others to preserve the music (Anindya). Threads of Life (NGO) Threads of Life keeps records of patterns and their stories in the villages local languages and wants to complete a book with this information (Lolet). Threads of Life uses the following four criteria as a basis for establishing new cooperatives: o The village must still use textiles in traditional weavings as a ritual artifact o The ability to make ikat must still exist o There must be a source of natural material to make dyes in that community Chapter 3: Findings 64
BALI FINDINGS o The textiles made in that community must be an interesting product to sell (Lolet). Threads of Life is promoting the market for ikat. As a result, it is more appealing for women to pass the tradition on to their daughters. The economic aspect of making and selling ikat can be used as an opportunity to preserve culture (Lolet). Efforts of the Bali Creative Community Bali Creative Community hosts workshops for artists to develop in their professions and share ideas (Ayip). o The workshops are mostly casual and are held at different place each time (Ayip). o They educate people to make websites, promotion, production management, etc. (Ayip). o Once a month they invite artists, curators, gallery owners, etc. to share their knowledge, insight, and ideas (Ayip). Bali Creative Community is trying to find ways to leverage the resources and networks of the expat community in Ubud (many designers, in particular, come to Ubud and stay) (Ayip) o They have developed a business incubation program for young designers that depends on support from the local and expat design community (Ayip) o Many expats are not working in Bali legally so shy away from formal events and prefer to be involved in casual workshops or gathering spaces (Ayip) Art Festivals and Tourism in Bali General Information on Art Festivals In general, festivals in Bali do not attract Indonesians. (Tommy) Internationals are attracted to some festivals like the Ubud Writers and Readers Festival but in general, visitors come for other reasons. (Tommy) Example: Locals that come to the Sanur Arts Festival are typically either visitors from Java or expatriates living in Bali. (Tommy) Most festivals are just starting. The hope is that someday community members will organize their own festivals. (Tommy) Sanur Arts Festival Funding The festival costs approximately Rp 700,000,000 of which about 5% is government funded. The festival is mainly funded by corporate support. There is some government support but not enough. The government funds many other festivals. The president of SDF had to invest some of his own money for some of the original festivals, but now the festival is mostly self-supported. (Tommy) Publicity Tommy is working with National Geographic who is writing an article about the festival. The festival does not have a target audience, however it is held during August, the month when the most tourists typically visit. (Tommy) Chapter 3: Findings 65
BALI FINDINGS The festival is held on the grounds of the Grand Bali Beach Hotel in exchange for including the hotels name in festival advertisements and other materials. The space has a capacity of up to 4,000 people. (Tommy) Benefits to Artists Many artists report that the festival boosts their sales because it draws a good customer base. Even if sellers do not experience sales boosts the cost of booths is free so they lose no money. (Tommy) Many sellers gain important business skills, international exposure, and business contacts. (Tommy) Artists learn the importance of basic business practices such as having an email address or website. (Tommy) The festival is a good place to start up a business and gain business skills on a low budget. Many people do not have their own resources to start the process on their own. (Tommy) The Role of Artists in Balinese Ceremonies Ceremonies require a lot of artists (Koman). Artists play a very important role in the community because of religion (Koman). Artists are honored and always given special food at ceremonies in recognition for their contributions (Koman). Artists and architects are considered holy men (Koman). Artists will always have employment due to religion (Koman). Land Allocation Through the Banjar The banjar provides each family with a certain amount of land, and you can never sell your land individually. The land cant be taken away either (Rio Helmi). Rice fields are also owned individually (Rio Helmi) o When the banjar allocates rice fields, it also allocates water (Rio Helmi) You must take your water in the correct order, or you can be killed over it (Rio Helmi) o Rice fields used to be very special and extremely common, but now land is being transformed into buildings for tourists (Rio Helmi) Much of the investment in Ubud is by the kingdom, and much of the land in Ubud belongs to the king and his family (Ramawan) o Investors have to ask permission from the king to develop land (Ramawan). Families who lived in Ubud traditionally have a lot of land because the king had a lot of land to distribute (Koman). Real Estate Market and Land Ownership Traditional Regulations Foreigners cannot own land and must use a Balinese representative to buy the land for them. (Enny Ni Made) A person can own only up to 400 square meters of land, unless he or she adds another person to the title. (Enny Ni Made)
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BALI FINDINGS
Types of Titles: Free Hold, Right of Use, Ha Pah Kai, Leasing the Land. (Enny Ni
Made) Change in Demand and Land Value The demand for housing in Bali is not as good as before the global economic crisis, but the values have not been affected. (Enny Ni Made) The price of villas is inflated because foreigners and wealthy Jakartans are willing to buy them. (Enny Ni Made) When expats invest in real estate, it is likely to be villas. (Enny Ni Made) Ownership keeps rising and people were buying land as an investment after the bombings. (Enny Ni Made) There is a ten percent increase in land values each year. For instance, if someone pays Rp 5,000,000 this year, next year it will be worth Rp 5,500,000. (Enny Ni Made) In 1984 land used to cost approximately $300 per 100 square meters; now it costs $3,000 per 100 square meters. (Rio Helmi) Many people are selling land because they can profit so much (Rio Helmi) Land is used to attract tourists, so people build on it (Rio Helmi) This is a break down of the social system (Rio Helmi) There is a lot of land speculation. People buy sawa (rice fields) for little money, make bribes, build hotels, and the value of land increases (IAI)
Housing Bali is not like other places and people do not live in large multifamily buildings (Siwlatri). Where there is little land in cities family compounds are often consolidated into a single large structure (Siwlatri). Even in dense urban areas a small open space is ideally maintained for family temples and offerings (Siwlatri). The government provides some low-income housing. Such homes are just 21 square meters on 60 square meter plots (Siwlatri). This is not enough room for an adequate connection between sky-earth (Siwlatri). Government houses cost approximately Rp 50 million (Siwlatri). Low income Balinese cannot afford the government housing being built. It is often purchased by higher income people and sold by them for a profit (Siwlatri).
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BALI FINDINGS PERCEPTIONS Perceptions of Who Can Make a Living From Art It is easy for artists who own the local shops in Ubud to make a living (Ayip). It is easy for foreign artists (and some local artists) to make a living from art (Ayip). Most artists in Bali cant survive from their art alone, so they have to have another job as well (Bendi, Soemantri). If an artist cannot sell paintings, s/he cannot devote time to the art (Pande Ketut Bawa). Some painters are successful like Nasirun, but most make only modest livings. (Emile) Pande Ketut Bawa cannot make a living from art alone. He teaches junior high school in addition to selling paintings. Jobs in the arts are not plentiful (Kawi) The women artists who exhibit at Seniwati Gallery also hold other jobs (Jero). Work as an artist can be inconsistent o Lempads grandson has a business making barong masks and hires workers only when he gets an order because he cannot afford to keep permanent employees Silversmiths in Celuk now are paid by the piece but make an average of Rp 1,000,000/month (minimum). This used to be enough for workers to pool money together to buy land but now it is not enough to eat. (Made Rasma) The two best places for artists to be successful in Bali are Ubud and Semenak (located in Kuta) (Ayip). Artists in Batuan o In Batuan there are no galleries, so artists must sell out of their homes (Bendi) o There are 1000 families in Batuan (Bendi) o 50% are involved in the arts o 20% are farmers o 30% other (govt. officials, drivers, etc.) How Locals Use Wealth from Tourism The people of Ubud are better off now because of money in tourism. This includes everyone, not with just those who deal with tourism. Tourism creates jobs and the pay is good in Ubud (Koman) Today, people have no problem getting jobs in Ubud (Prince) Until the last five or ten years people wanted their children to be artists because it was easy to get a job in tourism. Other jobs like doctors and engineers were not desirable because it was hard to get a job in these fields (Koman). In Bali, wealth is new. People do not know how to manage it. (IAI) Tourism has made it easier for the Balinese to fulfill their obligations to make offerings to the gods and goddesses. (Odek) When people feel richer, they may feel like making a higher quality offering using imported pears, fruit, flowers, etc. (Desy) Perceptions of Tourism Conde Nast recently named Ubud the best city in Asia. This publicity is killing Ubud (Popo).
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BALI FINDINGS Tourism brings economic benefits but the government is taking Bali as a milking cow without thinking about investing in infrastructure, garbage collection, sustainable ways to manage water usage, etc. (Popo). Recreational drugs and prostitutes are considered (by non-Balinese) temporary indulgences during vacation; tourists dont think about the mess they leave behind (IAI) Emile believes the culture of Bali overpowers the tourists influence. He believes the culture is strong and will be perpetuated. (Emile) The locals are not upset with tourism. Tourists are always welcome in Ubud. More than a decade ago Ubud should have been bankrupt but it is not because of the tourism industry (Prince).
The Role of the Government in Supporting the Arts Foreign governments (Australian, Dutch, and German) are providing more financial support for the arts than Indonesian government. The Australian government provides financial support to the Seniwati Gallery for Women but the Indonesian government does not (Jero). For more information see Government Priorities and their Effects in the Issues section
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QUESTIONS REMAINING 1. Either Djoko or Warsito stated that one of the goals of incorporating art into schools is to build cultural resilience. This implies culture should not be viewed as a museum, but rather something that lives, develops, and transforms. What are the elements of Indonesian culture that are resilient enough to preserve the unique aspects of Indonesian identity and pride in light of globalization, increased use of the Internet, natural disaster, political change, and so many other recent happenings? What should be recommended to promote cultural resilience in Yogyakarta and Bali?
2. When community members participate in local art, they tend to like it more. Can cultural resilience be built through community groups and community art?
3. To what extent to kampoengs specialize in particular forms of arts or craft? What are the reasons for developing these specializations? Are they attributable to personal interest on the part of individual community members only or are there any patterns/trends?
4. We have heard about how batik has been affected, positively and negatively, by the UNESCO declaration. How have the designations for wayang kulit and the kris affected these art forms? How do they compare with batik, which draws its appeal from its utility as well as its aesthetics?
5. There is a lot of triangulated evidence that the craft of silver is highly vulnerable to many external influences. Can we explore these influences and their effects on the silver industry in Kotagede (and Celuk, in Bali) further?
6. What specific programs or laws exist at the national, state, or local level (in Yogyakarta and Bali) to support historic preservation, the arts, cultural heritage, or the environment? To what extent (or how) are these laws enforced?
7. What are average incomes for artists? How do these compare to average incomes of the general population in Yogyakarta and Bali?
Chapter 4: Questions Remaining
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QUESTIONS REMAINING 8. How many people choose to make a living only from their art and how many choose (or need) to hold additional jobs for supplemental income? What portion of their incomes derives from art versus other activities (including art-related activities)?
9. What are some examples of perceptions of what it means to make a living? We need to develop some language for talking about this issue because there are many ways of being an artist and many levels at which one can make a living and support a family. For instance, Nasirun is able to make a very good living from art alone; Eddy has decided to live only from art but lives very simply and aims to sell one painting a year; Warsito needs to have another full-time job in addition to producing art in order to earn an income.
10. To what extent are silversmiths in Kotagede and Celuk informed about the possibility of high-end buyers and hotels purchasing products from these communities? If silversmiths were informed that high-end jewelry stores are present in many important Indonesian hotels and tourist destinations they could market their product to these outlets. We have not gotten any evidence yet that products from these two silver communities are represented here.
11. Multiple people have told us that artists in Yogyakarta are not trained to market their work. What strategies would help groups of artists to organize and market their work more effectively? How would some level of organization increase artists economic viability?
12. What portion of tourists stay in Ubud versus those who drive in from outside areas, such as Sanur?
13. How many stores and restaurants are in Ubud today? What types? How are they changing?
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QUESTIONS REMAINING 14. How many artists live in Ubud? What type of artist are they? Where do they come from (Indonesia, Bali, or abroad)? Who do they sell to?
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH MAP MAKING There are studies that have mapped tourist destinations but they dont include where high volumes, or concentrations, of arts and crafts are made. While we have a preliminary understanding of some centers of craft production (i.e. Kampoeng Taman, Kasongan, Kotagede, and Imogiri), conducting a thorough mapping and census will allow us to calculate the economic contribution and multiplier effects created by the arts in these and other communities.
KASONGAN STUDY Approximately 1,000 people live in Kasongan and nearly all make pottery (Kaboel Craft). There is a clear product line and sequence in the village. However, it is very unclear how we move from village production of pottery to international retail chains for sale. It is likely that the person who produces the product is making the least amount of money and then has to goes through multiple channels in order to sell. We do not have data to assess the magnitude of this problem. We need to gain a more thorough understanding of how much time and materials cost is incurred to produce pottery, and how payment amounts change as one moves up the supply chain. Without this data we cannot quantify the process of producing pottery for global export, so we cannot assess when economic opportunity becomes economic exploitation.
IMOGIRI CENSUS There are some villages in Imogiri where 200 women (from 100 families) live, and all make batik (Sita and Dwita). A doorto-door census and thorough mapping of the batik community in Imogiri will elucidate the effect of the batik revitalization programs that have been initiated in Imogiri since the earthquake in 2006. We will need to calculate the time and costs of producing and selling batik, and describe how women have begun to market their work outside the community. Following this, we can write a thorough case study of Imogiri, focusing on its efforts to support batik and the development of small womens enterprises.
KOTAGEDE CENSUS A door-to-door census in Kotagede will provide needed data on how many people work in the communitys silver industry, what specific jobs they hold, how many workshops exist, and
Chapter 5: Recommendations for Further Research
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH the output of these workshops. This data is needed because nearly everyone who works in silversmithing is part of the informal sector and no one seemed to have a consistent sense of the magnitude of the silver industry in Kotagede, despite its historical and ongoing prominence.
RELATIONAL AESTHETICS Develop a theoretical framework for the study around the idea of Relational Aesthetics, which places an emphasis on creating social capital through various art processes and practices, not on the product (Flavia)
OVERLAY DISTRICTS Suggest overlay districts where specific restrictions and transfer of development rights can be introduced.
DEFINING SUCCESSFUL ART MODELS Can we define a successful model for art? Describing the arts scene using defined categories can be problematic because categories (i.e. fine art, folk art, and mass produced/commercial art) are not hierarchical and often get co-mingled in everyday life. The future of the arts in 21st century economies involves breaking away from these three categories and creating some hybrid forms. Nia and Ismoyo are great examples of this. They are fine artists who use batik as a medium and run a workshop that produces textiles for sale. Theirs is probably the most economically viable model we have encountered because it involves multiple types of art and builds social capital by involving many people. Nia and Ismoyos approach contrasts with villages like Kasongan, which is not as sustainable because it is focused so heavily on one form of craft alone. Their approach also contrasts with artists like Eddy, who are committed to making a living from fine art alone. He may be a good artist, but he is not marketing his work (that we saw) and is not even using his talent to teach other people. He has a very modest life and depends on selling one expensive painting a year (Flavia).
ADVANCING AND REPLICATING THE KAMPOENG CYBER MODEL Kampoeng Cyber is a three-way partnership with Kampoeng Cyber, the RT/RW, and UGMs Extension Programa mandatory 3-month student community service program, to
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH which students pay for the summer. Kampoeng Cyber is attempting to use the Internet to help batik artists in Kampoeng Taman market their work independently and lessen their dependence on exploitative tour guides. Through the program, the Internet is promoted as a valuable household asset. Internet access is also provided through a public use terminal, so those who do not have the resources or desire to buy Internet access personally can continue to learn how to use the Internet. This is a replicable model for other cohesive neighborhoods with a lot of social capital, particularly because the Internet has a ubiquitous appeal and can be used for a wide range of activities, including personal and community development. Replicating Kampoeng Cyber does not necessarily require finding additional villages that are highly specialized in an art form like batik. It would be useful to understand what social infrastructure existed in the neighborhood prior to the project and how much had to be developed to launch Kampoeng Cyber.
CREATIVE INDUSTRY MAPPING IN BALI Bali Creative Community (BCC) is working on a project to develop a database of artists and creative professionals in Bali. They are also working on a creative industry mapping project (Ayip). There are roughly 500 names in the artist database; however there are many more artists in Bali (only about 50% of artists are represented in the database). Most of those in the database currently are graphic designers and craftspeople. Artists are identified through BCCs work with organizations of artists, by providing registration/sign up sheets at events, and through snowball sampling. The database and map, when complete, would provide useful insight into the volume and distribution of artists in Bali. (Ayip)
COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM IN BALI Work in partnership with the Bali Hotels Association to develop student exchange programs and arts-based tourism in Balinese villages (Djin).
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REFERENCES Berkmoes, Ryan Ver. (2009). Bali and Lobok. Lonely Planet. pp 9-37. Daroesman, Ruth. (1973). An Economic Survey of Bali. BIES. Volume 1 Number 3. Devine Laws Govern Balis Unique Architecture. (1992). Garuda Indonesia. pp 33- 36. Dwiyanto, Djoko. (2010, July 29). Personal Interview. Head of Cultural Service for Yogya Special Province. Odek. (2010, July 20). Personal Interview. His Familys Compound. Oey, Eric. (1991). Yogyakarta. Java. pp 165-191 Rhami, Dwita Hadi. (2009) Post Disaster Conservation Manual for Kotagede Heritage District: Yogyakarta, Indonesia, Jogja Heritage Society. Rusli, Imran. (1992). Ritual Keeps Balis two Inter-related Worlds Stable. Jakarta Post. Saunders, Graham. (2007). Customs and Etiquette of Indonesia. pp 7-37 Siwalarti (2010, July 24). Personal Interview. Professor of Architecture, Universitas Udayana. Skolnick, Adam. (2005, March/April). Balanced on Bali. Yogya International. Sulistiyanto, Priyambudi. (2006). Muhammadiyah, Local Politics and Local Identity in Kotagede, Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. Vol. 21, No. 2. pp. 254 70 Warsito, Dr. H Tulus. (2010). Personal Interview. Professor at Muhamadiah University. Yogyakarta.

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Use of the Arts as Stimulus for Economic Growth

Strategies for Sustainable Economic Development and Cultural Preservation

Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: References Appendices:

Chapter 1: Project Description

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Chapter 1: Project Description

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Chapter 2: Context Description

Chapter 2: Context Description

Chapter 2: Context Description

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Awareness of status is everywhere in Bali. Even a persons name identifies him/her as a

Chapter 4: Questions Remaining

Chapter 4: Questions Remaining

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Chapter 5: Recommendations for Further Research

Chapter 5: Recommendations for Further Research

Chapter 5: Recommendations for Further Research

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