TRAINING TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL METHODOLOGIES

FOREWORD
1. The field of Training is a vast and continually evolving arena. This dynamic nature of training demands a solid understanding of the original ideas, theories and systems that form their fundamentals. As instructors in the Navy, it is of utmost importance that the various nuances of good training practices are understood and followed in true letter and spirit. This docket on Training Technology and Instructional Methodology has !een prepared with the aim of serving as a !asic reading material for trainee instructors undergoing training at the Naval Institute of "ducational and Training Technology #NI"TT$. %. There has !een a long&standing demand from the trainee instructors of the Methods and Training Technology #'ailors$ courses to make the docket simple and reader friendly. The terminologies and e(pressions normally used in the Training Technology parlance, !y themselves, are technical and some times conte(tual. Notwithstanding this fact, an attempt has !een made to make the language as simple and lucid as possi!le. ). In this edition of the docket, a lot of new concepts on training and some of the training practices as propounded !y Thames *alley +niversity, +, that are suita!le to our training environment have !een included. At the end of the docket, a glossary of commonly used training terms has !een appended to serve as a -uick reference tool for the trainees. .. A training docket is a collation of reading material culled from various sources and presented as a package. Any such docket will only serve the purpose of an elementary reading material for easy assimilation of !asic principles and concepts. Trainees have to resort to additional reading from !ooks written !y eminent scholars, thinkers and researchers in the relevant field of conte(t. A num!er of !ooks have !een listed at the end of each chapter in this docket for suggested additional reading and reference. /. I do hope that the trainees find this docket useful.

%0 Mar 0) ,ochi & 34%00.

#1eorge 2aco!$ 5aptain 6irector

CONTENTS Chapter
1 2 3 4 5 ( + ' 9 12 11 12 13 14 15 1( 1+ 1' 19 22 21 22 23 24 25 2( 2+ 2' 29 32 31 32

Title
Teaching Learning Process Learning Theories Andragogy o!r "ays o# Learning Syste$atic Approach to Training %SAT& )asic Teaching *odel ,o$ains o# Learning -riting O./ecti0es #or Training *a1i$s o# Teaching *oti0ation *edia and Training Aids O0erhead Pro/ector *ethods o# 3nstr!ctions Lect!re and Lesson *ethod Coaching 4!estioning Techni5!es 3nstr!ctor Li6e 4!alities %3L4& Trans#er o# Learning Co$p!ter )ased Training 7ideo in Training *aster Sylla.!s E0al!ation eed.ac6 Tests and Types o# Test 3te$s 3te$ Analysis Ta.le o# Speci#ication 3nterpretation o# Test Scores 3np!t O!tp!t Analysis Training ,esign and E0al!ation Cell

Page No 4 9 15 21 2' 34 3+ 4' (1 (5 +5 '3 '' 121 12+ 122 125 132 13' 144 15( 1(2 1+4 1+9 191 195 222 22( 229 213 219 225

Co!nseling
Ti$e *anage$ent 8lossary o# Training Ter$s

C9APTE:

1;

TEAC93N8 LEA:N3N8 P:OCESS

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the following:- (i) ducation (ii) !raining (iii) !eaching (iv) "earning# (b) Differentiate between ducation and !raining (c) $plain the stages involved in teaching# (d) %tate the general principles of teaching# (e) %tate the general principles of "earning# (f) "ist the "earning &utcomes#

TEAC93N8 LEA:N3N8 P:OCESS '# (s )nstructors, it important to understand the process of !eaching and "earning# )t will be useful to loo* into some of the terms associated with the teaching learning process# "et us first try to understand the terms + ducation and !raining, 2# Ed!cation; ducation is a Psychological Process

which prepares a person #or $eeting general li0ing conditions of the society and the environment around him# 3# Training; !raining is a Planned Process of scientific instruction and learning which prepares a person to do a speci#ic tas6 or set o# speci#ic tas6s

-# !raining can also be defined as a Planned Process to modify attitude, *nowledge or s*ill behaviour to achieve effective performance in a particular activity or range of activities# .# !he difference between Ed!cation and Training can be understood from the table given in the following page#

SL NO (a)

E,=CAT3ON /ives students the *nowledge of theories, principles, facts and figures that may generally be useful in day-to-day life# )t is broad based and general in nature# )t enables students to control their environment and fulfill their possibilities2desires# ducation is a continuous process# We get educated even as adults#

(b) (c)

(d)

T:A3N3N8 0rings about change in behaviour in the trainees, which help them in performing some tas* or tas*s# )t is specific to *nowledge, s*ill and attitude re1uired for a particular tas* or tas*s# )t enables trainees to perform satisfactorily in their profession# !raining can be terminated or stopped, once a person achieves satisfactory performance of tas*2tas*s#

3# Teaching# !eaching is a process of i$parting 4nowledge, $oti0ating and g!iding students to learn through their own activities# 5# Learning# "earning is a relatively Per$anent Change in )eha0io!r of the trainees brought about as a result of repeated practice# 6# Operations in Teaching# !eaching is following three stages: conducted in the

(a) (b) (c) 9#

7re-active stage 8 !his is the planning stage of teaching# )nter-active stage 8 !his is the stage in which the instructor interacts with the trainees# 7ost-active stage 8 )n this stage, the instructor analyses the performance of the trainees and identifies wea* areas for correction#

"et us now see the activities in each of the three stages:(a) Pre>acti0e Stage# activities are done:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) !his is the planning stage# !he following

%etting or 7reparing of &b:ectives# Deciding the sub:ect matter 8 What to teach, ;ow much to teach# (rranging the ideas2sub:ect matter logically 8 from easy to difficult, simple to comple$ etc# %electing the <ethods of instruction 8 Whether lecture2 discussion2 e$ercises2 practical etc#

(b) 3nteracti0e Stage; !his stage begins when the instructor enters the class# !he following activities are done:(i) %i=ing up the of the class# !he instructor should ma*e the trainees sit according to their heights and he may also ma*e the wea* trainees sit in front or sit with another intelligent trainee (if he *nows)# )dentifying the levels of the trainees and *now their entry behaviour# 7resenting the sub:ect matter using various methods of instruction and training aids# /et a feed bac* from the trainees on their understanding by as*ing 1uestions and summari=ing the important points#

(ii) (iii) (iv) (d)

Post>acti0e Stage; !he instructor should sit and observe the following>(i) !he progress of the trainees#

(ii) (iii) (e) (f)

!he change in behaviour of the trainees 8 newly learnt *nowledge and s*ill# !he change in attitude and interest amongst trainees#

)n the 7ost-active stage, the instructor also plans and designs testing tools li*e tests, e$ercises etc# (ny change in the method of instructions 2 teaching is also e$amined in the post active stage# (s instructors, the following principles of

'?# 8eneral Principles o# Learning# learning must be *ept in mind :(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (:)

7eople learn better when they *now "hy they have to learn# "earning is better when ne" ideas are e1plained in ter$s o# 6no"ledge already learnt# Acti0e st!dent participation is necessary for effective learning# )f the res!lts o# the per#or$ance are told, it improves learning# Si$ilarity between tas*s leads to effective learning# @or generali=ation of concepts, range o# sol!tions?e1a$ples sho!ld .e "ide# =nderstanding the pro.le$s lead to better learning# 3# a tas6 is done correctly , it leads to satisfaction and hence better learning# Pleasant s!rro!ndings promote better learning#

''# Learning O!tco$es; !he visible outcome of "earning is a change in behaviour observed in the trainees# !hese changes in behaviour as a result of learning can be listed as +"earning &utcomes, as follows:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 4nowledge# "earning of facts, figures and e$periences#

%*ill# 7erformance of a :ob or tas* with a set standard# Anderstanding# /aining insight into the sub:ect# Boncept# !rainees perceive new ideas, theories and generali=ations# (ctivities# !rainees begin to get involved in new activities#

(f) (g) (h)

(ptitude# Cew abilities and talent are generated amongst trainees# )nterest# !rainees ac1uire new interests, habits, hobbies etc (d:ustment# !rainees learn to change depending on situations and be accommodative#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# T3TLE O )OO@ !he 7rinciples (nd <ethods &f !eaching <ethods &f !eaching (dvanced ducation 7sychology A=T9O: 0hatia (nd 0hatia % 4 4ochchar % % Bhauhan N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 96? '63 ?-?

C9APTE:

2;

LEA:N3N8 T9EO:3ES
O)<ECT37ES

When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to (a) %tate the groups under which learning theories are defined# (b) "ist the pre-twentieth century learning theories# (c) $plain !horndi*e,s and )van 7avlov,s learning theories# (d) Describe the /estalt theories of learning#

LEA:N3N8 T9EO:3ES '# We have seen the meaning of learning in the earlier chapter as a relatively permanent change in behaviour# )f we thin* more about learning the following common 1uestions will come to our mind:(a) (b) (c) What are the limits of learningD What is the role of practice in learningD ;ow important are rewards, incentives and punishment in learningD

'?

(d) (e) (f)

What is understanding and insightD Does learning one thing help you learn something elseD ;ow we remember and how we forgetD

2# 7sychologists started searching answer to these common sense 1uestions about learning# !hus they formulated their ideas and they are called as learning theories# We can define theories of learning as the analysis of process by which people relate their environment in such a way as to enhance their ability to use themselves and the environment in such a way a to enhance their ability to use themselves and the environment more effectively# 3# !here are different types of learning theories and they can be broadly defined into two groups:(a) (b) !he 7re-!wentieth Bentury "earning !heories !he !wentieth Bentury "earning !heories

-# Pre>T"entieth Cent!ry Learning Theories: %ome of the theories are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs# !hese theories are older theories and hence referred as 7re!wentieth century !heories .# *ental ,iscipline# )n this theory the mind is considered to be physical one consisting of Emuscles, and the learning ta*es place by the control over the Emuscles, by the instructor# )n this theory a flash card approach or drill and practice method is adopted# !he wea* students are given repetitive instructions to reach the desired level# 3# Nat!ral =n#old$ent# (ccording to this theory, the teacher waits for the natural ability or capabilities of the student to blossom and he encourages the student in that field for him to prosper# Anfortunately, this theory doesn,t hold good in our service# 5# Appreciation# !his is the theory which defines that learning is the process of new ideas associating themselves with old already e$isting in mind# 6# T"entieth cent!ry Theories# !hey are developed logically scientifically on the basis of human psychology# !hey are classified as follows:(a) (b) %-F (%timulus-Fesponse) Bonditioning theories Bognitive theories and

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9# %F theory and theorists view that Ee$perience, is the only source of *nowledge# !his is called as E mpiricism,# %pecial emphasis is given to sensory e$periences# !he following features have been highlighted:(a) Sensationalis$# !he hypothesis that all *nowledge is derived through the sensory e$perience# (b) :ed!ctionis$# !he theories that all comple$ ideas are built up out of basis stoc* of simple ideas# (c) Associationis$# !he theories that ideas or mental elements are connected through the action of association by contiguity in e$perience# (d) *echanis$# !he belief that the mind is li*e a machine built out of simple elements with no mysterious components# '?# Cogniti0e theories .elie0e in :ationalis$# Fationalism is the general philosophical portion that reason is the prime source of *nowledge# Feason is the only valid basis for *nowledge rather than empirical revelation on intuition or insight# ''# '2# S>: Theories# We shall now discuss few %-F theories and cognitive theories#

Thorndi6eBs Theory;

(a)

#"#!horndi*e ('65-- '9-9) was the person who gave this theory of learning called as the !horndi*e,s !heory of Bonnectionism or !heory of !rial and rror# !his theory e$plains how people learn new things# !horndi*e gave his theory on the basis of his e$periments conducted on cats , chic*ens , dogs , fish , mon*eys and rats# ;e placed them under different learning situations and studied how they learned new things# ;e conducted very interesting e$periments on different animals# !he following is one such e$periment:

(b) ;e put a hungry cat in a cage # !here was only one door for e$it, which could be opened by correctly operating a latch# ( fish was placed outside the cage# !he smell of the fish wor*ed as a strong +motive, for the hungry cat to come out# !he cat tried to s1uee=e through every opening > it clawed and bit at the bars or wires of the cage# ) trusted its paws through any opening and claws at everything it could reached# )n this way the cat made a number of random attempts to get out of the cage to get the fish# )n one of such random attempts , by +chance, , the cat clawed at the latch and the door opened and the cat could come out and eat the fish# )t got its reward of its attempts# (c) @or another trial , the above e$periment was repeated #!his time the cat made lesser random attempts and could 1uic*ly operate the latch to come out of the

'2

cage to eat the fish #(s this e$periment was repeated a number of times on the same cat , the cat gradually learned how to operate the latch as soon as it was put in the cage# (d) !he e$periment suggests that a learning process consists of the following stages : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) ,ri0e ; )n the present e$periment , drive was hunger and was intensified by the sight of food # 8oal ; !o get the food by getting out of the cage # )loc6 ; !he cat was confined in the cage with a closed door # :ando$ *o0e$ents or Atte$pts ; !he cat , persistently , tried to get out of the cage # Chance S!ccess ; (s a result of this striving and random movement, the cat, by chance , succeeded in opening the door # Selection o# Proper *o0e$ent ; /radually, the cat selected the proper way of operating the latch out of its random movements # i1ation ; (t last, the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by re:ecting all the incorrect responses and *eeping only the right responses # Cow the cat was able to open the door of the cage without any error, or in other words it learned how to open the door #

'3# !horndi*e named the learning of his e$perimental cat as G !rial and rror "earning#G '-# La"s 8i0en )y Thorndi6eA !he laws given by !horndi*e after his e$periments are as follows : (a) The La" o# :eadiness; !eacher should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to accept the *nowledge, s*ills and aptitude #;e should arouse the student,s capacity to lin* the e$periences with their everyday life# !he teacher should ma*e the students learn simple things first and then comple$ things# (b) The La" o# E##ect ; ( pleasing environment should be created in the classroom# !he teacher should be sympathetic but firm #;e himself should en:oy his wor*# $periences provided to the students should be meaningful and satisfying #!he e$periences should be organi=ed in the order of increasing difficulty# <aterial for learning should be provided in a number of interesting ways including audio-visual aids #!he law of effect means that learning ta*es place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it#

'3

(c) The La" o# E1ercise or :epitition ; <ore and more opportunities should be given to the students to use and repeat the e$periences they get in the classroom # Fepitition ma*es learning perfect# '.# 30an Pa0lo0Bs Conditioning Theory# ;e conducted an e$periment on a dog# !he dog was *ept near the food and it was observed that the saliva came from the dog# !he salivation in the dog at the sight of food is a natural phenomena# '3# !he food is the unconditioned stimulus (AB%)# %alivation is the unconditioned response (ABF)# !hey are unconditioned since they are natural an no special condition are re1uired to ta*e place# ;e introduced a neutral stimulus (C%) in the form of the sound of a bell along with food# !he AB% and B% are paired which evo*ed again an ABF# (fter the learning a period of time the AB% was removed and B% could evo*e saliva in the dog, i#e#, Bonditioned stimulus can lead to conditioned response# i#e#, AB% C% ABF no response AB%H C% B%(C%) ABF ABF (BF)

'5# ;ence Bonditioning may be defined as the process by which neutral stimulus by pairing with natural stimulus ac1uired all the characteristics of the natural stimulus# '6# &ther psychologists li*e Watson, /uthrie and ;ull also gave their theories in which Watson said that learning is because of %-F bondage, i#e#, the more number of times the students repeat, the better the learning would be# /uthrie gave out his theory on the basis of principle of posterity# ;ull said learning is all due to the human needs only# 8estalt Theory %Cogniti0e Theories& '9# /estalt is a /erman word meaning pattern, shape, form or configuration# We learn not by associating bits of e$periences, but by forming new /estalts# When we struggle with a problem, the solution may come to us all of a sudden# !his 1uic* change in behaviour in our perception is called Einsight,# Bertain e$periments were conducted in support of this theory# (a) E1pt 3; ( Bhimpan=ee was confined in a cage# !here was a stic* inside the cage, and outside the cage, some bananas were hung# )n the first instance on seeing the bananas, the Bhimpan=ee showed restlessness and tried his best to reach for the bananas, but he could not reach# (ll of a sudden the chimpan=ee perceived the stic* and established a relationship between the

'-

stic* and the bananas# ;e could easily get the bananas inside the cage with the help of the stic*# (b) E1pt 33# )n the second e$periment, two stic*s were used which could be fitted with each other with some techni1ues# !he Bhimpan=ee could reach the bananas with the help of both stic*s fitted each other# ;e tried to get the bananas with the help of one stic* but failed# %uddenly he reali=ed the e$istence of the second stic* fitted it with the first and reached the bananas# '9# (ccording to /estalt theorists problem are to be solved sensibly, structurally organically rather than mechanically or by trial and error method# )nsightful learning is thus more appropriate method of learning# !hey argued that %F bond theories suggested rote process and it is not a advisable as learning by understanding is better than rote process#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O )OO@ ( !e$t 0oo* &f 7rogrammed )nstructions ( teachers world !heories &f "earning

A=T9O: % % Bhauhan Ielon and Weinstein /ordan ; 0ower (nd rnest F ;ilgend

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '3?'3 2?3

C9APTE:

3;

AN,:A8O8C

'.

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define (i) (ndragogy and (ii) 7edagogy (b) numerate why adult learning is different from child learning# (c) Bompare (ndragogy and 7edagogy# (d) Describe 7edagogy and (ndragogy continuum# (e) "ist the implications of #(ndragogy in training in the Cavy#

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AN,:A8O8C '# <ost of us are familiar with a learning system, which is by and large teacher or instructor focused approach# )n this approach, the instructors assume responsibility for ma*ing decisions about what will be learnt, how it will be learnt and when it will be learnt# !his is actually the approach of + Pedagogy,# <ost of what is *nown about learning is derived form studies and e$periments conducted on children and animals# 7edagogy is derived from /ree* words +Paid, meaning Bhild and +Agogos, meaning learning# !hus PE,A8O8C is the art of science of teaching children# ;owever, the children aspect of the definition is not ta*en into account and pedagogy had become synonymous to art and science of teaching anybody 8 child to adult# 2# !he great teachers of ancient times, li*e the 0udha, Bonfucius and 7lato, did not follow the authoritarian techni1ues of 7edagogy# !he great teachers of the ancient era saw learning as a process of acti0e in5!iry, not passi0e reception# Bonsidering this, it is surprising that instructor or teacher focused learning, later came to dominate formal education through out the world# (dult education, too, fell victim to teacher-centered models# ven today, instructors follow this authoritarian +7edagogic model, even for elderly people, which obviously is the wrong approach# 3# &ne e$planation for the teacher-focused approach goes bac* to the Balvinists who believed wisdom was evil# !hey believed that adults direct, control and ultimately limit children,s learning to *eep them innocent# (nother theory maintains that seventh century school, organised to prepare young boys for the priesthood, found 7edagogy an effective approach to educate beliefs, faith, and ritual# -# )n fact, the realisation that 7edagogy was a wrong approach even for %chool Bhildren was realised way bac* in '923, when the (merican (ssociation for (dult ducation began and 1uic*ly started researching better ways to educate adults# (dult ducation will have to be different was realised and the following was what came out of the reasearch:GOur academic system has grown in reverse order. Subjects and Teachers constitute the starting point, learners are secondary. In conventional education the learner is required to adjust himsel to an established curriculum. Too much o learning consists o substitution o someone else!s e"perience and #nowledge. Psychology teaches us that we learn what we do.Experience is the adult learners living text book. .# )n an attempt to formulate a comprehensive adult learning theory, <alcolm 4nowles, in '953, published a boo*, G!he (dult "earner: ( Ceglected %peciesJ# 0uilding on earlier research and studies, 4nowles said that adults re1uire certain conditions to learn# ;e borrowed the term +Andragogy, to define and e$plain the conditions#

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3# AndragogyA !he word +(ndragogy, is derived from /ree*, +Andra, meaning <an and +Agogos, meaning learning# AN,:A8O8C "as de#ined as the art and science o# helping ad!lts to learn; 5# @no"les developed (ndragogy, based on five assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from child learners on which the traditional G7edagogy, is based# !he five assumptions are as follows:(a) Sel#>Concept# (s a person matures, his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality towards one of being a self directed human being# (b) E1perience# (s a person ages, he accumulates a growing reservoir of e$perience that becomes an increasing resource for learning# (c) :eadiness to learn# (dults, readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the development of tas*s of his social roles# (d) Orientation to Learning# (dults orient their learning to sub:ects that have immediate relevance or application to their :ob rather than orient towards postponed application of *nowledge# (e) *oti0ation to Learn; (s a person matures the motivation to learn is internal# 6# 9o" do Ad!lts Learn; We will come to *now from the chapter on +@our ways of "earning, that learning ta*es place by :(a) 0eing told (b) )mitation (c) !rial and rror (d) !hin*ing 9# (ll the four components are present in 7edagogy as well as (ndragogy# )n 7edagogy the component 0eing !old is more compared to the other three# !he order of influence would be 0eing !old, )mitation, !rial K rror and then !hin*ing# ;owever, in case of (ndragogy, !hin*ing is more compared to others and the order of influence is Thin6ingD Trial E ErrorD 3$itation and )eing Told; '?# (dults do not learn in the same way as children# !his is because of the following reasons:(a) (b) (c) <ore independent K self-directing 7roducer or doer-learn +W;(!, +W;I, +;&W, +W; C, +W; F , !hey have a reservoir of e$periences and abilities# !hey relate new learning to there past e$periences# (t times it becomes a big hindrance to learning#

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(d) (e) (f) (g)

"earning is related to real life situation, they are concerned more with solution of the problems# !end to avoid, re:ect situations in which they are treated li*e children# !hey are to be treated with respect# 7refer e$periential and participative learning process# ("i*e Discussions /roup $ercises, 7roblem solving, Base studies, Fole-playing etc)# 7refer more self-assessment and free e$change of feedbac*, stress on selfassessment K criterion-referenced evaluation#

''# )n practical terms, (ndragogy means that instruction for adults needs to focus more on the process and less on the content being taught# %trategies or methods such as case studies, role-playing, simulations and self-evaluation are most useful# )nstructors are to adopt a role of facilitator or resource person rather than a teacher2lecturer or grader2evaluator# '2# Co$parison o# Pedagogy E Andragogy; ( comparison between 7edagogy and (ndragogy is as follows:Pedagogy (a) !eaching Bhildren (b) !ransmission of *nowledge What K Why (c) !ransmitting what is *nown un*nown (d) !rainer centered (e) Fesponsibility of the !eacher (f) "earner is comparatively passive (g) @ormal assessment by teacher Andragogy (a) ;elping adults to learn (b) 4nowledge and s*ill, what, why, how ,when and where (c) Discovering what is (d) "earner centered (e) Loint responsibility of the trainer K the learner (f) "earner is active and participative (g) <ore of self assessment

'3# Pedagogy F Andragogy Contin!!$; We can also ma*e the comparison if we consider 7edagogy 8 (ndragogy continuum:-

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Pedagogy (a) 7assive (b) Dependence (c) 0ehave in a few ways many ways (d) rratic shallow interests

Andragogy (a) (ctive (b) )ndependence (c) Bapable of behaving in (d) Deeper and stronger (e) "ong time perspective (7ast and @uture) (f) 1ual or super ordinate (g) (wareness K Bontrol over

interests (e) %hort time perspective (f) %ubordinate position position (g) "ac* of awareness of self self '-# 3$plications in Training; )n the Cavy, we mostly train adults# @ollowing the principles of (ndragogy in training, will have the following implications:(a) 7sychological climate should be one of mutual respect K co-operation ((ccepted, Fespected, %upported, @riendly and )nformal)# (b) <ore e$periential "earning situations should be created (Discussions, /roup $, Fole 7laying, Base %tudy, 7roblem solving, 7ro:ect method etc) (ll these situations demand active participation # (c) (dopt learner centered (pproach# (d) )t is essential to *now the learners in terms of their abilities, interest and attitudes# (c) <ust ta*e pains for planning and preparation# (d) 7hysical environment should be one in which adults feel at ease, with furniture that are comfortable and informal# (e) )nstructors must build on learner,s e$perience and reinforce the selfconcept# (f) )nstructors must act as a @(B)")!(!&F 2 F %&AFB 7 F%&C 2 /A)D # (g) <ore %elf (ssessment )nstruments and free e$change of feedbac* should be adopted# (i) (void embarrassing situations, allow freedom of e$pression without ridicule# (:) !rainer behaviour should be one comprising right attitudes, enthusiasm, participation, empathy, willingness to "isten etc#, (*) Where ever possible assist learner to define their learning needs#

c d

2?

(l)

"earning e$perience at present will have continued effect on their learning activities later#

'.# (s an e$ample, for designing a course for internet and its usage for adult learners, we would adopt the following strategies(*eeping the principles of (ndragogy in mind):(a) !here is a need to e$plain why specific things are being taught# ( $ample, certain commands, functions, operations etc#) (b) )nstructions should be tas*-oriented instead of memori=ation 8 learning activities should be in the conte$t of common tas*s to be performed using internet# (c) )nstructions should ta*e into account the wide range of different bac*grounds of learner> learning materials and activities should allow for different levels2types of previous e$perience with computers# !he use of internet should be lin*ed with all their e$periences and interests# (d) %ince adults are self-directed, instruction should allow learners to discover the e$ploitation of internet for themselves, by providing guidance and help when mista*es are made# (e) 7rovide comfortable furniture and ade1uate resources li*e computer with internet lin* facility etc# (f) 7rovide for a self-evaluation mechanism, li*e as*ing them to browse the net and down load some information of their interests# !he result of their performance would in itself be a self-assessment and would also be 1uite selfmotivating (c) 7rovide challenging tas*s2 learning situations step by step and ma*e them discover that they can ta*e responsibility for their own learning#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-# T3TLE O )OO@ Bhallenges )n )ndian ducation (dult ducation )n )ndia 0oundaries &f (dult "earning Burriculum Development (nd ducational !echnology A=T9O: % "a*shma C ( (nsari Fichard dwards, (nn ;anson, 7eter Faggatt N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 2325? '.-3 '.33

2'

C9APTE:

4;

O=: -ACS O LEA:N3N8

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) "ist the four ways of learning# (b) $plain the four ways of learning# (c) (nalyse the activities involved in each way of learning# (d) Differentiate between 7roductive !as* and Feproductive !as*# (e) )dentify the appropriate way of learning depending upon the nature of !as*# (f) $plain the influence of the four ways of learning on 7roductive K Feproductive tas*s#

22

O=: -ACS O LEA:N3N8 '# "earning is a continuous process# We begin to learn from our childhood and continue to learn through out our lives# "earning ta*es place generally in any of the following four ways: -

)eing Told

Trial and Error

3$itation

Thin6ing

2# )eing Told; "earning ta*es place by receiving direct instruction, either orally, or in writing# @ollowing are some e$amples of learning situations of 0eing !old: (a) ( sailor learns to fill up a leave application form, on being told# (b) ( sailor learns to wear his pea* cap correctly on being told# (c) ( trainee learns to use a telephone by following written 2 verbal instructions# 3# When one analyses the process of "earning by +0eing !old,, the following points emerge: (a) !he trainee has little or no information on the sub:ect, must want to learn the information, and accepts the trainer as a provider of it# (b) !he trainer must *now the information, be able to communicate it effectively and be trustworthy to the trainee# (c) (n instructional session must be created which gives the trainee, the opportunity to learn# (!his re1uires preparation, effective presentation, and a sufficient amount of time for learning to ta*e place#) -# Trial E Error; "earning ta*es place by trying useful in learning s*ills# !rainees learn by attempting to they do it correctly, they feel happy and do it get motivated to repeat their performance and place# ven if they attempt to do something and from their failure# .# for oneself# )t is do something# )f again# !rainees "earning ta*es fail, they learn

@ollowing are some e$amples of learning by +!rial K rror,: (a) (b) (c) "earning to assemble a small electrical circuit# "earning to write a computer program# "earning to hit the bull of target using a pistol#

23

(d)

"earning to surf on a +Wind %urfing 0oard,# rror,, the following

3# When one analyses the process of "earning by +!rial K points emerge: -

(a) !rial and error learning situations should be so designed that the trainee has a good chance of ma*ing successful attempts, leading to positive reinforcement# (b) "earning events leading to probable failure should usually be avoided# @re1uent errors lead to a lowering of confidence and develops reluctance to attempt further trial and error# (c) ;owever, the learning situation should cater for one or two failure attempts# !his would allow the trainee to learn from what went wrong# (d) !he trainee should feel a sense of security# ;e or she should feel confident that if the attempt results in failure, it would lead to nothing other than friendly advice# 5# 3$itation; )n imitation, learning ta*es place by copying the actions of another person, usually an instructor or a s*illed person# 6# @ollowing are some e$amples of learning by imitation:(a) (b) boat# (c) (d) ( young boy learning to bowl a cric*et ball by observing his favourite cric*et player on !M# ( baby learning to eat with a spoon by observing others# "earning of correct method of saluting# "earning of correct method of pulling a whaler

9# "earning situations by way of )mitation must be created *eeping the following points in mind: (a) ( good model performance should be available so that the trainee can imitate it# (b) !he learning event should permit accurate and complete observation by the trainee#

2-

(c) (s far as possible, trainees should not be e$posed to bad models# )f this cannot be avoided, then efforts must be made for positive learning from bad e$amples and the results of bad performance should be brought out# (d) !rying to change the wor* behaviour of one member of a group is almost bound to end in failure# )t is usually far more effective to train the whole group together# '?# Thin6ing; "earning can ta*e place encouraged to thin* about a situation or reflect the same in learning terms# "earning ta*es one,s thoughts about a topic or problem to arrive or solution# ''# when a trainee is e$perience and place by organi=ing at an e$planation

%ome of the e$amples of "earning by !hin*ing are as follows:(a) (b) (c) %olution to comple$ problems in mathematics or science# "earning to solve tactical problems2e$ercises# "earning to solve analytical problems#

'2# @ollowing are the factors to be ta*en into account for creating learning situations by thin*ing: (a) !he maturity and e$perience of the trainees, relative to the thin*ing re1uired# (b) !he trainer should adopt an advisory, counseling role#

(c) !he trainer must encourage trainee 8 centered learning and avoid imposing personal solutions to the problems posed by the situation# (d) !he more comple$ the situation, the less li*ely it is for there to be a simple, definitive answer# (e) !hin*ing is a very personal activity and the time needed to reach a solution to a problem will vary considerably within a group of trainees# (f) )f there is a straight forward, definitive, solution to a problem it is usually far more appropriate simply to tell the trainees# '3# Types O# Tas6s# !he tas*s that we perform or learn to perform can be broadly categori=ed into two distinct types of tas*s: (a) :e>Prod!cti0e Tas6; !hese are tas*s, which have one clear cut procedure or method# (@or e$ample 8 Writing the cash account boo* of a public fund)

2.

(b) Prod!cti0e Tas6; !hese tas*s can be done in more than one way# (@or e$ample 8 7lanning and utili=ation of funds allocated to a training establishment, 7lanning a industrial visit for a particular course, 7lanning and conducting a sailing e$pedition#) '-# Applying the #o!r "ays o# learning; "et us apply the four ways of learning to the two distinct types of tas*s:(a) :eprod!cti0e Tas6; !he figure below shows a learning event for a reproductive tas*# !he figure clearly shows that the influence of )mitation and 0eing !old is more than !hin*ing and !rialK rror# )n fact, there is very little !hin*ing and !rial K rror involved# ;ence, while creating learning situations for reproductive tas*s, instructors should create conditions and opportunities in which learning ta*es place by +0eing !old, and +)mitation,#

)<)!(!)&C

"earning vent for a Feproductive !as*

!;)C4)C/

0 )C/ !&"D

!F)(" K FF&F

23

(b) Prod!cti0e Tas6; 7roductive tas*s re1uire trainees to apply their basic *nowledge, e$perience and professional wisdom for completing the tas* successfully# !he figure below clearly shows that the influence of !hin*ing and !rial K rror is more than 0eing !old and )mitation# ;ence, while creating learning situations for such tas*s, instructors should create conditions and opportunities in which learning ta*es place by +!hin*ing, and +!rial K rror,# ;elping trainees to thin* and try should be the attitude of the instructor# !he instructor should play the role of a +@acilitator, or +/uide,#

)<)!(!)&C

"earning vent for a Feproductive !as*

!;)C4)C/

0 )C/ !&"D

!F)(" K FF&F

25

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O )OO@ /eneral 7sychology ducational 7sychology 7sychology (nd !he !eachers

A=T9O: ;enry /arrett Lanaradhan 7rasad Dennis Bhild

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 5'9'2 '??-

26

C9APTE:

5;

SCSTE*AT3C APP:OAC9 TO T:A3N3N8 %SAT&

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Differentiate between learning and training# (b) numerate the reasons for training# (c) "ist the benefits of %ystematic !raining# (d) Describe %(! (e) $plain each component of %(!

SCSTE*AT3C APP:OAC9 TO T:A3N3N8

29

3ntrod!ction '# Bhanges are unavoidable both in our day to day activities as well as in our wor* environment# Bhanges re1uire people to learn new *nowledge, s*ills, and also bring about change in their attitude# (lso, people often have to do away with some of their ac1uired *nowledge, s*ills and ma*e appropriate modification in their attitude that is appropriate to the changed or new wor*ing environment# 2# "earning can be based on formal study, or on everyday e$periences at home or at wor*# !he accumulation of these e$periences enables us to carry out certain activities or tas*s# %o what is the difference between +learning, and +training,D 3# !raining is done for a specific purpose> it is concerned with helping someone to learn-1uic*ly and effectively# Training re5!ires a clearly de#ined o!tco$e; -# !he difference between +learning, and +training, is that learning re#ers to a nat!rally occ!rring process that may, or may not contribute to a person,s :ob performance; Training is a planned process that directs learning to"ards achie0ing speci#ic o!tco$es, leading to achieving performance ob:ectives# :easons #or Training .# Why bother about +training,D Why not rely on people simply learning for themselvesD %ome of reasons for training are given below:(a) 7eople may never learn how to perform the tas* properly# (b) )f they do learn, they will do so much more slowly without training# (c) !hey are li*ely to learn a way that is wrong# (d) Bonse1uences of poor performance results in poor 1uality, customer complaints etc# (e) &nce they learn the tas* wrongly it is very difficult to +unlearn, and then relearn correctly# (f) !he high hidden costs to the organi=ation#

3# !raining is a very costly idea for any organisation# )t is therefore, important to weigh the benefits vis-N-vis the money invested on training# %ome the visible benefits of systematic training are:-

(a) <ore rapid development to full :ob2duties2performance (b) )ncreased out put

3?

(c) )mproved 1uality (d) 0etter utili=ation of time, material, e1uipment and money (e) 0etter use of personnel (f) @ewer brea*downs or errors (g) Feduced costs (h) 0etter identification of employee potential (:) 0oosts morale of personnel 5# "ow productivity, poor 1uality of services, ineffective services, high costs and low employee morale etc# are typical problems encountered by organi=ations# We might resolve some of these problems if people learn how to do their :obs or duties better, in other words, train them in a systematic way# SCSTE*AT3C APP:OAC9 TO T:A3N3N8A '# !he training option and the - steps in systematic training could be illustrated as follows:-

3,ENT3 C T:8 NEE,S

ASSESS*E NT O :ES=LTS

PLAN AN, ,ES38N PE: O:*ANCE P:O)LE*

3*PLE*NT T:A3N3N8

3'

(We can recall this concept of %ystematic (pproach to !raining (%(!) through the following acronym# 3 N , 3 A > > > > > 3,ENT3 C NEE, ,ES38N 3*PLE*ENT ASSESS )

3denti#y Training Needs %3TN&A 9# !he first stage of the %(! is to use various types of analysis to identify areas for improvement and the nature of the problem, as accurately as possible# ( detailed analysis of the following is to be carried out:(a) OrganiGational Training Needs Analysis; !his is done to consider such 1uestions as policy, production, new technology and cost escalation, resulting in a broad picture of where the problems e$ist and e$amine if training can overcome such problems# (b) <o. Analysis; !his analysis investigates in more detail, the :obs people do# !his will provide information li*e tas*s people perform, areas of responsibilities and relationships with others# ;ere the competences re1uired to do the :ob are also analysed# (c) Tas6 Analysis; !his investigates the procedure, *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes needed to ensure satisfactory performance of a :ob,s *ey tas*s# !he results of this analysis provide us the basis for training activities# '?# @or systematic !raining to be effective in meeting performance problems, it is essential that all 3 types of analysis, as illustrated below, are either done or considered#

OrganiGational Analysis

<o. Analysis

Tas6 Analysis

32

PLAN AN, ,ES38N T:A3N3N8 ''# &nce the training needs are identified, it is time to plan and design appropriate training# %ome problems and needs may fall within the e$isting provision or system and can easily be ta*en care, others however, re1uire special attention# '2# !his stage in the systematic approach is therefore concerned with planning the best use of available training resources and the design of a wide range of training activities# !hese have to be planned within difficulties such as low budgets, operational demands, facilities, availability of personnel and so on# '3# ( complete training design should include: &n Lob !raining (&L!), distance learning, computer based training etc#, besides the actual course during which training ta*es place# Designing training refers to the application of appropriate training techni1ues to devise learning opportunities within the conte$t of a training programme# 3*PLE*ENT T:A3N3N8 '-# !his is the stage where the learning actually ta*es place# !his re1uires the active, wholehearted participation of the trainees, supported by s*illed instructors# !he trainee would willingly participate in the training activities if: (a) ;e2%he recogni=es the need for training# (b) ;e2%he is sufficiently motivated to want to learn# (c) During implementation this motivation is maintained or increased# (d) !he learning events are suitable to the organisaton# (e) Blearly defined ob:ectives are used to conduct the learning activities# (f) !he trainers possess sufficient technical and instructional s*ills# (g) 7ersonnel associated with the training activities support the application and development of newly ac1uired *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes# '.# !he success of the implementation stage depends largely on the above factors and many other factors li*e appropriate training strategies etc# ASSESS :ES=LTS '5# !raining can be :udged as good or bad depending on the results it achieves and the benefits derived from it by individuals and the organi=ation to which they belong# !he fourth and final stage is therefore to assess and evaluate the results obtained from training activities# !he success or failure of this may depend upon the data being used for measurement, and the e$tent to which this is common to the people involved, vi=, trainers, trainees, management and the service as a whole#

33

'3#

(ssessment needs to answer the following three basic 1uestions:(a) Did the training achieve what it tried to achieveD

(b) Did the training improve performance or solve the problem it was intended to solveD (c) Was the training worthwhileD

'5# !he four stages of the systematic approach to training provide a framewor* for effective training that is closely related to the actual performance problems# )t is therefore, important that each stage is carefully loo*ed into for effective training#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ ( %ystems (pproach !o !eaching (nd "earning 7rocedures !raining %*ill %taff !raining (nd (ssessment )dentifying !raining Ceeds

A=T9O: !he &lnesco 7ress %haron 0artrom (nd 0renda /ibson David &sborne !om 0oydell (nd <alcolm "eary

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '69 '?33 '.-3 '33?

3-

C9APTE:

(;

)AS3C TEAC93N8 *O,EL %)T*&

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) $plain !eaching <odel (b) $plain 0!< (c) "ist the characteristics of teaching model (d) "ist the parts of 0!< (e) $plain the relevance of 0!< with respect to training

3.

)AS3C TEAC93N8 *O,EL '# Teaching *odels; ( model is the representation of the actual ob:ect# !eaching models are the ones which are used to depict the functioning of the !-" process in a simple way with significance to behavioral outcomes# 2# Characteristics; !eaching models provide a specific outline of teaching activities to achieve the laid down ob:ectives# !he following are its characteristics:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) !he terminal behavior of the trainees# !he correct stimuli are selected for promoting desired responses of the learner# Marious learning situations are specified for observing students responses# !he criterion behavior is defined for students performance# Marious types of teaching tactics are specified for causing effective interaction between the students and the trainees# !he teaching situations and tactics can be improved and modified foe achieving the ob:ective#

3# )asic Teaching *odel; !he simplest of all models is the 0asic !eaching <odel (0!<)# Designed by Fobert /lacier ('932) as a system with three basic components vi=# )nput, 7rocess and &utput# !he vital lin* feed bac* ensure that the 0!< is a closed loop system# !he 0!< is as shown below :-

! (B;)C/ 0 /)C%

%7 B)@)B &0L B!)M %

C!FI 0 ;(M)&AF

)C%!FAB!)&C(" 7F&B DAF

(%% %%< C!

" (FC)C/ !(4 % 7"(B

I %

C&

D 0(B4

(a) Speci#ic O./ecti0e; !hese are the ob:ectives where the terminal performance is observable# !his relates to the *nowledge and s*ill which are e$hibited by the trainee in terms of measurable parameters#

33

(b) Entry )eha0ior; !he achievement of specific ob:ectives depend of the *nowledge already possessed by the student at the starting of instruction# (ny new e$perience has to be related to past one# ;ence it is of paramount importance to assess the ntry 0ehavior ( #0#) of the learners before the teaching begins# (c) 3nstr!ctional Process; !his is the most crucial part of the 0!<# !he various methods of instruction, strategies, motivation, planning, effective use of teaching and training aids, media and approaches to the sub:ect have to considered# (d) Assess$ent; !his is the component which deals with the success or failure of the system# )f the ob:ective are clear, if entry behavior is ta*en care of, proper method of instruction is followed then the performance can be assessed#

OOOO

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-# T3TLE O )OO@ <ethods &f !raining /roup Wor* (Mol# 2) (!raining !echnology 7rogramme ducational (nd !raining !echnology )nternational Cumber - ' ducational (nd !raining !echnology )nternational Cumber - 2 ducational (nd !raining !echnology )nternational Cumber - 3 A=T9O: 0ob Wilson Bhris 0ell Bhris 0ell Bhris 0ell N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 223 '.5' '.52 '.53

35

C9APTE:

+;

,O*A3NS O LEA:N3N8
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) %tate the three domains of learning# (b) $plain the levels of Bognitive domain# (c) $plain the levels of (ffective domain# (d) $plain the levels of 7sychomotor domain#

36

,O*A3NS O LEA:N3N8 '# 3ntrod!ction; We come across a number of learning situations in our day-to-day life# (s trainers, we create appropriate learning situations so that trainees learn to perform a specific tas*# !hese learning situations can be related to the abilities of trainees under the following three main categories:(a) )ntellectual abilities or faculties of the mind li*e thin*ing, recall and application of information etc# An e"ample o this would be, a trainee has to irst identi y the parts o an A$ %& assault ri le and also may be able to e"plain the unction o each part be ore he actually learns to use' ire an A$ %&. (ere the verbs identi y and e"plain re er to the aculties o the mind )recall and give details*. (b) 7hysical or practical s*ills where the trainees, movement, control and coordination of body is involved# +"ample o this would be the trainees! hand movements, control and coordination o his hands, posture o body while he ta#es aim with the A$ %& ri le etc. To be able to ire using the A$ %& ri le would require him to use all the practical and physical s#ills. The verb ire re ers to the trainees! practical and physical s#ills# (c) (ttitudes and interest of the trainees in performing the given tas*# )t is all about internal behaviour# ,ontinuing with our e"ample o a trainee learning to ire a gun, attitudes would include the trainees! inclination to ollow the sa ety rules, his desire to ollow correct procedures, his li#ing to per orm with per ection etc. Interest would include his very basic willingness to learn and many other related aspects and willingness to spend time and energy to acquire #nowledge and s#ill to per orm.

2# 0en:amin 0loom an educational psychologist, classified the above three uni1ue areas of learning as follows:(a) Cogniti0e ,o$ain; )t is concerned with the area of sub:ect matter, *nowledge and mental s*ills#

39

(b)

A##ecti0e ,o$ain; )t deals with feelings, attitudes and values- the proper concern of education and training# !hese are internal behaviours# Psycho$otor ,o$ain; )t is concerned with the learning of physical s*ills, manipulative ability and neuromuscular co-ordination#
) must follow the traffic rules

(c)

4&B;)

(QHI)2 R D

CO8N3T37E A ECT37E

PSCC9O*OTO:

3# Cogniti0e ,o$ain# !he cognitive domain includes those behavioural outcomes which re1uire *nowledge of specific information li*e principles, concepts, and generali=ations necessary for problem solving# $amples of cognitive behaviours are:(a) (b) (c) define the termsP (d) select a suitable materialP (e) summarise the topicP# (f) e$plain the principleP# solve the 1uadratic e1uationP compare the two methodsP##

-# !he learning situations in the cognitive domain or in short the cognitive behaviours can be further bro*en down in to hierarchical levels as shown in the following page

-?

3ncreasing di##ic!lty PP

-equires synthesis / previous levels in order to evaluate

E0al!ation
,ecision>$a6ingD <!dging or selecting .ased on criteria?rationale;

Synthesis
Co$.ine ele$ents to #or$ ne" $eaning #ro$ the sit!ation;
-equires analysis and previous level in order to synthesi.e

Analysis
Separation o# "hole into partsD !ntil relationships a$ong ele$ents is clear;
-equires #nowledge, comprehension, ability to apply in ormation in order to analyse.

Application
=tilisation o# 6no"ledge in a ne" and di##erent sit!ation;
-equires #nowledge, comprehension o in ormation to apply in new situation.

Co$prehension
A.ility to reorganiGeD restateD interpretD translateD generaliGe gi0en in#or$ation;
-equires #nowledge in order to demonstrate comprehension

@no"ledge
:ecognition and recall o# #acts and speci#ics

Cogniti0e )eha0io!r

-'

.# !he Bognitive domain levels are e$plained in detail along with e$ample-verbs representing the cognitive behaviour of the respective levels in the following table:7E:)S ?TE:*S :EP:ESEN T3N8 T9E )E9A73O= : Define, )dentify, "abel, "ist, Came, %tate, Feproduce Describe, $plain, Fewrite, %ummari=e, )nfer, )llustrate (give e$ample) Bhange, Bonvert, Bompute, @ind, %olve, Felate, 7repare

Ser No

CO8N3T73E LE7ELS

EHPLANAT3ON The simplest cognitive behaviour, involves the recognition and recall o in ormation. It involves the learning o methods and criteria or handling terms and acts. It is the ability to reorganize, restate, translate and interpret the acts, the methods / criteria or handling acts, and the generali.ations o a ield. This involves using the #nowledge in a new and di erent situation. Application covers things li#e rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories. To apply, one must have both #nowledge and ability to comprehend. This requires individuals to determine the elements o some problem or theory, establish the relationship among the elements and the relationship to the whole. It means taking the whole o a proble! and breaking it down into its various parts to see !eaning ro! the situation. This !eans taking the various parts o a proble! and putting the! together to see !eaning ro! the situation. It includes behaviours li#e development o a plan or set o di icult relations. This involves the acts o decision"!aking, #udging or selecting based on criteria or rationale. It is the ability to judge some theory or products or situation according to some evidence.

(a)

4nowledge

(b)

Bomprehension

(c)

(pplication

(d)

(nalysis

0rea*down, Differentiate, Discriminate, Distinguish, %eparate, %ub-divide Bategori=e, Bombine, Bompile, Bompose, &rgani=e, /roup (ppraise, Lustify, Britici=e, (ssess, Feview, Malue, Malidate

(e)

%ynthesis

(f)

valuation

3# A##ecti0e ,o$ain; !he affective domain, as e$plained earlier deals with feelings, attitudes and values# !his domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations and attitudes# !hese are

-2

internal behaviours and hence while we create learning situations in this domain, we have to create situations in terms of +e$ternal indicator performances,, which show the desired internal behaviour# + $ternal indicator performance, means the behaviour e$hibited by the trainees as a result of the internal change# !o see a change in the affective domain, trainers should design the learning event in such a way that the trainees are able to e1press the affect they possess# 5#
Don,t worry ) shall also help you
solve the problem if it is difficult# "et us wor* together#

!raining in this particular domain is the most difficult amongst the three domains# !his is because an +affective behaviour, should be voluntary and it should not be forced or coerced# !he trainee or learner should ma*e a voluntary choice# 6# )t is important to reali=e that for every tas* that we do or e$pect trainees to do, a certain attitude is re1uired# @or e$ample, while carrying out welding operations on board as ship, it is important that all personnel involved follow the necessary safety precautions and stic* to the orders pertaining to welding operations on board a ship# ;ere, following the rules voluntarily is important, rather than mere *nowledge of the rules and regulations# 4nowledge of the rules would fall in the cognitive domain, while following them willingly is an affective behaviour# (s trainers, while conducting training for a said tas* or :ob, it is very important to determine the affective behaviour or attitude re1uired to perform the :ob# !he learning situations in the affective domain can also be bro*en down in to hierarchical levels as shown below:-

-3

C9A:ACTE:3SAT3ON

3t is concerned "ith possessing a 0al!e syste$ that has controlled his or her .eha0io!r #or a s!##iciently long ti$e; A partic!lar Ili#e>styleB .eco$es his?her character;
O:8AN3JAT3ON

3t is concerned "ith .ringing together di##erent 0al!esD resol0ing con#licts .et"een the$ and choosing a 0al!e syste$

7AL=3N8

3t is concerned "ith the "orth or 0al!e a trainee attaches to a partic!lar pheno$enon or .eha0io!r

Fecognition

(bility to reorgani=e, restate, interpret, translate, generali=e :ESPON,3N8 3t re#ers to acti0e participation the part o# the trainee; given on information# call of facts and specifics

:ECE373N8 Bombine elements to form new meaning from the situation# 3t re#ers to the trainees "illingness to attend to a partic!lar pheno$ena or sti$!li;

--

'?# !he (ffective domain levels are e$plained in detail along with e$ample-verbs representing the (ffective behaviour of the respective levels in the following table:" M " EHPLANAT3ON It re ers to the trainees willingness to attend to a particular phenomena or stimuli )classroom activities, te"t :ecei0ing boo#, music etc*0rom an Instructor!s standpoint, it concerns with getting, holding and directing the student!s attention. !his means active participation on the part of the trainee# (t this level, the trainee reacts to a situation in a particular way# !he trainee must :esponding accept (ac1uiescence) to respond, volunteer to respond willingly and finally he must derive satisfaction in that response# The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges rom simple acceptance to the more comple" state o commitment. ,ommitments means spending time, 7al!ing money and energy on the value or the phenomenon o choice. An important element o valuing is that it is motivated, not by desire to comply or obey but purely by the individual!s commitment to the underlying value guiding the behaviour. This re ers to organi.ing values into priorities by comparing di erent values, resolving con licts between them and creating an unique value Organisation system. The individual sees how the value relates to those already held or to new ones that are coming to be held. This re ers to possessing a value system that controls one!s behaviour. The behaviour is consistent and Characterisation characteristic o the learner. The person is recogni.ed by the predominant value that becomes his or her character. 7E:)S (s*s, Bhooses, Describes, @ollows, /ives, )dentifies, "ocates, 7oints to

(a)

(nswers, (ssists, (ids, Bomplies, Bonform, Discusses, /reets, ;elps, 7erforms, 7ractices, 7resents#

(b)

(c)

(ccept, (dopt, Bommit, Bompletes, Demonstrates, Differentiates, @ollows, @orms, )nitiates, )nvites, Loins, Lustifies, Feads, Feports, %elects, %hares, %tudies, Wor*s#

(d)

(dapt, (dheres, (lters, (rranges, Bombines, Bompletes, Defends, @ormulates, <odifies, Felates, $plains

(cts, (dvocate, 0ehave, Bontinue, Defend, Devote, ndure, Aphold,

(e)

-.

''# (s discussed earlier, to see a change in the affective domain, trainers should design the learning event in such a way that the trainees are able to e1press the affect they possess# (n e$ample of such behaviour in each level is given as follows: $a% Participates in classroo! activity $&eceiving and responding% 1istens attentively As#s relevant questions ,ontributes in classroom discussion 'hows concern or the wel are o others $(aluing% As#s others i they need help. (elps others with their problems. Than#s and commends others, when appropriate )or!ulates a rationale concerning the role o society in conserving natural resources. $organizing% -elates the needs o society to the conservation o resources. States personal position re lecting a reasonable balance between the needs o society and the needs to conserve resources &espects the 'ervice nor!s and eti*uettes. $characterization% Is always on time to o ice 2ears clean and per ect uni orm. $eeps his senior in ormed o important developments. 3oes not tolerate any behaviour that is unbecoming o a service personnel.

$b%

$c%

$d%

'2# Psycho$otor ,o$ain; !he psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor s*ills# Development of these s*ills re1uire practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, procedures, or techni1ues in e$ecution# !he levels in this domain are as follows:(a) 3$p!lsion; !his is the first step# ( person must have an inner drive or force to perform a particular muscular movement, which will eventually result in mastering the psychomotor s*ill# @or e$ample, as a first step, trainees are impelled to hold and feel the pistol when they see a gunnery instructor demonstrate the procedure to fire using a pistol# (b) 3$itation; !he second step in this domain is imitation, in which the trainees see a demonstration or performance and attempts to repeat it or copy the performance# !he trainee copies the gunnery instructor in order to learn to use a pistol#

-3

(c) *anip!lation; !he ne$t natural phenomena that follows imitation is manipulation# !he trainee manipulates his abilities with his physical structure, vi=#, height, weight, posture etc# @or e$ample, the trainee ad:usts his posture, while holding the pistol according to his height, eye sight etc and then fires# (d) Coordination; !his involves coordination of the muscles, body in order to get the desired physical movement for the necessary psychomotor s*ill# (e) Control; Boordination is followed by control of all the muscles to achieve precise body movement and mastery of the s*ill# (f) 9a.it #or$ation; Fepeated practice and continuous use of the s*ill results in mastery2 habit formation# @or e$ample a person can swim as easily as he wal*s by repeated practice# (n e$perienced driver handles his car or bus at ease on account of continuous use of his s*ills that has resulted in habit formation# '3# %ome e$amples of verbs or behaviour that represent the psychomotor domain are as follows:Assemble, ,alibrate, ,onstruct, 3ismantle, 0astens, S#etches, 4easures, 0ires, Tunes, Operates, ,uts, 3rives, 5rinds, 4ends, (eats etc# '-# (s )nstructors, or people concerned with training, it is important to understand the three domains and their respective levels in order to determine the area or training and the difficulty level2 competency up to which you e$pect trainees to attain# )t may also not be possible to achieve the highest level of each domain very easily# @or e$ample, it is difficult to train a person to reach a level of evaluation in the cognitive domain in a short time# )t must be remembered that some of the learning situations do not strictly fall under one domain# !here may be an encroachment of two domains and some times a learning situation may necessitate training a person in all the three domains (though one of the three domain may be prominent)# @or e$ample, a person learning how to drive a bus, re1uires *nowledge of parts of bus and their functions (cognitive domain), he needs the right attitude, concern for traffic rules, interest etc (affective domain) and the ability to move his hands and legs to control steering, bra*es and accelerator (psychomotor domain)# ) must have the *nowledge of parts, their function, attitude, interest K ability to move my body correctly to master driving

-5

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ 7sychology &f <emory !he 7sychology &f "earning (nd )nstruction ( ducational 7sychology) (2nd diti /eneral 7sychology /eneral 7sychology )i dition

A=T9O: (sha 4 4inra Lohn 7 Deecceo, Wlliam Brawford ;ans Fa: 0hatia ;enry /arret

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 665 3? '6 332

-6

C9APTE:

';

-:3T3N8 O)<ECT37ES O: T:A3N3N8

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define (a) (im (b) &b:ective (b) Differentiate between (im and &b:ective (c) "ist different types of ob:ectives (d) $plain performance ob:ective (e) $plain !raining 2 %pecific ob:ective (f) $plain their relationship (g) "ist the elements of specific ob:ectives (h) "ist the points to be *ept in mind while writing ob:ectives

-9

-:3T3N8 O)<ECT37ES O: T:A3N3N8 '# @or all training activities, it is essential that there is a clearly defined purpose# verybody concerned 8 management, learners and trainers should understand the intention of the training and the outcomes to be achieved# 2# Ai$; !he aim is a statement of intent# )t describes what you intend the learners to achieve, and it communicates this intention to all concerned# 3# O./ecti0e; !he ob:ective is what will be achieved as an outcome of the training, e$pressed in terms of the performance of a tas*#

A3*

O)<ECT37E

-# )n the preceding figure, it can be seen that the aim of the training is to help the person to perform the tas* of using the bow to shoot an arrow at the target# !he outcome is for the arrow to be in or near the bull# )t would be a waste to have only an aim, for e$ample, +how to use a bow and arrow,, without having a clear performance in mind# !his is the ob:ective which, for e$ample states that on completion of training the person will be able to shoot 3 out of - arrow in the bulls eye from '??m, in calm conditions# !he ai$ e$presses intention and the o./ecti0e defines achie0e$ent %o!tco$e&; .# Ai$ provides the general lin* between training need and the provision of training# !he way the aim is e$pressed may be dry and matter of fact, or dressed up to be as appealing as a !M advertisement# !he purpose of the aim is to draw attention to the training being provided, and to communicate this intention to a target audience, which will include learners, management and may be authorities of higher formation# @ollowing are some statements, which e$press some aims of training:-

.?

(a) !o train Bommunication sailors to use <% Word software# (b) !o improve the interviewing s*ills of officers involved in development programmes to enable them to identify the needs of beneficiaries# (c) !o e1uip sailor instructors of the navy with the psychological principles of teaching and the +*now how,s, of training technology# 3# (ll the above e$amples are broad statements describing the intention of training# !he aim is important as it provides a means of communication# )t can be considered as a short publicity statement that will appeal to the user units, higher authorities and to prospective trainees# 5# (ims are of little value for the people who are going to be involved in the actual training, because they do not give sufficient information about what the learners will learn during their training and of even more importance, what they will be able to do on completion of training# !his re1uires information provided by the use of ob:ectives# 6# !he distinction between an aim and an ob:ective is that an ai$ descri.es the intention of training, whereas an o./ecti0e de#ines the res!lt or o!tco$e to .e achie0ed # (n ob:ective can be used to state what the trainees will be able to do at three distinct, but very important points in their training:(a) &n their return to wor*places (ships2units) , when they are re1uired to perform the tas* to the same standards as those of e1periencedD co$petent sailors or o##icers# !he ob:ective used to describe this is called a PE: O:*ANCE O)<ECT37E# (b) &n completion of their formal training, when they have achieved a satis#actory standard o# per#or$ance !nder training conditions# !he ob:ective used to describe this is called a T:A3N3N8 O)<ECT37E# (c) &n completion of a stage of the learning process when they have ac1uired certain *nowledge or s*ills# !he ob:ective used to describe this is called an SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37E# %pecific ob:ectives are also called ENA)L3N8 O)<ECT37ES as they enable the achievement of the !raining &b:ectives# 9# !he following figure shows the relationship between the three types of ob:ectives, each of which is important when designing training#
PE: O:*ANCE O)<ECT37E

TAS@
LEA:N3N8 =N3T

T:A3N3N8 O)<ECTT37E

SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37ES

.'

''# Per#or$ance O./ecti0es; !he ultimate aim of training is to help a person achieve mastery of the tas* so that he or she will be able to perform it to an acceptable standard in normal wor*ing conditions# ;owever, under training conditions, this may not be possible for the following reasons: (a) The a$o!nt o# ti$e needed to gain e1perience; @ormal training may last only for a few days, whereas the comple$ity and variations of the tas* may re1uire a much longer period# (dditional time is needed for learning to continue long after +training, has been completed# (b) The di##ic!lty in si$!lating the real "or6ing en0iron$ent #or training p!rpose; !raining may be conducted at place away from the pressures of the wor*ing environment where reality is simulated for learning purposes# %imulation can rarely represent the actual situation involving +real, people, nor can it ta*e into account of factors such as fatigue, pressures of the wor*ing environment and the often-unpredictable nature of the person,s wor*## (c) The a0aila.ility o# $achines and syste$s #or training that tr!ly d!plicates the ones act!ally .eing !sed; !his is li*ely to be a problem when training is being done off the :ob and therefore away from +hands on, learning e$periences in the normal wor*ing environment# !his is especially is the case when people attend often, off the :ob, training courses# '2# !he performance ob:ective is an important consideration when designing training # (lthough it may be setting a higher standard of performance that you intend your learners to achieve at the end their training# @or certain training situations, there can be no compromise between what is re1uired for performance of :ob and what has to be achieved at the end of training# !ypical e$amples of this are found in training or emergency situations, where people have to tac*le fires, engine failures, accidents, heart attac*s, plant shutdown, criminal activity, flying aircrafts, receiving messages through a BW <orse coded transmission and many other such situations# )n all theses situations, the tas* is performed once, only, and the standard of the performance has to be e$emplary, in view of the dangerous or costly conse1uences of failure# '3# Training O./ecti0es# !he following figure shows a learning curve, from a low standard of performance representing a person,s entry behaviour to attaining competence when the performance ob:ective is achieved:-

.2

P E : O : * A N C E

PE: O:*ANCE O)<ECT37E

7 F@&F<(CB /(7 0F)D/ D 0I O<T

T:A3N3N8 O)<ECT37E

T3*E :E4=3:E, O: LEA:N3N8

'-# (s the curve flattens out, a considerable amount of time is ta*en up to gain only a small improvement in the standard of performance# <oving the training o./ecti0e up or down has therefore a significant effect on the time ta*en for training and the costs incurred for training# '.# !he performance ob:ective sets the standard of performance the users (ships and units) would li*e to be achieved by their trainees# @or e$ample retuning to the analogy of archery, the ideal result of the training would be to hit the bull with every arrow# !his is a totally unrealistic standard of performance that even champion archers cannot attain# %o what would be an acceptable standard of performanceD &ne out of three in the bull, or four out of ten somewhere in the target areaD !he performance ob:ective should state the minimum acceptable standard of performance, appropriate with the tas* being performed 8 under normal wor*ing conditions# )t is important to note that the reference to a minimum acceptable standard, as the purpose of costeffective, systematic training is only to attend to wor* related training needs and not to produce championsS (lso note that, a good +&n-Lob-!raining (&L!), as depicted in the figure can bridge the gap between the training ob:ective and performance ob:ective# '3# )t is essential that the training o./ecti0es are set to an acceptable standard, acceptable to trainers, e$perts in the field, and to the learners# (lso, when setting training o./ecti0es it must be remembered that the ob:ectives must be realistic and achievable at the cost and within the time allowed# '5# Speci#ic O./ecti0es; ( wide range of *nowledge and s*ills is needed to enable a person to achieve the performance defined by the training ob:ective# !his range will include the following categories:

.3

(a) !he basic and essential *nowledge of the concepts and principles associated with the performance of the tas*## (b) %pecific *nowledge and s*ills needed to enable a person to perform the tas*# (c) !he attitudes re1uired to perform the tas*# '6# ach significant element of these categories can be identified and designated as a +specific ob:ective,# !he cumulative effect of completing all of these specific ob:ectives is to enable a person to achieve the training ob:ective# !he relationship between the !raining &b:ective and %pecific &b:ective is illustrated in the following figure:-

T:A3N3N8 O)< ECT

SPEC3 3C O )

SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37E

SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37E

SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37E

'9# !he preceding figure shows a training ob:ective with four specific (enabling) ob:ectives, but the actual number can be two or more# !he number will depend on the comple$ity of the tas* to be learned, the training ob:ective, the assumed entry behaviour of the learner, and the way you decide to brea* the learning event into suitable sessions# 2?# -riting O./ecti0es; &b:ectives have to be framed or written with great care, as it has a direct bearing on the implementation of training# !here are some synta$es or rules to be followed while writing ob:ectives# )t is advisable to adhere to these synta$es for writing good ob:ectives# 2'# (n ob:ective sho!ld .e a preciseD clear state$ent o# "hat the learners "ill .e a.le to do at the end of a learning event# !his may be a +specific ob:ective,, because it is at the end of a particular *nowledge or s*ills training session, or it can be the +training ob:ective,, defining the tas* the learner will be able to do to at the end of a learning unit# 22# @or all ob:ectives there are three elements to be included, or at least considered: (a) (b) (d) ( statement of the Per#or$ance !he Conditions under which it will be done !he Standards, which will be applied#

.-

23# E1a$ples o# Per#or$ance state$ents# @ollowing are some e$amples of performance statements:(a) (b) (c) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) !he trainee will be able to type a service letter# !he trainee will be able to list the headings of a service paper# !he trainee will be able to na$e the parts of a 9 mm carbine# !he trainee will be able to identi#y unserviceable parts of a radar receiver# !he trainee will be able to calc!late the ballistic corrections# !he trainee will be able to state the safety regulations during ammunitioning# !he trainee will be able to dri0e a three tonner# !he trainee will be able to e1ting!ish an electrical fire#

2-# (ll the verbs in .old in the e$amples stated above indicate clearly specified actions re1uired of the learner# !hey are called Action 7er.s; !he statement of performance is an essential part of an ob:ective and must be written in this manner# !he action verbs must be very clear and they should not indicate any vague or confusing meanings# %tatements that can be interpreted in more than one way must be avoided# Bonsider the following e$amples of ob:ectives, each of which contains a poorly de#ined action: (a) !rainees will !nderstand ob:ectives# (What is +understand,D Will trainees be e$pected to say what ob:ectives are, or :ust name the components, or must they be able to write ob:ectivesD) (b) !he trainees will have a "or6ing 6no"ledge of fire fighting e1uipment# (What is +wor*ing, *nowledge,D)# (c) !he trainee will appreciate the need for safety# (What is meant by +appreciate,D Tuite a number of people appreciate the need to wear seat belts in a car, but fail to put them on)# (d) !he trainee will 6no" the theory of electronics# +*nowing,D)# (What are the limits of

2.# !hese e$amples are vague and could be interpreted by ten different trainers in ten different ways# )t is the responsibility of the person who formulates the ob:ectives to state clearly what the learner will be able to do on completion of training# !he difference between effective and ineffective training can often be traced bac* to poor statements of ob:ective# 23# E1a$ples o# Conditions; !he +conditions, part of the ob:ective is concerned with specifying the circumstances under which the learner has to carry out the performance# /enerally spea*ing the conditions give information in one or more of the following categories:

..

(a) :ange o# Learning; )t is a waste of time for e"ample> to train a person to operate all types small arms, when actually on the :ob, all that will be used is a pistol# %o, in the conditions it should be specified that pistol is the only piece of e1uipment on which the learner will carry out the performance 8 training will be based entirely on the pistol# (gain, all that may be necessary is that the trainee should only *now to operate the pistol# %ome one else may service it, repair it or trace faults on it etc# (gain, if <% Word is the only word processing pac*age being used in an office, there is no benefit in training people on other pac*ages# )t is important> therefore, to state the range of learning that learners will have to undergo 8 by doing this, training can be geared to what is re1uired# (b) ToolsD E5!ip$ent and Clothing; When special tools, e1uipment and clothing have to be used, they must be specified# %ometimes all regulations, procedures, tools and e1uipment should be detailed-this depends on particular circumstances# @or e"ample, trainee will be able to e$tinguish an electrical fire using a +,extinguisher. (c) Per#or$ance Aids and *an!als; <any :ob holders use aids and manuals to assist them in the :ob- e#g# chec*lists, wor*shop manuals, advice or correcting faults, etc#, )n training it would be nonsense to e$pect the learner to wor* without them because their use ma*es the :ob easier# !his is also realistic# Whenever aids, manuals may be used, then it must be stated under the conditions# 1ually important, if the :ob demands that such manuals, aids are not to be used strictly, then the learner2trainee must be denied the use when we are assessing whether or not he or she is sufficiently trained to do the :ob# (gain the fact that they are not allowed should be stated# @or e"ample, trainee will be able to rectify the faults of the communication receiver unit by re erring to the circuit diagra! given in the user !anual.. (d) En0iron$ental Conditions; !here are some :obs where the performance of a tas* can be affected by environmental conditions# @or e$ample, limitations of wor*ing space> e$tremes of temperature> noisy surroundings> low level of lighting, etc# Whenever these or similar conditions apply to the :ob they have to be built into the training

.3

(whenever possible) and they must be included in the ob:ectives# @or e"ample, trainee will be able to operate a -?23? gun mounting while the ship is sailing in sea state ./0. (e) SpecialD Physical or Social ,e$ands; %ome tas*s have to be performed with the body in uncomfortable positions or after particular e$ertion# (lso social factors may influence performance, such as dealing with riot, etc# ;ere again such conditions should be stated# @or e"ample trainee provost sailors will be able to control an unruly $o. in0ol0ed in arson looting and stone thro"ing 25# E1a$ples o# Standards; !he standards of performance state the minimum level of acceptable performance the learner must attain at the end of learning unit, course or programme# )n setting standards the following two main factors have to be considered:(a) Do we want the learner to perform at the standard of a competent wor*erD O:

(b) Ban we accept a lower standard at the end of training, leaving, it to e$perience on the :ob to improve the standard and achieve competenceD 26# (s far as training ob:ectives are concerned, the answer to the above 1uestions can be given only by the management, :ob e$perts or policy ma*ers# !hey are the only ones who can say what the minimum standard should be# (s far as specific ob:ectives are concerned, in our training environment, they have been clearly laid down# 29# Types O# Standards# /enerally spea*ing standards can be classified in terms of :(a) (b) (ccuracy %peed

3?# E1a$ples o# Acc!racy Standards; @ollowing are some e$amples of accuracy standardsA> (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (d) !he tas* must be completed without error# (ll measurements must be within ?#?' mm# <ust wor* within the technical specification for the :ob# <ust state the se1uence in the correct order# <ust be able to name '- to '6 components correctly# With not more than three corrected errors#

.5

3'#

E1a$ples o# Speed Standards; @ollowing are some e$ample of %peed %tandards:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) !he tas* must be completed in not more than '? minutes# <ust be typed at not less than -? words per minute# !he overhaul to be completed in not longer than the time schedule for the :ob# !he learner must chec* not less than five items per minute# !he learner must produce not less than 2? components per hour#

32# 3$portant Point to note; Cot all ob:ectives will re1uire a statement of accuracy and speed# &n the whole, accuracy will be included in most ob:ectives but speed may not be important# !his is particularly so when testing *nowledge at the end of a learning unit 8 here the trainer should allow sufficient or reasonable time for all to answer# 33# Co$ponents o# an O./ecti0e #or Training P!rposes; contain three components: (a) (s stated above all ob:ectives

( statement of the PE: O:*ANCE to be carried out by the learner#

(b) ( statement of the CON,3T3ONS under which that performance must be carried out# (c) ( statement of the minimum acceptable STAN,A:,S of performance a learner must attain# 3-# !he first of these is essential ((n ob:ective $!st contain a state$ent o# Per#or$ance ) and the other two should be used wherever appropriate ()t is not mandatory to have a statement of condition and standard#)# !he three components have their relevance to training as follows:(a) ( precise statement of the Per#or$ance of a learner at the end of training specifies the correct information and instruction to be given during training# (b) ( %tatement of relevant Bonditions in a tas* specifies the learning event to include all conditions, which are needed for ma$imums transfer of learning to the :ob# (c) ( precise statement of acceptable Standards of performance enables the trainer to chec* accurately if the learner has achieved the ob:ective# 1ually important, it tells the learner what is e$pected to be achieved#

.6

3.# )t must be again mentioned that all ob:ectives must include a statement of performance# !hey need not always state the conditions and standards# !he reason for this is that at the time you are stating the obvious performance statement, conditions and standards may be difficult to determine in any practical sense# @or e$ample, it does not ma#e any sense to write ob:ectives as follows:(a) !he trainee will be able to define +force, under ideal e$amination conditions within three minutes# (b) !he trainee will be able to state +Cewton,s second law of motion, in front of the entire class, word for word as given in the te$t boo*## 33# -riting Per#or$ance :elated O./ecti0es; (n ob:ective is a statement of what the learner will be able to do on completion of training# !he statement describes and defines what the learner will have to accomplish in order to demonstrate competence# Writing ob:ectives is an essential feature of effective training as they provide a means of communication between the person who designs training, the learner, and the instructor# When writing ob:ectives *eep these points in mind: (a) ach statement should deal "ith a singleD speci#ic tas6# (b) (void repetition of +be able to, or +the learner will, or other such phrases at the beginning of each statement, when the ob:ectives are given in a list# )t wastes time and space, because all the ob:ectives should be written in terms of what the learner2trainee will be able to do# (c) ( learner2trainee and the trainer should be able to read the statement, and relate it to a specific tas*## (d) Ase only acceptable terminology, which is familiar to the people concerned# (e) !ry to avoid using double verbs, such as Gremove and repairJ# Ase the more inclusive of the two (repair implies removing and replacing) (f) Do not include any phrase that has to do with the *nowledge needed to perform the tas*> focus on the s*ill# 4nowledge is not observable so, for e$ample, do not say, Gwill 4now ;indiJ, say instead G Will spea* ;indiJ# (g) (void repeating any mention of performing a +s*ill safety,# %afety, whether it is procedures or general *nowledge of it, will be an integral part of training# !he safety re1uirements may need to be specified in the standards# (h) (void vague and flowery terms such as GcorrectlyJ, GaccuratelyJ, GperfectlyJ, GbeautifullyJ and so on# !he ob:ective specifies competence to perform a tas*, to a precise standard# !he level of accuracy re1uired for e$ample, should be specified# 35# (ll statement of ob:ectives, whether they are 7erformance, !raining, or %pecific, must include the +(ction Merb,, that clearly states what the learner will be able to do# ( table containing a list of such +(ction Merbs, that can used to write ob:ectives is given in the ne$t page# L3ST O ACT3ON 7E:)S T9AT CAN )E =SE, O: O)<ECT37ES

.9

(ccept (dapt (d:ust (dopt (dminister (lign (llow (lter (nalyse (nswer (pply (ppraise (rrange (ssemble (ssert (sses (ssist (ssociate (ttach 0a*e 0alance 0end 0oil 0ore 0uild Balculate Balibrate Ball Bast Bategorise Bhange Bhec* Bhoose Bite Blassify

Blean Bleanse Blimb Bollect Bombine Bompare Bompensate Bompile Bomplete Bompose Bompute Bonclude Bonduct Bonnect Bonstruct Bontrast Blassify Bonvert Bopy Borrect Borrelate Boo* Breate But Bonvert Bopy Borrect Borrelate Boo* Breate But Decide Define Demonstrate Describe

Design Determine Develop Devise Diagnose Diagram Differentiat e Direct Discuss Dismantle Disinfect Dismiss Dispense Distinguish Divide Draw Dress levate mploy numerate nsure 1uate stablish levate mploy numerate nsure 1uate stablish stimate vacuate $amine $ecute $plain $pose

$press @ile @ill @inalise @ind @it @i$ @ollow @orm @ormulate @ree @ree=e /eneralise /et /ive /o /rade /reet /roup ;and ;andcuff ;andle ;aul )solate )ssue )temise Ludge "abel "evel "ight "ighten "ist "isten "oad "ocate

"oosen <anage <aintain <a*e <ar* <atch <easure <eet <ention <i$ <oderate <odify <ount Came Cegotiate &btain &pen &perate &rder &rganise 7repare 7ress 7ropose 7rint 7unctuate Tuestion Tuote Faise Fan* Fate Fealise Fecent Febuild Fecall Feceive

Fecognise Fecondition Fecord Felate Femain Femove Fenovate Fepair Fepeat Feplace Feplay Feport Fesist Fesolve Fespond Festate Feview %ort %pecify %plit %tand %tart %terili=e %tore %traighten %upervise %witch %ynthesi=e !abulate !a*e !al* !ell !est !race !ranscribe

!ransfer !ranslate !ransport !reat !roubleshot !urn !ype Anloc* Antangle Ase Atilise Malidate Mentilate Merify

36# ( list of action verbs that can be used for writing ob:ectives is given in the following page:-

3?

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA S;NO; ?'# ?2# T3TLE O )OO@ Burriculum development and educational technology !a$onomy (nd ducational &b:ectives A=T9O: 0en:amin % 0loom (nd David F 4rothwol N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '.6 '99

3'

C9APTE:

9;

*AH3*S O TEAC93N8
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the term +<a$im, (b) "ist various <a$ims of !eaching in practice (c) $plain the <a$ims of teaching# (d) /ive an e$ample each for the <a$ims of !eaching in use (e) %tate the advantage(s) of applying the <a$ims of !eaching by an instructor

32

*AH3*S O TEAC93N8 '# *a1i$s o# Teaching;-(ccording to W#< Fyburn G !o teach we must use e$perience already gained as a starting point of our wor*J# Bertain principles have been laid down for teaching# !hey are the guidelines for the teachers# !he ma$ims of teaching are fundamental principles, which play vital role in ensuring the logical development of the course content to the trainees in an easily assimilable manner# !he main aim of the ma$ims is that the teaching should be effective and successful# !hese ma$ims have been laid down based on the deep and diverse e$periences of educationists and philosophers# !hese <a$ims are the lighthouses for the travellers in the ocean of education# 0y the help of these <a$ims one can reach the destination of *nowledge# !he ma$ims, which should be used to integrate elements of the sub:ect matter in a rational manner for presentation to trainees, are appended in the succeeding paragraphs# 2# *a1i$ 3 - Proceed #ro$ @no"n to =n6no"n; @rom *nown to un*nown means the trainees should be taught the things which they already have some *nowledge )t is very necessary that the teacher should first *now what his 2her trainees already *now# )f a trainee *nows something about a thing , he2she will be eager to *now more about that thing# !hat will ma*e teaching more successful## ;owever if a teacher wants to impart *nowledge about which the trainees have no *nowledge, the teacher should first impart some previous *nowledge about that thing in order to ma*e understanding better# )n arithmetic, in introducing a lesson on profit and loss , the trainees may be encouraged to discuss something about buying and selling# !he students will therefore ac1uire new *nowledge based on past e$perience# 3# *a1i$ 33 > Proceed #ro$ Easy to ,i##ic!lt; (ccording to this ma$im, the trainees should first be taught easy or simple lessons and thereafter difficult or comple$ ones# )ncreasing the difficulty in a phased manner ensures learning# !he instructors of a gunnery school should first e$plain the firing mechanism of a 5#32 << %"F before going to cover the mechanism of a "ight <achine /un ("</)# -# *a1i$ 333 > Proceed #ro$ Si$ple to Co$ple1; %imple sub:ect matter should be first taught to the class and comple$ material presented only after the trainees foundations are established# Bomple$ ideas should follow simple ideas# ( child should be taught addition of whole numbers first followed by addition of decimal numbers# .# *a1i$ 37 > Proceed #ro$ -hole to part; !his <a$im is based on /estalt 7sychology according to which our perception is GwholeJ first and part afterwards# !he term +whole, is used

33

with reference to perception of an ob:ect as a whole# (s soon as an ob:ect appears before our eyes, we see it as a whole and attend to its different parts a bit later# 0efore teaching about parts of a computer the teacher should first teach what is a computer# 3# *a1i$ 7 > Proceed #ro$ Partic!lar to 8eneral; !his ma$im implies that particular e$amples must be presented to the trainees before giving them general rules or principles# )n fact, the study of particular facts should lead the trainees themselves to frame general rules# !hus a class on performing e$periments in heating iron, steel and brass finds that they e$pand when heated and they frame the law that G <etals e$pand when heatedJ# 5# *a1i$ 73 > Proceed #ro$ Concrete to A.stract; Boncrete means e$isting in material form i#e# a thing which can be seen and touched# (bstract means a thing which cannot be seen and touched> it does not e$ist in material form# ;erbert %pencer is of the view that our lesson starts from the concrete and ends in abstract !he idea off 3 plus 2 is e1ual to . is an abstract one which would really be simpler if introduced by telling the trainees to count 3 beads and 2 beads to see for himself that they ma*e . beads# 6# *a1i$ 733 > Proceed #ro$ E$pirical to :ational; When a person attains *nowledge by using or observing a thing, this is called empirical *nowledge# When the instructor e$plains to him by logic and prescribes a principle, it is called rational# !he rational *nowledge is of permanent nature# 4nowledge about a thing becomes real and definite only by means of logic very day a trainee observes trees shedding leaves# ;e therefore arrives at a conclusion that any ob:ect when thrown up falls down without *nowing the reason behind this phenomenon ( mpirical 4nowledge)# )f the trainee is made aware of the law of gravitation he would understand the reason for the phenomenon#(Fational 4nowledge)# 9# *a1i$ 7333 > Proceed #ro$ Psychological to Logical; (n instructor should first understand the nature of psychology# !hen he should first decide on the arrangement of the sub:ect matter best suited for easy assimilation# )t is compulsory for all Caval personnel to be proficient in swimming# 0ut the swimming instructor finds that the non-swimmers are often under the grip of fear of drowning and as a result are apprehensive of entering the deep end# ;ence the swimming instructor should first wor* on the psychology of non-swimmers to remove the fear of water# Ase of training aids li*e video films will assist the instructor to ma*e trainees to learn swimming# '?# *a1i$ 3H > Proceed #ro$ Act!al to :epresentati0e; (n instructor of seamanship should ta*e his trainees on board ship(actual) before teaching detailed location mar*ings with the help of a model of a ship(representative)#0y proceeding from actual to representative , the conceptuali=ation and comprehending capabilities of the trainees improve and leads to better learning# ''# *a1i$ H > Proceed #ro$ Analysis to Synthesis; (ccording to this ma$im the teaching should first start from a whole thing and after imparting *nowledge about whole thing, *nowledge about various parts may be imparted by means of doing analysis of those parts and

3-

then the attention should be diverted to the whole# When we have to prove that all the three angles of a triangle are e1ual to two right angles, we must first draw up a triangle and then prove by measuring all the three angles that the three angles are e1ual to two right angles# @or analy=ing the angles we should measure the angles and then revert bac* to the triangle to prove that its three angles are e1ual to two right angles# (fter synthesis we should again proceed to analysis and again to synthesis# !his cycle should go on and on# '2# <a$ims of teaching, it must be remembered are essential principles which if followed in letter and spirit by instructors will ensure thorough learning in the disciplines being taught# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# T3TLE O )OO@ !he 7rinciples and <ethods of !eaching !he 7rinciples (nd <ethods &f !eaching <ethods &f !eaching A=T9O: 0hatia K 0hatia 4amala 0hatia %* 4ochchar N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 2'? 96? '63

3.

C9APTE:

12;

*OT37AT3ON
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define motivation (b) $plain the <aslow,s hierarchy of needs (c) "ist the motivational functions of an instructor (d) $plain the 0ehavioural efficiency 8 arousal graph (e) $plain the terms $pectancy, )ncentive and Disciplinary functions (f) $plain the +<otivational /rid,

33

*OT37AT3ON '# (s instructors, we would often find that while we are interested to teach or impart instructions, the trainees are not interested to learn# Bonsider the following situations in which an instructor very often finds his trainees indulging in:(a) (b) (c) (e) (f) (g) <a*ing funny figures2cartoons or aimless designs in their noteboo*s Whispering :o*es amongst themselves and silently getting into a laughter# Writing2reading notes of a sub:ect other than what is being taught# Bompleting some assignment given by another instructor# "oosing their attention and surfing their own personal thoughts and an$ieties# Feading some storyboo*s, maga=ines or comics#

2# <ost instructors consider such a class of trainees who indulge in the activities mentioned above as Iindi##erent or !ndisciplined classB# ;owever, all the above situations show that the trainees are full of energy, but their energy runs off in all directions# !he trainees have certain needs and storage of energy that in a sense always forces to do something# !hey actually do not lac* a will to wor*# !he instructor, under such circumstances, should try to direct the energy of the trainees into constructive direction and *eep it there# 0y constructive direction we mean towards the learning situation, which the instructor desires the trainees to be drawn in#!he instructor has to ma*e the learning situation and the resulting goals attractive to the trainees# !his creates an interest and activities leading to the goal are initiated, energi=ed and directed# The trainees are said to .e $oti0ated # (nything, which moves an individual to a desired action, may be described as $oti0ation# (s instructors, it is important to *now the psychology of motivation and also the correct motivational techni1ues in order to sustain the interest amongst trainees in any learning situation# 3# ,E 3N3T3ON; <otivation is a process .y "hich indi0id!als are enco!raged to see6 a goal# )n fact, it is an internal condition, which initiates and sustains activity# )t refers to all those phenomena which are involved in the stimulation of action towards achieving particular ob:ectives, where previously there was very little or no movement towards these goals# -# <otivation is a self-propelling force within oneself that *eeps prompting the individual to improve his2her performance and behaviour# )t is the individual,s will and *eenness to achieve and not what he2she is supposed to achieve, but what he2she has set for himself2herself to achieve# .# eat!res o# *oti0ation# @ollowing are the features of motivation:-

35

(a) *oti0ation is an internal #eeling; <otivation points to energetic forces within individuals that drive them to behave in certain ways# (b) *oti0ation prod!ces goal directed .eha0io!r; <otivation has an intense influence on human behavior since it directs human energy towards the re1uirements of the organi=ation# (c) *oti0ation can .e either Positi0e%K0e& or Negati0e %>0e&; 7ositive motivation offers incentives to the person in the form of additional pay, praise, applause etc for good performance# While negative motivation on the other hand demands penalties for controlling performance# 3# 3$portance o# *oti0ation# !he following points bring out the importance of motivation in any organisation: (a) (b) (c) (e) (f) (f) (g) 0est use of resources# )ncreased efficiency and output# (chievement of goals# Development of friendly relationships in the organisation# %tability in the wor* place# 7ositive wor* culture# /ood team spirit and synergy

5# *ASLO-BS T9EO:C O *OT37AT3ON; (braham <aslow, a professor of psychology has developed a theory of motivation which is popularly *now as the *ASLO-BS 93E:A:C9C O 9=*AN NEE,S; (ccording to this theory human beings have different psychological and physiological needs# !o motivate an individual, these needs are to be satisfied# ;owever, this theory lists these needs in their order of importance# !he order of needs starts from basic survival or lower order to higher order needs# !he triangle shown below depicts the various needs listed in the <aslow,s theory according to their order of importance#

SEL ACT=AL3SAT3ON SEL ESTEE* LO7E E )ELON83N8NESS SA ETC

36

P9CS3OLO83CAL

6# PSCS3OLO83CAL NEE,S; !his is the basic need of every human being and includes the basic but most important re1uirement li*e #oodD clothingD shelter and se1# !hough, these needs may not be satisfied, fully, they should at least be met to a certain e$tent, in case higher needs are to be met and if any individual is to be motivated# &ne should never under estimate the importance of this need# )n all our training establishments, to satisfy this very basic need of trainees, procedures are in place li*e tasting the food at under-trainees, mess by &fficer of the Day (&&D), rounds of living spaces by Duty !raining &fficer (D!&), !raining Baptain (!B) 2 Bommanding &fficer (B&), Divisional &fficer,s periods etc# )t is the responsibility of a superior officers 2 training managers to loo* after the welfare of their subordinates and trainees by attending to the problems concerning family accommodation, pay, rations etc# 9# SA ETC NEE,S; )t is also a basic need related to safety of life# !hough this need is more important for children, it is also a basic need to a certain e$tent in case of adults also# !hat is why> sailors wear life :ac*ets and helmets on the e$posed dec* of ship during action stations# )n the new security scenario prevailing in the country today, safety needs assume importance to a very large e$tent# ven safety of the troops in areas having problems of terrorism is of serious concern# conomic %ecurity is a ma:or safety need for families# '?# NEE, O: LO7E AN, )ELON83N8NESS; !his is a comparatively higher order need and is psychological in nature# (ll human beings need love and understanding to have good relations with his family, friends and colleagues# 7ersonnel develop a sense of belongingness to their departments2ship, etc# ''# ESTEE* NEE,S; !his is a higher level need# )t involves self-respect, which every person e$pects in the office, at home and in society# )ndividuals want to perform their respective :obs in a better and impressive way so as to become a crucial and recogni=ed member of their team2organi=ation, thereby earning their prideful place in society# Desire to be commended by superior authorities (B-in-B2BC%), desire to be honoured with appropriate awards, medals li*e M%<, 7admashree, 0harat Fatna etc are some e$amples of esteem needs of higher order# !he least an individual e$pects as a need in this level is that he or she does not want his or her selfrespect or esteem to be hurt# &ne does not want to be ridiculed or scolded in public or to be heard or seen in public for the wrong reasons# '2# NEE, O: SEL >ACT=AL3SAT3ONA !his is the highest need to reali=e the inner self and is met only when the other lower needs are satisfied# !his need is for reali=ing one,s own potential for self-development# very man, irrespective of the nature of his :ob has some hidden desire or ambition, which remains, unfulfilled most of the years of his life# )f he has been successful in his profession, career and family life, he has a good chance to reali=e this need# 0eing the highest need of human beings it is difficult to reali=e fully# &nly a few individuals reach this stage and that too when they near the retirement age# %ome of the individuals attain

39

this need in their middle age while some of the people never attain# &ne of the important aspects of self-actuali=ation is freedom, vi=#, freedom from cultural and self-imposed conditions and restraints# !he self-actuali=ing person wants to be free from restraints created by society# )t is important to note that a person who has attained self-actuali=ation does not bother or worry about his survival needs# (ll the other lower order needs become very insignificant to him# )t does not mean that a person who attains self-actuali=ation will not perform or wor*# &n the contrary, it means that a person who attains self-actuali=ation is self-motivated to carry out even the most difficult of the tas*s2:obs# '3# (n interesting phenomena that the <aslow,s theory says is that, needs vary or mi$ under different circumstances2 conditions# !his is depicted in the following three situations vi= a sailor or soldier while :oining service, during peace conditions and during war conditions: %( % ( %! < %&B)(" % BAF)! I 7;I%)&"&/)B("
(! !)< &@ L&)C)C/

% "@-(B!A(")U(!)&C <

%!

%!

<

%&B)(" % BAF)!I 7;
DAF)C/ 7 (B B&CD)!)&C%

%&B)(" % BAF)!I 7;
DAF)C/ W(F B&CD)!)&C%

'-# (s can be seen from the preceding figure, at the time of :oining service, the lower order needs li*e physiological and security needs are ma$imum# During peacetime, a sailor or soldier,s social needs are ma$imum, followed by esteem and security needs# During wartime, the selfactuali=ation is ma$imum, followed by a high self-esteem in protecting his motherland# '.# (ccording to <aslow, if you want to motivate someone, you need to *now as to which level that person is currently on the hierarchy and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level# !hese needs are separated into lower and higher levels# 7hysiological, safety and social needs are lower order needs and esteem K self-actuali=ation are higher order needs# !he difference between the two needs is that higher level needs are satisfied internally in a person, while lower order needs are satisfied e$ternally# '3# *OT37AT3ONAL =NCT3ONS O AN 3NST:=CTO:; )n order to sustain the interest amongst trainees in any learning situation, the instructors should e$ercise the relevant motivational function(s)# @ollowing are the motivational functions of an instructor: (a) (rousal @unction

5?

(b) (c) (d)

$pectancy @unction )ncentive @unction Disciplinary @unction

'5# A:O=SAL =NCT3ON; )n the beginning of a lecture or lesson the students are always switched off# !his is due to the fact that every human being is troubled by his own personal problems and ta*es some time to get out of them# !he trainees have a tendency to *eep thin*ing about these personal problems and other interests2distractions# (ccording to psychologists, this is the state of deep sleep# !herefore, an instructor has to use novel techni1ues to stimulate the interest of the trainees by giving them suitable e$amples and triggering of the learning process# (gain it must be remembered that in classroom teaching, the students resort to daydreaming or again getting lost into a thought process of their old problems# !herefore, the instructor has to ma*e his tal* interesting, by reducing monotony to a minimum# !his can be done by giving good e$amples, modulating the voice appropriately to ma*e an impressive start to the lecture, ma*e the narration effective, bring in relevant 1uotes, stories or even :o*es and thereby wa*eup the trainees from their deep sleep (or slumber)# '6# !he behavioral efficiency of a class and the role of arousal function is depicted in the graph shown below:

OPT3*AL LE7EL ) E 9 A 7 3 O = : A L E 3 C 3 N C C LE7EL O A:O=SAL LO3ncreasing AlertnessD 3nterestD Positi0e E$otion 3ncreasing E$otional ,ist!r.ancesD An1iety

7&)C! &@ W(4)C/

5'

'9# !he instructors should try to *eep the graph within the shaded portion at all times# 2?# EHPECTANCC =NCT3ON; )t is a momentary belief that a particular outcome will follow a particular act# !he students should be able to readily observe the result of their learning# !he ob:ectives being defined in behavioral terms could be easily identified as e$pectations# !o impart instructions, an instructor should accordingly consider the student,s e$pectations and values# (part from ma*ing the ob:ectives clear to the trainees before commencement of every learning event2lecture2lesson, instructors should also resort to as*ing and clarifying the trainees, e$pectations before the commencement of a course# !hese e$pectations should be shared amongst the entire faculty, so that all the instructors understand and act according to the e$pectations of the class# (( word of caution is that the faculty members need not go out of their way to satisfy the e$pectations of the trainees if they are beyond the scope of the course syllabi or curriculum)# 2'# 3NCENT37E =NCT3ON; )t is a function of the instructor to provide incentives to students for tas*s well done, in such a way, which stimulates further interest# /iving rewards, praise, and holding competitions etc#, are the techni1ues for the said purpose# 7raising or giving reward not only boosts the ego of the students but at the same time motivates them to improve in their studies# ;olding of competitions by giving pro:ect wor*, syndicate mar*s etc will generate enthusiasm# )n Cavy, other than classroom incentives given by instructors, there is an inbuilt system of giving incentives to trainees by way of awarding +gain in seniority, in their ran* for their good performance in the courses# 22# ,3SC3PL3NA:C =NCT3ON; !his is the ultimate and the last step to be ta*en by the instructor when all other efforts to motivate the students have failed# )t may also be used as a warning to other trainees in a class# ( good instructor will not use this function often# 23# (n instructor has to, therefore, ma*e an appropriate use of the above motivational techni1ues in order to generate and motivate interest in his class and, thereby, ensure effective learning# 2-# !a*ing into account the motivational function of an instructor and also various theories of motivation, the <otivational /rid (</) has been developed by C) !!# !he </ basically attempts to illustrate how motivational aspects of instructors as well as participants can contribute to effective learning# 2.# &utcome or output of any process depends on the input and the process including human resource and other systems in the process# %ame is true for training as well# !he outcome of any training programme depends on the efforts, enthusiasm, planning resources, time and commitment of the training (!his is termed as Fesponse of !rainer)# %imilarly outcome is also depends on the EFesponse of !rainees, his2her interest, commitment, enthusiasm, resources, time he2she devotes, previous *nowledge, competency, e$posure etc# mathematically we can say: -

52

23#

&utcome, ? !rainers Fesponses (!F) "earners Fesponses ("F) or ? !F "F (7roduct of the two) Cow let us loo* at the grid whose Q and I a$is vi= !F and "F# /rid has been ta*en

W)"D %;FA0

25

A!&7)( (7)C(B" )

1(

??????????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????????? ? ?(I(F(< ? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?/(I(F(< ????????? ? ?(DI%!&7)() ????????? ??? ???????

4=EEN )EE APP:OAC9

OOOOOOO OOOOOOO OOOOOOO O O0 O ;)M OOOO O OO O O O O

arbitrarily from ' to 3 on both the a$is# )ncreasing number indicates increasing EFesponses, of !rainer as well as "earner# !he origin of the grid is not (?,?) but (',') since by virtue of a person coming for a training session, some learning is bound to ta*e place# *OT37AT3ON 8:3,

L :

53

1 4 3 1 2 5 4 3 5
(a)

2
(I(F(< /(I(F(<
(DI%!&7)()

3
7A!7A)!2&A!B&< , &F,

4
!F

5
0 ;)M

& !F()C F,% F %7&C% % (!F) & " (FC F,% F %7&C% % ("F) & !F# "F

!here are five situations which can be thought of in any training situation# !hey are: !rainer is highly motivated but "earner is not 8 We call it Tueen 0 (pproach

(b) !rainer,s continuous high motivations ensure or motivate the "earners to :oin hands with him 8 4iran 0edi (pproach (c) (d) 25# !rainers are not interested but "earners are then it can be called G&n your &wnJ (pproach (&I& (pproach) 0ecause of the insisting and continuously motivated "earners the !rainer :oins the hands with learners 8 G)nverted BoneJ (pproach#

"et us ta*e each approach separately

26# Ayara$ 8ayara$# )n certain situation you might have e$perienced that neither the instructor nor the trainees ta*e any interest GDuty WatchJ interaction2classes ta*e place one cannot say no learning ta*es place# 0ut definitely some would# &ne can also assume that the motivational factors of both trainers and learners are low in the range to ' to 2# !hat is the Borden (yaram /ayaram or dystopia the lowest learning outcome# 29# 4!een )ee Approach# Iou might have learnt that wherever the Tueen 0ee moves all other 0ees of the flac* follows her, and Tueen 0eehive is created# %ame way depending on the instructors motivational levels li*e a Tueen 0ee he2she can ensure that the trainees who may not be that motivated and who are at G(yaram /ayaramJ once can be dragged2envagised to atleast a new beehive of motivational 3# !his is purely the response of the trainer as stated in the second paragraph above# !hus learning is definitely better than the stage G(yaram /ayaramJ# 3?# @iran )edi Approach# <rs# 4iran 0edi, the first woman )7% officer of )ndia and <agasasay award winner for prison (!ihar Lail, Cew Delhi) reforms is *nown to most of us# When she was %uperintendent of !ihar Lail, the most infamous :ail in our country which houses about 5???-6??? hardened criminals changed the face of :ail into a learning centre and ashram# )f a single dedicated lady could convert !ihar :ail into a !ihar (shram it could only have been possible by the highest level of continued motivational factors of <rs# 4iran 0edi )f she could convert the criminals to better learners, change their mind set, reform them, as instructors we can also change and inspire our trainees to learn# !his single minded approach of any instructor is termed as 4iran 0edi (pproach#

5-

3'# OCO Approach# )n certain situations, e$amples of which you might have e$perienced in the past, the learners are motivated but instructors are not# !rainees are e$pected to learn on their own# )t is agreed that the certain topics or to develop the trainees to be selfdirected learners# We may employ the method of learning# ;owever it should be chosen with very high care and planning and motivational factors of instructors should also be high# )n case the situation is not as described above trainees will still learn because of their motivation# )t will be a growth li*e the GWild %hrubJ 8 nobody mends it nobody waters it but still it grows# We as instructors do we want any GWild %hrubJ growth for our traineesD 32# 3n0erted Cone Approach# !he shortest distance between two points on the surface of earth is a great circle (a circle which will divide the earth into two halves)# "et us ta*e a motivational Fesponses of trainer as 3 and that of learners as 3# @rom the formula which you learned in the second paragraph above we can say: ? "F !F 3 3 9 33# )n other words the resultant learning for a factor 3 of motivational levels of both instructors and learners in 9SS @or such a situation to happen both the learners and trainers are to be motivated> what is re1uired is using s*ills, commitment, enthusiasm and other motivational function to motivate your learner# &ne thing you must remember slicing a great circle course is very difficult 8 it re1uires continuous change of course, which is practically difficult# 0ut can,t you ma*e sum Fhumblim sealingD (/reat Bircle course appro$imated to short strait line course or Fhumblines) 3-# )f you are able to follow the /reat Bircles approach, reaching the utopia, the pinnacle, (imagined perfect place or state) of learning can be achieved easily# (s instructor let us use our faculties, s*ills *nowledge and attitude to inspire our participants and plan ensure sailing on a great circle course# S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-# ?.# T3TLE O )OO@ 7rinciples &f ducation !echni1ues &f !eaching !he 7rinciples (nd <ethods &f !eaching <otivational Dynamics ;ow to win in life A=T9O: F % 7andey 7rof# 0 B Fai 0hatia (nd 0hatia (4 %harma WD %taples N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '5'95 96? 666 '2?6

5.

C9APTE:

11;

*E,3A AN, T:A3N3N8 A3,S

When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define media (b) "ist the properties of media (c) "ist different types of media (d) %elect appropriate audio visual aids (e) Describe various non-pro:ected aids (f) Describe various pro:ected aids

53

*E,3A AN, T:A3N3N8 A3,S '# <edia is the means, which is used to transmit information between two sources, that is, from one source to another# )n the !eaching 8 "earning process, media could be in the form of various training aids# !o understand the relevance of media one should appreciate the concept of communication# Bommunication is the means by which people in an organi=ation are lin*ed together for a common ob:ective or purpose# Bommunication can, therefore, be defined as the process by which information is transferred from one body to another or a group of other bodies# )nstructional media, therefore, plays an important role in the !eaching 8 "earning process# 2# ,e#inition; <edia can be defined as:

(a) ( medium for transmitting information from one source to another# (b) (ny person, material or an event that establishes the conditions, which enable the learner to ac1uire *nowledge, s*ill and attitude# (c) !he graphic, photographic, electronic or mechanical means for arresting, processing and reconstituting visual or verbal information, for e$ample, charts, photographs, films, !M, (udio 8 recording, etc# 3# Properties o# *edia; <edia has the following properties:

(a) i1ati0e; !his property allows the capture, preservation and reconstitution of an ob:ect or event which has been saved or stored and can be made available for reproduction whenever it is needed ,for e$ample, photographs, films, tapes, etc# (b) *anip!lati0e; !his property allows the pro:ection of an event or ob:ect as desired by the user# Deftly using ideas, showing only the items or parts the user wants to emphasi=e and concealing the unwanted part of the ideas form cru$ of the manipulative property# !he use of /ovt# owned media li*e television and radio is as e$ample of this property# (c) ,istri.!ti0e Property; !his property permits an event to be transmitted through space simultaneously presenting each or a number of persons with a virtually identical e$perience of an event #

55

-# Types o# *edia; @ollowing are the types of media : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) %till pictures <oving pictures !M (udio 8 recording Written material Feal ob:ects, simulators and models 7rogrammed )nstructions

.# *!lti F *edia Approach; <ulti - media approach can be adopted in instructional development# !his envisages the use of media in combination with a variety of other instructional material and techni1ues# 0oth teacher and trainee can use media in a variety of innovative ways ali*e for the effective teaching 8 learning situations# 3# Selection o# *ediaA The o!r Step Process; !o select an appropriate media the following four steps may be followed: (a) (b) (c) (d) Bonsider 2 write the ob:ective Determine the domains of the ob:ective Determine the <ethod (s) of )nstruction to be adopted %elect <edia

5# Techni5!es in =sing *!lti F *edia and 3nstr!ctional ,e0elop$ent; !he following steps are involved in carrying out a combined use of media, materials and teaching strategies to e$tract an efficient learning e$perience: (a) ,e#ine the ,esired Ter$inal )eha0io!r; !he learning e$perience needed for a particular class should be specified in the form of terminal ob:ectives# (b) Plan *aterial and Strategy; !he instructor should plan in advance the usage of instructional media and use the appropriate strategy for teaching# (c) Teaching Strategy and *ethods; !he use of media in satisfying the needs of learners in specific learning situations must be analy=ed# Cecessary action should be ta*en to adopt appropriate strategy and method of instruction# (c) E0al!ations and :ecycling; !he teacher evaluates and reports on the usefulness and utility of the media used# 6# Selection o# Appropriate A!dio 7is!al Aids; Bommunication strategy, instructional strategy and teaching strategy are selected to achieve ob:ectives and generate learning situations#

56

!o ma*e learning situation effective and to achieve ob:ectives easily, audio 8 visual aids should be used# 9# %tudies have shown that a particular media, vi=#, audio or visual can be used to achieve a specific ob:ective of learning or to create specific learning conditions# !his is the most important criterion for selecting the appropriate audio visual aid# !o achieve affective and cognitive domain, media li*e radio, television and educational films can be used# !he cognitive, affective and psychomotor ob:ectives can be achieved by means of tape 8 recorder, televisions and language laboratories# '?# Learning Str!ct!re as Criterion; Ase of learning structure should also be considered for effective use of training aids# !he effectiveness of the various audio 8 visual aids has to be weighted against the learning situations li*e signal, chain, multiple, discrimination, concept and principles# ''# ;istory is full of people who used media to their advantage# %tarting from mperor (sho*a to ;itler in the 2?th Bentury, there are a number of statesmen who used the media with de$terity# ;owever, too much of editing and over e$posure will generate adverse reactions totally une$pected by the media manipulators# <edia is essentially a double-edged sword, an asset in the hands of a dedicated instructor or a liability otherwise# '2# Training Aids; ( training aid can be defined as any mechanical, electro 8mechanical, audio or audio 8 visual gadget, which is used to aid the student in learning# %ince time immemorial, teaching has always been thought of as an instructor oriented activity where oral communication was used to impart *nowledge# !his concept has, however, changed over the years as the inherent difficulty of communicating accurately in any of the languages became evident# @urther the problem has been compounded due to the increasing comple$ity of the hi tech sub:ects re1uired to be taught# )t must also be remembered that in a country li*e our country where there is a broad cross-section of people hailing from different states and using different dialects or languages, it becomes difficult to have the same standard of communication# !rainees, therefore, find it difficult to assimilate classroom instruction in the absence of other via media# '3# With a view to overcoming this lacuna, the instructor has to perforce utili=e the various training aids at his disposal to ensure that the ma$imum number of senses of the trainees are utili=ed in the teaching 8 learning process# !raining aids ranging from the simple blac* board to sophisticated ones li*e the computer play a vital role in facilitating learning# '-# )road Classi#ication o# Training Aids; !raining (ids can be classified under two heads 8 7ro:ected and Con-7ro:ected (ids#

59

'.# !he details of pro:ected and non-pro:ected aids are as given below : Pro/ected Aids
il$s @ilmstrips %lides &pa1ue 7ro:ection &verhead 7ro:ection 8raphic Aids 7hotographs 7ictures @lash Bards 7osters Bharts <aps /raphs Bartoons Bomics ,isplay )oards 0lac* 0oard @lannel 0oard 0ulletin 0oard <agnetic 0oard 7eg 0oard 3>, Aids

Non>Pro/ected Aids A!dio Aids

Fadio !elevision Fecordings

Acti0ity Aids
$perimentation @ield !rips Demonstration Dramatics 7rogrammed )nstructions !eaching <achines Bomputer (ssisted )nstruction (B())

<odels &b:ects %pecimens <oc*-Aps 7uppets

'3# Non>Pro/ected Aids; ( comprehensive and brief description of various Con-7ro:ected aids is as follows: '5# Chal6 )oard; !he chal* board or blac* board are the simplest and widely used training aids in spite of the availability of sophisticated training aids li*e computers# )t can be used in classrooms, laboratory, wor*shops and in other training activities# )t is a cheap training aid# '6# /enerally, the conventional chal*boards are blac* in colour, however, today a variety of chal*boards are available in the mar*et# ( few, which are commonly used, are as follows: (a) Paint Coated Pressed -ood; type of chal* board !he material used in this

6?

is a hard board or any plywood surface# !he board after preparation is painted with a dull special paint for use as a chal*board# (b) ,!ll inished Plastic S!r#ace; !his type of board is manufactured from any type of coloured sheet of plastic, 7MB or laminated plastic sheets# Due to their high cost these boards are not used in classrooms though smaller boards of this type are used for specific purposes# ( china graph pencil is used to write on these boards# !hese *inds of boards are found in the &ps rooms of ships where the state of the ships or positions of other ships, aircrafts or submarines is mar*ed using the china graph pencil# (c) 8ro!nd 8lass )oard; !his is the best type of board fir classroom instruction though it is slightly e$pensive# )t is fairly simple to ma*e, as it re1uires only ground glass sheets and a wooden base# !he ground glass of appropriate si=e is polished and laid on wooden frames for support# (ppropriate colour is obtained by using a cursey cloth of good 1uality# !he glass sheets and the cursey cloth are then fi$ed using some good adhesive agent# !hermocole sheets are used for cushioning the glass sheets when they are laid on the wooden frames# !he main advantage of ground glass is that there is no need for painting or coating the surface# @urther, ground glass is the softest surface for using chal* as it reduces erosion of the surface# '9# E##ecti0e =se o# Chal6.oard; !he following points are to be borne in mind by the instructor for ma*ing an effective use of the chal*board: (a) @irst and foremost, before starting the class ensure that the chal*board is clean# (b) !he chal*board should be cleaned before the instructor leaves the classroom# (c) 7lan your chal* wor* well in advance# %tart your chal* wor* right from the top of the chal*board in a systematic manner, giving spacing and margins as appropriate# )ncidental wor* li*e calculations, etc#, should be *ept separate from the main te$t# !his wo* should be done in margins# (d) )f the matter to be written on the board is large then it can be divided into a number of stages for completion# (fter each stage of presentation the chal*board should be cleaned# (e) Cew, unfamiliar and important terms must be emphasi=ed through use of chal* stic*s of different colours by underlining or by changing the si=e of the letters# (f) Asing colour chal*s ,meaningfully, improves communication and provides clarity in chal*board diagrams# (g) Bhal* duster or eraser should always be *ept clean and should always be *ept in the place provided for it at the bottom of the chal*board frame or by the side of it#

6'

(h) nsure proper lighting is available in the class so that the chal* wor* done on the chal*board is visible to the entire class# )f re1uired use window curtains to avoid unwanted glare producing light on the chal*board# 2?# =ses o# Chal6.oard; !here is no limit to the uses of a chal*board# )t can be used as a supplementary aid along with other training aids to emphasi=e points and definitions# )t is the best training aid at the disposal of an instructor# 2'# ,isplay )oards; !he walls of classrooms and laboratory can be made attractive and meaningful by displaying a wealth of information on various facets of sub:ect and co-curricular disciplines# )n the modern and well-e1uipped classrooms where emphasis is laid on pro:ecting ma$imum information to the trainees, there is a need for display boards# 22# !nction o# ,isplay )oards; !he display boards, which are commonly used in classrooms, laboratories and wor*shops, can be mainly used for the following functions : (a) *oti0ational; !he display board if properly presented can be used to arouse and maintain interest and to motivate the trainees in the class# (b) ,e0elop$ental; )n this function, the display board is used to develop the lesson stepby-step through continuous interaction between the instructor and the trainees# (c) S!$$ary; !he display board can also be used to summari=e, review and consolidate the lecture or lesson taught using the conventional methods of teaching# 23# Types o# ,isplay )oards; !here is a large variety of display boards that are used in training# !here are a few display boards of the standard version, which can be put to a variety of use depending on the ingenuity of the instructor# !he display boards commonly available in mar*et are described in the following paragraphs# 2-# Peg )oard; ( board used to display flat graphics and three-dimensional materials is called as 7eg 0oard# %pecially designed bloc*s can be used for displaying samples of materials or components# %ome of the samples that can be shown on a pegboard are parts of a rifle or components of electrical or electronic e1uipment# 2.# *agnetic )oard; When the relative movements of parts of a machine are to be shown to a class, the <agnetic 0oard can be used# !his is an effective medium to show the relative movements of machinery, ships, submarines and aircrafts# ( magnetic board consists of an iron sheet framed on an appropriate wooden or aluminium support# %mall cutouts of ships, etc#, made for display are pasted on ceramic pellet magnets using some adhesive material such as fevicol# <agnetic displays can be made attractive by colouring the cutouts# Due to its versatility, magnetic board is gaining popularity as a training aid#

62

23# lannel )oard; !he felt or flannel board serves the same purpose as a magnet board, the salient difference being that a flannel board is made up of a flannel cloth instead of iron sheets# !he cloth is pasted on a wooden board# !he reverse side of the cutouts is pasted with sand paper instead of pellet magnets# !he flannel surface will hold the sand paper due to the rough surface# @lannel board or magnetic board displays being more realistic than chal*board diagrams serve as better aids of training# @lannel boards used in classrooms are normally of the si=e of chal*boards# With the help of flannel board sub:ects li*e mathematics, nglish, navigation, gunnery , etc#, can be made more interesting# <aps and stories can be built up in a dramatic way on a flannel board# )n social education, if effectively used, flannel board can prove helpful in communicating useful information to adults in an interesting manner# 25# )!lletin )oard; ( good bulletin is a vital tool to arouse students, interest, to develop curiosity and to follow up blac* board wor* and other training aids# )t is a visual aid of great educational value# )t is made by giving a soft cor*board layer to a plywood board base# While using the bulletin board, an instructor should remember the following three principles: (a) !he bulletin board is a perpetual maga=ine of the professional school, designed to give the trainees information of direct concern to them and to tap their curiosity and desire for gaining *nowledge# (b) (t any time a bulletin board should present an aesthetic unity, a harmony in the layout and illustration of various elements involved in its ma*ing# (c) !he bulletin board should be entirely a result of the creative effort of the trainees, for the trainees# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ ducational !echnology (udio Misual (ids )n !raining !echni1ues &f !raining 7rogrammed "earning (nd ducational !echnology

A=T9O: 0 D 0hatt (nd % F %harma % F Bha*ravarty "eslie Fae David ;aw*ridge

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 23? 2.6 '.3? '-.

63

C9APTE:

12;

O7E: 9EA, P:O<ECTO:

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Describe an &verhead 7ro:ector# (b) "ist technical specifications of an &verhead 7ro:ector# (c) Describe various !echni1ues of using an &verhead 7ro:ector# (d) "ist Dos and Donts of an &verhead 7ro:ector# (e) "ist advantages of an &verhead 7ro:ector#

6-

T9E O7E:9EA, P:O<ECTO: '# O7E: 9EA, P:O<ECTO:; !he &verhead 7ro:ector (&;7) is a versatile training aid and is being increasingly used for classroom instructions in professional schools and training establishments# (s it is compact, easy to operate and economical, it is slowly replacing costlier and more complicated training aids# !his aid when used with imagination can produce a wide range of e$citing visual effects and bring about creativity in classroom instruction# ( diagram of an &;7 with its parts is depicted below:-

*irror O./ecti0e Lens

oc!s resnel Lens La$p

*irror 2# Technical Speci#ications; !he overhead pro:ectors are designed for direct or indirect pro:ection# ( direct pro:ection system uses either ;alogen lamps, linear or pea 3.? watts or in

6.

some cases it wor*s on 3? watts locomotive headlamp through a transformer# !he pro:ector, which wor*s on the principle of indirect pro:ection, however, uses a tubular pro:ection lamp of 5.? or '??? watts# !he &;7 is cooled by use of a blower# %ome pro:ectors employ thermostats to maintain the wor*ing of the blower# !he &;7 lamp can only be switched on after the blower is started due to its system of electrical connections# 3# *ethod o# Operation; !he &;7 is to be positioned in one side of a classroom preferably the right hand side# !his is to facilitate convenient operation by the instructor as well as to enable the use of other training aids, vi=#, blac* board, slide pro:ector, etc# !he screen is also to be fitted in a corner of the room at an appropriate height so that the students in the class can see the pro:ection without straining themselves# (lternatively, the &;7 screen could be positioned at the center of the blac* board to be used when re1uired# -# @ey Stoning E##ect; !he &;7 and %creen should be positioned parallel to each other# )t should be ensured that the light pattern observed when pro:ected on to the screen should be a perfect s1uare# .# )mproper positioning of the &;7 and the screen results in the formation of a light pattern, which is not a s1uare# !his effect is called as 4ey %toning effect# )f the left side of the pro:ection is more elongated than the right side or vice-versa, then the effect is called ;ori=ontal 4ey %toning# )n case the topside of the screen pro:ection is more elongated than the bottom side or vice-versa, then the effect is called Mertical 4ey %toning# 3# !he instructor who switches on the &;7 should chec* that the blower is wor*ing# !he pro:ected image on the screen should be ad:usted to cater for ma$imum coverage as well as to ensure focus and clarity# !his should be done by ad:usting the elevator screws at the bottom of the &;7 and by ad:usting the focus *nob# 5# Transparencies; !he software used for the &;7 is in the form of transparencies# !ransparencies are colourless polyethylene sheets available in mar*ets as continuous roll or as properly cut (- si=e discrete sheets# !ransparencies are written using transparency mar*er pens# !ransparencies made out of coloured transparent sheets can give a more realistic approach and ma*e the presentation more interesting and lively# 6# Techni5!es o# =sing O9P; !here are various techni1ues of using an &;7# !he instructor may employ one or more of the techni1ues depending on the material to be taught# !he techni1ues of using an &;7 are as follows: 9# Chal6 )oard Techni5!e; ( transparent sheet when placed on the stage of the &;7 can serve as a chal*board# !he instructor can write various teaching points with china graph pencil as he develops his lesson, without losing even a moment of contact time with the class#

63

'?# Si$ple Pointer; !he easiest way of drawing attention to items on pro:ected transparencies is by using a pointer# ( pointer can be any opa1ue ob:ect used on the stage of the &;7 to cast a shadow image on the screen# ''# :e0elation; !his techni1ue can be used to ensure that the class only views the relevant portions of the transparency as presented orally by the instructor# (ny opa1ue material will bloc* out the written part of the image on the screen# %trips of paper and specially shaped paper can be used for particular revelation techni1ue# '2# Silho!ette; Asing the same principle as revelation any opa1ue ob:ect placed on the pro:ector will cast its image on the screen# !his is a simple and dramatic way of pro:ecting shadow pictures of any small ob:ect, which the instructor wants the class to see# %ilhouettes of ships, aircrafts, submarines, machinery, etc#, can be effectively pro:ected by this method# '3# Pro/ecting Transparent O./ects; (ny transparent ob:ect li*e set s1uares, slides rulers, etc#, can be pro:ected on the &;7 to e$plain their use more vividly to the class# '-# O0erlays; %tep by step development of a particular topic can be done on separate transparencies# ( transparency is made for each important point and these transparencies are then flipped into place as the points are built up# &verlay techni1ues can capture the attention and curiosity of the class# '.# ,os and ,onts; Donts: )nstructors while using an &;7 should observe the following Dos and

(a) When referring to a pro:ected image, an instructor should loo* either at the transparency or at the class but not at the screen to avoid showing his bac* to the class# (b) !he pro:ector wor*s satisfactorily in either daylight or in artificial light# Dar*ening of the room is not necessary# )t is advisable to limit direct falling on the screen as this will reduce the brilliance and ma*e viewing a strain# (c) !he pro:ector should be switched off when changing from one transparency to another or while setting up ob:ects on the pro:ector# Disorgani=ed movements on the screen are irritating and distracting# (d) When the pro:ector is not in use even for a few seconds the lamp should be switched off# (e) !eaching of comple$ circuit diagram or parts of machinery which need elaborate e$planations will re1uire longer duration of pro:ection# During such occasions, a wall chart may be preferred to the &;7#

65

(f) !he lamp used in the &;7 is costly and has a limited life of appro$imately 5. hrs# ;ence, due care should be ta*en to use the &;7, only when it is necessary# '3# Ad0antages o# O9P; !he &;7 is a versatile training aid and has become an indispensable item of training aids inventory in schools and training establishments# !he advantages of the &;7 are given below : (a) )t is cheap and economical to use# (b) )t can be used to increase or decrease the si=e of the image# (c) )t does not need a dar* room# (d) )t is effective in establishing two-way rapport with class as the instructor can develop the lesson step by step using the &;7 as re1uired# (e) )t is very easy and simple to operate# (f) Due to its light weight it can be easily shifted from one class to another# !he transparencies used are comparatively cheaper and can be recycled using methylated spirit or alcohol for reuse# '5# *ethod o# Storing O9P Transparencies; &;7 transparencies are to be either *ept in large si=ed envelopes, folders or in transparency bo$es# !he slides should be serially numbered and an inde$ *ept in the large bo$ or folder# !he &;7 slides should be cleaned and re-written when the writing becomes illegible due to constant usage over a period of time# '6# -riting O9P Slides; While writing the &;7 slides the following rules are followed : (a) Ase Landscape format# (b) &bserve the :!le o# Se0en (@or a class of 3. students&A> (i) %even lines (<a$imum '? lines)# (ii) %even mm thic* letters# (iii) %even mm between lines# (c) Co +ursive 1riting; (d) (lways give a Centre 9eading and !nderline; (e) Ase )right Colo!rs 8 2lack , &ed , 2lue , 3reen , (iolet. )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

66

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@ &verhead 7ro:ector- )ntroduction !o ducational !echnology )ntroduction !o ducational !echnology

A=T9O: 4 %ampath 4 %ampath, ( 7annir %elvam (nd % %anthanam

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 959 '5'

C9APTE:

13;

*ET9O,S O 3NST:=CT3ON
O)<ECT37ES When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to (a) "ist the various <ethods of )nstruction# (b) $plain each <ethod of )nstruction# (c) numerate the advantages and disadvantages of each method (d) numerate the uses of each <ethod of )nstruction#

69

*ethod

Action *aGe
!his method is a development of the case study and consists of a problem and some suggested solutions# !he trainees choose one solution for their answer and this leads them to the ne$t stage when they are told what happens when this decision has been made# %ome more information is then given, and the process continues# (fter a while the trainees come to a final solution, which can form the basis for further learning# Decision ma*ing practice# )ndividual learner decision ma*ing practice# Different learner approaches can be accommodated# Difficult to construct# Felies on trainer s*ills in reviewing learning process#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses Ad0antages ,isad0antages

*ethod

Action Learning
+"earning by e$perience, through solving and actual problem of an organisation,#

-hat 3t 3s 7eople usually wor* in % !%: a small group (usually four to si$ people) who meet periodically to discuss the progress of problems of their particular pro:ects# (n e$perienced +set adviser, is normally allotted to each group#

9?

*ain =ses Ad0antages

<anagement !raining# +Feal, problems2pro:ect# %et members help one another# Ban be time consuming# /ood Eset, advisers are vital#

,isad0antages

*ethod

)rainstor$ing
( techni1ue used for finding solutions by means of stimulating ideas# ( small group of people with or without conscious *nowledge of the sub:ect meets and contributes any suggestion or idea that comes into their heads, no matter how fantastic or impossible it may sound# (ll suggestions are encouraged and criticism is not allowed at this stage, although contributors are later invited to e$plain their ideas# %ubse1uently all the ideas submitted at the meeting are sifted and assessed# 7roblem solving# Bonsolidating previous learning# Ases participants, e$perience and ideas# Mery active participation# !ime consuming# ;igh trainer s*ills re1uired# %ome learners may not participate#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod

)!siness 8a$e?E1ercise
L( learning e$ercise in which groups of trainees operate as management teams of imaginary companies in a carefully defined competitive mar*et# Ampires (or a computer) evaluate each company,s decisions (for e$ample), to increase investment in production but to spend less on research) and at the end of the game, the performance of the companies are compared# !rainees learn both from the game itself and from subse1uent reviews of performance,#

-hat 3t 3s

9'

*ethod *ain =ses

)!siness 8a$e?E1ercise %ContdM;;&

Decision-ma*ing# %*ills in planning# )nteractive and communication s*ills development# ;ighly participative# Tuic* feedbac* of results# 7articipants may identify and accept more readily their own wea*nesses# Bondenses decision ma*ing e$periences# <ista*es can be made without fear of serious conse1uences# (ssists transfer of learning from theory to practice# Bompetitive spirit and Edesire too beat the umpire, may detract from the actual learning# !ime consuming to produce# 7rocessing the groups, decisions can be comple$ and may re1uire use of a computer# Ban be outside the e$perience of participants# <ay be difficult to overcome the Eartificial feeling, of the game# 0eing so highly participative it may adversely affect subse1uent sessions#

Ad0antages ,isad0antages

*ethod

Case St!dy *ethod

L( learning techni1ue in which a real or fictional situation or series of events is presented to trainees for their analysis and consideration of possible solutions of problems identified# !heir findings in a real situation can be compared subse1uently with what actually occurred# Base studies are often used in interpersonal industrial relations situations such as disciplinary cases and grievance handling,#

-hat 3t 3s

92

*ain =ses

7roblem solving# Developing analytical s*ills# /aining confidence in decision ma*ing# Bhanging2modifying attitudes# )ntroducing and consolidating other sessions# !eam Wor*#

*ethod

Case St!dy *ethod %ContdM&

7rovides concrete sub:ects for discussion# 7articipants, e$periences can be brought into use and shared with others# 7rovides opportunities for active participation# !ime consuming to produce# Difficulty in validating when there is no 1uantifiable solution# Blose relationship to +real-life, may be difficult to achieve# Differences between the training situation and the real world may not be recogni=ed#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod -hat 3t 3s *ain =ses

Coaching
+%ystematically increasing the ability and e$perience of the trainee by giving him2her planning tas*s, coupled with continuous appraisal, advice, and counseling, by the trainee,s supervisor,# 7robably the most widely used and abused method of +on-the-:ob, training# Development of *nowledge and s*ills# !he learn may have undivided attention from the trainer in the one-toone situation# "evel and pace of coaching can be 1uic*ly adapted# !rainer and learner are li*ely to have more immediate feedbac* of results compared with some other methods# Ban be e$pensive on trainer,s time# &nly very small numbers can be dealt with at one time# %uccess depends very much on the 1ualities of the trainer#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

93

*ethod

Co$p!ter )ased Training

B0! involves the use of the computer as a teaching medium and 2or learning resources in an educational or training system# Ased as a teaching medium, the computer,s programme controls the presentation of instructional material to a learner on the basis of his2her responses to previous 1uestions# !he computer thus (D(7!% teaching to the individual# Ased as a learning resource, the computer acts as a tool for the learner, providing calculation, simulation, modeling, problem-solving and information facilities# )n this case the computer does not necessarily teach in any direct sense-e#g# a flight simulator in aircrew training#

-hat 3t 3s

*ethod *ain =ses

Co$p!ter )ased Training %ContdM&

4nowledge learning# Boncepts, procedures, facts, principles# "earner proceeds at own pace# "evel of material can be matched to learner# )ndividual learner feedbac*# Fecord of individual learner performance is possible# ;ighly interactive and can be motivating# "imited range of commercial programmes# $pensive and time consuming to produce# Bomputer hardware necessary for each learner# !he learner may feel manipulated by the computer#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod

,e$onstration
!he direct trainer, by actual performance, shows the learner what to do and how to do it, and with his associated e$planations indicates why, when, and where it is done# )t rarely stands alone> it is almost invariably combined with another method# %howing correct2incorrect actions, procedures, etc# /iving learners a yardstic* to aim at# %timulated interest# "arge groups can be handled#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses Ad0antages

9-

,isad0antages

!a*es a lot of time and effort to produce# "ittle or no contact between direct trainer and learners whilst it is actually ta*ing place# Ban be too fast for the learners to absorb or understand what is going on when several actions or s*ills are being demonstrated simultaneously# /ood learner viewing is often a problem#

*ethod

,isco0ery Learning
L( method of learning which is designed to enable the learner to formulate his2her own understanding of a sub:ect through the solution of a carefullydesigned se1uence of problems# !raditional e$pository methods usually tell the learner e$actly what it is that he2she has to understand# )t usually proceeds by presenting principles first, and e$amples later, whereas the discovery method presents selected e$amples first, and principles only when the learner has understand the concepts# ;as been adapted in training from the primary school field# Development of *nowledge and s*ills in both operative and management fields, but has been mostly applied in the former for +older, learners# "earner activity can be high# )nterest and motivation may be easily obtained and maintained# "ong term retention of information and s*ill may be high# Ban create greater and deeper understanding# )f done properly can be very time consuming to prepare learning material and construct a learning situation# Ban lac* +face validity, with learners and trainers ali*e as the method can appear to be both unstructured and hapha=ard# "earning time can be lengthy#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod -hat 3t 3s

,isc!ssion *ethod
I( training techni1ue in which the learning derives principally from the participants themselves rather than from an instructor#,

9.

*ain =ses

Cormally recogni=ed to be three main types: ') direct discussion 2) developmental discussion 3) problem-solving discussion @or problem solving e$ercises# @or forming or molding attitudes# @or stimulating interest and constructive thought# @or supplementing other methods# @or reviewing 2consolidation other learning#

*ethod Ad0antages

,isc!ssion *ethod %ContdM&

"earner activity can be high# )nterest can be 1uic*ly aroused# !ime-consuming to obtain anything worthwhile# ;as to be e$tremely well controlled to be of value# !o run well, learners must *now or have opinions about the topic#

,isad0antages

*ethod

8ro!p E1ercises
/roup e$ercises re1uire as small group of learners to underta*e an activity together# !he content of the activity is not important# What is important is how the group undertoo* the activity and the results achieved# $periential learning occurs when a person engages in some activity, loo*s bac* at the activity critically, abstracts some useful insight from the analysis, and puts the results to wor*# !his is an inductive process, proceeding from observation rather that from given truth# ( structured e$perience provides a frame wor* in which the inductive process can be facilitated# !he e$periences center on a topic-related activity, where the trainees participate in, for e$ample, is ma*ing products, transactions, problem solving, non-verbal communication, planning, competing, etc# !he e$periences so created provide the basis for learning# Develop interactive2interpersonal s*ills# !eam building activities# ;ighly participative# "earners are usually highly motivated#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses Ad0antages

93

,isad0antages *ethod

7rocess s*ills learning can be obscured by the output of the activity# ;igh trainer s*ills are re1uired to review and help transfer of learning#

8!ided :eading
Feading material provided or specified by the trainer or coach# 7ublications, such as te$t boo*s, maga=ines, and research papers, provide a wealth of up-todate information# !he availability of literature of this *ind enables trainees to supplement the more formal instructional methods with specialist reading to suit individual needs# /uidance can be provided by, for e$ample, trainers colleagues, or simply a trainee,s own motivation to learn more# !o update *nowledge# Bheap and easy to use# !rainer identifying appropriate reading material# Felies on learner motivation to act#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses Ad0antages ,isad0antages

*ethod

3n>Tray E1ercises
+( form of training which attempts to stimulate the wor*ing situation by setting the trainee realistic tas*s# !he trainees are presented with papers such as letters and memos, placed in the +in, bas*et or +in, tray to which they respond individually# !he results of the e$ercise are then analysed, discussed and assessed on the basis of the decisions made#, 7roblem solving# Development of analytical s*ills# @or gaining confidence in decision ma*ing# !ransfer of theory learned to practical# 7rovides concrete sub:ects for practical wor* and discussion opportunities for active participation# !ime consuming to produce# %ometimes difficult to achieve + real life, situations#

-hat 3t 3s

*ain =ses

Ad0antages ,isad0antages

*ethod

Lect!re

95

-hat 3t 3s

( straight tal* or e$position, possibly using visual or other aids, but without group participation other than at the conclusion# @or transmission of facts and information which may be classified as of +interest, value only and which the learners would not be e$pected to remember in full# ( large amount of material can be covered in a relatively short time# &ne lecturer, virtually no limits, can handle a large number of learners# Bontent and se1uence under the learner,s complete control#

*ain =ses

Ad0antages

*ethod

Lect!re %ContdM&
"ac* of learner activity they are passive with little or no opportunity for participation# 4nowledge 2 information imparted by tal*ing is not easily memorable# !he lecturer has little or no immediate feedbac* from the learners# +%aturation+ point is reached relatively 1uic*ly# !he learner,s attention can be easily distracted#

,isad0antages *ethod -hat 3t 3s *ain =ses

Lesson
+ ( form of instruction incorporating a number of instructional techni1ues designed to ensure the participation of the learning group in reaching the specified behavioural ob:ectives# !his is fre1uently achieved by the use of 1uestion and answer#, (ll types of *nowledge learning# %ome s*ills learning# "earning procedures# Blose contact between the direct trainer and learner# "earners can receive individual attention# &pportunity to ma$imi=e group activity# !rainer can receive immediate feedbac*# Bhange in level and pace of training can be made 1uic*ly# <ore than any other method, a successful lesson depends upon the 1uality of the direct trainer# "esson groups should not e$ceed 6-'? learners- this can be e$pensive on trainers and e1uipment#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

96

*ethod -hat 3t 3s *ain =ses

Pro/ect
+ ( form of e$ercise leading to the accomplishment, often within a fi$ed time, of a definite tas*, e#g#, a report containing recommendations on a stated problem, or the design and manufacture of e1uipment to a given specification#, Development of s*ills# !ransfer of off-:ob learning to real situation# &nus of learning is put on the learner,s shoulders# %timulates interest and creativity# Ban involve application of a range of s*ills self pacing# Ban be wor*ed by the learner at convenient times# nd product may have a practical use#

Ad0antages

*ethod ,isad0antages

Pro/ect %ContdM&
Ceeds very careful control by the trainer# <otivation wanes if inade1uate guidance is given# Bonfidence of learner may be undermined by negative feedbac*#

*ethod

Progra$$ed Learning
( form of instruction in which the following factors are present:

-hat 3t 3s

!here is a clear statement of e$actly what the trainee is e$pected to be able to do at the end of the programme# !he material to be learned, which has been itemi=ed and tested, is presented serially in identifiable steps or frames#

*ain =ses

@or all types of *nowledge learning# @or teaching concepts and procedures# "earners can wor* at their own pace# "earners can wor* at their own time and 2 or at times most suitable to them# <aterial is carefully structured into learning steps# !ime consuming and costly to produce# Ban be administratively difficult to run#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod -hat 3t 3s

3nteracti0e 7ideo
)nteractive video brings together video and computer systems to provide the

99

*ain =ses

learning event# !he video provides colour moving and still images with stereo sound and the computer provides te$t and manages the interaction with the learner# !he interaction can include e$planation, demonstration, 1uestioning, e$ploration situations and alternatives and responding to 1uestions with video and te$t# Develops interpersonal s*ills# 4nowledge based learning# )ntroducing computer 8 based systems# $ploring attitudes of people and situations#

*ethod

3nteracti0e 7ideo %ContdM&

7otentially the design of individually tailored learning e$periences e$actly matched to needs# %timulating and motivating use of multimedia# 7aced by learners# )ndividual learner feedbac*# Fecords of individual performance can be maintained# ;igh initial cost of setting up a system# "imited range of commercial software#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

*ethod -hat 3t 3s *ain =ses Ad0antages

8!ided Practice
( method in which the learner has to perform the operation or procedure being learned, under controlled conditioned# (ll types of s*ills training# )ncreasing *nowledge and modifying attitudes# "earners are actively engaged# Breates interest# !here is an e$change of ideas, e$perience, etc# Ban be time consuming # Ban be e$pensive on e1uipment and materials# 7ersonalities in the group situation may conflict# $pensive on trainer time# <ay be easy for individuals to +opt out#,

,isad0antages

'??

*ethod -hat 3t 3s

:ole Playing
+( "earning techni1ue in which students are presented with situation which they are re1uired to e$plore by acting out the roles of those represented in this situation#, @or changing 2 modifying attitudes# Developing interactive *nowledge and s*ills#

*ain =ses

*ethod

:ole Playing %ContdM&

Ban create a great deal of interest# (ctive participation by role player# 7rovides a +living, e$ample# &nly e$ercise where emotions become the predominant feature# Fole players may learn more than observers# &bservers may be passive until the e$ercise is discussed# %uccess depends on the imagination of the player# (ttitude change may be short lived#

Ad0antages

,isad0antages

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O

)OO@

A=T9O: "a ;ill (nd <ichael Dobhya L Dunhill

( !eacher !raining Bourse ( !eacher !raining <anual Feadings )n ducational !echnology

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 23. 2'9 '53

'?'

C9APTE:

14;

LECT=:E AN, LESSON *ET9O,

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) $plain the different phases of "ecture <ethod (b) "ist the advantages and disadvantages of "ecture <ethod# (c) 7repare a "ecture Cote for a given topic# (d) $plain the different stages of "esson <ethod (e) "ist the advantages of "esson <ethod# (f) 7repare a "esson 7lan for a given topic#

'?2

LECT=:E *ET9O, '# "ecture is a straight tal* or verbal e$position using visual or other aids but without trainee participation other than through 1uestions at the end of the class# )t is used e$cessively in school and Aniversity teaching where the students are large and it is not possible to divide them into smaller groups# )t is particularly useful to inform students of general developments and apprise them and educate them on sub:ects of topical interest# %ub:ects such as ;istory, %ociology, Bivics and 7olitical %cience etc could be easily taught by adopting this method# 2# "ecture can be divided into four phases:(a) Planning; )n this phase the teacher has the plan for the lecture depending upon the audience it is meant for# !he following are the points to be followed while planning:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 7repare lecture notes# 7repare the training aids if re1uired# 7repare 1uestionnaires# Write down the lecture and rehearse#

'?3

(b) -ar$ =p Phase; !his is the introductory part of the lecture and is served to generate sufficient interest amongst the audience on the sub:ect# !he following should be the order:(i) (ii) (iii) (nnounce the theme# Blarify the ob:ective for giving a strong sense of direction# (nalyses the level of audience, start at the lowest level# the

(c) ,e0elop$ent Phase; !his is the main body of the lecture# )n this phase sub:ect of the lecture is developed in a logical and interesting manner:(i) (ii) (iii) Develop the lecture in logical se1uence# stablish the ideas# Ase training aids as re1uired2considered necessary#

(d) Consolidation? S!$$ary Phase; !his is the phase for summing up the lecture and emphasi=ing important points where necessary# !his is important as there is no provision for feedbac* in this method# !he following are the steps involved:(i) %um up the whole session by relating all elements in your lecture# (( diagram or a chart, if could be used, would be the best way to summarise the lecture)# (ii) Ad0antages 3# !he main advantages of this method are that it is:(a) Econo$ical; )t can be used to teach a large audience with hardly any e$penditure on training aids and other accessories# (b) *oti0ating; !he theme of the lecture could serve to motivate trainees# 7rinciples could be taught easily by used to (s* the audience to clear any doubts, if any#

(c) =se#!l #or E1plaining Principles; adopting this method of instruction#

(d) =se#!l #or 3ntrod!cing topics; "ecture method can be introduce topics and pave the way for detailed e$planation subse1uently#

'?-

,isad0antages; !his method, however, suffers from the following disadvantages:(a) Passi0e Learning; activity oriented learning# !he passive role by the student is against all norms of

(b) Mery little information is retained by the learner as the use of training aids is limited# (c) Cot ideal for below average students# !his is because the method presumes certain level of entry behaviour on the part of the audience# (d) "imited @eed-bac*# a

(e) "imited critical thin*ing ability as the students thin*ing processes are not sufficiently motivated# .# ( model +"ecture Cote, is placed at the end of this chapter# !he format may be used for systematically preparing a lecture and the same can be retained in the faculty for reference# Lesson *ethod 3# !he lesson method of instruction is used to teach comple$ sub:ects, particularly, those of a scientific2technical nature in a logical manner with :udicious use of training aids thus ensuring active participation of the students at all times# )n this method of instruction, the material presented is structured to ensure active participation of the learning group# !his is achieved by the 1uestion answer techni1ue which gives instant feedbac* to the instructor on the attainments of training ob:ectives# !his method of instruction re1uires lot of planning and preparation# !he first and foremost activity of the instructor is to identify the training and specific ob:ectives which are to be achieved in respect of the sub:ect being taught# ;e has also to prepare and plan his lesson ta*ing into account the various facilities which are available vi= classrooms, laboratories, wor*shops, the training aids which should be used vi= blac*board, magnetic boards, wall charts, &;7 slide pro:ectors, '3mm pro:ector, MBF and the static and wor*ing models which should be used in presentation# @inally, the instructor has to decide upon a comprehensive evaluation pac*age to administer the class to ascertain as to what e$tent that the training and specific ob:ectives have been met# Stages o# Lesson *ethod;

'?.

5# !here are four stages of development of lesson method of instruction as e$plained in the succeeding paragraphs# 6# 3ntrod!ction; !his is the first phase of the lesson method of instruction and should be programmed according to the entry behaviour of the students# !he lesson should only start after ascertaining the entry behaviour of the class by as*ing 1uestions and generating discussions# !he ob:ectives of the lesson should be understood before developing the lesson# !his will help the students in *nowing what e$actly is desired from them on completion of the particular class and will, therefore, elicit ma$imum co-operation from the class# )ntroduction should also cover the relevance of the sub:ect being taught and its use in the life of the learner which will in turn motivate him to learn better# (n appropriate e$ample or historical perspective often help to locate the topic# 9# ,e0elop$ent; !his is the second and most important phase of the lesson method of instruction# !he lesson should be developed with the help of demonstration wherever possible# !he leading 1uestions should be put on the students so that they are allowed to thin* and ta*e active participation in classroom activities# /roup discussion of short duration should be encouraged to enable participation by all students# !his will help the learner to come out of his shell and create confidence in him# 7roper training aids should be used for illustrating important points# !his will brea*s the monotony of the classroom instructions and foster faster learning# '?# Consolidation; )n this, the teacher summari=es the entire proceedings of the class# !his is done at the end of each lesson# (fter summari=ing, the teacher should evaluate the students by as*ing proper 1uestions# !his will enable the teacher to *now whether the learner has achieved all the ob:ectives set by him at the beginning of the lesion# )n case the ob:ectives are not met in full, the teacher may reinforce those points which were not clear to the students# ''# ollo" =p# !his is the last phase of the lesson method of instruction# )n this students are given home assignments# !hese assignments can be in the form of 1uestions, pro:ects depending upon the sub:ect matters# !he instructor should identify the wea*er students in the class and give them personal attention# !he instructors should also cater for the individual differences of trainees and try to bridge the gap created by culture, language and educational bac*grounds# '2# Lesson Plan# ( lesson method of instruction should always be accompanied by a document called the E"esson 7lan,# !he activities of the teacher and the learner are preplanned and indicated in this document containing the guidelines for the teacher on the strategy to be followed, the various resources and training aids available and the time at his disposal# ( lesson plan helps the instructor in many ways such as :(a) )t motivates the instructor to ta*e a class properly as he is well e1uipped guided at every stage# (b) )t gives proper emphasis to various parts of the lesson# (c) ;elps the instructor to chec* coverage of essential information# and

'?3

(d) ;elps the instructor to use various training aids effectively at the right time and at the right place to emphasis a particular point# (e) ;elps the instructor to as* the right 1uestion at the right time# (f) ;elps him to stay on schedule# <inute by minute development of the lesson and other activities are recorded in the lesson plan and as such it is easy for the instructor to complete all the activities for a particular session without any problem# '3# ( model lesson plan is placed at the end of the chapter#

Ad0antages '-# !he main advantages of the lesson method of instruction are as follows:(a) )t ta*es into consideration the age, ability and aptitude of learner# !he law of readiness also is considered# (b) )t evo*es and maintains the interest of the learner# (c) nsures that the learner sees purpose in learning# (d) %ecures ma$imum thought, co-operation and activity, of the learner# (e) 7resents a problem or challenge to the learner# (f) "eaves the learner with a sense of achievement# (g) Atilises the various talents of the learner# (h) Marious sense li*e sight, hearing and touch are put into proper use to further the learning process# (:) <otivate the learner to actively participate in the classroom activities# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@ !he Braft &f !eaching Feadings )n ducational !echnology

A=T9O: (mri* %ingh (nand Fao

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 6.9 ?33

'?5

C9APTE:

15;

COAC93N8
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the content of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the term +coaching, (b) (pply the four ways of learning with reference to productive and reproductive tas*s (c) (naly=e +!rainer centered, approach and trainee centered approach for coaching# (d) "ist re1uirements for coaching reproductive tas*s# (e) "ist re1uirements for coaching productive tas*s# (f) 7repare a chec*list for conduct of a coaching session#

'?6

COAC93N8 '# We have referred to the process of helping people to learn, and a lot of training is individual# <any effective training methods serve this purpose, such as guided reading, pro:ects, and computer based training# Boaching underlines all these# !here are many instances when coaching, which is individual, one-to-one training, could improve someone,s performance# 2# Boaching is a method of instruction in which the trainer Gsystematically increases the ability and e$perience of the trainee by giving him2her planned tasks, coupled with continuous appraisal, advice and counselling##, 3# )n this one-to-one relatiohship there are two people involved, the +supervisor, or +trainer, and the +trainee,# !he trainee will oftern be a person who is a colleague, and not necessarily a :unior one# (s the +coach, you can therfore instruct a wide variety of people either officially at a training centre or as an everyday event at wor*, when it may not even seem li*e +training,# Iou are simply showing somebody how to do something# 0ut it is nevertheless a coatching session# -# !he definition refers to +planned tas*s,# 0oth words are important and have a lot of impact on the sucess of coaching activities# "et us first deal with tas*, and then with planning the tas*s# TAS@S

'?9

.# ( tas* is an element of wor* with a clearly defined beginning, leading to a specific result# ;ere are some e$amples of tas*s : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Bhanging a car wheel <eeting a customer Delivering a lecture Writing a letter !yping a letter @ile a copy of the letter

3# !here can be any number of tas*s which may have not clear beginning or specific result# Cotice the last three e$amples# Iou might argue that there is only one tas* which is to +type a letter and file a copy,# !his is only an e$ample of how separate tas*s merge into one# )mmediately we have problems such as listed below:(a) )s one person responsible for all three tas*s D (b) )s the person re1uired to do all three tas*s D (c) What specific event should happenD )s it to write a +good, letter or to type oneD 5# !here is no guarantee that the same person can do all the tas*s# !as*s are wor*ing activities, where each tas* should have a clear beginning and end# ach trainee will already be able to perform satisfactorily a range of tas*s within the boundary of the :ob# @ig# ' below, represents the :ob and tas*# !he outline of the bo$ illustrates the current or future boundary of the trainee,s :ob and the flowers represent the tas*s the trainee has to complete#

L&0

!(F/ ! !(%4 (3)

C W !(%4 (')

7F&0" < !(%4 (2)

''?

6# !he person can perform most of the tas*s, and is competent and does not re1uire training for these# ;owever, some of the flowers shown above represent the following :(a) (b) (c) ( new tas* to the person, which he or she will have to learn# ( tas* which has a problem and the person who help to learns how to do it better# will need

( tas* that is especially important and is a target for the person to achieve competence#

9# ach tas* will have a clear beginning and an end# ( tas* is wor* leading to a +specific result,# %o for every flower included in the bo$ shown in the figure, there must be some *ind of specific result# &ne must therefore be able to dermine for each flower or tas* what tas*, what specific result the trainee needs to achieve, and what standards to use to assess the performance# <ost of the tas*s shown in the figure need no training, but the three highlighted ones re1uire the services of a competent trainer to plan and carry out the coaching# PLANN3N8 TAS@S '?# When you plan to increase or change a person,s range of tas*s consider the following 1uestions carefully:(a) ;ow well will a new tas* fit into the person,s e$isting rangeD (b) ;ow easy or difficult is the new tas* to learnD (c) (re other people performing the tas* already and is their performance satisfactoryD (d) )f others are performing the tas* badly, what effect will this have on the traineeD (e) )f others are performing the tas* well, can they help with coachingD (f) What is the standard performance for this tas*D Ban the trainer perform it well enough to be a reliable coachD (g) Will the trainee be *een and willing to learn the tas* or is it being imposedD (h) )f the trainee has already got a full wor* load, which tas*s can they transfer to someone else so that they can learn and perform the new tas*D !his also applies to tas*s designated as +targets,# (:) )f the tas* is a problem one, does the trainee *now itD ''# %o when you are planning a tas*, you must consider these and any other 1uestions that might be important to the organisation and a particular wor*place# )t is essential to establish a

'''

sound reason for as*ing people to learn tas*s, and to ensure that they have enough opportunities to learn how# )n a training establishment or school tas*s are li*ely to be either planned within the design of a course, or provided to help individual trainees cope with learning difficulties# '2# (nother factor that one has to consider as a trainer is, if the tas* to be trained is a Feproductive !as* or a 7roductive tas*# Feproductive tas*s are those that are always performed in the same way# !here is one set procedure to perform these tas*s and the trainee has to learn that set procedure# (s a trainer we must realise that for a reproductive tas* the order in which the four ways of learning influence the learning of any reproductive tas* is )mitation, 0eing !old, !rialK rror and !hin*ing# '3# &n the other hand, a 7roductive tas* can be performed in any number of ways# %uch tas*s re1uire the trainee to ac1uire *nowledge and use it to plan and decide# ach performance of the tas* or method is li*ely to be different# !here is an element of creativitiy in reproductive tas*s# (lso the trainee has to develop competence by performing the tas* in many different situations# !he order in which the four ways of learning influence the learning of any productive tas* is !hin*ing, !rial and rror,)mitation, and 0eing !old# '.# With large class si=es and fre1uent changes of trainer, it may be difficult to ensure a close friendly understanding with trainees, such that they feel to see* personal help with their problems# )t is also often difficult to create practical conditions closely matching the real wor*place# )t may therefore be more difficult to include tas*-related training in a course# ;owever, unless you do so, wor*-based trainers will ta*e over their training needs# '3# !he wor*place is more li*ely to provide opportunities for tas*-related training# Lobs change, and so does the wor* people do# !his will result in new tas*s emerging, new problems besides e$isting ones, and new targets being set due to changing priorities# !his creates a general and continuous need for learning, most of which people can do for themselves without formal training# ;owever, there will be other occasions which need on :ob coaching# @or e$ample to : (a) (b) (c) (d) identify tas*s clearly set standards of performance train members of staff to coach arrange time and resources for coaching

'5# !he wor*place can provide ideal opportunities for training# 7eople can learn by doing tas*s there, using the actual systems and e1uipment# (lso most importantly, recognised e$perts can supervise their learning, and provide coaching as it is needed# Boaching is therfore an important method of instruction which we use almost on a day to day basis in our wor* places#

''2

COAC93N8 A :EP:O,=CT37E TAS@ '6# @or coaching a reproductive tas*, the trainer must first study the tas* and brea* it down into small steps# ( trainer should then follow the following se1uence:(a) E$plain :- $plain the tas* to be performed# (b) ,emonstrate:- Demonstrate the tas* by giving a model performance of the tas*# (c) 3mitate:- (s* or allow the trainees to imitate the performance# (d) Practice:- /ive sufficient time and opportunitity for the trainees to practice the performance of the tas* on their own# (e) Assess:- (ssess the performance of the trainees and if re1uired review and correct the mista*es# '9# !he entire se1uence can be remembered by the acronym 2 short form E,3PA;

2?# While coaching a reproductive tas*, as a trainer you have the necessary e$pertise and can adopt a trainer-centered approach to coaching as shown below:-

TAS@ T:A3NE: T:A3NEE 2'# @or a reproductive tas* a coaching sessision should be adopted by applying the following framewor* (!his framewor* constitutes a "earning Anit in training :argon2terms):-

''3

(a) O./ecti0e; (s a trainer, you should be able to state clearly the performance re1uired by the trainee and describe where the tas* will be done and under what conditions and state the standard of performance# !he trainee should be clearly told about the ob:ective# !he more clearly defined and e$plicit the ob:ective, the easier will be the coaching session# !he trainee has a clear target to aim for and *nows the standard of performance re1uired# (b) Entry )eha0io!r; !he trainee will bring to the coaching session many comple$ and inter-related factors that will influence his or her learning# @or e$ampleA (i) Does the trainee want to learn the tas*D (ii) Does the trainee *now youD (iii) What is your status relative to the trainee,sD (iv) (re you a recogni=ed +master performer, of the tas*D (iv) )s the tas* a realistic one for the trainee to learn and does it fit comfortably with the rest of the trainees repretoire of tas*D (v) What is the trainee,s li*ely reaction to the trainer-centred approach you may plan to use# (c) Learning E0ent; !his is li*ely to be based on the trainer-centred approach because the tas* is reproductive and the trainee has to learn to imitate or copy a clearly defined performance# 0ecause the tas* being taught is reproductive the coaching tends to be reproductive# !he following procedure is a good way to plan and implement such learning# (i) 9a0e E0erything :eady; ;ave all materials, tools and paperwor* out in the correct place, and put all instructional aids within easy reach# (ii) Esta.lish a Contact; /ain the attention of the trainee before beginning the instruction# (iii) 3ntrod!ce the tas6; 0riefly introduce the tas*, giving its name, purpose and relevance to other tas*s and the wor* in general# %tate the ob:ective# (iv) ,e$onstrate; 7lace the trainee so that he or she has the same view as you# mphasise hand movements# Do the s*ill elements of the tas*s several times until the trainess seems to understand# Do not e$plain at this stage, let the trainee concentrate on what is being done#

''-

(vi) ,escri.e the Senses =sed; importance- sight, hearing, feeling, etc#

7oint out any senses of particular

(vii) As6 the Trainee to E1plain; !o chec* the success of the demonstration and e$planation, as* the trainee to name in order the points that have been emphasised# Borrect if there are any errors and repeat several times to ensure mastery# (viii) As6 the Trainee to Try; !he trainee should e$plain what he or she is doing# ncourage trainee to spot his or her own mista*es# Fepeat to ensure there are errors# (i$) Let the Trainee Practice; (llow the trainee to practice with the minimum of supervision, Bhec* fre1uently to ensure correct procedure# ,e$onstrate Target Ti$e; (s the trainee approaches mastery of the tas*, introduce the target time if appropriate to the tas*# Demonstrate, *eeping to the target time#

(i$)

($) :e>Chec6; (llow the trainee to practice, ensuring correct mastery within the target time# Watch out for any problem areas n performance# ($i) Lin6 FOn; $plain and demonstrate, where appropriate, how mastery of this tas* will enable the trainee to learn other tas*s as part of an overall training programme#

''.

($ii) Per#or$ance Assess$ent; With a reproductive tas*, and where there are clearly defined performance standard to achieve, the performance assessment can be fairly difficult# Depending on the tas*, performance measures can be either based on the +process, of performing the tas*, or the +product, of what is achieved# Process assess$ent is usually based on some form of chec*list developed from analysis of the tas*# )t draws attention to important procedural details of performance and can be used by either the trainer, another person in a supervisory role, or by the trainee# Prod!ct assess$ent is concerned with what is produced as a result of performing the tas*# !his usually something physical (e#g# a piece of woodwor*, or a completed form) and is often fairly easy to measure and assess# %ome tas*s re1uire careful assessment of process than product# &ne of the advantages of coaching is that it is usually possible to do both, and often assessment becomes an integral part of the coaching session# ($iii) (nother feature of performance assessment that is applied to all coaching sessions is the e$tent to which the trainee accepts responsibility for his or her own performance assessment# )f assessment is seen as achieving standards of perfomance set by somebody elese (e#g# a %upervisor or !rainee) then once a target has been achieved it cannot easily be repeated# &n the other hand if assessment is the responsibility of the trainee it becomes continuous and an integral part of performing the tas*# !wo phrases serve to describe this aspect of performance assessment: ($iv) or$ati0e assess$ent; Which involves the trainee and serves to provide non threatening feedbac* about performance# )t is particularly suitable for +trial and error, learning, both during coaching sessions and on occasions when the trainee is performing the tas* under normal wor*ing conditions# ($v) S!$$ati0e assess$ent; !his is where the ob:ective for the tas* defines a clear standard of performance that must be achieved# ( further re1uirement is that the trainee,s performance is assessed against the ob:ective to determine whether or not the trainee is capable of performing the tas*# (n e$ample of this form of assessment is the driving test#

COAC93N8 A P:O,=CT37E TAS@ '9# ;ere you may or may not have full mastery of the tas* yourself, but if not, there are others who can act as +resource, people# Iou can adpot a trainee>centred approach to the

''3

coaching session, re1uiring the trainee to contribute to planning the learning as illustrated below:!(%4
!F()C F

!F()C

2?# @or coaching a productive tas*, the following framewor* is usually adopted:(a) O./ecti0e; 0ecause the tas* is productive it might be difficult to determine a precise ob:ective# !his will depend on the conte$t in which the tas* is being learned# @ollowing are some e$amples to illustrate: (i) !he trainee might be newly appointed and learning a tas* performed by a member of the wor*ing group# (n ob:ective would therefore be fairly easy to define# (ii) !he tas* might be a new one with no performance criteria# )t might therefore be inappropriate to set rigid ob:ective that do not ta*e account of wor*related factors that might only materialise during successive performances of the tas*# (iii) !he tas* might be considered as a problem for the particular trainee# !he trainee might be an established member of the wor*ing group and the coaching sessions are designed to help the trainee improve performance# (ny improvement will help and it would be unrealistic to set what might be unattainable ob:ectives# (iv) !he final e$ample is one where the tas* is given to a person for development purposes# !he ob:ective might include a phrase such as +to develop a new appraisal system, and the obvious challenge is to learn about appraisal systems and to develop one for a particular application# /iven a highly motivated person, no further statement of ob:ective is needed# !he danger of listing e$amples such as those is that they may lead to the conclusion that for productive tas*s no ob:ective or should be stated# Bertainly, it is more difficult to fi$ a clear ob:ective for a productive tas* for a reproductive one, but most tas*s can and should be described in performance terms#

''5

(b) Entry )eha0io!r; <any of the points mentioned in the earlier reference to entry behaviour still apply# ;owever, due to the change to a trainee-centered approach and the increased demands placed on the trainee, you will have to consider some other factors as follows:(i) !o what e$tent does learning the tas* rely on previous e$perience or educational attainmentD (ii) ;as the trainee ac1uired +learning to learn, s*illsD

(iii) ;as the trainee the necessary degree of motivation and maturity to respond to the learning opportunities you are planning to provideD (iv) What opportunities to learn will be provided in the wor*ing environmentD 4his relates to opportunities you are planning to provide5 (c) Learning E0ent; !his should be structured around any reproductive elements in the tas*# !hese are fi$ed points of reference and need to be learned at an early stage in the coaching session# ( trainer centred approach may be chosen for these elements, although it might be more advantageous to avoid this approach, instead using the opportunity to weigh up the trainee and encourage self reliance# &ther points to note are:(i) )f there is no clear-cut way of performing the tas* you should resist the temptation to impose your way or solutions# (ii) !he trainee should be encouraged to cope with the analysis of data, problemsolving and decision-ma*ing, often doen in uni1ue circumstances and under pressure# (iii) 7roductive tas*s usually involve a lot of thin*ing# !he trainee, having ta*en the time and effort to solve problems and evaluated possible courses of action, has made decisions# !hese might not be the V+0estV,decisions but the trainee can own them and claim a degree of pride in having made them# (d) <uch depends on the relationship that e$ists or can be developed with the trainee# Boaching productive tas*s places for greater demands on the trainer than reproductive tas*s# @ar more demands will be made of your conselling s*ills and the e$tent to which you can nurture creative and possibly original, thought# ( learning event for a productive tas* can be as much a learning opportunity for you as for the trainee#

''6

(d) Per#or$ance Assess$ent; !his will depend on the clarity with which the ob:ective was set# )f this was specific and unambiguous it should be possible to establish realistic and measurable performance criteria# &ften this will not be possible and may be inappropriate# !he points made earlier regarding process and product, and formative and summative measures of assessment, still apply# !he emphasis should be towards formative assessment introduced early in the learning event, and continued throughout the coaching session# )t is also worth noting that with a truly productive tas* there may be no absolute standard of performance and that learning continues long after satisfactory tas* performance has been attained and coaching activities completed# T:A3NE:BS :ELAT3ONS93P -3T9 T9E T:A3NEE 2'# Boaching a person to learn a new tas*, or helping some body improve their performance by one-to-one learning demands a lot from a trainer# (s we said earlier, coaching can often be highly productive# Ase the four ways of learning sensitively and you will improve your relationshp with a trainee# (nother way to improve it is through your behaviour# ;ere are three e$amples of helpful behaviour : (a) S!pporting; (s an instructor, you accept what the trainee suggests and support their proposals and decisions# (b) )!ilding; !he trainee proposes an idea and you as an instructor build on it, developing and adding value to the idea# (c) 8i0ing in#or$ation; (s an instructor, you provide information which helps the trainee to perform the tas*# 22# )nstructors often do not e$hibit positive behaviour# %uch behaviour can demotivate the trainee in a coaching session#;ere are some e$amples of bad behaviour:(a) ,isagreeing; (s instructor, you criticise the trainee,s proposals# (b) Stating ,i##ic!lty; )nstructors why the trainee,s proposals would not wor*# (c) e$plain

:epetition o# sel#; (s instructor, you constantly return to your own point of view, imposing your ideas and decisions on the trainee# !his should never be done especially in a coaching session for a productive tas*#

23#

( chec* list for coaching is given in the subse1uent pages#

''9

C9EC@L3ST O: COAC93N8 Planning 3ntrod!ction /ain attention and rapport $plain purpose and reason for learning tas* %tate !raining ob:ective Bhec* entry behaviour $plain participation and responsibilities for learning event $plain how time is to be used Describe tas* and safety considerations )dentify tas* Bonsider people doing the tas* Decide the +best, way to perform the tas* (nalyse the tas* %pecify ob:ective to be achieved Bonsider the wor*ing environment )dentify productive and reproductive elements Describe reproductive procedures )dentify tas* related behaviours Bonsider trainee,s entry behaviour 7repare performance aids Write training ob:ective %pecify performance assessment Decide time available Decide se1uence

,e0elop$ent Describe the tas* within conte$t of wor*ing environment )dentift reproductive and productive elements 7erform the tas* where possible Demonstrate and e$plain reproductive elements

'2?

End -

(ssist trainee to practice reproductive elements Bhec* performance of reproductive elements with trainee performing and e$plaining actions nsure mastery of reproductive elements $plain productive elements (llow trainee to thin* about the practice of productive elements Bhec* understanding 7ractice performance of whole tas* Borrect errors Festate purpose and reason for performing tas* Festate training ob:ective )nvite 1uestions Barry out performance assessment /ive trainee feedbac* on performance !han* the trainee 7rovide remedial training where necessary 7rovide further opportunities for practice

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@ !he Braft &f !eaching Feadings )n ducational !echnology

A=T9O: (mri* %ingh (nand Fao

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 6.9 ?33

C9APTE:

1(;

'2'

4=EST3ON3N8 TEC934=ES 3N CLASS:OO*S

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define 1uestioning techni1ues# (b) "ist the types of 1uestioning techni1ues (c) $plain the importance of as*ing 1uestions during instructions# (d) $plain the techni1ues to as* the 1uestion during instructions#

4=EST3ON3N8 TEC9N34=ES

'22

'# ,e#inition; Tuestioning !echni1ue is the method of as*ing 1uestions to the trainees in the classroom# )t has got a special relevance in the "esson <ethod of instruction# 2# -hen are 4!estions As6edN circumstances:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (:) )n a class room, 1uestions are as*ed in the following

!o chec* previous *nowledge !o build up lesson !o chec* assimilation (understanding)# !o stimulate minds !o convey ideas !o deal with trainees, 1uestions# !o discipline a trainee !o grade the class !o evaluate terminal behaviour

3# Types o# 4!estions; @ollowing are the various types of 1uestions an instructor can as* in a class room:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Direct 1uestions# &verhead 1uestions <odified &verhead 1uestions Felay2Feworded 1uestions Feverse 1uestions Fhetoric 1uestions

-# ,irect 4!estions; !he 1uestion is as*ed directly to a particular person, in other words the trainee is first named and the 1uestion is as*ed# !o be avoided in classrooms as a practice# @or +"ample> +-ajesh, what is the unction o the sa ety loc# in a .66 ri le7, .# O0erhead 4!estions; !hese 1uestions are addressed to the entire class# )t normally leads to a discussion# !o be avoided in classrooms as a practice#

'23

@or +"ample> +2hich method o instruction is best suited to train jobs li#e handling o complicated radio equipment, guided practice method or coaching method!# 3# *odi#ied O0erhead 4!estions; %uch 1uestions are addressed to the entire class# %ome time is given to trainees to thin*# @inally one of them is named and as*ed# &nly this type to be practiced by the instructors# @or +"ample> !o the entire class, address the 1uestion by as*ing> G 2hy are the engines'rudders o the ship tuned o when diving operations commence8 > give a pause, have glance at each of the faces of trainees in front of you, then point out the trainee (say Fa:esh) and as* him, +-ajesh what is the answer7! 5# :elay?:e"orded 4!estions; When a trainee as*s the instructor a 1uestion, the instructor can reword it and relay it to the class# !his would stimulate the minds of other trainees also# %ometimes, this is also done if other trainees do not understand a trainee,s 1uestion properly# !his is often used in lesson method# @or +"ample> a trainee as*s a 1uestion, Gwhy is the ri le!s sa ety liver positioned in 9S! and then carried8, the instructor $ay re"ord and relay to the class as> Gwhy is it important to put the sa ety liver o ri le to 9S! position be ore carrying a ri le rom one place to another#J 6# !he relay2reworded 1uestioning techni1ue should however not be used to avoid responding to a 1uestion for which the instructor does not *now the answer# )n such cases, the instructor should politely say , G) shall refer and get bac* to youJ# 9# :e0erse 4!estions; )t is a !eaching !echni1ue# When a trainee as*s a 1uestion the instructor replies by as*ing another 1uestion# @or +"ample> a trainee as*s, G5eographically, where is the city o Sydney located, in the northern hemisphere or the southern hemisphereDJ )nstructor adopts a reverse 1uestioning techni1ue by as*ing G5eographically, where is Australia located, in the northern hemisphere or the southern hemisphereDJ '?# :hetoric 4!estions; )t is a 1uestion, which is as*ed without e$pecting a reply# Mery often, the instructor answers it himself or the answer is hidden in the 1uestion itself# !his type of 1uestion should not be used in lesson method# ;owever, it may be used in lecture method to drive home a point or initiate a topic# @or +"ample> Gwho do you thin* are responsible for the global warming problemDJ ''# Ad$inistering o# Oral 4!estions; While administering 1uestions in a classroom, *eep the following points in mind# (a) Distribute the 1uestions as*ed, among all the trainees#

'2-

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (h) (:) (*) (d) (e) (p) (1) (r) (s) (t) (u)

Ase modified overhead techni1ue only# (s*-----------------------------7ause-----------------Came a trainee# 4eep the repetition of 1uestion to a minimum# Do not permit group answers# 0alance factual K thought provo*ing 1uestions# Bommend good answers# Do not use catchy 1uestions# (for e$ample> +Which is heavierD '*g of cotton or Do not use threatening 1uestion# (1uestions as*ed with a threatening posture or Tuestions should be related to the topic# Tuestions should be clear# (llow sufficient time for the trainees to thin* and answer# (ccept trainees, inability to answer a 1uestion# (void 1uestions for which answer is either a +yes, or +no,# Do not accept the first correct answer# Tuestion inattentive trainee# 0e empathetic and cheerful#

'*g of ironDJ) 1uestion as*ed with a threat of punishment implicit in, it if answered wrong)#

'2# Tips to handle 5!estions #ro$ trainees# (n instructor will have to handle a lot of 1uestions from the trainees, especially in the lesson method of instruction# !he following tips would be very handy in handling such 1uestions:(a) (b) (c) /ive consideration for all 1uestions# Dispose off unimportant and irrelevant 1uestions politely (nalyse the purpose of the 1uestion#(!rainees some times fire 1uestions (chaffs)

:ust to deviate the instructor from the topic especially when an e$amination is fast approaching in order to prevent the instructor from covering more portions) (d) (e) /ive other trainees the first choice to answer the 1uestion# )t is a good habit to resort to reverse 1uestioning techni1ue to the e$tent possible#

'2.

(f) (g)

)f a 1uestions is as*ed for which you do not *now the answer, :ust accept ignorance by saying, G) shall get bac* to you after referring#J# )f a trainee goes on as*ing irrelevant 1uestions repeatedly, the instructor must be firm in dealing such situations#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ 7rinciples of ducation 7rinciples and methods of teaching <odels of teaching Feadings in educational technology

A=T9O: Dr F % 7andey 0hatia K 0hatia Loyce K Weil 0 (nand Fao Favisan*ar

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '52'' 2??? '53

C9APTE:

1+;

'23

3NST:=CTO: L3@E 4=AL3T3ES %3L4&

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) $plain the importance of good 1ualities for an instructor# (b) "ist the personal 1ualities re1uired for a good instructor# (c) "ist the 1ualities a good instructor must possess with regard to his attitude and approach towards the class2trainees# (d) "ist the professional 1ualities an instructor must possess#

3NST:=CTO: L3@E 4=AL3T3ES

'25

'# 3NT:O,=CT3ON; (ll of us did have a +8ood Teacher, bac* at school, whom we still remember# We still hold that teacher in high regard# !he regard and respect that +3deal Teacher, has earned is on account of the good 1ualities that he or she possessed# (n +)nstructor, has a responsible :ob of training and +moulding, the trainees# )t is therefore desirable that an instructor possesses all the good 1ualities that can be listed on the earth# %uch a list will be very e$haustive# ;owever, there are certain characteristics that can be listed and said that an instructor +$!st possess, or develop in order to become an efficient instructor# We shall be studying those characteristics and for convenience, they have been classified into three categories vi=personal 1ualities, instructor,s attitude towards class and instructor,s attitude towards his profession# 2# PE:SONAL 4=AL3T3ES; (n instructor must posses certain personal 1ualities that ma*e him an ideal human being# (a) Thoro!gh @no"ledge; !he instructor,s :ob is to transfer his *nowledge to the trainees# )n order to effectively carryout the transfer of learning he must have thorough sub:ect *nowledge# (lso an instructor with thorough *nowledge only will have enough confidence to face the trainees# (s an instructor, he should be more e1uipped in terms of deep understanding of the concepts, ideas and application# @or this, instructors must possess good reading habits# (b) Po"er o# E1pression; (n instructor must possess good power of e$pression so that he can put forward the ideas clearly and without any room for vagueness in the minds of the trainees# 7ower of e$pression does not mean that the instructor should put an artificial accent to the language (generally nglish) he spea*s# !he instructor should present the sub:ect matter in a clear and unambiguous language by choosing simple words and pronouncing them correctly# (c) T!rn O!t; (n instructor must ta*e ade1uate care to present himself with good turn out which will fetch him the due respect amongst the trainees# !he trainees are always observing him2her# ( well turned out instructor, is not only a role model but is also constantly conveying a positive body language of being orderly, methodical and concerned for being well groomed# (d) Cheer#!l ,isposition; (n instructor must set aside all the problems, personal or official, whatsoever, the moment he steps inside the

'26

classroom# ;e must be lively and cheerful in the classroom, so that he can motivate the trainees to the fullest e$tent# (e) Patience; !his is an important 1uality that an instructor must develop, while dealing with slow learners# !he normal tendency is to get annoyed when some one fails to learn# (n instructor must have patience and try to identify the problem areas of such trainees# ;e should also be patient in handling the doubts and 1uestions posed by trainees# (f) Con#idence; ( highly confident instructor can only e$ercise full control over the class# Bonfidence in sub:ect, confidence in methodology and handling the class are the essential factors for an instructor# (g) 8ood 9ealth; /ood health is a mar* of good personality# ( physically fit instructor will possess good bearing that will always be impressive# /ood health is the basic need for good power of e$pression and cheerful disposition in the class# (h) E1e$plary; !he instructor is an ideal person whom the trainees respect even outside the classroom# !herefore an instructor must possess neat habits and set an e$ample for the young trainees# &ne must remember, that an instructor,s reputation travels faster than him# 8ood or )ad reputation, travels fast# (n instructor cannot afford to be *nown for the wrong reasons# 3# TO-A:,S CLASS; !he instructor must possess the following 1ualities while dealing with the trainees in the classroom> (a) ,e$ocratic; (n instructor must ensure that e1ual chances are given to all the trainees for participating in all the activities of the classroom# ;e must also allow trainees to feel free in raising doubts and sharing ideas# ;owever a word of caution is that, too much democracy may ma*e the instructor to loose the control over the class# !herefore, he must be democratic to the re1uired level# (b) Sense o# 9!$ors; )t is a rare 1uality and not many instructors possess it# ( :o*e when crac*ed at the right time will ma*e the class lively and the

'29

monotony or mechanical delivery of instructions can be avoided# )t is important that the class is well under the control of the instructor under such circumstances# (c) le1i.le and :eso!rce#!l; (n instructor must be willing to change the style or strategy of teaching according to the needs of the trainees# ;e must have thorough *nowledge about various teaching methods and enough s*ill to follow them# (n instructor being resourceful not only means that he e$hibits an ever-helping attitude to the trainees in their learning but also possesses ways and means to suggest alternative resource material in the form of boo*s, films, B0! pac*ages, websites etc# (d) Co$es do"n to the le0el o# the class; !he instructor should be capable of coming down to the entry level of the class# !here should be a proper bridge between the e$isting *nowledge of the trainees and the *nowledge that they will ac1uire by the !eaching -"earning process# !herefore, it is the duty of the instructor to find the entry level of the class and decide the level for starting his instructions# (e) *oti0ation o# the class; !his is an important tas* of the instructor# @or effective learning motivation is an essential aspect# !herefore, instructor must endeavor to motivate the trainees always# (n instructor should very rarely ta*e the disciplinary and strict mode of getting trainees to fall in line for any learning situation# !his might be in fact de-motivating for learning to ta*e place# (f) =n.iased; (n instructor must not be partial to an individual or to a group of individuals in the class# ;e must treat each and every individual e1ual# @avouring an individual or a group of individuals will only create an unpleasant atmosphere in the class# (n instructor cannot afford to be biased# (g) E$pathetic; !he instructor must be empathetic towards slow learners# )n other words, he should see the problems of the slow learners from their point of view# !his would enable him to have an actual feel of their problems and ta*e diagnostic steps# ;e should give a feeling that they would not be left behind# ;e should facilitate the slow learners in catching up with the rest of the class# -# Attit!de to"ards Pro#ession %As An 3nstr!ctor&; (n instructor must be aware of all the techni1ues of teaching and should be able to employ them appropriately# )n addition he should have the following 1ualities: (a) Planning o# 3nstr!ctions; ( good instructor must always prepare for the instructions# ;e may be having the ade1uate *nowledge but must plan the methodology,

'3?

se1uence of sub:ect matter and training aids well before the commencement of the class# )n the Cavy, we deal with the adult learners all the time# )t is therefore very important that an instructor plans the learning opportunities li*e e$ercises, visits etc well in advance# 7lanning also includes, planning the classroom layout, training aids and resource material in sufficient 1uantity# (b) Logical Presentation o# S!./ect; &nce planning and preparation is completed, the ne$t stage is to present the sub:ect in a very logical manner *eeping in mind the ma$ims of teaching# (c) Sti$!lates Acti0ity; !he instructor must always strive to stimulate many activities in the class# <ere chal* and tal* will be monotonous# !herefore, he must ensure participation of trainees in all the activities# ;e should stimulate the minds of the trainees by as*ing good 1uestions and establish two-way traffic for a highly interactive session# (d) ,iagnostic; !he instructor must be able to identify the li*ely problem areas of the trainees in !eaching -"earning process# ;e must also adopt remedial measures for effective learning# (e) Co$$!nication S6ills# (n instructor should possess e$cellent communication s*ills# ;e should convey ideas and concepts in a manner that is easily understandable to the trainees# !he understanding of ideas, concepts etc by the trainees should be in a way that is indented to be understood# .# Concl!sion; )t can be seen that the list of characteristics that an instructor must posses is 1uite long# )t is also stated that, one can add many more 1ualities to the e$isting list# ;ence the 1ualities that a good instructor must possess are e$haustive# We have only seen the essential 1ualities in the above paragraphs#

OOOOOOOO

C9APTE:

1';

'3'

T:ANS E: O LEA:N3N8
&n mastery of this Bhapter, you will be able to :(a) Define +!ransfer of learning, (b) $plain the reasons for ineffective transfer of learning (c) numerate the activities which aid transfer of learning (d) $plain the methods to incorporate !ransfer of "earning into training programme# (e) "ist the role of trainer in aiding !ransfer of "earning

Application o# Learning to -or6

T:ANS E: O LEA:N3N8
'# (s trainers, we need to give special attention to help the trainees to apply new learning, so that it is consolidated, reinforced and used at wor* to the benefit of both the trainee and the organi=ation# !his application o# learning to "or6 is "hat "e call the trans#er o# learning; @ollowing are two e$amples of a transfer of learning:-

'32

(a) ( writer who has been trained on the use of <icrosoft (ccess software should be able to e$ploit its uses when he is posted to any office or ship# (b) ( sailor who has been trained on the various methods of instructions during the methods course at C) !!, should be able to use all the s*ills of imparting instructions in the training establishment where he is posted#

The Pro.le$ %-hy trans#er o# learning o#ten does not ta6e place&
2# !he transfer of learning tends to be difficult in most organi=ational settings# @or e$ample, psychological difficulties are li*ely to be e$perienced by the learners2trainees because most learning situations in the training environment are substantially different from the actual :ob situation# !he physical environment is different# %o are the attitudes, feelings and motivation of learners as a group with regard to their performance# 3# !hus the transfer of learning from training to a :ob environment ma*es demands on the trainee,s abilities to recogni=e and practice applications of the new learning# )t also means that if the learning is not to be lost through forgetting, then there must be opportunities in the :ob soon after training to apply and reinforce the learning that has ta*en place during training# )f opportunities to practice or use the new learning are not available, then the new *nowledge and s*ills ac1uired will only rust# -# !his brings in another difficulty, which needs to be overcome# !hat is that the learner,s supervisor and ship mates need to help and encourage the learning that is to be consolidated# !hey may not do so because they do not see the need# !hey have not been involved in the supportive environment of a learning group# !hey may also sometimes not be ready to introduce or implement a new technology or s*ill which the trainee has ac1uired purely because of the ignorance of the new technology or simply because of an unwillingness to change# !hey have probably developed their own ways of doing things# !hey may not see the need to change# !hey do not see the need to help the trainees to ad:ust# !o do this will ma*e demands on others as well as trainees# .# Wor* may need to be re-arranged or re-assigned to allow trainees to have the essential opportunities to practice and perfect their newly learned s*ills# !his is demanding on the trainee,s boss vi= supervisor2manager# ( boss who thin*s that the off- :ob training is not relevant may prevent or obstruct applications of the learning because of the feeling that it could upset the smooth running of the office# !he boss could also feel threatened if the new learning has e1uipped the learner (who is often the subordinate) with s*ills that the manager does not possess, but would li*e to have#
0orget everything they told you in the course

'33

3# Mery often in our offices and ships we find that the managers or supervisors telling their :uniors, who have :ust been on a training course, Gforget every thing they told you on that course and do it this way#####J# !his situation is li*ely to occur when training is failing either to provide appropriate off-the-:ob training courses or to convince the line manager of the course,s relevance and of the line manager,s own responsibility for helping learning to ta*e place> or perhaps bothS ( provision of training, which is not relevant, creates barriers to further learning on account of the following reasons:(a) !he trainee has to unlearn the irrelevant behavior before new learning of the desired behavior can ta*e place (b) !he trainee can become demotivated, frustrated or cynical about learning applicable techni1ues# 5# !o help transfer of learning, it is essential to build in to the overall programme, opportunities for the learner to practice the newly learned s*ills and use the *nowledge gained# !he application of the learning should also reward the learner# (ny plans for transfer of learning should therefore help the learner to e$perience success in applying the new learning to the :ob# !he line manager also needs to be involved, both in agreeing the relevance of the training course initially and in providing opportunities and rewards to the learner#

Acti0ities to help Trans#er o# Learning

6# <any techni1ues can be incorporated into a training programme to assist the transfer of learning from an off-the- :ob training course into the :ob situation# !hese techni1ues can help to involve line management more fully in the training programme# !hey may provide information to monitor the effectiveness of specific training courses and the overall training programme# )nformation may be generated on what has been learnt and also on the organi=ational impact

'3-

resulting from training# !he following activities may be incorporated into a training programme, either individually or in combination, depending on the constraints and resources available:-

(a) (ction plans# During the training courses each trainee develops a plan to use parts of the training in the :ob# !his is prepared with tutorial support and guidance from the trainer# ach trainee may identify three or four specific ideas from the course, which can be applied in his or her :ob# !he trainee should consider the costs and benefits of utili=ing each of the ideas then produce strategies, and a timetable for implementing them# !he plans should then be discussed with the trainee,s line manager and be approved and agreed at this stage# !he ma:or advantages of an action plan are: (i) (ii) )t relates the course directly to the :ob )t can be structured to allow the learners to assess their success

$Exa!ple:; An instructor trainee at <I+TT, can be as#ed to identi y grey areas o improper master syllabus and lesson plans o his parent training establishment and can be as#ed to prepare an action plan to use his newly acquired s#ills o ma#ing master syllabus and lesson plans in his training establishment. The action plan can be made in consultation with <I+TT sta and also i required the parent training establishment can be as#ed to monitor the implementation o the action plan. This would ensure complete trans er o learning.* (b) 3ndi0id!al Pro/ect; ( pro:ect is similar to an action plan, but it is usually broader in scope# Bompletion of the pro:ect may be a ma:or part of the trainee,s entire :ob for a considerable period after the training course# )or exa!ple, a trainee o icer who has just completed a course on <=,3 may be given a project that includes an immediate survey o his entire ship or establishment in order to identi y ha.ards. The trainee o icer may then systematically step to eliminate e"isting ha.ards and ormulate rules and procedure to minimi.e the li#elihood o accidents. In e ect, the trainee becomes the <=,3 o icer or a period o a ew wee#s. (aving completed the project, the trainee returns to an appropriate appointment or position where <=,3 is only one o the responsibilities. !o complete an assigned pro:ect, a trainee must review, consolidate, and apply material learnt during training# !he trainee is then more li*ely to use this learnt material on return to his2her own :ob# )n addition, the on-the-:ob pro:ect can be used to measure learning and also to generate tangible benefits (for e$ample, a lower accident rate) for the organi=ation#

'3.

(c) 8ro!p Pro/ect; ( group pro:ect is similar to an individual pro:ect# !he difference is that several trainees co-operate in the pro:ect# !his follow-up activity is particularly useful where one of the ob:ectives of training is the development of interpersonal s*ills# /roup pro:ects have been used widely in leadership and management course, B&2Q& 7B!, higher command courses, etc# )or exa!ple, middle level electrical o icers who have just completed a course on planning may be ormed into a tas# orce or planning the introduction o a new system rom -ussia on board a ship. The organi.ation receives a plan o action relating to the new system and its associated problems i any, and the trainees apply their new learning in a practical and there ore satis ying way. Trainees may also be given a case study on some real li e situation and as#ed to ma#e a group study and present solutions. (d) 3ndi0id!al 8!idance and Coaching; 7otentially, this is one of the most potent follow-up techni1ues# )ts effectiveness, however, depends almost entirely on the coaching s*ill of the trainee,s supervisor, who is usually given the role of a coach## !his method will fail if the supervisor is an inade1uate coach or does not have the time or inclination to do it# Cote that individual guidance and coaching is not the same as Gloo*ing onJ, where a trainee watches what to do and then does it# /uidance and coaching involves progression through a thoroughly planned set of learning e$periences with the trainee receiving individual attention from the coach# !his type of learning is often used at upper levels of organi=ations where individuals are appointed P!nderst!dyJ to the occupants of *ey positions by wor*ing through a carefully selected set pro:ects, programmes and other learning e$periences# (lso, instead of the supervisor, a trainer can assume some aspects of the coaching role through a series of scheduled follow-ups# )f used primarily for chec*ing and helping learning rather than evaluating, this is useful, but not as effective as regular coaching by the supervisor# (e) or$al :e0ie" Sessions; !his *ind of session is a mini-course# )t is run some time after the training programme# )t can be used to re-e$amine material that trainees have reported as difficult# &r it can be used to motivate trainees to continue to use the concepts and s*ills learned in the main programme# )t can serve as a useful review of the original programme, but it may not ade1uately serve the needs of individual trainees# (f) Se$inars and 8!est Spea6ers; can be brought together to e$tend their of mutual interest# !hey can prepare seminar invite guest spea*ers# %uccess depends on the spea*ers and the importance of the topic )n seminars, trainees *nowledge of topics papers themselves, or the effectiveness of to the trainees# !he

'33

spea*er may be as*ed to present a sub:ect without going into the theory in any depth# &ften, however, enough theory is included to gain the interest and attention of trainees# !rainers then find that follow-up seminars on further aspects of the sub:ects will be well received# !hese e$tend the trainees *nowledge while retaining the core concepts of the training# %eminars are often used in Cavy as a useful tool for effective transfer of learning# /unnery %eminar, lectronic Warfare %eminars, Cavigation %eminars etc are very often organi=ed in the Cavy# !hese seminars also aid to share the e$periences and common problems encountered in usage of the relevant *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes# (g) -or6shops; Wor*shops are very popular and often effective ways of following up training# (t regular wor*shop meetings, learners ta*e turns at presenting their current wor* problems# /roup members draw on the training materials plus their own e$periences to propose solutions to the problems# Wor*shops thus reinforce concepts and s*ills learned in training and can contribute significantly to the reduction of organi=ational problems# Training and ,e0elop$ent Plans 9# !he use of training and development plans to be completed before an off-the-:ob training course is underta*en and can greatly assist the transfer of learning# %uch plans should be used in such a way that the trainee can be directed through the things to be learned on the course and there by establishing the relevance of the sub:ects and the priorities for study# 0y tal*ing through the learning to be achieved with his2her supervisor as well as increasing his2her own commitment to the training# !his discussion should also establish the re1uirement for post course review leading to individual guidance and coaching upon return from the training course# )!ilding ITrans#er o# learningB into Training progra$$e '?# !o ensure that training programme offers an integrated learning e$perience leading to the desired individual performance, transfer of learning opportunities must be built in from the beginning# &therwise there is a ris* of an unstructured approach in which the trainee fails to recogni=e and apply the learning, which has resulted from programme activities and so forgets# &vercoming the difficulties in ensuring continuing opportunities for learners to apply, practice and develop their *nowledge and s*ills can be helped by: (a) &btaining management support for training, as reflected in the organi=ation,s training policy, and commitment to integrated rather than unstructured training# !his will not eliminate resistance based upon pressure of wor*, precedence or cost, but it will reduce it#

'35

(b) Discussing with trainees and their supervisors of their roles in the training programme and their responsibilities for being active rather than passive participants in the learning process# !his allows the supervisor to plan wor* allocation to accommodate the follow-up activity# Discussions between a trainee and his2her supervisor establish Ipsychological contractB for e$ploiting the learning opportunity# (c) Designing the transfer of learning opportunities to fit in with the aspirations and abilities of the trainees and their supervisors# Bonsultation with both will help deciding the most useful transfer of a learning mechanism# !his should result in the design of an active training programme# (ll the transfer of learning opportunities would automatically be mentioned in the master syllabus and planned in the lesson plans# ''# !he effective transfer of learning from an-off-the 8:ob training course to the :ob situation does of course re1uire the content of the course to be based on an accurate identification of training need# )f the original identification of need was wrong, the transfer of learning activity should help to identify this, as it is established that the learning cannot be applied to the :ob# !herefore, the trainer needs to be involved at some stage in monitoring the transfer of learning# The TrainerBs :ole '2# "ine managers have a particularly important responsibility for helping the transfer of learning to ta*e place# ;owever, the trainer also has a role# %pecifically, the trainer should try to:(a) <inimi=e all e$ternal factors, which slow down transfer of learning# (b) 7rovide resources to help transfer of learning# (c) 0uild transfer of learning into training programme at the design stage (in the master syllabus and lesson plans)# (d) )nvolve trainee,s supervisors2bosses2B&s of ships2user units in training design# Cegotiate their help and support for training activities and for getting the trainee to perform differently after the training# (d) <inimi=e factors inside training course, which might limit transfer# 0uild :ob related issues into all courses# (e) ncourage trainees to assume responsibility to use and develop their learning#

(f) &rgani=e and help to implement transfer of learning activities

'36

(g) <onitor the implementation of transfer of learning activities#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@ !he "earning 7rocess 8 theory and practice !raining at wor*

A=T9O: Fosella "ins*ie Ueus K %*iffington

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '39 23-3

C9APTE:

19;

B&<7A! F 0(% D !F()C)C/ (B0!)

'39

&n mastery of this chapter, the trainee will be able to : (a) Define: (i) B0! (ii) B() (iii) <ultimedia (b) "ist the areas of effectiveness of B0! (c) "ist the types of B0! (d) Describe the advantages and general guidelines for using B0!#

3ntrod!ction '# Co$p!ter )ased Training %C)T&; B0! refers to course materials presented or controlled by a computer that uses multiple re1uirements for trainee responses as a primary means of facilitating mastery of a tas* on supporting s*ill or *nowledge# Bomputer based training is sometimes called Bomputer 0ased )nstruction, )nteractive Bourseware and even Web 0ased !raining# B0! is not a <ethod of )nstructions, it is a means for delivering instructions# )t is essentially individuali=ed, self paced or group paced interactive instruction, combined with multimedia presentations# )nteractive instructions is trainee and group centered performance

'-?

oriented training that re1uires trainees and group to practice what they learn, receive appropriate feedbac* and ta*e tests# !he priority for interaction is between the trainee and the e1uipment2sub:ect matter# )n B0! the computer courseware controls the training content, delivery pace and learning se1uence based on trainee input# !he courseware is designed using variety of <ethods of )nstruction (<&)) to lead the trainee and2 or group through the learning process# !he design translates each individual critical tas* and supporting s*ills and *nowledge into se1uential, progressive training# )t includes the creation of story treatments, scripts and storyboards# !he courseware may include, but is not limited to digiti=ed te$t, programmed instruction, audio, video, graphics and animation# 2# Co$p!ter>Aided 3nstr!ction %CA3&; B(), also referred to as GBomputer 8 (ssisted )nstruction,J involves use of computers to aid in the delivery of instruction# B() e$ploits computer technology to provide for the storage and retrieval of information for both the instructor and trainee# B() usually refers to the use of computer to support instructor-led classroom instruction# Asing computer as a presentation media for slide, audio, or motion pictures, which support large or small group instruction, is an e$ample of B()# 3# *!lti$edia; !he use of more than one media to achieve a specific purpose or ob:ective# <ultimedia refers to technology combining te$t, still and animated images, video, audio and other form of computer data that can be manipulated# )t is used to convey information in a useful educational, entertaining realistic or more easily understood manner# <ultimedia is delivered on a multimedia wor*station or personal computer via networ* hard disc, floppy disc or BD F&<2DMD# -# E##ecti0eness; !he areas of effectiveness of B0!are: (a) Trainee Thro!ghp!t# ( B0! pac*age ta*es into account the different levels of initial *nowledge of target trainee by providing a relative access2mapping to various modules# (b) Training ,!ration; !he ability to assess, provide feedbac*, replay if necessary and incorporating test 1uestion items after each specific ob:ective helps to save a substantial amount of time consumed during pre-course and post-course phase# (c) <o. Per#or$ance; !he 7%) (7ersonali=ed individual instruction) capabilities afford higher potential to improve the 1uality of training# !rainees can run the program at their own pace thereby assimilating interactions effectively# (d) Trainee E1penses; B0! can be fre1uently presented to a widely dispersed audience at or near their place of wor*# 0y connecting the 7Bs to the video pro:ection system, relatively bigger pro:ection can also be obtained to involve more trainees#

'-'

Bomputers are also capable of service for e$tended hours thereby permitting use of a system by large number of trainees on a time-sharing basis# (e) Trainee Attit!de; Due to 7ersonali=ed )ndividual )nstructional capabilities coupled with user friendliness, the trainees develop a more positive attitude towards computers# (f) *anip!lati0e Property; /raphics and synthesi=ed sounds can be generated to suit the re1uirements of the sub:ect matter# !his enhances the capability of B0! as against conventional methods, in the areas involving concepts, principles and se1uences where animation is re1uired# .# Categories o# C)T; !here are three categories of B0! :(a) ,rill E Practice; )t emphasi=es reinforcement on repeat performance# (b) T!torials; role memory, developing s*ills by

)t involves, dialogue based learning# !his provides a cheap

(c) Si$!lations; B0! can do real life simulation# replacement for the actual e1uipments# 3# Types o# C)T;

!here are two types of B0! from the point of view of usage: -

(a) Pri$ary C)T; !he B0! pac*age that envisages the entire topic and are of longer duration e#g# a detailed pac*age teaching escapes from a %%4 class sun*en submarine in distress# !hese pac*ages are e$haustively written and endeavour to perform the role of an instructor# (b) Ad/!nct C)T; !he B0! pac*age that supplements the main instructions, e#g# illustration of concepts of inflation of a life-raft# !hese pac*ages are modular in nature and have lesser running time# %uch pac*ages not only provide variety in instruction but also e$ploit their potential where it is needed the most# 5# Co$p!ter )ased Training %C)T& and the Syste$ Approach to Training %SAT&; !he %(! process provides the framewor* for developing training within the framewor* of the %(! process> training re1uirements are established and translated into appropriate instructional ob:ectives# )n design phase, one of the most important tas*s is that of selecting appropriate instructional delivery methods and media# (fter the methods and media are selected, the B0! guidelines are applicable for the planning design and development of computer based training# Tuality )mprovement (T)) is part and parcel of the %(! process and is the continuous, organi=ed implementation of beneficial change to the process of designing and developing Bomputer 0ased !raining# !he goal of T) is to promote continuous improvement in the computer based training

'-2

process and products# Bontinuous T) of instructional programs is an on going initiative# !he computer based training development process is designed to help training teams to as* the right 1uestions and help focus on the Cavy,s needs in terms of re1uirements, schedules and budgets# Bontinuous T) translates into meeting instructional re1uirements in the most effective and efficient manner possible# 6# Development of an )nteractive B0! "esson#(ll B0! pac*ages are based on )-7-@-!-@ ()nput-7ractice-@eedbac*-!esting-@eedbac*) cycle# 0ryan Bhapman, an e-learning analyst for branden-hall#com suggests that developing one hour of B0! instruction can ta*e from 3? to -? hours for a simple Gpage turnerJ with te$t, graphics, and minimal interactivity to up to 5.? hours for a highly interactive simulation-based course# !his however pays dividends when trainees thereby saving on the instruction time repeatedly utili=e the pac*age# !he se1uence of plan to develop the B() lesson is depicted in the flowchart given in the ne$t page# 9# Ad0antages o# Co$p!ter )ased Training; Bomputer based training may be a suitable instructional media delivery system for many training ob:ectives# !han*s to the e$pired development technology, it is now possible to create at a reasonable price, new ways of designing and developing training materials # !oday, computer can be used to deliver interactive> competency based individuali=ed multimedia instruction# Bomputer based training can tailor instruction to individual trainee,s needs, be deployable, provide J :ust in timeJ and also G:ust enough G instruction# '?# C)T 0is>Q>0is other 3nstr!ctional *ethods; B0! pac*ages have the following advantages compared to the traditional methods of instruction: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (:) )t provides 7%) (7ersonali=ed )ndividual )nstruction)# Baters for target audience with different levels of e$isting *nowledge# )t is user friendly# )t is interactive in nature# 0ranching programs can be written to enhance this feature# )t provides graphics and animation including synthesi=ed sounds# @acilitates simulation of dangerous e$ercise li*e abandoning drills of )" 36 aircraft# !he pac*age has provision for replay# 7ermits modification2improvements# 1uipment is easily maintainable by local agencies#

''# 8eneral 8!idelines #or =sing C)T as an 3nstr!ctional *edia ,eli0ery Syste$; @ollowing are the general guidelines (given in brief) to be followed for using B0! as an instructional media:-

'-3

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Ase B0! together a large collection of multimedia material, such as slide collections or still photographs one minute of still frame and motion se1uence on film or video# B0! training school should be considered when there are a large number of trainees distributed over time and place# Bonsider using B0! applications when it is necessary to allow trainees to practice a s*ill and a simulator or real e1uipment is impractical or unavailable for this training# B0! can provide a safe, yet realistic simulation of dangerous activities and situations# B0! is a particularly suitable instructional media delivery system when the :ob re1uires continuous practice and 2or retraining# B0! can be very useful delivery method in training problem solving and decision-ma*ing s*ills# When a training situation is such that trainees vary in e$perience learning style and s*ill level, B0! instruction can provide different types and levels of instruction to different trainees#

'2#

S!$$ary (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) B0! is not a method of instructions it is a means for delivering instruction where computer ta*es on the role of the instructor# ( B0! pac*age ta*es into account the different levels of initial *nowledge of target trainees# !he personali=ed individual instruction capabilities afford higher potential to improve the 1uality of training# !he trainees develop a more positive attitude towards computers# !here are three categories of B0!s:(i) Drill and 7ractice# (i) !utorials and (ii) %imulations# !here are two types of B0!s:(i) 7rimary B0!# (ii) (d:unct B0!# (ll B0! pac*ages are based on input-trainee-feedbac*-testing-feedbac* cycle# )t is user friendly# )t provides graphics and animation including synthesi=ed sounds# (dvantages and general guidelines for using B0!#

(f)

(g) (h) (:) (*)

'--

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2

T3TLE O )OO@ Bomputer 0ased !raining Bomputer /uidelines 0ased

A=T9O: 0ob "ewis (nd Tuentin Whitloc* !raining C) !!

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 233 -

C9APTE:

22;

73,EO 3N T:A3N3N8
O)<ECT37ES

'-.

When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) "ist various formats in video# (b) %tate the various video standards# (c) $plain the application of video in training# (d) "ist the steps involved in a video film production#

73,EO 3N T:A3N3N8 '# !he Bentral tas* of all instruction is to transfer information from wherever it resides-the mind of the instructor, some record such as a boo*, etc# in to the minds of the trainees# !he )nstructor,s role is to manage the transfer process> to determine what information the trainee needs, to locate that information or to select it from the larger body of available *nowledge and present it in an appropriate from#

'-3

2# %ometimes all these can be done very simply# !he information e$ists in the instructor,s mind# ( lecture is delivered and transfer is accomplished# Anfortunately it is not always that simple# !rainees are individuals and individuals learn at different speeds, respond to different type of presentations, leading the )nstructor to have to present information with a variety of methods# 3# Whilst a lecture may be most economical in terms of time and effort, it might be the least effective way to ensure retention of learning since visual stimuli are not effectively used# )n general a method of instruction which engages the trainee,s visual and auditory senses simultaneously is much more effective than a lecture# -# ( picture may be worth a thousand words, but a picture accompanied by appropriate words and sounds incorporating movement is worth at least a thousand still images# 7resenting this *ind of information re1uires an audio visual medium# 7ideo and Other A7 *edia .# "eaving aside B() and multimedia, which are brea*ing new ground, media that present information in an audio visual format are only three# (a) (b) (c) %till photographs with accompanying audio (%lide-tape)# '3 mm23. mm <otion pictures (film recordings)# Mideo#

3# %lide tape programmers are relatively easy to ma*e# Feplacing individual slides and rerecording narration can easily modify it# !he image 1uality is also e$tremely high# ;owever it has a ma:or disadvantage in that images are still# <otion can be simulated to a limited e$tent only by using an elaborate arrangement of multiple pro:ections# !he presentation is slightly cumbersome needing a (i) 7ro:ector (ii) (udio Fecorder (iii) 7ro:ection screen# 5# <otion pictures have the advantage of e$tremely high resolution and colour 1uality# (esthetic effects can be easily achieved# !he downside is that film professionals can only ma*e these films with a great deal of technical ability# Bosts are prohibitively high and ordinarily the contents cannot be altered to update content# 7resentation re1uires a dar*ened room and pro:ector tend to be noisy# 6# Mideo offers by far the best advantage in cost2performance ratio# 7eople with limited e$perience and technical bac*ground can ma*e video# !he image 1uality tends to vary depending on the type of e1uipment (format) used# Ferunning, rewinding frame free=ing etc are available at the press of a switch and the entire presentation process can be individuali=ed# Mideo however is not a perfect medium for all purposes and all times# )ts advantages must be weighed against the cost of e1uipment, costs in terms of time and effort in producing the original

'-5

material etc# ( :udicious choice would then be re1uired to balance out what topics are ideally suited for video and what could be relegated for other types of media# Applying 7ideo To 3nstr!ction; 9# Bhoosing appropriate content is the first and perhaps the most important step in producing and instructional video# !here are a few topics2content, which are appropriate for instructional video# (a) 3$practical O./ects; 7robably the most obvious category would be anything that is too big, rare or valuable or dangerous to bring into a normal Caval classroom# @or e$ample you might li*e to ta*e your Badets class to an (ircraft carrier# ;owever even a complete visit enabling them to see various compartments Gup close and personalJ would not give them much of information about its construction and operating principles, its strategic principles and its other relative merits# ( better alternative would be to shoot a film on an aircraft carrier based on the ob:ectives you have set for your class, and then edit it into a succinct, well organi=ed programme showing e$actly what you want your cadets to *now about an (ircraft carrier# &ther operations li*e underwater welding techni1ues, shipside search for mines, operations of (!B, 1uality control procedures for (ircraft maintenance et are ideal topics for a video film# (b) Special people; %ometimes we would li*e out trainees to learn about a rare person# 7erhaps he is an e$pert in the field you are training your cadets on# 0ringing an e$pert into your classroom might be a superb e$perience both for you and your trainees, may be even for the e$pert# Anfortunately e$perts are often very busy people with other main live commitments# ;owever it might be possible to arrange a visit to his office and video tape a discussion# )n addition the tape may be edited to eliminate irrelevancies, accidental misstatements etc# (c) Processes; 7rocesses are notoriously difficult to teach especially if you want your trainees to perform a specific process rather that simply G*nowingJ something about it# !he most common method is Demonstration and 7ractice# !he )nstructor shows step by step what is to be done or what is supposed to happen under given circumstances# !he trainees then practice the procedure# )nvariably the )nstructor must correct and re-teach since: (i) %ome trainee may not have had a clear view of what the )nstructor was doing# (ii) )f a trainee misses a single step,the rest of the demonstration may be incomprehensible#

'-6

(iii) )n order to perform correctly the trainees must remember each step in its proper order as well as e$actly how each step was performed# (iv) !he )nstructor,s demonstration might not be accurate or clear#

(d) :epetition; )nstructional videos can also be valuable in teaching the same thing repeatedly to one group of students or to a number of groups over a period of time# <uch of instruction tends to be repetitive over time# (n )nstructional Mideo may help relieve the tedium and free time for )nstructors to provide more creative inputs# Femote places and a limited number of abstract topics can also fit 1uite well in an )nstructional setting# 7ideo Script"riting '?# !he film script translates each individual critical tas* and supporting s*ills and *nowledge involved in ma*ing a film into se1uential, progressive steps# !his includes the creation of story treatments, scripts and storyboards# !he script is also essential for B0! courseware, which may include, but is not limited to digiti=ed te$t, programmed instruction, audio, video, graphics and animation# Mideo and !elevision refer to two rather distinctive areas, though in everyday perspective we tend to club both# !M in an organi=ational sense is represented by the huge broadcasting (both 7rivate and Cational) networ*s, which normally cater to public use# )t includes broadcasting, cable and the home video mar*et# )t includes not only entertainment programmes but also educational and cultural programmes intended for general consumption# !M means programmes created and produced impersonally if not anonymously for the en:oyment and edification of whoever happens to see them# ''# Mideo is concerned with the non-!M uses# !he situation is similar to the concept of ducation and )nstruction2!raining# ducation is concerned with broad areas, !raining with specific s*ills# )n the same way when you teach something specific to a trainee by means of video technology you are in the realm of )nstructional Mideo#

'2# !M means not only <!M or BCC or Uee !M# )t could also be a program on the evolution of computers since it could be received and understood by :ust about any educated person# ;owever, the wor*ing of storage cell 2 battery would be instructional video since you are now trying to reach something specific# '3# !he point of ma*ing these distinctions is related to the end result of what we want to achieve in a script for instructional video# !he purpose of instructional video ()M) is to communicate a specific piece of *nowledge or a specific s*ill to a particular person or group# !hat purpose must be refined and evaluated in a plan of production, which might be a script, a

'-9

storyboard or :ust an outline# !he sine non-1ua of a good )M is a tight, script where the visual se1uences are fully matched by the supporting audio and vice versa# %cripting is a highly creative e$ercise but is time consuming and e$pects total dedication from the scriptwriter# ( poorly written script is often the only reason why an )nstructional Mideo fails to deliver in spite of good camera wor*, sophisticate graphics and slic* editing# '-# When we deliver a lesson in class, we invariably use the following method2phases# (a) Preli$inary phase# !rainees are prepared for receiving the lesson, for e$ample ob:ectives for the lesson are presented to let the trainees *now what he is supposed to do at the end of his lesson, previous wor* may be revised and 1uestions may be as*ed# (b) ,e0elop$ent Phase: !his part of a lesson includes everything the )nstructor does to convey information or to model the behaviour that is to be learned# (c) Concl!sion Phase: !his includes provisions for the )nstructor to chec* the trainee,s ac1uisition of new *nowledge or s*ills# &ften this includes a 1ui= or oral test# !his phase also incorporates a summing up module# '.# (n )nstructional Mideo contains materials that involve only the first two phases> 7reliminary and Development# )n the preliminary phase, the video might contain a brief review of information that the trainees should already *now# ( statement of specific ob:ectives and any other introductory information that will aid trainees in learning# !he developmental phase consists of the presentation of information including in some cases the demonstration of a process# '3# Asually an )M does not attempt to cover the third phase, e$cept perhaps to include a brief self chec*, a 1ui= or a review of the material# &ther conclusive phase activities are better left to the )nstructor# '5# &ne common mista*e in the development of an )M is to try to put too much into it# ( video does not include everything that is *nown about a given sub:ect# Father an effective video li*e an effective lesson should include only as much information as the trainees are prepared to receive and absorb at one time# @urthermore G!; M)D & )% C&! !; B&<7" ! " %%&CJ )t is only part of the lesson# )n developing an )M it is not a good idea to assume that you as an )nstructor will be able to turn on the !M and MBF, leave the room and come bac* half an hour later to a room full of well taught trainees# '6# )n the remaining portions of this chapter we will consider an e$ample which could be the focus of an )M# We will thin* in terms of a single lesson, the amount of information we would convey in one session# !his is our starting point# "et,s thin* about what needs to be said or shown in the preliminary and developmental phases# !hen arrange this content in an outline#

'.?

The Content O!tline '9# &utline the content :ust as you would for a lesson plan# @or simple programs, a numbered list of the *ey concepts is sufficient# @or a more comple$ lesson, you can brea* it up into a modular format# "et,s ta*e as an e$ample, the topic, G<easuring Distances on a globe#J Iour content outline may loo* something li*e this:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) )ntroduction: )mportance of (ccurate <easurement# !he /reat Bircle Boncept# <easuring short distances: 7aper strip method# <a*ing an e1uatorial paper strip (great circle)# Asing the e1uatorial strip to measure# Bonclusion and summary#

2?# !his outline includes all three phases of instruction# )tem a is the preliminary and )tem of the conclusion phase# )tems 2 to . are the developmental phases# 2'# (n effective video li*e an effective lesson has a beginning, middle and an end, and the content should flow smoothly from one topic to the ne$t# !he information should be presented in some logical se1uence, preferably the order in which students need to receive it# !a*e enough time to prepare a content outline carefully# Doing so will save you time as well as frustration, as you continue to develop your video# &nce you are satisfied with your outline, you are ready to begin with a plan of production# Story .oarding 22# @or many people the hardest part of developing an effective script in thin*ing GMisuallyJ# !he great advantage in using video is its ability to show information# !his advantage is largely wasted if the video consists mainly of pictures of somebody telling something what is often called the G!al*ing headsJ syndrome# !al*ing heads are not always to be avoided but they should be minimi=ed to the e$tent possible# (nother off shoot is the tendency to have the audio e$plain certain parts of a feature but the corresponding visual does not match# !he golden rule is G(ll the audio in your script should be accompanied by a corresponding visual imageJ# Whilst this might seem obvious it is often overloo*ed# !o enable scriptwriters to thin* visually and enable them to communicate their ideas to the Director and Bameraman, the storyboarding format is used# !his is a simple method of deciding what image you need# ( storyboard is a *ind of visual outline# The Story )oard

'.'

23# ( useful tool in scripting either fact or feature film is the device as storyboard# )t consists of a series of small s*etches of proposed film action, thumb stac*ed to a cor*board or other bac*ground in se1uence so that the picture,s line of development is presented in visual terms# &rdinarily descriptive comment, narration, or dialogue accompanies each s*etch# !he finished product is much li*e a comic strip, with individual panels presenting the film,s highlights in such fashion that any and all concerned may understand# 2-# Why bother with wor*ing up a storyboardD !here are three good reasons# (a) Feason &ne is the difficulty that the -film clients and feature-film producers sometimes have in visuali=ing action from words# ( storyboard lays this to rest by letting said client or producer see the story as it develops# (b) Feason !wo is the way the story board enables a writer to nail down precisely the effect he wants, ma*ing his point with pictures instead of struggling vainly to translate comple$ images into verbiage# (c) Feason !hree is that even the most talented of ine$perienced writers-indeed, writers far from ine$perience, upon occasion-translate well from script to screen# !he storyboard offers an e$cellent way to find out, by forcing Writer to show rather than tal* about precisely what he means# &r, to put it in other terms, it,s first-class method to train yourself to thin* pictorially# 2.# %toryboard art ranges from the roughest of rough stic* figures to semi-polished wor*#

23# (n artist can be engaged to do color s*etches of the action, shot by shot# !hirty-five millimeter color slides then can be made of the s*etches and set up in se1uence in an automatic pro:ector, the film,s tentative narration timed and taped to play with it # 0ut the presentation can be an e$pensive venture# 25# !he storyboard art may ta*e a wide variety of forms# !hough most boards feature s*etches# !here are some that utili=ed snapshots, clips of pictures from maga=ines, and assorted other approaches# %o don,t let the fact that you,re not an artist stop you# )ndeed, learning to s*etch well enough for storyboard purposes needn,t prove too traumatic# !humbing through a few boo*s on cartooning self-taught and the li*e at your local library will give you all the information you need# 26# Does this mean you should always storyboard your scriptsD &n the contrary# While a storyboard can be an e$ceedingly helpful aid upon occasion, it also represents an e$tra-and e$tremely time-consuming-step in the scripting process# mploy it, therefore, only when a client demands it, or when you see definite benefits as accruing from it-as, for e$ample, in wor*ing up or getting across some bothersome point#

'.2

29#

,e0eloping Story.oards# 7oints to *eep in mind (a) %toryboards (i) (re usually created when designing any training courseware and should be as per guidelines# (ii) (re a visual depiction of the program to be produced# ( storyboard may be produced as part of a script, simultaneously or as a standalone design product# (iii) (iv) Depict and detail all branching re1uirements# (re used to develop the actual screen presentations#

(v) ;ave each scene2screen usually represented by a separate graphic (drawing, still photograph, etc#)# )t may be developed at the actual lesson frame2page or at a higher course structure level depending on the courseware being produced# (vi) Ban be developed in a word document, database or in a commercial off the shelf storyboarding tool that meets re1uired technical and functional re1uirements# (b) 7urpose# %toryboards support or replace the production of a script# !hese storyboards can be used to develop the actual screen presentations for a film or a B0!# "ower level B0! (te$t and graphics only) storyboards may be developed on the actual lesson frame or page and not re1uire separate storyboards# )t is an e$cellent tool for planning a production and obtaining production approvals# (c) %toryboard Design 7rinciples for B0! # !here are a number of general B0! design principles that should be considered when developing the B0! storyboards# $amples are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (i$) ($) Aser friendliness <enu driven design 0rowsing alternatives ;elp functions Fecord trac*ing Cavigation )mpact of type of input devices Aser messages Bues Bapabilities of authoring software

(d) 7rocedure# Breate your storyboards by completing these actions# !he simplest method is to use cards such as the one shown below:-

'.3

'

<BA )C%!FAB!&F

)C%!F: %hortest distance between two points : %traight "ine

(i) Space A - Fough s*etch of the image, having the same aspect ratio as a !M screen (-:3) (ii) Space ) - (udio information that will accompany the image# !here is only enough space for a couple of lines of dialogue or a brief summary of the audio content# !he small space is deliberate# Depending on the sub:ect matter, the visual image changes (or ought to change) every five to ten seconds and the space is :ust about, the right si=e for that much sound# (iii) Space C (ny notes or remainders about the technical aspects of the image, including anything that is not obvious from the s*etch, such as the bac*ground colour )ndoor2outdoor shots, space restrictions for shooting, need for power supply, etc# (iv) Space , )dentification of the serial number of the sheet#

3?# ;ow do we get down to preparing a storyboardD !hat,s easy# Lust close your eyes and visuali=e what you would see first on the !M screen for the audio2narration you have in mind# !hat is your basic visual# !here a little more to see if any other image2view would be better#

'.-

When you are sure draw it on space (# !his is your visual# )t need not be an elaborate drawing, :ust a matchstic* diagram# )n space 0 note down the audio2narration# )f you want to elaborate do it outside the card by its side# (dd any notes2remainder in %pace B# (ward the appropriate number in %pace D# 3'# )t,s important to start at the beginning of your outline and then wor* your way through to the end# )f you cannot thin of an appropriate image for some content (%pace (), :ot down the content in %pace 0 in a word or two then go on# 32# !here is two way of preparing these cards# )n one, they are all laid out on a sheet and the spaces are filled in# !he advantage is speed and case of wor*ing# )n another approach, cards of the re1uired si=e are cut out# ;ere the advantage is that the se1uences of the cards may be changed# ;owever it is more cumbersome and the chances of loosing some to the cards are high# 33# ( sample storyboard for out content outline G<easuring Distances on a globeJ is shown# (t the end of this chapter#Iou don,t have to use the same se1uence# 0ut by and large you might have got something close to this# Script 3-# Iour storyboard card severs as the tough outline for the script but usually they are neither clear enough nor complete enough to communicate your thought to the Director nor cameraman# )n particular, dialogue or narration must be developed# Shots and Scenes 3.# ( video script is divided into photos and scenes# ( shot is called the basic unit of video grammar and is comparable to a written sentence# )t is a continuous series of images recorded by the camera at one time# ( somewhat cruder definition is Geverything that is recorded between the beginning of that particular camera recording and the word GcutJ# 33# )f a shot is analogous to a sentence, then a scene is comparable to a paragraph# )t is a continuous se1uence of actions composed of one or more shots# Asually a scene ta*es place entirely in one location and depicts a continuous period of time# ;owever these designations may be arbitrary# 35# 0ecause the topic we had chosen G<easuring Distances on a globeJ is so brief and the actions occur in one place and is presumably continuous there is no reason to divide the script into scenes# Designation individual shots are another matter# !he storyboard shows a review of individual images that might or might not be continuous# Iou could regard each storyboard

'..

card as a description of a distinct separate shot in which case there should be ten specific shots in the script# 36# ;owever that is not necessarily the way the video could be produced# Bard ' in the figure shows a medium close up (<BA) of the )nstructor and Bard 2 shows a medium shot of the )nstructor standing behind a globe# !hese could be produced as separate shots or as continuous shots beginning with the <BA, then =ooming out to the voider <%# )n fact is would be possible to shoot the entire Mideo in one rather long continuous shot, using the =oom lens to move in and out between close ups and wider shots> swinging the camera around from the globe to the instructor,s hands and face and so on# !his could be done but is not recommended since it would be an ideal way to as*ing your trainee to switch off# The T"o col!$n script #or$at 39# &ne of the most popular formats, it is also called the (udio Misual format# !he left column on each page contains only the video or visual information> the right column contains the (udio )nformation# Description of the action, camera shots and all other instructions concerning the visual images, belong to the left column# (bbreviations are used e$tensively including all the standard abbreviations for camera angles and movements# !his format tends to emphasi=e the audio content# !he two column format script is indicated for the topic G<easuring distance on a globeJ# Iou can complete the remaining portion as an e$ercise# ro$ Story.oard to Script -?# Bonverting you storyboard into a script is mainly a matter of transferring and e$panding upon the notes on your cards# 0eginning with card ', write a brief description of the visual image, using the standard abbreviations for camera angles and so forth# -'# When you composed the storyboard, you probably condensed the narration# Cow you must write it out in its entirety# We had said that one scene should compose five to ten seconds of video# !his is a very tough rule of the thumb# )t does not mean that the shot must change every five to ten seconds# Iou should vary the length of the shots and the amount of dialogue accompanying it depending on the type of image you are presenting# @or a static image the length of time you spent on it depends mostly on how interesting comple$ or difficult to understand the image is# Cothing is more frustrating to your trainee then having an image fro=en long after he has absorbed at then have interesting images whipped away before ha has a chance to absorb that information# -2# When a shot consists of a simple, easily recogni=ed scene, the trainee will not re1uire much time to comprehend it and therefore not much footage should accompany it# )f the visual image is very comple$, the viewer needs ample time to study it and the verbal accompaniment should be appropriately long and should help direct the viewer,s attention to the important parts of the image#

'.3

-3# (im at an informal, lively, natural style of writing# !he aim in to convey information awhile maintaining trainee,s interest# %traight forward, and conversational language is much more effective than grammatically correct G0FJ language# --# (n e$ample page from G<easuring Distance on a /lobeJ prepared in the two-column format, with visual information in the left column and audio information in the right column:-

Measuring Distances on a Globe

73,EO @(D A7 !& <BA )C%!FAB!&F %!(CD)C/ 0 ;)CD /"&0 U&&< &A! !& <%, )CB"AD)C/ /"&0 A=,3O !he shortest distance between any two points is always a straight-linePPP##rightD 0ut what if the two points lie on a curved %urface#

)C%!FAB!&F 7&)C!% !& !W& %7&!% )n that case, there can be many Gstraight linesJ &C /"&0 between two points# )C%!FAB!&F /"&0 ;&"D% %!F)C/ !& @or e$ample stretch a piece of string between, say <e$ico Bity and 0ombay# 0oth are :ust below the 2?-degree north latitude line> so let the string run directly east from <e$ico Bity to 0ombay# <ar* the string to show the distance# !& Cow try something, 7ull the %tring taut# Cotice how it forms a curve must of which lies north of the 2?-degree line#

BA%!F)C/ &C /"&0 )C%!FAB!&F <&M % /F (! B)FB" 7(!; %!F)C/

)C%!FAB!&F WF(7% %!F)C/ (F&ACD )n fact, if you followed this curving linePit /"&0 # would go call the way around#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O )OO@ !he Braft &f !eaching !he Mideo <a*er,s ;andboo* Asing Mideo )n !raining (Mol# '')

A=T9O: (mri* %ingh Foland "ewis @red @awbert

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 6.9 9-3 232

'.5

C9APTE:

21;

*ASTE: SCLLA)=S
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define <aster %yllabus (b) $plain the re1uirement for having a <aster %yllabus (c) Write Lob %pecifications for a :ob# (d) Barry out tas* analysis (e) Draw tas* list based on tas* analysis# (f) $plain steps involved in ma*ing a <aster %yllabus (g) Draw the blueprint2layout of a <aster %yllabus

'.6

*ASTE: SCLLA)=S '# !eaching be it anywhere 8 in schools, in colleges or in training schools, is always imparted on the basis of some laid down programme or document# !his laid down programme or document forms the authority for conduct of training and is called the <aster %yllabus# 2# *aster Sylla.!s# )t is the document, which gives a systematic arrangement of all the topics to be covered for a particular course, along with the given time frames to achieve the training ob:ectives# <aster %yllabus is an e$tensive document, which has brea*down of topics into sub-topics along with the allocation of periods for each topic for theory, practical, films, e$ercises, entry behaviour test, final behaviour test etc# 3# :e5!ire$ent #or ha0ing a *aster Sylla.!s; very training establishment and school is re1uired to have a master syllabus for the following reasons:(a) <aster %yllabus provides a systematic approach to training#

(b) )t identifies the tas*s to be performed by the trainees and training ob:ectives to be achieved # (c) )t allows progressive learning amongst trainees as the sub:ects are divided into topics and topics into sub-topics# (d) (n approved master syllabus which has been in use for some time, provides a good control over sub:ect matter being taught and forms an authority for sub:ect coverage# (it is usually approved by Caval ;ead1uarters based on the recommendations of ;T %CB) P:OCE,=:E O: P:EPA:3N8 A *ASTE: SCLLA)=S; (a) 3denti#ying <o. Speci#ications; !he first step is identification of Lob %pecification# Lob %pecification gives a broad description of the :obs to be performed by the trainees after the completion of training# )t is usually a broad statement# (b) @ollowing are some e$amples of Lob %pecifications:(i) &ne of the Lob %pecifications for +%ailor )nstructors, (who undergo methods course at C) !! ) is: To impart Instructions to a given class o trainees using appropriate training aids and resource materials using psychological principles o learning.

-#

'.9

(ii) &ne of the Lob %pecifications for ngineer &fficer of a ship is:the +ngineer O icer o a ship is responsible or operation and maintenance o ships engines. (c) Lob specifications are promulgated by Caval ;ead1uarters# ;owever, the :ob specifications for any :ob for which training is to be imparted, are identified and formulated by the concerned professional training establishments or schools# !he :ob specifications are later sent to ;T %CB for vetting and subse1uently to Caval ;ead1uarters for further vetting by professional directorates and for their promulgation thereafter# (c) <o. Analysis; !his involves the analysis of the tas*s the trainees are re1uired to perform eventually on completion of course# Lob (nalysis consists of !as* (nalysis, %*ill (nalysis and Bontent (nalysis# (i) Tas6 Analysis; !his consists of detailed analysis of the :ob that is re1uired to be performed by trainees and this also ta*es into account all the theoretical and practical aspects related to the :ob# ( tas* list would emerge after the analysis# (ii) S6ill Analysis; !his is the analysis of the degree of s*ill, which is e$pected from trainee standards are also to be laid down for each course# During this process, the standards of competence are set# (iii) Content Analysis; !his involves detailed analysis of the content of the sub:ect matter# )t is carried out to analy=e the training needs to get the details of staff re1uirement and ta*e stoc* of the re1uired2 e$isting infrastructural support vi= training resource material, training aids etc# (d) !he process of formulating :ob specifications and carrying out tas* analysis has the following inherent uses:(i) ;elps in identifying and organi=ing the :ob content# (ii) stablishes ob:ective information for :ob evaluation, which helps in ma*ing decisions relating to pay, promotion, :ob rotation and reorgani=ation# (iii) 7rovides information about suitability of current :ob for modification to suit changes in e1uipment, tools etc# (iv) )mproves utili=ation of manpower and helps in pro:ecting future manpower re1uirements# (v) Develops more effective recruitment and selection# (vi) stablishes measurable performance standards#

'3?

(e) Tas6 List; 0ased on the tas* analysis it is possible to identify the tas*s and sub-tas*s, which are re1uired to be done by trainees on completion of training# !his is shown in the figure below:-

%A0 !(%4 '#'#'

!F/ &0L '#'#'#' !F/ &0L '#'#2#' !F/ &0L '#'#3#'

TAS@ 1;1

%A0 !(%4 '#'#2

%A0 !(%4 '#'#3

%A0 !(%4 '#2#'

!F/ &0L '#2#'#' !F/ &0L '#2#2#' !F/ &0L '#2#3#'

<O)

TAS@ 1;2

%A0 !(%4 '#2#2

%A0 !(%4 '#2#3

TAS@ 1;3

%A0 !(%4 '#3#'

!F/ &0L '#3#'#' !F/ &0L '#3#2#' !F/ &0L '#3#3#' !F/ &0L '#3#3#2

%A0 !(%4 '#3#2

%A0 !(%4 '#3#3

(f) Setting o# Training O./ecti0es; (s can be seen in the figure given in the previous paragraph, a tas* list has emerged from the :ob specifications# ach tas* has

'3'

been further bro*en down into sub- tas*s# @rom the sub-tas*s, the training ob:ectives are drawn# ach sub-tas* may have one or more training ob:ectives# (s can be seen in the figure, sub-tas* '#3#3, which has been drawn from tas* '#3, has two training ob:ectives vi=# training ob:ectives '#3#3#' and '#3#3#2# !he training ob:ectives are to be written by following the proper principles2synta$ of writing ob:ectives in behavioral terms# !he training ob:ectives are set with the aim of bringing about behavioral changes in the trainees# (g) Sylla.!s# %yllabus constitutes the inclusion of relevant sub:ect content pertaining to each training ob:ective# !he sub:ect content is bro*en into topics and topics to subtopics# !hese sub topics are to be arranged in a logical se1uence *eeping in mind the general principles of learning and also the ma$ims of teaching# (h) Allocation o# Periods; !his stage involves allocation of periods for theory, practical, and films# While ma*ing the master syllabus, as sub:ect e$perts, one would *now appro$imately as to how much time should be spent for the respective syllabus content in order to achieve the training ob:ectives# !he standard norms for allocation of time for periods is -? minutes per period and 6? minutes (two periods) for a session# While allocating periods in a master syllabus, in addition to theory and practical classes, one must also consider the following:(a) Cumber of periods re1uired for conduct of ntry 0ehaviour !est ( 0!), interim assessment and final behaviour test (@0!)# (b) $ercises or out door activities li*e industrial visits etc#

(c) Cumber of 7eriods planned for conduct of mid-term course criti1ues and final course criti1ues# (*)# !he total number of periods that are normally available in a wee* (3 wor*ing days) is 23 sessions or .2 periods (- sessions in the morning and one dog watch session each on any two days)# ;owever, the usual norm for formulating a master syllabus is 2? sessions in a wee*# !his is done to cater for any holidays, security e$ercises or any other unforeseen non-training intervention2activities# !here is of course no rigidity on this# !raining establishments and schools may follow their own routine 2 time schedule *eeping in mind that the routine followed should be suitable for proper implementation of training in accordance with the master syllabus# (l) Lay o!t o# a *aster Sylla.!s# !he layout of a master syllabus is given in the ne$t page:-

'32

<o. Speci#ications :- '#

2#
TAS@ L3ST '#' S=) TAS@S '#'#' '#2#' T:8 O)<ECT37ES '#'#'#' '#'#'#2 '#2#'#' '#2#'#2 '#2#2#' '#2#2#2 SCLLA)=S TOTAL NO O PE:3O,S T9EO:C P:ACT3CAL 3L* :E*A:@S

'#2

'#2#2

(m) (s an e$ample, an e$tract of the master syllabus (pertaining to one :ob specification and one training ob:ective) followed for methods course at C) !! is given below:<o. Speci#icationA> !o impart instructions using appropriate methods *eeping in mind the psychological principles of learning#
!(%4 ")%! %A0 !(%4% !F/ &0L B!)M % '#'#'#' Describe the various terms involved in the !-" 7rocess# '#'#'#2 Differentiate between pedagogy and andragogy to incorporate the principles in teaching 8 learning process# %I""(0A% !-" 7rocess, !eaching, "earning, ducation, 7rinciples of !eaching and "earning, "earning out comes ways of learning (ndragogy K 7edagogy# Definitions#, Bomparison of 72( continuum, )mplication in training 2 !&!(" C& &@ 7 F)&D% !; &FI 7F(B!)B(" @)"< F <(F4%

'#' Describe the !-" 7rocess

'#'#' Bompreh end the various facets of the !-" 7rocess#

'33

C9APTE:

22;

E7AL=AT3ON

&n mastery of this chapter, you will be able to (a) $plain a closed loop system with relevance to evaluation (b) Borrelate the 0!< with the process of evaluation (c) numerate the advantages of evaluation (d) "ist the different types of evaluation (e) numerate the different levels of evaluation (f) $plain the different evaluation tools

'3-

E7AL=AT3ON
'# !he training organi=ation in service is regarded as a system# )n that sense the Caval !raining %ystem can be defined as a process involving personnel and material resources with the definite ob:ective of providing training manpower for the fleet#
3NP=T O=TP=T

Process
An Open Loop Syste$ 2# !he system shown in diagram above is an open loop system# )n this system there is no chec* to ensure that the output conforms to the standards of the ob:ectives set up for the training# !his *ind of an open loop system has a draw bac* 8 there is no provision to pinpoint defects in the process and subse1uently rectify them# 3# !here is a re1uirement of providing feedbac* and fle$ibility in the system to be able to ad:ust and rectify defects and provide a 1uality product# %uch a system is called a +closed loop system,#

3NP=T

T:A3N3N8 P:OCESS EE, )AC@

A Closed Loop Syste$

O=TP=T

-# When we are discussing the effectiveness of any training process understand the following terms:-

it is important to

'3.

(a)# 7alidation# )t is a means of measuring the e$tent to which ob:ectives of a training process have been achieved# )t is generally done in two steps# (i) 3nternal 7alidation# ( series of tests and assessments designed to ascertain whether a training process has achieved the behavioural ob:ectives that have been specified# (ii) E1ternal 0alidation; ( series of tas*s and assessments designed to ascertain whether the behavioural ob:ectives of an internally valid training process, were realistically based on an accurate identification of training needs# .# E0al!ation !he process by which the output is chec*ed based upon laid down criteria is called GE0al!ationJ# (ny attempt to obtain information(feedbac*) on the effects of the training process and to measure the value of training based on that information (feedbac*) for further improving training is called GE0al!ation 3# !his is based upon the closed loop system or the 0!< model designed by Fobert /lacer in '932# EE, )AC@

SPEC3 3C O)<ECT37E

ENT:C )E9A73O=:

3NST:=CT3> ONAL P:OCESS

ASSESS*ENT

)AS3C TEAC93N8 *O,EL %)T*& 5# %pecific ob:ectives are precise statements of behavioural outcomes e$pected from a trainee# !hese must, wherever applicable mention the standards to be achieved and the conditions under which :obs are to be performed# 6# ntry behaviour is the sum total of the behaviour of the trainee as modified and moulded by the environment and earlier training programme# (ssessment of ntry behaviour helps to establish the difference in abilities of the trainee prior to and e$pected to achieve after the training process# )nstructional process is the crucial action phase of the 0asic !eaching <odel# During this phase, various facilities, methods and approaches to achieving the ob:ectives are applied on the trainee#

'33

9# (ssessment is the process of measuring or 1uantifying the e$tent to which the outcomes have been achieved# )n most of the cases, 1ualifying standards are to be used to grade the trainees as to whether an individual be allowed to proceed for the intended :ob at sea or not# NEE, O: E7AL=AT3ON '?# valuation is to be carried out at every stage of the 0!< and on every parameter involved that plays a role in the functioning of the system# )t is a process of introducing chec*s at every level, see*ing information on how well the factors are performing# @eedbac* and implementation of corrective measures, therefore, form an integral part of the evaluation system# Without effective feedbac* and corrective measures, every sub-system of the 0!< will remain uncontrolled and will not contribute optimally towards achieving the aims of training# ''# !he advantages of evaluation are as follows:(a) )t enables the !raining <anagers to monitor the ntry 0ehaviour of the trainee, use it to plan the training process or even alter the re1uired ntry 0ehaviour for the subse1uent courses if necessary# (b) )t enables to chec* the suitability and feasibility of the ob:ectives set for training# (c) )t helps training schools to improve upon the teaching methods, facilities and the environment# (d) )t enables assessment of the performance of instructors to carryout continuous improvement in their abilities# (e) )t provides a monitor of the assimilation of the instructions and enables timely corrective measures to be instituted# (f) )t e$tracts feedbac* from the results, trainees and the users on ships regarding the effectiveness of the training program# (g) )t aids the learning process of the trainees by providing *nowledge of the results (h) )t provides a self-correcting system to improve the design and implementation of the current and future training re1uirements# (:) )t provides a platform to :udge the impact of training for organi=ational benefits# TCPES O E7AL=AT3ON '2# ;aving understood the purpose of evaluation, it is now necessary to *now the various types of evaluation# We *now that training is an active process# !he training process therefore can be divided into the following three stages:(a) (b) (c) 7re-active stage )nter-active stage 7ost-active stage

'35

'3# &ur evaluation system in the Cavy, will also fall into these categories# During the 7reactive stage, trainees are available to the !raining <anagers# !hese trainees are to be evaluated based upon the criteria of ntry behaviour# '-# )nter-active stage is the stage where actual training is in progress# !he !eaching"earning 7rocess ta*es place here# !o the evaluator, evaluation of feedbac* at this stage helps in ta*ing immediate steps to rectify defects, if any, in the training process# !his evaluation does not wait till the end of the course comments by participants and advocates corrective measures to benefit the same course# )nstructors are also evaluated at this stage# '.# 7ost-active stage signifies the completion of one cycle of training# (t this stage the trainee is e$pected to have achieved terminal behaviour as per the specific ob:ectives, and to perform his intended :ob in his appointment# !erminal behaviour is the actual level of competency of the trainee at the end of the training cycle# valuation is to be carried out on the trainee immediately on completion of training, @eedbac* is also sought from the trainee by way of course criti1ue and from the unit where he is posted to assess the e$tent to which training benefited the trainee and was useful# !o summarise, the various types of evaluation are given in the table-below:Types o# E0al!ation

Pre>acti0e stage

3nter>acti0e stage

Post>acti0e stage

E)T

3nteri$ Assess$ent

3nstr!ctor E0al!ation

Ter$inal )eha0io!r Test

%S!$$ati0e E0al!ation&

Co!rse Criti5!es

leet eed.ac6

'3# !he various types of evaluation will be discussed in detail in the succeeding paragraphs# ;owever, it must be borne in mind that no matter how e$tensive the evaluation is, it is futile if the feedbac* is not utili=ed to improve the training system# We therefore, proceed with the reiteration that before underta*ing evaluation, the mechanics to utili=e feedbac* is to be revamped# !echni1ues of interpreting the results of evaluation must be refined and the system be *ept fle$ible enough to incorporate changes as re1uired by the conclusions of evaluation#

'36

'5# Le0els o# E0al!ation; )n terms of levels, evaluation can be carried out in the following four levels:(a) :eaction Le0el ; !rainees react to the training# !hey form opinions and attitudes about the trainer, the method of presentation, the usefulness and interest of the sub:ect matter, their own en:oyment and involvement, etc# (b) The Learning Le0el; !rainees ac1uire *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes about the sub:ect matter of the training, which they are capable of translating into behaviour within the training situation# (c) The <o. )eha0io!r Le0el; !rainees apply this learning in the form of changed behaviour bac* on the :ob# !his can be ascertained only during the on :ob training (&L!) through suitable feedbac* mechanism# (d) The !nctioning Le0el; !he changed :ob behaviour affects the functioning of the ship or office# !hese changes can be measured by a variety of indices, many of which can be e$pressed in terms of cost# '6# !he types of evaluation as listed in 7ara '. are e$plained in detail in the subse1uent paragraphs# P:E>ACT37E STA8E '9# Entry )eha0io!r Test# !raining in service is ob:ective oriented# Tualitative and Tuantitative goals are clearly laid down which are to be achieved by the trainee# !he training process is designed on the basis of certain presumed abilities of the trainee, which he must possess when he comes for a course# !hese can be bro*en down into the following:(a) (b) (c) !he mental s*ills and *nowledge !he attitudes !he psychomotor s*ills and abilities

2?# !hese abilities are to be assessed by ntry 0ehaviour !est before the course commences# ntry 0ehaviour !est will help in the following ways:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) )t tells the trainers whether the trainee possesses the re1uisite *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes that are pre-re1uisites for the course# )t helps the trainee and the trainer to assess the e$pected gain from the course# )t enables the !raining <anagers to modify the !raining 7rocess to the e$tent possible depending upon the conclusions drawn from ntry 0ehaviour !est# )t provides a guide to assess the progress of the trainee during the course# )n the long run it provides a basis to carry out syllabus review#

'39

(f)

)t provides an accurate point of view to gauge individual differences# 0! the

2'# Contents #or the Entry )eha0io!r Test; )n order to decide the contents of following factors are to be considered:(a) Cogniti0e and Psycho$otor ,o$ains

(i) What is the level of trainer,s *nowledge of the :obD (ii) What is the trainee,s standard of literacy ((pplicable to new entry sailors)D (iii) What are trainee,s particular abilities, mental and physical aptitudes and s*ills that will help to achieve the ob:ectivesD (iv) What is the trainee,s prior e$perienceD (v) What is the trainee,s record and whether there is any special mention about his aptitudes and s*illsD (vi) What has the trainee already achieved in the previous tests2e$aminations in related areasD (b) A##ecti0e ,o$ain (i) ;ow does the trainee get along with people (/ood messmate, social attributes)D (ii) )s the trainee diligent, enthusiastic, co-operative and motivatedD (iii) ;ow does the trainee respond to advice and corrective measuresD (iv) What are the trainee,s views about trainingD (v) What are the trainee,s e$pectations from trainingD 22# While 0! for cognitive and 7sychomotor domains can be carried out by written2practical2oral tests, assessment in (ffective domain can be carried out by conducting interviews, observing them when they report for training, or studying sailor,s %Ds and other available past records# 23 Standard o# the E)T; Anli*e a civilian institute for which competitive e$aminations could be held before providing admissions, most of the trainees who come for service courses will be by nominations# %ailors will have little time to study before being relieved for the course# !oo much should therefore, not be e$pected from the trainees by way of ntry 0ehaviour# 2-# !he 0! should, as far as possible avoid recall type 1uestions# !here should be instead be more of multiple choice type 1uestions# !he content area should cover the common denominator of all sailors# !he stress should be on assessing the aptitudes rather than the memory of trainees# 2.# =tiliGation o# the :es!lts o# E)T; 0! should be administered and evaluated as early as possible to allow for ma$imum time to utili=e the results# !he following actions may be ta*en:-

'5?

(a) !he area of wea*ness can be identified and remedial instructions planned for the wea* students# (b) !he training strategy can be suitably tailored to suit the needs of trainees# (c) !hese results may be used as a basis to monitor the progress of individual trainees through interim tests right up to the terminal behaviour# (d) )f the results of 0! continue to be poor over few successive courses then modification of syllabus to include pre-re1uisites of the e$isting syllabus may be considered# )n certain cases the possibility of giving prior and converting 0! into a screening test may be considered# (e) %ome institutes also resort to sending pre course material and portions that are li*ely to form the e$pected entry behaviour# 3NTE:>ACT37E STA8E 23# 3nstr!ctor E0al!ation; )nstructors are to be evaluated at least once in three months by the head of faculty2department and to the e$tent possible at least once in a year by the Bommanding &fficer# !he ability of an instructor to impart instructions in an effective manner is of paramount importance to achieve specified training standards# ( number of aspects need to be considered to ascertain whether instructions have been carried out as per the tenets of )nstructional !echni1ue# !he instructor should, therefore, be aware of the principles of educational psychology and be able to adopt the various techni1ues of !raining !echnology to effectively communicate comple$ technical details to the class and effect behavioural change in the trainees# 25# )n order to ensure that instructional procedures are geared to meet the !raining &b:ectives, instructors in professional schools should be continuously observed regard to the teaching techni1ues adopted and timely corrective action ta*en to rectify anomalies, if any# ( !raining <anager has to perform this important tas*# ( record of periodic assessment of instructors is to be *ept in the evaluation cell of the professional schools2training establishments# 26# Pro #or$a; !he )nstructor evaluation pro forma has the following :-

(a) Section 3 3nstr!ctor ,ata; )t contains bio-data of the )nstructor with details on <ethods 2 )! courses, )nstructional duties, )nstructor rating2recommendations, appraisal etc#, !his will enable the !raining <anager to have ready information on the )nstructor,s bac*ground for )nstructor evaluation# (b) Section 33 Planning E Preparation; !his portion of the pro forma has to be evaluated after scrutini=ing the lesson plan and the lecture note# "esson 7lan has to be chec*ed for the se1uencing of sub:ect matter, time budgeting and methodology selected# !here are three grades (awarded out of a ma$imum mar*s of 2.), vi= Anacceptable (below '2), Aseful ('3-'9) and /ood (2?-2.) are made available and accordingly mar*s are to be awarded# <ore often, the training manager would find that the instructor is

'5'

ta*ing his lesson based on an available lesson plan that has been prepared by somebody else# Cotwithstanding this fact, the !raining <anager, should sei=e the opportunity and ma*e an endeavour to loo* into the lesson plan for its correctness and ade1uacy# !his is an opportunity to correct the lesson plan# 29# Section 333; !his portion of the evaluation pro forma consists of the actual attributes of evaluation of an instructor vi= presentation, the way the instructor develops the sub:ect matter, the training aids used, trainee interaction and support by the instructor, summari=ation, evaluation of learning during development of the lesson, time management, instructor,s personality and overall class management# 3?# Presentation; While evaluating, how an instructor presents his lesson, the instructor has to be :udged on the following aspects:(a) 3nitiation?introd!ction; !he manner in which a lesson is introduced to the class triggers off a good learning process and ensures active participation by the trainees# With a good introduction, an instructor generates interest and attracts the attention of the class# (b) Chec6ing o# pre0io!s 6no"ledge; (n instructor has to chec* the previous *nowledge of the class by as*ing carefully selected 1uestions# !his helps him in ascertaining the *nowledge level of the trainees and can proceed with his instruction accordingly# (c) Po"er o# E1pression; /ood command over the language is an essential 1uality of a good instructor# !he language, diction2pronunciation, fluency, clarity of speech, voice modulation, rate of delivery and ease with which the instructor faces the class is very important# !his ma*es the instructor transparent and brings the trainee face to face with sub:ect matter# (d) ,e0elop$ent o# S!./ect @no"ledge; !he logical development of the sub:ect matter is an important aspect in an instructional process# )nformation should be presented in such a manner as to facilitate progressive learning amongst the trainees# !he following additional attributes are relevant:(i) S!./ect @no"ledge# !he instructor should be thorough in his sub:ect# !he attention an instructor gets from the class is directly proportional to their belief that he is far superior to them professionally# !he ease with which an instructor can recall various types of relevant information and the competence he displays in answering the 1uestion raised by trainees are milestones in the teaching-learning process# @or this an instructor should possess a sound sub:ect *nowledge# (n instructor can attain this only by constantly updating his *nowledge and sharpening his saw by constant reading#

'52

(ii) Correlation to O./ecti0es; !his pertains to the instructor,s sub:ect *nowledge and the way he uses it to develop the sub:ect, *eeping in mind the specific ob:ectives that have to be achieved# (iii) Logical #lo"; !he sub:ect has to be developed logically *eeping in mind the ma$ims of teaching and the principles of learning# (iv) Correlation to Planning; !he instructor should develop the sub:ect matter and deal with the sub:ect in accordance with the laid down plan# (e) =tiliGation o# Training Aids; !he instructor should e$ploit the available training aids in order to ma*e the instruction meaningful and interesting to the trainees# !he following points needs to be observed in an instructor:(i) !he instructor should appropriately use the chal* board2white board by applying the correct techni1ues# (ii) (iii) (iv) Ase the &;7 s*illfully by following the dos and don,ts of it# Ase of good models (static2dynamic)# 0ring in variety and novelty

(f) 4!estioning Techni5!e; (n instructor should use the correct techni1ue while as*ing 1uestions to *eep the class activity at a high level# !hought provo*ing 1uestions will ensure alertness and generate enthusiasm amongst the trainees (g) Trainee interaction and s!pport .y 3nstr!ctor; # (n active class can be maintained only by ensuring that trainees interact with the instructor# !wo-way traffic ensures that monotony does not set in# !he instructor should also be supportive to his trainees by way of being resourceful in offering 2 suggesting various references, boo*s, websites and always being positive to their 1uestions and 1ueries# (h) S!$$arisation; &nce all the teaching points pertaining to all the specific ob:ectives have been achieved the instructor should sum up the main parts of the lesson# (ll-important aspects of instructions in relation to the sets specific ob:ectives are to be covered during this phase# !his acts as a reinforcement to consolidate learning amongst the trainees and provides a grasp on the sub:ect# ( good method of summari=ation is by as*ing 1uestions and eliciting answers from the 1uestions# (:) E0al!ation o# Learning; During the development of the lesson, the instructor should as* 1uestions and evaluate the learning # ;e should ta*e remedial steps if the trainees are not answering up to the mar*# Tuestions as*ed towards the end of the class also contribute to evaluation of learning#

'53

(*) Ti$e *anage$ent; (n instructor should be able to cover all the teaching points in the given time# ;e should use his presence of mind in warding off trivial 1uestions and irrelevant discussions in order to manage the time effectively# (l) Personality; !his pertains to the instructor,s body language, mannerism, turnout and disposition# !he personality of the instructor is assessed and mar*ed# !rainees loo* upon the instructor as an ideal and try emulating him in every wal* of his life# !he instructor should bear this in mind and present himself to the class accordingly# (m) Class *anage$ent; (n instructor should be democratic to the class and yet be assertive and firm when it comes to managing the entire class# !he class should be under his total control and he should seldom let the trainees to hi:ac* the class by way of discussions and other disturbances# 3'# eed.ac6 And Ad0ice )y E0al!ator; 0y scrutini=ing the mar*ing done for all the attributes mentioned above, the evaluator should give a feedbac* to the instructor about his performance and advice him accordingly# !his should be done separately after the class# (n instructor should never be tic*ed off in front of the class# !he training manager, while evaluating the instructor ought to be a silent observer# !he points for improvement and good points that have been noticed should be entered in the pro forma for perusal by higher authorities# !his will motivate the instructor in improving his performances further# 32# ( pro forma for instructor evaluation is placed at the end of this chapter#

3NTE:3* ASSESS*ENT ? O:*AT37E E7AL=AT3ON 33# Ai$; !he final or terminal behaviour of a trainee can be assessed at the conclusion of the course# 0ut that is not sufficient because it is important to monitor how the trainee is progressing# During training, it is also important to see as to how the time and resources are being utili=ed efficiently# )t is therefore important to have an interim assessment in the middle of the course, which will give a feedbac* on trainee,s progress# Femedial action can be initiated accordingly# 3-# Periodicity o# cond!ct; !o *eep trac* of trainee,s performance there has to be a continuous feedbac*# @or a short course, the interim test can be conducted at the middle of the course# @or a sub:ect of large duration wee*ly tests could be conducted# 3.# Type o# test and ho" to cond!ct; !o the e$tent possible, these tests should be ob:ective in nature to permit speedy evaluation# )t would be good to conduct an online e$amination using a computer networ*# ( Tuestion 0an* can be housed in the server# (lternatively, standardised tests could be designed and *ept ready# !his will help to save the effort of setting test papers every time a test is due# (lternately, the test items could be pro:ected

'5-

on a screen and trainees be as*ed to record their answers out of the choices given in the multiple choice test item# 33# 0ased on the interim test results, the problems of the individual trainees have to be diagnosed, and remedial action has to be ta*en# !he remedial action can be in the form of dogwatch instructions, e$tra study periods, review of evaluation procedure etc# POST>ACT37E STA8E 35# S!$$ati0e E0al!ation; &n completion of the training process, it is necessary to assess the terminal behaviour of the trainees for which the entire training was geared# !his test is also called the +!erminal 0ehaviour !est,# )t helps to determine the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) ;ow well the end-of-training performance of the trainees coincides with the stated ob:ectives of the training unitsD Which ob:ectives could not be accomplishedD ffectiveness of training programme2course# !he effectiveness of instructors, the instructional resources and the learning techni1ues# !he results from a summative

36# =tiliGation o# the res!lts o# S!$$ati0e E0al!ation; evaluation can be used for several purposes: (a) (b) (c)

Determination of achievement of institution goals2ob:ectives# Bompiling for future reference on performance of training school and the course# Determine the effectiveness of the instructor, training resources and teaching techni1ues#

39# eed.ac6; (ny feedbac* from the user 2 client units also forms part of evaluation# !his aspect is discussed in detail in the ne$t chapter#

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O )OO@ <easurement and evaluation training 0asic valuation <ethods <easurement K valuation teaching 8 edition )))

A=T9O: in /ronlund in /lynis 0rea*well Corman /ronlund

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; ..(() '62? 256

'5.

C9APTE:

23;

EE,)AC@
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the term @eedbac* (b) numerate the need for feedbac* (c) "ist the different sources of internal feedbac* (d) $plain the purpose of Bourse Briti1ues (e) numerate essential contents of a course criti1ue (f) $plain the purposes of a feedbac* pro forma (from users to trainer) (g) numerate the essential contents of a feedbac* pro forma (h) $plain the significance of feedbac* from fleet and @&%!

EE,)AC@

'53

'# ,e#inition; !he process by which information about the result of an action is communicated to the source of the action# 2# Need; (s e$plained earlier in the chapter on E valuation,, E@eedbac*, forms are integral part of the evaluation strategy# &btaining feedbac* in a training environment is necessary for the following reasons:(a) !o *now the efficiency of a training system (b) %tudy the strengths and wea*nesses of a !raining system# (c) (ffect any mid course corrections if necessary# 3# )n the Cavy the Efeedbac* system, is organised in a three-tier structure model as: (a) )nternal feedbac* (b) Aser to !rainer (c) Bommands and @&%! (@lag &fficer %ea !raining) to ;T%CB 3# 3nternal eed .ac6 Syste$; )t is obtained with the help of the following instruments2 procedures to enable the training school2 organisation to come to *now about the training efficiency in their respective unit(s)# (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Bourse diaries# <anagement by going (round (<0/()# )nformal tal*s with the trainees# (cademic meetings# <id !erm $ams2 Anit tests# Bourse Fesults# @inal Bourse Briti1ue#

-# @or a !raining <anager li*e training coordinator2commander of any training establishment, the course diaries give vital information about the progress of each course, the actual time being spent, details of absentees etc# !he course diaries are written records, which can be very useful for posterity and further chec*-bac*s when something drastically has been reported2observed# !he academic meeting that may include the training evaluation cell, all the faculties and also the divisional staff is of paramount importance in gauging the training effectiveness# !he mid-term test results, final test results along with analysis and inferences drawn should be discussed in such academic meetings#

'55

.#

Co!rse Criti5!e; Apon completion of the training activities the overall effectiveness of the training as seen by the trainees must be evaluated# Bourse criti1ues should invariably be conducted on the last day of the course after the final e$amination and before the results have been declared# <id course criti1ue can also be obtained if the course duration is very lengthy#

3# P!rpose; !he course criti1ue helps to identify the lacunae in training for remedial action# )n following up an individual trainee, it is relatively easy to determine the trainee,s reaction# Did the trainee en:oy the training sessionD Was enthusiasm obviousD Was effort put forth sufficient and helpful enough to learn 1uic*ly and perform wellD )t is realised that these are sub:ective 1uestions and so the answers will be somewhat sub:ective# 5# Determining trainees, reaction is vital for improving the future sessions# !rainees, reactions to a course are often measured by means of a 1uestionnaire# ( summary of the completed 1uestionnaires is then compiled and used by the schools2 training establishments to modify and improve the subse1uent courses# 6# !he evaluation department must determine whether the training department and staff imparted the best type of instruction or program using the resources available# !o do this, conducting the course criti1ue forms an integral part of evaluation activities# 9# Co!rse Criti5!e Pro#or$a; !he 1uestionnaire in the course criti1ue envisages various facets of training and provides scope for critical comments with regard to attainment of training ob:ective, effectiveness of the methodology adopted and suitability of the evaluation system# very training establishment2school can design their own course criti1ue pro forma by covering their respective facets that are relevant and important# !he course criti1ue should preferably be in bilingual form to facilitate the trainees in responding in a language of their own choice with which they are conversant# !he bilingual course criti1ue forms will also be able ma*e the below average trainees understand the various items2 1uestionnaires in the course criti1ue pro forma# '?# !he course criti1ue pro forma must include the name and number of the course# )t is not mandatory to include the name of trainee in the course criti1ue# !hus, course criti1ue may or may not contain a name column# !his is done to remove fear from the minds of the trainee while providing critical comments in the pro forma# ''# !he following items should be included in the course criti1ue:(a) Whether the duration of the course is ade1uateD )f not, the suggested duration thereof# (b) Whether the ob:ectives of the course were ade1uateD )f not, then elaborate the ob:ectives, which may additional be included or was not ade1uately dealt with#

'56

(c) Whether the presentation of the sub:ect matter was goodD )f not, then list the topics, which needs improvement in the presentation and any suggestion on how it may be done# (d) (ny topic, which was not, covered ade1uately or needs inclusion in the course# (e) (ny topic, which should have been e$cluded# (f) !he most useful area of the course# (g) !he effectiveness and utility of the handouts, doc*ets, 0Fs and training aids given during the course# (h) Whether the aim of the course has been achievedD (:) )n what way the course has been beneficial for the traineeD (*) %uggestions to improve the effectiveness of the training# '2# ( course criti1ue pro forma used at C) !! is placed at the end of this chapter as an e$ample# '3# =ser to Trainer; We *now that training is carried out with certain ob:ectives# !hese ob:ectives are realised at the :ob, which the trainee is e$pected to perform at %ea# )t is therefore, necessary to see* feedbac* from the user departments at sea as to whether the trainee is performing the designated :obs satisfactorily# @ollowing reports are therefore forwarded to the ships2 establishments# '-# eed .ac6 :eports; !he feed bac* reports are to be prepared by the evaluation department and forwarded to ships2 establishments where the trainees have been transferred on completion of the training# !his is essential to determine the e$tent of enrichment in the performance after the trainee had undergone the course# !he feedbac*2follow up reports depict the gray areas re1uiring reinforcement and help in improving the 1uality of training# !he feed bac* pro forma is sent to the units2establishments where the trainee has been transferred after completion of the training after the trainees have spent at least '2 wee*s in shore establishments or 2? days at sea# !he essential features of a feed bac* pro forma are as follows:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) @orwarding to the end user# 7ro forma to be simple and self-e$planatory# %hould contain !as* list2Lob specifications# )nvolve B&2&)B2;&D appropriately# (nalyse @eedbac* received2 follow up action re1uired to be ta*en#

'.# :ating Scale; !he rating scales from '-9 where ' denotes poor, . denotes average and 9 denotes e$cellent may be used for indicating responses in different sections of the 1uestionnaire# '3# Sections# following: (a) !he feed bac* pro forma may be designed to essentially consist the

)nstructions for filling up the pro forma#

'59

(b) (c)

Lob specifications2tas* list for specialist 1ualification# /eneral suggestions#

'5# !he section on 1uestionnaire for specialist 1ualification should include general aspects of organising abilities, instructional abilities etc# '6# !he suggestions from the trainee must be e$tracted through 1uestionnaire of constant alternative response type# !he 1uestionnaire should also include space for the trainee to give suggestions if any regarding the usefulness of the course# '9# )t is necessary to *eep the pro forma very simple, so that the trainee may be evaluated by the user department at ease and the suggestions may be given in a better manner# 2?# Analysis; !he feed bac* reports obtained from the units must be compiled by the evaluation department and periodically analysed in-house to improve the training system# During analysis, the suggestions and remar*s should be read by watching for consistency# 4nee :er* reactions and generic statements may be ignored# 0ased on the rating scales pertaining to each :ob specification2tas* list, a comparison between course performance and on :ob performance may be made and the analysis could be used to draw useful inferences# 2'# ( sample feedbac* pro forma used at C) !! is appended at the end of this chapter

22# eed .ac6 #ro$ OST and leet to 94SNC # !his feedbac* normally pertains to a holistic :ob behaviour level or organisational level concerns# !his usually e$pressed in forums li*e Tuarterly Bommand <eetings (TB<s) or (nnual !raining Bonferences ((!B)# !hough certain broad based generic statements emerge from such feed bac*, a lot of policy decisions and alterations to training may be effected and the same tric*les down to the training establishments# !he feedbac* from @lag &fficer %ea !raining (@&%!) can be very ob:ective and vital as far as :ob behavioural and organisational level evaluations are concerned#
)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3#

T3TLE O )OO@

A=T9O:

!he leaning process 8 theory and Fosella "ins*ie practice Feadings in ducational !echnology (nand Fao and Favishan*ar <easurement K valuation in Corman /ronlund teaching 8 edition )))

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '39 '53 256

'6?

C9APTE:

24;

TESTS AN, TCPES O TEST 3TE*S

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) numerate the importance of !ests (b) "ist the categories of test items (c) "ist the various types of sub:ective and ob:ective type of test items (d) $plain the characteristics of each type of test item (d) @rame test items in each category of test (e) $plain the steps involved in ma*ing a Tuestion 0an*

'6'

TESTS AN, TCPES O TEST 3TE*S '# !ests play a central role in the evaluation of trainees, learning# !hey provide relevant measures of many important learning outcomes and indirect evidence concerning trainees understanding and grasp of the sub:ect# !he validity of the information they provide, however, depends on the care with which the tests are planned and prepared# 2# !here are three categories of tests# !hey are:(a) Oral; )t is used in each training session as a spot chec* for trainees, progress# )t can also be used formally as a viva-voice# (b) -ritten; )t is used to cover large areas of instruction and to measure the *nowledge ac1uired by trainees# (c) Practical; )t is used to measure the learner,s ability to do or perform a given tas* (mental or physical)# )t is also used to test psychomotor abilities# 3# Type o# -ritten Tests; !he Written tests can be broadly classified into two categories:(a) (b) %ub:ective !ests &b:ective !ests

-# S!./ecti0e Tests; !his type of test items which include long answer, short answer and problem solving type of 1uestions, are used when the specific ob:ective is to ,escri.eD StateD ,e#ineD ,eter$ineD Calc!lateD ListD ,isting!ish, etc# !hese type of test items are applicable in sub:ects involving abstract ideas as also in chec*ing the comprehension power of the trainees# !his type also helps in discovering the wea*nesses in instruction and to diagnose trainee,s difficulties# )n such type of tests the trainees respond to the test items in a detailed manner# !he results of such tests tend to be sub:ective and the instructors evaluation is based on personal :udgment rather than unbiased and accurate evaluation# .# O./ecti0e Tests; !his type of test items are very useful in covering a vast sub:ect content in a short span of time without sacrificing the testing of *nowledge in any part of the entire sub:ect# !his type also helps the trainees to have more concrete standards for mar*ing# !hese types of test items are applicable when the specific ob:ective is to SelectD 3denti#yD 3ndicateD :e>arrangeD Choose etc# !he instructor,s errors in personal :udgment are eliminated# !he rules for scoring are absolutely clear as the answer to each test item is either right or wrong regardless of who scores the test# 3# !he %ub:ective and &b:ective type of tests can be conducted using the following types of test items:-

'62

(a)

S!./ecti0e (i) (ii) (iii) "ong answer %hort answer 7roblem %olving

(b)

O./ecti0e (i) Selection type; Bonstant alternative and Bhanging alternative# !he Bhanging alternative are test items of the following types:(aa) <ultiple Bhoice (ab) <atching (ac) <ultiple facet (ad) Fe-arrangement (ii) S!pply type; %imple 1uestion and completion 1uestion#

5#

"et us consider each Selection type of test item in detail# (a) Constant Alternati0e Type; !he constant alternative response type of test item consists of a statement that the trainee is as*ed to mar* true or false, right or wrong, correct or incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion, agree or disagree and the li*e# Asually, we stic* to !rue or @alse# E1a$pleA> %tate !rue or @alse : !he 1uator passes through %outh )ndia#

'63

(c)

!he following points should be *ept in mind while constructing such test items:(i) (ii) (void broad general statements# (void insignificant2trivial statements# ()t is meaningless to give a statement li*e + Dr (bdul 4alam is the 6 th 7resident of )ndia,# )t does not serve any purpose) (void the use of negative statements, especially double negatives# Cegative words, such as GnoJ or GnotJ, tend to be overloo*ed by trainees and double negatives only confuse trainees# (for e$ample, +Cone of the steps in the e$periment was unnecessary,) (void long comple$ sentences (void including two ideas in one statement, unless cause-effect relationships are being measured# !rue statements and false statements should be appro$imately e1ual in length !he number of true statements and false statements should be appro$imately e1ual#

(iv)

(v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (c)

;ere are some poorly constructed constant alternative test items:)i* =ill ,linton is not the President o >nited States )ii* Turtle is not an amphibious creature )iii* Polygamy is not unacceptable in Pa#istan. %ome well constructed alternatives are:(i) <ew 3elhi is the capital o India )ii* =lue 2hale is a mammal (iii) Polygamy is acceptable in Pa#istan

(d)

(e) *!ltiple Choice Test 3te$s; !he multiple-choice item is generally the most widely used ob:ective test item# )t can more effectively measure simple learning outcomes such as *nowledge of facts, terminology, specific facts, principles , methods and procedures# )t can also be used to measure learning outcomes in the comprehension and application levels# (f) ( multiple choice item consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions# !he problem may be stated in the form of a direct 1uestion or an incomplete statement

'6-

and is called the ste$ of the item# !he list of the suggested solutions may include word, numbers, symbols, or phrases and are called alternati0es; !he trainee has to read the stem and the list of alternatives and select the one that is correct, or best alternative# !he correct alternative in each item is called the ans"er or 6ey while the remaining are called distracters; E1a$pleA> Ste$A !he pioneer and founding father of )ndia,s )ntegrated <issile Development 7rogramme A> (a) Dr (bdul 4alam @ey (b) Dr 0rahma 0hat ,istracters (c) Dr AF Fao (d) Dr 4 4asturi Fangan (f) !he following points should be *ept in mind while constructing such test items:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (i$) ($) (h) !he stem of the item should be meaningful by itself and should present a definite problem# !he item stem should include as much of the item as possible and should be free of irrelevant material# Ase a negatively stated item stem only when significant learning outcomes re1uire it# (ll of the alternative should be grammatically consistent with the stem of the item# (n item should contain only one correct or clearly best answer# (ll distracters should be plausible# (li*ely2possible) !he relative length of the alternatives should not provide a clue to the answer# Merbal associations between the stem and the correct answer should be avoided (!his could give a clue)# (void using GCone of the aboveJ or Gall of the aboveJ as alternatives# !he correct answer should appear in each of the alternative positions appro$imately an e1ual number of times, but in random order#

;ere are some poorly constr!cted multiple choice test items:)i* The irst Indian to go into space was

)A* -a#esh Sharma )=* -avish 4alhothra ),* $alpana ,hawla )3* <eil Amgstrong )This is poorly constructed because Option 3 is not plausible* )ii* An electric trans ormer can be used to )A* or storing electricity. )=* to increase the voltage o A,

'6.

),* it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy )3*alternating current is changed to direct current. (!his is poorly constructed because the alternatives are not grammatically consistent with the stem) (:) !he same 1uestions above can be constructed in a .etter way as follows:)i* The irst Indian to go into space is )A* ),* )ii* -a#esh Sharma )=* -avish 4alhothra $alpana ,hawla )3* -a#esh 4alhothra

An electric trans ormer can be used to )A* )=* ),* )3* Store up electricity Increase the voltage o A, ,onvert electrical energy into mechanical energy ,hange A, to 3,.

(*) *atching Type; !he matching type e$ercise consists of two parallel columns with each word, number or symbol in one column being matched to a word, sentence, or phrase in the other column# !he items in the column for which a match is sought are called pre$ises and the items in the column from which the selection is made are called responses# (l) !he matching type test items are limited to the measurement of factual information based on simple associations# Wherever learning outcomes emphasi=e the ability to identify relationships between two things, matching e$ercise are appropriate# !he following points are to be *ept in mind while setting matching type test items:(i) (ii) (iv) (m) !he item should include only homogenous material in the GpremisesJD !he number of responses should be sufficiently more so that the last of their premises can still have many options to choose from# (rrange the list of responses in a logical order

!he following is a poorly constr!cted matching test item:6 2 )A* )=* ),* )3* 1ion 2hale Sna#e 4an )i* )ii* )iii* )iv* 4ammal ,arnivorous 2ater -eptile

'63

(7oor because, not homogeneity in the premises and no of responses are e1ual to no of premises) (n) !he following is a better e$ample of <atching type:A )A* )=* ),* )3* )+* >SA India Pa#istan -ussia ,hina )i* )ii* )iii* )iv* )v* )vi* )vii* ) 2ashington 3, Islamabad 4oscow =eijing <ew 3elhi (anoi 1ondon

(l) *!lti#acet Test 3te$; )n this test item, an appropriate introductory material in the form of a figure, picture or a few sentences is given to the trainees to first read and understand# !hen a series of dependent test items are given related to the introductory material# (n e$ample is given below:-amesh gets the ollowing wee#ly allowance:; Snac#s ? -s @A, =us 0are ? -s BA, School stationery ? -s 6@, 5i ts ? -s 6A, 4ovies ? -s CA. Answer the ollowing questions:; )i* 2hat is the ratio o the amount -amesh spends or school stationery to the amount he spend or movies:; )A* &:6 )=* C:B ),* 6:& )3* B:C )ii* 3raw a pie chart to depict graphically what has been said. )iii* -amesh spends most o his money in DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD. )iv* The percentage o amount given to -amesh as 5i ts is appro"imately )A* 6A E )=* 66E ),* 6CE )3* 6BE (m) :earrange$ent type; )n this type of test item, the trainee is given a stimuli vi= ob:ects, numbers, figures etc in a disorderly or mi$ed manner and the trainee is as*ed to rearrange in a particular orderly manner depending upon some relationship or synthesisvi= ascending order, descending order, all animals together, all carnivorous animals together etc#

'65

6# S!pply Type; !he supply type of test items are usually of two type, one being a simple fill in the blan*s and the other being a simple 1uestion (a) ill in the .lan6s; )t usually contains a statement to be completed by providing answers to missing word(s) in a blan* or blan*s provided# )t can be used to measure *nowledge of terminology, specific facts, principles, method or procedure, interpretation of data, simple numerical ability and also comprehension and application levels# # !he following points are to be *ept in mind while setting such test items:(i) !he item should be worded such that the re1uired answer is both definite and brief# (ii) %tatements should not be directly lifted from te$tboo*s (iii) !he answer should be related to the main point in the statement (iv) !he item with the blan* spaces must ma*e sense so that trainees *nows what to do# (v) !oo many blan*s should not be introduced in one statement# (b) Poorly constr!cted e1a$ples; @ollowing are some poorly constructed fill in the blan*s type of 1uestions:)a* An animal, which eats lesh o other animal, is ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; )Answer could be 1ion, Tiger though e"pected answer was carnivorous* )b* ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;Animals that are born ;;;;;;;;;;and ;;;;;;;;;;; their young are called ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; )too many blan#s that do not give any sense to the statement* (c) !he above e$amples can be constructed .etter as follows:(a) (n animal which eats flesh of other animal is classified as ---------------------(b) Warm blooded animals that are born alive and suc* the mil* of their young are called WWWWWWWWWWWWW# (d) Si$ple 4!estion; ( direct simple 1uestion is more desirable than an incomplete statement# )t is more natural to the trainees and it provides greater structure to the situation and prevents much of the confusions that comes into items based on incomplete sentences# (e) Poorly constr!cted e1a$ple; @ollowing is a some poorly constructed fill in the blan*s type of 1uestion which can otherwise be as*ed better as a simple 1uestion:$alpana ,hawla made her irst space light in DDDDDDDDDD )Poor* In what year did $alpana ,hawla ma#e her irst space light 7 )=etter*

'66

S!./ecti0e Test 3te$s 9# Despite a wide applicability of ob:ective type of tests, there remains significant instructional outcomes for which no satisfactory ob:ective measurements are possible# !hese include such outcomes as the ability to recall, organise and integrate ideas, the ability to e$press oneself in writing, the ability to supply rather than merely identify interpretations and applications of data etc# '?# Essay type; !he essay type of 1uestions allows the freedom of response and the originality of the trainees# !he trainee may re1uire more time and also several pages to respond to such 1uestions# ssay type can be of two types :(a) :estricted :esponse type; !his tends to limit both the content and the form of trainee response# !he content is usually limited by restricting the scope of the answer to be discussed# "imitations in the form of response are generally indicated in the statement (by number of words or area of scope) of the 1uestion# @or e$ample:)i* )ii* )iii* 2hy is the barometer one o the most use ul instruments or orecasting weather7 Answer in a paragraph. 3escribe two situations, which illustrate the application o <ewton!s third law o motion. 3o not use e"amples given in the te"t boo#. +"plain in not more than 6AA words, the 4anthodola operations in the $argil war.

(b) E1tended :esponse 4!estions; !he e$tended response essay type of 1uestion provides a wide range of scope# !he trainee is generally free to select any factual information which he thin*s is relevant, to organise the answer in accordance with his best :udgment# !he evaluation of such answers by the instructors becomes highly sub:ective# )t is not very suitable to use such 1uestions for trainees of lower level classes# )t is only suitable for matured and e$perienced trainees# %ome of these 1uestions may not even be suitable for tests typically conducted in our Caval2service environment where there are severe limitations of time and need e$ists for more ob:ective assessment# ( few e$amples are given below:)a* ,ompare the leadership styles o 5eneral 4ac Arthur and Admiral 5orsh#ov. ,ite speci ic e"amples to illustrate the comparison. )b* ''# 2rite a scienti ic evaluation o the ,opernican theory o the Solar System.

@ollowing are some of the points to be *ept in mind while framing essay type 1uestions:(a) Festrict the use of essay 1uestions to those learning outcomes which cannot be satisfactorily measure by ob:ective items#

'69

(b) @rame the 1uestion so that the trainee,s tas* is clearly indicated# !he direction given in the 1uestion should be clear# (c) )ndicate an appro$imate time limit or restriction in terms of number of words for each 1uestion# !he scope of the answer must be limited# (d) !he 1uestion must be valid for testing the situation for the ability considered# (e) )n answering essay type 1uestions, the trainee essentially needs to organi=e ideas and choose the form of his answer in his own words# !he 1uestions have to be accordingly set# (f) While setting essay type of 1uestions, it is always useful to prepare suggested solutions to the same# !his would enable instructors to give a reasonable time limit to trainees for answering# (g) !he 1uestion should be clear-cut and should not have confusing words# (h) !he 1uestions should be so framed that the answers given by trainees will have a clear definite answer that will be indicative of the desired learning outcome# '2# %ome poorly framed essay 1uestions along with better alternative 1uestions are appended below:(a) Why do birds migrateD (7oor) !he same can be better written as 8 %tate three specific reasons as to why birds migrate south in the fall of the year# (b) Bompare the 0L7 and the Bongress 7arties# (7oor) !he same can be better written as 8 Bompare the 0L7 and the Bongress parties, election manifesto with regard to economic reforms in the automobile sector# '3# Pro.le$ Sol0ing; !hese can be test items that are directly application oriented# %imple learning outcomes of application of facts, principles and laws can be measured# !he problem solving test items gives enough room for ob:ective evaluation# @ollowing are the points to be *ept in mind while setting problem solving 1uestions:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) !he 1uestion should be clear in what is e$pected from the trainees# )ndicate clearly the use of physical units if any (4g, <eter etc)# /ive different units only if learning outcomes are specifically being tested for the correct usage of the same# Wor* out the solution in advance, before administering the 1uestion# )f a specific method, principle or formula is to be used, clearly indicate the same# @rame the 1uestion in such a way, that the trainee automatically follows certain logical steps to arrive at the answers# (While evaluating, mar*s may be awarded appropriately for the steps and methods)#

'9?

Co$pilation o# 4!estion )an6 '# %ince evaluation is an essential part of teaching-learning process and is done by administering 1uestions to the trainees, there is a re1uirement to have a ready stoc* of scientifically designed 1uestions to test the learner,s outcome in various fields# !his re1uirement is met by a document called +Tuestion 0an*, which in other words is a G0(C4, or ready reference storage of 1uestions# !hus a 1uestion ban* can be defined as +a collection, of 1uestions, designed scientifically under the aegis of an institution, for the benefit of instructors and trainees, in partial fulfillment of the re1uirement of the teaching-learning process# 2# ( 1uestion ban* has tremendous importance for both the instructor and the trainees# )t is to be compiled *eeping all the aspects of the test items into consideration# ( 1uestion ban* compilation therefore, involves a series of si$ steps, which are described below# (a) Stage 1 Ta.le o# Speci#ication %TOS&; !he !&% is a blue print of the 1uestion paper# )t lists the content topic as one dimension and the ob:ectives or abilities li*e *nowledge, understand, application and s*ill as a second dimension# !he procedure for preparing a !&% is e$plained in the chapter on !&%# very test, be it unit test during interim assessment or final test, a !&% has to be prepared and *ept ready for each sub:ect# (b) Stage 2 Collection o# Test 3te$s; )n this stage ready-made 1uestions may be ta*en up from old 1uestion papers set in various e$aminations by earlier instructors# !hey can also be pic*ed up from the standard te$tboo*s# ;owever, all test items, irrespective of the way in which they have been collected, should confirm to the specifications laid down in !&%# )t should also be ensured that 1uestions are as per the pattern prescribed for the course and meeting the specific ob:ectives# (c) Stage 3 Preparing ,ra#t 4!estion?3te$s in "or6shops; )n this stage a team of e$perts from schools2training establishments prepare 1uestions# <odel answers for the 1uestions are also prepared# !he team may also invite 1uestions from the e$perienced instructors in order to benefit from their e$pertise# )n this stage again care should be ta*en to ensure the conformation of the test items with the specifications laid down in !&% and also the specific ob:ectives# (d) Stage 4A Screening?Selecting 4!estion; !he 1uestions collected and prepared by the e$perts2training design cell are thoroughly chec*ed by a group of specialists# !he specialists are responsible to chec* the effectiveness of the 1uestions and for ensuring that specific ob:ectives will be met# !hus 1uestions with high degree of difficulty or too easy 1uestions drop out and are discarded#

'9'

(e) Stage 5A ,ata Entry on Co$p!ter; &nce the 1uestions have been screened and selected, it can be transferred to a computer# While entering a 1uestion each 1uestion can have a number of common fields in the 1uestion ban* data structure li*e :- (a) Bourse (b) %ub:ect (c) topic (d) !ype of !est )tem (c) Domain (d) "evel in the domain (e) (ctual Tuestion (f) <ar*s (g) <odel answer 2 reference# ( suitable software can be made for the following purposes:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) ;ave easy access to the 1uestions Fetrieve 1uestions at random 7rint 1uestion paper based on random selection and !&% &n line access to trainees for self-study and self-assessment# nriching the 1uestion ban* by way of appending more 1uestions diting facility to correct 1uestions

(f) Stage ( Sa$ples #or trials; !he 1uestions which are going into the ban* should be given a field trial in various classes to ascertain whether they are of acceptable standard or not# !he process of conducting field trials should be a continuous one for updating 1uestion ban* from time to time# !he 1uestions should be updated on a continuous basis each time a test is conducted and any errors or ideas crop up for improvement# !he 1uestions may also be tested using the techni1ues of )tem (nalysis (the procedure is given in the chapter on )tem analysis)# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ !raining valuation: Boncepts (nd 7ractices <easurement and valuation in training (ssessment and valuation in training 8 !raining !echnology 7rogramme Mol# 3 ;FD !raining K Development 8 <easuing )nstructional Fesult Mol 3

A=T9O: Corman K /onlud Lohn %toc*, ;olland Fobert @ <ager Lohn

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '336 256 225 35?

'92

C9APTE:

25;

3TE* ANALCS3S
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) %tate the importance of )tem (nalysis (b) Define the terms Malidity and Feliability of a test item (c) Define @acility Malue and Discriminative )nde$ (d) Balculate @M and D)

'93

3TE* ANALCS3S '# (s discussed in the previous chapter (!est and !ypes of !est )tems), before including the 1uestions in a 1uestion ban*, the test items are to be analysed# !he test items are to be chec*ed for their Malidity and Feliability# 2# 7alidity; !he validity of a test item specifies as to whether the 1uestion is actually measuring what it is supposed to measure or not# ( test that has high validity for one purpose may have moderate validity for another and negligible validity for another# 3# @or e$ample, a 1uestion on how to hit a bullet on the bull of a target can be a valid 1uestion for selection of sharp shooters, moderately valid for selecting people for patrolling but will have no value for selection of assemblers of the gun# !he validity of a test item is affected by :(a) Anclear and ambiguous statements# (b) 7oorly constructed 1uestions (c) )nappropriate level of difficulty of test items# -# ( sure way for increasing validity of a 1uestion paper is by preparing a !able of %pecifications (!&%)# !he method for preparing a !&% is given in the ne$t chapter# .# :elia.ility; Feliability of a test item reflects the consistency and accuracy of measurements# )n other words, it refers to the ability to repeat a set of test results when administered again, that is a test with high reliability will yield very much the same relative magnitude of scores for a group of people under differing conditions or situations# (n ob:ective test is more reliable compared to the sub:ective2essay type# 3# ( test item that is reliable may not necessarily be valid or vice versa# @or e$ample essay type 1uestions, although less reliable are generally included for more validity# ( test item that is to be included in the 1uestion ban* should ideally have both a high degree of reliability and validity# !his will facilitate to measure what the instructor wants to measure by using the test item# !his will also put the test item to be used irrespective of the situation, surroundings and the set of trainees, ensuring that the results are measured on the same scale# 5# &nce the test items are tested in the class, the test items are analysed for finding out the @acility Malue (@M) and Discrimination )nde$ (D))# !his is important for setting up a balanced 1uestion paper# 0efore analy=ing the test item for @M and D) the scores obtained by the trainees and their responses to each test item is collected and the following steps followed:-

'9-

6#

Steps To Per#or$ 3te$ Analysis; (a) Fan* the answer papers in order from the highest to the lowest score#

(b) %elect the '? papers with the highest total scores and the '? papers with the lowest total scores# (Note : @or refined analysis 25X papers each are ta*en from the top and bottom of the score card arranged already in descending order must be considered#) (c) !he middle papers are not used in the analysis#

(d) @or each test item, tabulate the number of trainees in the upper and lower groups who selected each alternative# (e) (f) (g) Bompute the difficulty of each item# Bompute discrimination power of each valuate the effectiveness of distracters in each item#

9# acility 7al!e; )t is a factor, which indicates the difficulty of a test item# )t is indicated by the percentage of trainees who got the item right# !he facility value for ob:ective and sub:ective type of test items are calculated as follows:(a) acility 7al!e #or O./ecti0e type o# test ite$s; !he Bomputation of @acility value for ob:ective type test is done by using the formula:7 R :?T 1 122D Where: 7 R @aculty value : R !he no# trainees who got the item right T R !he !otal Co# of trainees considered for the analysis# (b) acility 7al!e #or S!./ecti0e type o# test ite$s; !he @acility Malue for sub:ective type of test items is calculated using the following formula:7 R Y Qi ------------------------------------- Q ! $ <a$ <ar*s of Tuestion '??

Where Y Qi R $'H$2H$3PPPPPPPPP# HQn '?# !he inde$ for determining the difficulty of test item is as follows: -

'9.

(a) (b) (c)

@M 0etween ? to 2?X @M 0etween 2' to 6?X @M 0etween 6' to '??X

!oo Difficult Tuestion# (verage and (cceptable# !oo easy Tuestion#

''# ,iscri$inati0e 3nde1; )t is the measure degree to which a given test item discriminates between trainees with ;igh and "ow achievement# !he discriminative inde$ of ob:ective and sub:ective type of 1uestions are computed as follows:(a) O./ecti0e Type o# Test; !he Bomputation of Discriminating power for ob:ective type is done by using the formula :,3 R := F :L ? S T Where:,3 Discriminative )nde$ := !he Co# of trainees in the Apper /roup who got the item right# :L !he Co# of trainees in the "ower /roup who got the item right# T !he total Co# of !rainees considered for the analysis# (b) !he computation of Discriminative inde$ for essay type of test is done by using the following formula:,3 R Where:,3 YA$i Y"$i T '2# YA$i Y"$i ! Q <a$ <ar*s of Tuestion Discriminative )nde$ %um of mar*s scored in the test item by the upper half trainees# %um of mar*s scored in the test item by the lower half trainees# !he total Co# of !rainees considered for the analysis#

!he inde$ for determining the discriminating inde$ for an item is as follows:(a) ? to ?#. 8 Cot acceptable ("ow Discrimination) (b) ?#.' to '#? - (cceptable ( @air Discrimination)

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@ 0asic valuation <ethods <easurement (nd valuation )n !eaching

A=T9O: /lynis 0rea*well "ynne <illward Corman /ronalund

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '62? 256

'93

C9APTE:

2(;

TA)LE O SPEC3 3CAT3ONS

O)<ECT37ES
&n mastery of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define Briterion referenced tests (b) "ist the purposes of tests (c) Define !&% (d) "ist the re1uirement of !&% (e) "ist the information (and their sources) re1uired to formulate !&% (f) @ormulate2tabulate a !&% for a sub:ect

'95

TA)LE O SPEC3 3CAT3ONS

'# !he purpose of training in the Cavy is to ensure that all trainees achieve a certain acceptable level of competence or performance in the :ob or tas*s for which they are trained# !o ascertain this, as part of the evaluation system we conduct interim or mid term tests (unit tests) which also enables a mid course correction and a final behaviour or final test which measures the terminal behaviour of the trainees# !hese tests may be in the form of practical or theoretical tests# !he tests conducted in the Cavy are called +criterion re#erenced tests, where we are :udging the trainees, performance against some acceptable standard which we have prescribed beforehand# !he criterion referenced tests in the form of unit test or final tests serves the following purposes:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Diagnosis of trainees, difficulties )dentify trainees, ability in a particular area# <easure what the trainees have learnt# Bertify trainees, competence Bontrol trainees, entry to successive units of instruction or subse1uent courses# nsure mastery of a sub:ect or s*ill wherever it is relevant#

2# !o ensure proper coverage of course content and to achieve the desired level of competence in a :ob, we have a document called the master syllabus# !o implement the master syllabus in the classrooms, laboratories, wor*shops, etc we have documents li*e the lesson plans, lecture note etc in place# )n order to ensure that the unit test and final tests achieve the purposes mentioned in para ' above, a document called the +!able of %pecifications, or +!&%, is prepared and made available at the training establishment2schools# 3# !he unit tests and final tests, be it practical or theory will re1uire few tools for assessing specified areas of competence# We set 1uestion papers to assess the trainees on the theoretical inputs# (ppropriate tas*s in labs2wor* sites2e1uipment2gun control systems2mountings are given to assess the practical abilities of trainees# !he +!&%, is an assessment scheme for these tests which lays the accurate importance or weightage for the domains and levels of learning abilities, which need to be assessed li*e *nowledge, comprehension, application, attitude, s*ill# !he !&% is a blue print of the 1uestion paper# (it must be mentioned that a !&% can also be made for a practical test)# )n order to develop the !&% we will first need to collect information on various aspects of the sub:ect for which assessment is to be carried out from the sources shown in the following table:-

'96

Ser No (a)

,etails o# 3n#or$ation re5!ired !he various sub:ect matter or !&7)B% which need to be assessed !he domains and levels of learning abilities, which need to be assessed, li*e *nowledge, comprehension, application, attitude, and s*ill# !he importance of each topic with respect to understanding other topics and sub:ects# !he time spent in instructions 2 learning of each topic# !he utility of the topics in the performance of the :ob for which the trainees are trained# !ime to be allotted for tests2assessment# <a$imum mar*s and Tualifying mar*s for the tests#

So!rce to o.tain in#or$ation *aster Sylla.!s of the relevant course# (s sub:ect e$perts, one can ascertain the levels of learning abilities by e$amining all specific ob:ectives that are laid down in the lesson plans# (s sub:ect e$perts, one can :udge this aspect and accordingly, its due importance is given while formulating the $aster sylla.!s# *aster Sylla.!s of the relevant course# Ban be assessed by the sub:ect e$perts# (ccordingly, appropriate amount of time is allotted for learning2mastery of the topic in the $aster sylla.!s; !o be decided by the sub:ect e$perts# Depending upon the overall scheme of mar*ing for the entire course and the importance of the sub:ect vis-N-vis other sub:ects2 entire course, one has to decide on the ma$imum mar*s# !he 1ualifying mar*s are to be decided based on the criteria2 level of competence that is e$pected out of the trainees#

(b)

(c) (d) (e) (f)

(g)

-# (s e$plained in the preceding paragraph, a weightage has to be given to each topic, and this weightage will have to be distributed to each of the domains and levels of learning abilities which need to be assessed li*e *nowledge, comprehension, application, attitude, s*ill# )t must be mentioned here, that these levels of learning abilities are the ones that are going to determine the difficulty level of the 1uestion paper# &ne single factor, which can determine the weightage to be given for each topic is the time spent in instructions 2 learning of each topic# !he time to be spent for instructions for each topic has been wor*ed out in the master syllabus only after a detailed tas* analysis and hence it is appropriate to consider the time spent for each topic as the one single factor for calculating the weightage for each topic# ( !&% lists the topics as one dimension and the levels of learning abilities li*e *nowledge, understanding, application and s*ill as the second dimension# ( typical e$ample of a !&% is appended below:-

'99

TA)LE O SPEC3 3CATON Bourse:- F7 )) Bourse %ub:ect: - Cavigation

%er Co (a) (b) (c) (d) C& &@ 7 F)&D% W )/;!(/
(in terms of mar*s)

!otal Co of 7eriods:- 6? <a$imum <ar*s: - '?? Tualifying <ar*s: 3?

4C&W" D/ (4) B&<7F ; C%)&C (B) (77")B(!)&C (() %4)"" (%)

!&7)B% /eneral Cavigatio n @i$es Bhart Wor* !ides TOTAL

2'3 2'3 '2

32 22 32 22 122

5 . 6 . 25

9 3 9 3 32

. 3 3 15

9 3 9 3 32

.# 7rocedure for tabulating !&%# (s shown in the !&% in the previous page, the details of topics and number of periods allotted2spent for each topic is entered# !he weightage for each topic is then calculated in terms of mar*s, depending upon the number of periods allotted for each topic in comparison with the total periods allotted for the entire sub:ect# @or e$ample, in the !&% shown earlier, the number of periods for the topic +/eneral Cavigation, is 2- out of a total of 6? periods# !he weightage for the topic +/eneral Cavigation, is calculated as follows: -

24 H 122 R '2
3#

32 $ar6s

%imilarly weightage for the topic +@i$es, is calculated as follows:-

1( H 122 R '2

22 $ar6s

5# !he weightage of 3? mar*s for +/eneral Cavigation, is then distributed amongst the levels of learning abilities as 5 mar*s for 4nowledge (4), 9 mar*s for Bomprehension(B), . for (pplication (() and 9 mar*s for %*ill (%)# !his distribution is done after a careful e$amination of the specific ob:ectives (from the lesson plans) in order to determine their respective domains and levels of learning# &nce the mar*s have been distributed in this manner, these mar*s will have to be further distributed as &b:ective type (&), %hort (nswer type (%() and "ong (nswer2 ssay type ("()# !he ob:ective type 1uestions usually carry one mar* each, the short answer type

2??

carry either 2 or 3 mar*s each and the "ong answer type may carry either . or more mar*s# !he table will have to be redrawn as shown below :TA)LE O SPEC3 3CATONS Bourse:- F7 )) Bourse %ub:ect:- Cavigation
%er Co (a) (b) (c) (d) !&7)B% /eneral Cavigatio n @i$es Bhart Wor* !ides
TOTAL C& &@ 7 F)&D% W )/;! -(/ (in terms of mar*s)

!otal Co of 7eriods:- 6? <a$imum <ar*s :- '?? Tualifying <ar*s :3? 4

%( & "( &

c
%( "( &

(
%( "( &

%
%( "(

2'3 2'3 '2

32 22 32 22 122

2(' ) '(' ) '(' ) ? 4

? 2(2 ) '(2 ) ? (

'(. ) ? '(. ) '(. ) 15

2(' ) 2(' ) ? '(' ) 5

'(2 ) 2(2 ) 2(2 ) ? 12

'(. ) ? '(. ) '(. ) 15

& '(' ) ? '(' ) 2

? '(2 ) 2(2 ) '(2 ) '

'(. ) ? ? ? 5

'(2) '(') 2(') ? 5

'(2) ? '(2) 3(2) 12

'(.) '(.) '(.) ? 15

6# !he figures shown within brac*ets are the mar*s allotted# @or e$ample, for the topic +@i$es, under 4nowledge, there are two ob:ective type 1uestions carrying ' mar* each, no short answer type 1uestion and ' long answer type 1uestion carrying . mar*s# 9# !he !&% for a particular sub:ect and course can become a standard after using the same over a period of time and stabilising for consistent results# !he resulting 1uestion paper from a well-stabilised !&% will be a balanced 1uestion paper# ( !&% when incorporated with a computerised and well-developed Tuestion 0an* will pic* up 1uestions at random and generate a 1uestion paper automatically# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@

A=T9O:

<easurement and valuation in Corman K /onlud training (ssessment and valuation in Lohn %toc*, Lohn training 8 !raining !echnology ;olland 7rogramme Mol# 3

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 256 225

2?'

C9APTE:

2+;

3NTE:P:ETAT3ON O TEST SCO:ES

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) $plain the importance of analysis2 interpretation of trainees, test scores (b) $plain %tandard score norms (c) Bompute <ean and %tandard Deviation (d) Bompute ! score and U score (e) Draw inferences from ! %cores and U scores (f) $plain Cormal20ell curve analysis (g) )nterpret a 0ell curve

2?2

3NTE:P:ETAT3ON O TEST SCO:ES '# !he analysis of the test scores of trainee is essential in order to infer the performance of trainees# !est results can be interpreted in terms of: (a) (b) !he types of tas* that can be performed (criterion 8 reference) !he relative position held in some reference group (norm 8 reference)

Analysis o# Test Scores 2# !he usual method of interpreting test scores is by means of Faw %core (nalysis# Faw score is the mar*s secure by a trainee in a test# Faw score reflects a numerical summary of a trainee,s performance, but does not depict the picture whether the training was effective or not# 3# !he scores of a trainee li*e -. in Cavigation, 6. in /unnery and score of 3. in Bommunication is of little practical value# )t does not indicate whether the trainee is good, average or below average# !his problem has been solved by e$pressing all test scores in percents# 0ut its inferences are 1uite limited# ( score of 3.X on one test may be e1uivalent to a score of 6.X on an easier test# -# <oreover, the raw scores provides no significant basis for evaluating one trainee compared to another in his class or comparing different areas of ability in the same trainee# .# !hus there is need of some broader, more uniform ob:ective and stable standard of reference or unit of measurement# !o derive meaningful inference in the trend of results, it is necessary to convert raw scores into a derived score to indicate the trainee,s relative position in a clearly defined reference group# 3# Standard Score Nor$s# !he use of standard scores becomes necessary in order to find the relative standing of a trainee in comparison with a defined group as well as his comparative performance in different sub:ects of speciali=ation# %tatistical methods are employed for standardi=ing the scores# !he mean (<) is the arithmetical average determined by adding all scores and diving by the number of scores# Q *ean %*& R C Where Q R %ummation of raw scores (Q), and C R Co# of trainees# 5# !he standard Deviation (%D- ) is measure of the spread of scores in a group of trainees %tandard Deviation %D () R Z([a2)2C Where a R Q-< and C is Co# of trainees

2?3

6# We will now see how to arrive at a score which establishes the inter-relationship between trainees of a course# @or this we wor* out U-score e$plained below# 9# J Score; !his score e$presses test performance as the number of %D units a raw score is above or below the mean# !he formula for computing U score is 8 JR H>* S,

Where Q R Faw %core < R <ean of raw scores %D R %tandard deviation of raw scores '?# !he advantage of using the U score to interpret test and results are shown below:Faw score(Q) .6 3? <ean(<) .6 33 Q-< ? -3 %D 3? U score ?#?? - ?#2?

%eamanship Cavigation

''# ( U %core is always negative when the raw score is smaller than the mean# &mission of the minus sign can cause serious errors in test interpretation # !hus, U-score are seldom used directly in test norms but are usually transformed into a standard score system that uses only positive numbers# '2# 3n#erence# @rom the above e$ample we can infer, based on the U score that the trainee is slightly below average in Cavigation and e$actly average in %eamanship# !his inference is not possible by studying the raw score alone# '3# !he comparison of performance of two individuals ( and 0 is illustrated with usage of U scores:%ub(<ar*s RQ) +/, +C, 55 .. 65 -6 < +/, +C, 3. -? 3. -? Q-< +/, +C, '2 '? 22 ?9 %D +/, +C, '. '? '. '? U-%core +/, +C, ?#6 '#. '#. ?#6

( 0

)t may be inferred from the above U scores that G0J performed a good deal better in /unnery than in Cavigation GorJ ( performs well in Cavigation as 0 performs in /unnery and vice versa# '-# T Score; !he !-score is also based on the same principle as U score# 0ut, it has the advantage of being always positive and e$pressed in larger units# )t has a mean of .? and an %D of '?# !hus, T score R 12J K 52

2?-

Where U R U score '.# !he ! score of .? indicate that the raw scores is at the mean level while above .? and below .? indicate raw scores above and below the mean respectively# !he advantage of using ! score is shown below:%eamanship Cavigation Q .6 3? < .6 33 Q8< ? -3 %D 3? U-%core ?#?? -?#2? !-%core .? -6

'3# !he score of .? indicates that the trainee is e$actly average in %eamanship while !-score of -6 indicates that the he is slightly below average in Cavigation# !his method of inference would reflect on the relative performance of trainee and to enable the trainer to decide sub:ects where the trainee re1uires diagnostic and remedial instruction# '5# !o facilitate in selection of personnel among several courses, the usages of !-scores is illustrated as under:5 Bourse <ean 8 Faw %cores %#Co# '# 2# 3# -# .#
th th

6 Bourse .'#9 # 6 Bourse # Faw %core ! %core 3'#3 33#5 3?#. 3-#6 .6#? 3?#. .5#' .9#? .3#3 .6#'
th th th

th

3.#3 5 Bourse Faw %core ! %core 59 3?#' 5.3#5' .-#2 5? .3#. 3? .2#5

'6# 7resuming that the average standard of 5 and 6 courses are comparable, the top five of two batches can be compared# )n conclusion we can see that ! score can be used to describe the normali=ed performance of a trainee with inter-se comparison incorporated The Nor$al c!r0e or )ell C!r0e analysis '9# !he normal curve is a symmetrical bell- shaped curve that has many useful mathematical properties# &ne of the most useful from the viewpoint of test interpretation is that when it is divided into standard deviation units, each portion under the curve contains a fi$ed percentage of cases# !his is shown in the ideal normal curve shown in the figure below# Cote that 3- percent of the cases fall between the mean and H'%D, '- percent between H'%D and H2 %D, and 2 percent between H2 %D and 3 %D# !he same proportions, of course, apply to the standard

2?.

deviation intervals below the mean# &nly #'3 percent of the cases fall below 83 %D or above H 3 %D # !hus, for all practical purposes, a normal distribution of scores falls between 83 and H3 standard deviations from the mean# Nor$al C!r0e or )ell C!r0e

?#'3X %tandard Deviation --3

2X -2 -' ? H' H2

2X H3

?#'3X H-

2?# !he overall performance of a class can also be seen with the help of a bell curve# ( right s*ewed curve about the mean would indicate that ma:ority of the trainees have scored mar*s less than the mean score of the class and a left s*ewed curve would indicate that ma:ority of the trainees have scored mar*s above the mean score of the class# &f course, the interpretation will depend upon the relative position of the mean (arithmetic)# )deally one must obtain a normal curve# :ight S6e"

%tandard Deviation

--

-3

-2

-'

H'

H2

H3

H-

2?3

Le#t S6e"

%tandard Deviation

--

-3

-2

-'

H'

H2

H3

H-

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'#

T3TLE O )OO@ <easurement K valuation teaching 8 edition ))) in

A=T9O: Corman /ronlund

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 256

2?5

C9APTE:

2';

3NP=T O=TP=T ANALCS3S

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the terms 0! and @0! (b) $plain the significance of 0!' and 0!2 (c) Balculate the "eaning )nde$ of a course (d) )nterpret the value2result of "earning )nde$ of a course

2?6

3NP=T ? O=TP=T ANALCS3S 3ntrod!ction; '# !raining is useful only if the ultimate value of training meets the organisational needs of human resources# !hus evaluation of training process has to be 1uantitative as well as 1ualitative# )n order to find out whether we are in the right trac* and to stream line the training process, contents and duration etc,# one of the methods which could be adopted is input2output analysis# )n order to understand the process of input analysis certain definitions are to be made clear# 2# Entry )eha0io!r; !his is the total of all the *nowledge, s*ills, attitude and e$perience a trainee or trainees bring (s) to a learning event2class or learning opportunity# !his 0 has two components:(a) !he basic re1uirements, *nowledge or entry 1ualification e$pected2assumed so as to undergo the course or *nowledge s*ills and attitude based on which the course has been designed# !his is usually tested by an entry behaviour test called 0!-'# (b) 0y virtue of learning on the :ob or otherwise trainees could have gathered some *nowledge, s*ills and attitude, which are proposed to be developed during the new course# )n other words they already have some *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes which otherwise would have been covered in the course# !his is usually tested by an entry behaviour test called 0!-2# !he 0!-2 component of the 0!, will have 1uestions which are supposed to be part of the final behaviour test (@0!)# !he test scores in the 0!-2 could be termed as +pre>training>score#, )t is however, pointless to conduct an 0!-2 for ab-initio courses# 3# (ssessment of these two factors is called ntry 0ehaviour !est ( 0!)# When we are conducting 0! we are assessing *nowledge and s*ills retained and ac1uired# !his is re1uired to be assessed in the beginning so as to chart the course of action2apply strategy2modify course design# -# inal )eha0io!r; !his term refers to the behaviour in terms of performance ob:ectives to be achieved after completion of training 8 ;ow much of the planned *nowledge, s*ill and attitude have been imbibed and e$pressed and measured through the evaluation process# !he test scores in the @0! can be termed as +post training score#, Learning 3nde1 .# !he simple difference between the post training score and pre>training score is not the true measure of learning unless poor performance becomes a precondition to training# !he

2?9

unlearnt portion of pre-training score determines how much the trainee could gain from training and "earning )nde$ is calculated from :

"earning )nde$ (")& R %Post training Score F Pre>training Score& 1 122

(E$a1 F Pre>training Score& Where ma$ is the ma$imum mar*s (usually '??) for both 7re and 7ost training evaluation and (7ost training score 8 7re-training score) is the is the achie0e$ent .y "ay o# training ; ( ma$ 8 7re-training %core) is scope of training or trainability of the individual# L3 R Achie0e$ent Scope

3# )n order to arrive the "earning )nde$ or 7ercentage achievement for a full class of C participants, average for the class has to be wor*ed out as follows:A0erage L3 R 3ndi0id!al L3 N 5# )f the course is conducted sincerely and with all seriousness, and if a continued low average ") for the course is observed then it is a pointer for the training manager# ;e may have to reassess the training need, ma*e changes in strategy, content2training ob:ectives, and methodology or evaluation process# (fter an input- output analysis has been carried out for a course, if you find that the percentage achievement (or learning inde$) of the class is very high, the possible inferences that you can draw on account of a very high learning inde$ are as follows:(a) !he final test could have been very easy# (b) !he 0! would have been very tough (c) !he 0! results2evaluation could have been manipulated to show poor performance# (d) !he !raining is very good and effective, if every thing has been properly done# (e) 0esides having good instructors and good training facilities, it could also be possible that the trainees were good# )OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2#

T3TLE O )OO@

A=T9O:

Bourse Bommunication 8 Diploma in Dr 7remilla Merma !raining and Development ;FD !raining and Development 8 Fobert @ <ager Molume 3 - <easuring )nstructional Fesult

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 2'2?

2'?

C9APTE:

29;

T:A3N3N8 ,ES38N AN, E7AL=AT3ON CELL %T,EC&

O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) %tate the purpose of !D B (b) numerate the organi=ation of !D B (c) "ist the charter of duties to be carried out by !D B (d) "ist records to be maintained by !D B#

2''

T:A3N3N8 ,ES38N AN, E7AL=AT3ON CELL %T,EC& '# !raining Design and valuation Bells have been set up in training establishments2professional schools from within the e$isting resources to ensure the systematic conduct of training# 2# )n order to standardise the functioning of these cells in establishments, the details of organisation and charter of duties of !D Bs are given in the succeeding paragraphs# OrganiGation 3# !he !raining Design and valuation Bell (!D B) should be set up within the e$isting manpower resources of the training establishments2professional schools# )t should consist of at least two officers and a senior sailor (<B7&2B7&)# -# )n order to ensure ob:ective and un-biased assessment of training, at least one of the members of the !D B should not be involved in instructions for the courses if the <7 permits# Charter o# ,!ties .# !he Bharter of duties of the !D B are split up into two areas vi= !raining Design and !raining valuation as given below: (a) Training ,esign (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) !o carry out tas* analysis *eeping in minds the :ob specifications laid down for each course# 7repare training ob:ectives in respect of the tas*s lists identified for different specialist :obs# Design <aster %yllabus course-wise to ensure that the !raining &b:ectives have been catered for# Boordinate the preparation of standard "esson 7lans# 4eep abreast of the latest trends in the field of !eaching <ethods, !raining !echnology and analyse these for their implementation#

2'2

(b)

Training E0al!ation (i) (ssess the ntry 0ehaviour of trainees to formulate the strategies and levels of instructions# (ii) Bo-ordinate the generation of Tuestion 0an*s#

(iii) Bo-ordinate setting up of standardi=ed 1uestion papers based on !able of %pecification (!&%)# (iv) Barry out )nput2&utput (nalysis and analyse the emerging pattern in order to 1uantify training efficacy# (v) @ormulate and analyse @ollow up Feports for various courses to improve the 1uality of training# (vi) (vii) Barry out )nstructor valuation# Bonduct course criti1ues to find out lacunae in training#

*aterial to .e ,isplayed in T,EC 3# !he following material is to be displayed2be available in all !D Bs:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (g) (h) (:) (*) <aster %yllabi for courses 2 "esson plans !raining ffectiveness <odel ( ! <) (nalysis of Bourse Briti1ues and follow up action ta*en (nalysis of follow up 2 feedbac* reports and follow up action ta*en Fecord of instructor evaluation carried out Bharts indicating !raining "oad, )nstructor "oad ;ard copy of 1uestion ban*s 2 !&% for various courses "ist of training aids (nnual !raining 7rogramme 2 Wee*ly !raining 7rogramme

2'3

(l) (m) (n)

Fesults of trainees ( 0!,@0! etc) )nput 2 &utput (nalysis !rend analysis of various courses with respect to performance

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ Designing !raining !he %ystematic Designing of !raining <anaging Fe1uirement !raining (nd Development Breating ( !raining Development %halop

A=T9O: (lison ;adingham 0ob Wilson li=abeth Bhristopher "arry %mith (ndrew <ayo

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '332 2?'' '33. 2?5'

2'-

C9APTE:

32;

CO=NSELL3N8
O)<ECT37ES When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the term counselling# (b) Define the terms /uidance, (dvice and 7sychotherapy# (c) "ist the Bounsellor,s attitudes# (d) numerate the various s*ills re1uired for a councellor#

2'.

CO=NSELL3N8 '# Co!nselling; Bounselling means an interpersonal relationship, which stimulates growth in the client as a person# Bounselling encourages the client to grow in maturity, to actuali=e his potential and to utili=e his resources towards definite goals# The di##erence .et"een co!nseling?g!idance?ad0ice?psychotherapy; (a) Co!nselling; )t is a speciali=ed function, it is problem oriented and helps the individual understand himself and develop the ability to ta*e decisions and ma*e choices# (b) 8!idance; )t is a comprehensive process, which enlightens individuals regarding a new place, sub:ect or situation# (c) Ad0ice; )t involves an e$perienced mature adult tal*ing to an ine$perienced person in a sub:ective tone# (d) Psychotherapy; )t is individual oriented, focus mainly on early childhood e$periences and trauma# 3 Co!nsellorBs Attit!des; ( counselor is supposed to have the following attitudes:(a) E$pathy; )t is the ability to accurately understand what another person is e$periencing and communicate that understanding to him# Barl Fogers defined empathy as Gan ability to sense the client,s private world as if it were your own, but without losing the +as if, 1ualityJ# mpathy is feeling with the other person, sensing where he stands# (b) :espect; )t is the ability of a counselor, lies in communicating to the client the belief that every person possesses the inherent strength and capacity to +ma*e it + in life and that each person has the right to choose his own alternatives and ma*e his own decisions# Fespect is the trust in the basic goodness of all people# very person has the ability to grow, to ma*e decisions# !he counselor believes in the basic goodness of the client# (c) 8en!ineness; )t means being congruent# )n other words, there is consistency between these three levels of person: level of e$perience, level of awareness of e$perience and level of communication of awareness , e#g#, a girl feels :ealous of another girl# %he is aware of her feelings and communicates her awareness of these feelings by spea*ing ill of her# !his girl is genuine in a

2#

2'3

negative way and people understand that she is :ealous# /enuineness in the counselor means, honesty with oneself and with the client# )t means also being spontaneous and non-defensive# /enuineness must be constructive# !he counselor should be an authentic person# ;e should be aware of his own feelings, accept them and communicate them if appropriate# /enuineness is the ability to e$perience and share with the client, the feelings that a counseling encounter arouses in the counselor# (d) Concreteness; !he attitude of concreteness involves the specific, direct and complete e$pression of the client,s feelings and e$periences by both the client and the counselor in their communication# !he concrete counselor *eeps communication specific and gets to the what, why, when, where and how of something# !he concrete counselor maintains relevancy in the communication and prevents the client from avoiding or escaping from the issue at hand# (e) Sel#>disclos!re; !he attitude of self-disclosure consists in the counselor,s willingness to reveal to the client his own personal feelings, attitudes, opinion and e$periences for the benefit of the client# %elf-disclosure is the ability to share any relevant personal e$perience with the client# (f) Con#rontation; !he counsellor observes some discrepancy in the client,s behaviour and brings it to his awareness# e#g# Iou say you are very happy, yet your tone of voice is said# Bonfrontation refers to the counselor,s statement or 1uestion intended to point out contradictions in the client,s behaviour and statement# (lso, it is used to help the client face an issue the counselor feels the client is avoiding# 4; Co!nsellorBs S6ills; ( Bounsellor is to master the following s*ills:-

(a) Attending s6ills; !he attending s*ills include attending physically, observing and listening# !hey are as listed below: (i) Attending Physically; (aa) (ab) (ac) (ad) (ae) %iii& %it facing the client or close by his side 7osture yourself in a way that shows interest in the client <a*e eye-contact if the client feels comfortable liminate any distracting behaviours (ttending is a demonstration of concern and interest in the client#

O.ser0ing S6ills; (aa) 7hysically: level of energy, body-build, and physical appearance#

2'5

(ab)

motionally: facial e$pression, posture, grooming#

(ad) )nterpersonally: how he relates to you: positively, negatively, uncomfortably# (ae) )ntellectually: his readiness to learn, alert, interested, eager#

(af) Degree of congruence: discrepancies between two elements of behaviour, such as holding a good :ob and dressing shabbily# .# Listening S6ills; ( counsellor has to possess good listening s*ill# !he following are important:(a) (b) (c) 4now what you are listening for# "isten for the specific content of the client,s e$pressions# %uspend your personal :udgment# Fesist distractions#

(d) Fecall the client,s tone of voice, the specific feelings, words he uses li*e glad, sad, etc# and the way he e$presses himself, whether positive or negative or indifferent# 3# "istening is defined as receiving messages from a client by focusing attention on what the client is e$pressing both verbally and non-verbally# (ttending is a demonstration of concern and interest in the client# 5# eed.ac6 s6ills; !hey can be bro*en down into the following:

(a) Paraphrasing; ( counselor,s statement that mirrors the client,s statement in e$act or similar wording# (b) Client; <y boss doesn,t understand me at all# ;e doesn,t reali=e# ) am always sha*y in the morning# (c) Co!nselor; <orning is a tough time for you#

(d) :e#lection o# #eelings; !he essence of the client,s feelings, either stated or implied, as e$pressed by the counselors# (e) Client; ) didn,t want to come here# !here is nothing wrong with me# ) only came to see you because my wife insisted#

2'6

(f) Co!nselor;

Iou do not seem too happy about coming here# &F ) get the impression that you are annoyed#

(g) S!$$ariGingA !his is a brief review of the main points discussed in the session to ensure continuity in a focused direction# !his should be done at the beginning and at the end of each session# )n the beginning, the client is as*ed to summari=e the previous session and at the end, the counselor summari=es the main points of the current session# 6# PersonaliGing S6ills; !hey are as listed below:

(a) PersonaliGing the $eaning; )t consists in the counsellor,s ability to go beyond what the client has e$pressed and identify why his e$perience is significant to him# GWhat is the impact of the situation for the clientDJ# (b) PersonaliGing the pro.le$; !his s*ill helps the counselor ma*e the client aware of his contribution to the problem or his deficit behaviour and ma*e him assume responsibility for what he is doing# (c) PersonaliGing the #eeling; )t enables the counselor to be sensitive to the changing feeling of the client upon the reali=ation of the part he himself has played in the formation of the problem# !he purpose of this s*ill is to deepen the client,s understanding of where he is in relation to where he wants to be in his world# (d) PersonaliGing the goal; )t allows the counselor to change the problem into a goal, thus channeling the client,s energy into something positive and constructive# 9# 3nitiating s6ills; !hese are to identify appropriate courses of action, which will ta*e the client from where he is to where he wants to be# )n order to devise effective actionprogrammes, the counselor follows these steps: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) state the goal clearly operationalise the goal state one sub-goal develop courses of action to achieve sub-goals point out the first step draw a time-table evaluate client,s performance and programme development

'?# Bounseling is a tool and not and end in itself# )t is an instrument (the caring and loving relationship) to increase love for /od, for each other and for self# )t is a tool to arrive at the sentiments e$pressed in the prayer:F1ord, give me the grace to change what can be changed, to accept what cannot be changed, and the wisdom to #now the di erence8.

2'9

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ Bounselling %*ill )n !raining 7ersonnel Bounselling !he 0asic ssentials &f Bounselling /uidance (nd Bounselling )n Bolleges (nd Aniverisities

A=T9O: 7hilip 0urnard L< Luster )ndu Dara % 4 4ochgar

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; '33? 532 62. 9'.

22?

C9APTE:

31;

T3*E *ANA8E*ENT
O)<ECT37ES
When you have mastered the contents of this chapter, you will be able to (a) Define the term !ime <anagement (b) "ist five commandments of !ime <anagement (c) numerate the five commandments of time management (d) "ist the top time wasters observed in day to day living (e) $plain the !ime <anagement /rid

T3*E *ANA8E*ENT

22'

'# !ime is a uni1ue and most valuable resource# !ime cannot be saved, it can only be spent wisely# !ime is irreplaceable, inelastic and irreversible# !he ob:ect of time management is to increase and optimi=e the use of your discretionary time# 2# Fesearch has indicated that there are five ma:or areas, which are imperative to improving the management of time# (a) The 9a.it!al !se o# Ti$e largely habitual in nature# (b) # (c) (d) !he realisation that the way we spend our time is

8oal setting %etting personal goal is crucial Priorities 7riorities must be categori=ed and evaluated# 7roper communications are essential to good use of time#

Co$$!nication

(e) Procrastination !his probably the largest obstacle to time management# Delaying gratification could help# 3# The i0e Co$$and$ents o# Ti$e *anage$ent; commandments of time management:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 4; Write things down 7riorities wor* and time Bontrol interruptions lephantine 0ig tas*s 0e realistic about time# @ollowing are the five

The Top Ti$e -asters; )n our day-to-day lives, the following are the top time wasters generally encountered:(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) !elephone interruptions Drop in visitors <eetings (%cheduled K Anscheduled) Brises "ac* of ob:ectives, priorities and dead lines Bluttered des* and personal disorgani=ation )neffective delegation and involvement in routine and detail

222

(h) (:) (*) (l) (m) (n) (p)

(ttempting too much at once and estimating time unrealistically "ac* of or unclear communication or instruction )nade1uate, inaccurate or delayed information )ndecision and procrastination Bonfused responsibility and authority "eaving tas*s unfinished "ac* of self discipline

.# !ime wasters listed above are probably part of our life# ;owever there could be live categories 8controllable and uncontrollable time# &ne must identify the two categories in their wor* situation# &ne must ma*e ma$imum use of the time one can control# 3# %tudies have indicated that the characteristics common to most of the star performers are: (a) (b) !he ability to do it now# (t least 6?X of the tas*s are handled immediately# !he ability to delegate to the able#

(c) Willingness to ta*e time to support, encourage and show concern for subordinates# (d) ffective networ*ing# (e) !he ability to separate +chaff, from the wheat# Cot to be trapped by trivia# (f) Fefusal to waste time on the +impossible,# (dmit mista*e and move on to bigger things# (g) (h) (:) !he ability to pro:ect himself into the future# ( sense of timing and a feel for reality# (bility to establish reasonable target dates on all pro:ects#

5# !o understand the concept of +!ime <anagement,, a matri$ has been designed as appended below this paragraph# !he matri$ is divided in to four 1uadrants# (ll the 1uadrants contain various activities encountered by a person in his2her daily routine (or the daily activities of a person in one,s day are distributed in various 1uadrants of the matri$)# !hese activities are compared with respect important 2 not important in the vertical a$is against urgent 2 not urgent categories in the hori=ontal a$is# =:8ENT NOT =:8ENT

223

4=A,:ANT 3 ACT373T3ES Brisis 7ressing 7roblems Dead line driven problems 4=A,:ANT 333 ACT373T3ES )nterruptions %ome Balls, mail %ome reports 7ressing matters 7opular

4=A,:ANT 33 ACT373T3ES 7revention 7lanning, recreation Delaying gratification Felationship building Fecogni=ing new opportunities 4=A,:ANT 37 ACT373T3ES !rivia %ome mail !ime wasters !ime pass +<oonphali, 7leasant activities /ossip mongering Cu**ad gossips

6# )f the focus is on Tuadrant ) activities, it *eeps getting bigger and bigger until it dominates you# ( crisis surfaces and ties you down and you struggle bac* up only to face another one *noc*s you down again# 7eople who spend a lot of time in Tuadrant ) generally spend the balance time in Tuadrant )M, with only negligible attention paid to Tuadrants )) K )))# 9# !here are people who spend a great deal of time in Tuadrant ))), thin*ing they are in Tuadrant ), they spend most of then time reacting to things are urgent, assuming they are also important# 0ut the reality is that the urgency of these matters is often based on the priorities and e$pectations of others# '?# ffective people prefer to stay out of Tuadrants )))K)M as far as possible because urgent or not they are not important# !hey also shrin* Tuadrant ) down to si=e by spending more time in Tuadrant ))# Tuadrant )) activities is the heart of effective personal as well as time management# )t deals with things li*e short and long range planning, preparation, corrective and preventive actions, building relationships, disciplined and effective personal management, feeding the opportunities and, starving the problems, learning to say +Co, when re1uired to say so, not allowing another +mon*ey, :ump on to own shoulders at the same time helping them to feed the mon*eys, etc# Fesults of Tuadrant )) activities would lead to vision, perspective, balance discipline, control and few crises# 4!adrant 33 Tool ''# !he ob:ective of Tuadrant )) management is to manage our lives effectively from a centre of sound principles, from *nowledge of our personal mission, with a focus on the important as well as the urgent, and within the framewor* of maintaining a balance between increasing our

3*PO:TANT NOT 3*PO:TANT

22-

productivity and production capabilities# ( Tuadrant )) manager2organi=er will need to meet the following si$ important criteria# (a) Coherence; )t suggests that there is harmony, unity and integrity between your vision and mission, roles and goals priorities and plans, and desires and discipline# (b) )alance; !he Tuadrant )) tool should help to *eep a balance in life, to identify various roles and *eep them in front-wheel of life catering to, physical, spiritual, professional social, mental and family needs# (c) oc!s; !he tool devised2adopted should encourage, motivate send help to spend the time you need in Tuadrant )) so that one is dealing with prevention rather than prioriti=ing crises# Fesearch suggests the best way to do this is on a wee*ly basis# ( time unit of '36 hours (one wee*) may be considered# !he *ey is not to prioriti=e what,s on your schedule, but to schedule your priorities# (d) People ,i$ension; While dealing with time one may thin* of efficiency but while dealing with people one has to thin* of effectiveness# @acilitate implementation by people around you# (e) le1i.ility; the planning tool should be your servant, never your master# )t should be tailored to your style, your needs, and your ways# (f) Porta.ility; the time# the tool should be portable so that you can carry with you most of

Tuadrant )) organi=ing involves four *ey activities# (a) (c) )dentifying roles %cheduling goals (b) (d) %etting goals from roles Daily (dapting

*ission State$ents

:oles

8oals

LON8 TE:* O:8AN3S3N8

22.

:oles Sched!le

8oals

Plans

,elegate -ee6ly organising

)OO@S AN, :E E:ENCESA

S;NO; ?'# ?2# ?3# ?-#

T3TLE O )OO@ ssence &f !ime <anagement !raining @or !ime <anagement !he Bomplete !ime <anagement %ystem 7ractical !ime <anagement

A=T9O: <ichael "e 0oeuf 7hilip <oon L Blar* 0radley B <crae

N3ETT L3); ACCN; NO; 6'2 ''?? '326 '936

223

8LOSSA:C O T:A3N3N8 TE:*S

'# &ne problem, which has inhibited effective and efficient training systems in the past, has been semantics# !he absence of a standard vocabulary has created understandable confusion# Antil all the parties to the process share some common definitions, they will naturally e$perience needless debates, delays and disappointments# 2# !he definitions given below ma*e no pretence of settling the semantics issues, however, one consistent definition can be of great help in understanding and structuring *nowledge of a particular sub:ect# )t will serve the purpose of minimi=ing semantic interference# (n attempt has been made, to define terms related to training profession so that trainers, trainees, training-managers, line-managers, professional bodies and all others involved with training can have a ready- rec*oner of training terms# '# ACT373TC LEA:N3N8# ( general term used to indicate learning by means of active participation of the learner in such e$ercises as pro:ects-wor*, group discussion, as opposed to passive means such as lectures or films# 2# A=,3O>73S=AL A3,S; (ids to communication, with special reference to controlled learning which utilise both sight and hearing# 3# AN,:A8O8C# ( learning process in which both student and trainer assume responsibility for what, when, how and to whom information is to be taught# -# APP:EC3AT3ON T:A3N3N8# !raining usually of short duration, designed to give a generali=ed understanding of a sub:ect area or of the uses of certain techni1ues# )t is not intended to e1uip the learners with specific s*ill and usually arranged for people who re1uire some *nowledge of the wor* of others# .# APT3T=,E # Catural ability to ac1uire and utilise types of *nowledge or s*ills#

3# ASSESS*ENT O T:A3N3N8# ( general term for the processes of ascertaining whether the trainees are gradually ac1uiring desired competencies, as reflected by ob:ectives#

225

5# )E9A73O=:AL O)<ECT37ES; (n unambiguous statement of what a learner is e$pected to be able to do as a result of learning e$perience including the facilities and constraints under which performance is to be carried out and the level of performance# 6# ):A3NSTO:*3N8# ( techni1ue used as a means of finding solutions to various problems or as a means of obtaining ideas# ( small group of people with or without conscious *nowledge of the sub:ect meet and submit any suggestion or ideas that come in to their heads, no matter how fantastic or impossible it may sound# %ubse1uently all the ideas submitted at the meeting are sifted and assessed# 9# )=S3NESS 8A*ES# ( learning conference in which group of learners each represent imaginary organisation in a carefully defined situation# '?# CASE ST=,C *ET9O,# ( learning techni1ue in which a real situation or a series of actual events is presented to trainees for their analysis and consideration of possible solutions of problems identified# !heir findings are thereafter compared with the way in which real life situation subse1uently developed# ''# COAC93N8; %ystematically increasing the ability and e$perience of the trainee by giving him planned tas*s, coupled with continuous appraisal and counseling# '2# CO*PETENCE# (bility to perform a particular activity to a prescribed standard# !he activity may involve the development of a variety of s*ills# '3# CO*PETENCE )ASE, NEE,# !he process of identification of training need based on difference in the e$pected level and actual performance of an individual # '-# CO=NSELL3N8# ( direct personal relationship in which a counsellor ma*es available to another person his friendship e$perience and *nowledge in order to assist the person in solving his problem# '.# CO=:SE ASSESS*ENT# ( general term covering the :udgement of suitability of a course to meet identified learning needs and of the e$tent to which those needs have been satisfied# '3# C:3T3CAL 3NC3,ENT TEC9N34=E# !he process of collecting from supervisors and peers established priorities in order of their importance for on the :ob activities deemed

226

critical to the :ob# )t focuses attention on :ob behavior as such and on :udgements as to what behavior ma*es for success or lac* of it where in the lac* of success is indicative of human error# '5# C=::3C=L=*# ( statement of the sub:ect matter (content) of a training course or part of it# )t may indicate the time to be devoted to each part of the training but not usually the order in which the items should be learnt of the methods of instructions to be used# !he word curriculum is used as synonym of syllabus# '6# ,3SCO7E:C LEA:N3N8 # ( method of training in which the trainee is presented with tas*s which engage him in the search for and selection of clues on how to proceed# '9# ,3SC=SS3ON *ET9O,# ( training in which the information that is transmitted comes from participants themselves rather that from the trainer# !he learners as a group is thus active are learning themselves# 2? ,3STANCE LEA:N3N8# ( learning process in which there is 1uasipermanent separation of the trainer and the learner# 7rogrammed instructional material is made available to the learner for learning# !he trainer provides feed bac* on the basis of e$ercises attempted as part of the programmed learning# "earner may also contact the trainer at some agreed forum and time# 2'# E,=CAT3ON# (ctivity which aim at developing the *nowledge, moral values and understanding re1uired in all wal*s of life rather than the *nowledge and s*ills relating to a limited field of activity# 22# ENT:C )E9A73O=:# !he e$isting behaviour of a learner in term of *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes previously learnt which a learner brings to a learning event# 23# E7AL=AT3ON# !he assessment of the total value of a training system, training course or programme in social as well as financial terms# )t differs from validation in that it attempts to measure the overall cost benefit of the course or programme and not :ust achievement of its laid down ob:ectives# 2-# AC3L3TATO:# &ne who assists or aids in e$ecution of tas*#

2.# EE, )AC@# !he process by which information about results of an action are communicated to the learner or trainer# 23# L3P C9A:T# %heets of detachable blan* papers used for display purposes with felt-tip pens or crayons#

229

25# LO- C9A:T# ( diagrammatic representation of a system in which inter relationship between its component parts are shown by various symbols and inter connecting arrows# 26# =:T9E: E,=CAT3ON# @ull time or part time education for persons who have left school2colleges# )t is often used to denote courses of a predominantly vocational aspect leading to technical and professional 1ualifications# 29# 8OAL# ( description of a condition, which will e$ist as the desired result of an action plan# 3?# 8:O=P ,CNA*3CS# !he study of interaction of the behaviour of individuals as members of a group# 3'# 3,ENT3 3CAT3ON O T:A3N3N8 NEE,S# (n e$amination of an organisations present and e$pected operations and the manpower necessary to carry them out, in order to identify the number and the categories of staff needing to be trained or re-trained# )t may also refer to the training needs of an individual to enable him to reach the re1uired standard of performance of his current or future :obs# 32# 3N>)AS@ET?3N>T:AC *ET9O,# ( form of training which attempts to simulate the wor*ing situation by setting the trainees realistic tas*s by presenting him with papers such as letters or memos in the in-bas*et or tray# !he results of the e$ercise are then analy=ed and assessed on the basis of decisions made# 33# 3NC3,ENT P:OCESS# ( variation of the case study in which a small team or group analysis of the case is used to reveal the critical facts# !he participants must as* 1uestions to a *nowledgeable person in order to get the important data# 3-# 3N,=CT3ON T:A3N3N8# (rrangements made by or on behalf of the management to familiarise the trainee2new-employee with the wor*ing of organisation# 3.# 3NST3T=T3ONAL T:A3N3N8# !raining conducted away from the :ob# %uch training is usually carried on for groups of training in factories, doc*yards, laboratories or classrooms depending upon the nature of training# 33# 3NST:=CTO:# ( trainer or a teacher#

35# 3NST:=CT3ON SC9E,=LE# ( detailed brea* down of specific s*ills for purposes of instruction# )t aims to set down the best learning se1uence in order to help the trainees master new s*ills to be learned and stipulates *ey points in the :ob#

23?

36# 3SS=E>)ASE,>NEE,# !raining needs identified due to some change in the organi=ation i#e# technology, policy, procedure etc# 39# <O) ANALCS3S# !he process of e$amining a :ob in detail in order to identify its component tas*s# -?# <O) ,ESC:3PT3ON# ( broad statement of the purpose scope, responsibilities and tas*s which constitute a particular :ob# -'# @EC :ES=LT A:EA# ( tas* or series of tas*s where e$cellent performance might transform efficiency of the individuals 2groups2organisation# -2# @NO-LE,8ED S@3LLD ATT3T=,E; %@SA& determinants of effective performance# !he essential

-3# LEA:N3N8# !he process of gaining and using *nowledge, understanding of s*ill through e$perience, practice and e$ercise, or a relatively permanent change in behaviour brought in by reinforced practice# --# LEA:N3N8 PLATEA=# process of learning# ( temporary halt in progress in the ( system designed to meet

-.# LEA:N3N8?TEAC93N8 SCSTE*# specific learning2teaching activities#

-3# LESSON# ( method of instruction incorporating a number of instructional techni1ues designed to ensure participation of the learning group in reaching the specified behaviour ob:ectives# -5# *O,ELL3N8# ( form of training which gives a detailed description of a typical system, which can be used as the basis for an analytical discussion# -6# *O,=LA: T:A3N3N8# %eparate designed as a series to lead to a certain level of 1ualification# training programme

-9# *O73N8# ( term used in 4urt "ewin,s learning model, denoting that part of training programme in which new *nowledge, s*ills and attitudes are transferred to the learner# .?# O >T9E><O) T:A3N3N8# situation and day-to-day pressures# !raining away from the normal wor*

.'# ON>T9E><O) T:A3N3N8# !raining given in normal wor* situation appropriate to a tas* or :ob#

23'

.2# O:8AN3SAT3ON# (ny enterprise (/overnment civil political, religious, financial, etc) that uses human, technological, material and financial resources to achieve goals# .3# O:8AN3SAT3ONAL ,E7ELOP*ENT# 0uilding fle$ibility or planning preparing the organisation, to meet future challenges through human resource development# for

.-# O7E:9EA, P:O<ECTO:; ( pro:ector which pro:ects transparencies on to a screen located behind the operator in such a way that he can maintain visual contact with his audience# ..# O7E:73E-# # !hat part of the training programme which gives a brief description of the content and presentation as to ma*e the trainees aware of what to e$pect during the training# (n overview should also set the theme for the training, which the trainees can later refer for lin*ing purpose# .3# O=T,OO: *ANA8E*ENT ,E7ELOP*ENT# ( popular training techni1ue of learning by doing# !he participants are ta*en out from the boundaries of a formal class room and do some actual physical e$ercises which involve elements of planning, organi=ing etc# .5# PE,A8O8C; !he process in which information is transmitted from a teacher to a student, with the teacher assuming full responsibility for what, when, how and to whom information is taught# .6# POST TEST# ( test administered at the end of a learning situation (session, course etc) to ascertain whether the re1uisite competence2s are reflected by behavioural ob:ectives have been achieved# .9# P:E>TEST# ( test administered before a learning situation to ascertain e$isting level of competence# 3?# P:O8:A**E?CO=:SE# !raining programme refers to tailor made training design based on identification of training needs# Where as training courses generally refer to the institutionali=ed training events, which are conducted by training institutes based on assessment of generic training needs# 3'# P:O8:A**E, 3NST:=CT3ON# %ub:ect matter arranged in a careful se1uence, usually divided in to small steps, and providing regular opportunities for the student to ma*e responses and to *now immediately if response is correct# 32# P:O8:A**E, LEA:N3N8# ( learning situation designed to meet clearly defined ob:ectives, entry conditions, and careful selection of methods and incorporates criteria by which effectiveness of training can be reliably assessed in relation to the ob:ectives#

232

33# P:O<ECT -O:@# ( form of e$ercise leading to accomplishment, within a fi$ed time, of a definite tas*, including a report containing recommendations on the problem stated# 3-# :E :EEJ3N8# ( term used in 4urt "ewinVs learning model, refers to the process of consolidation and stabili=ation of the new *nowledge, s*ills and behaviour styles ac1uired during a training programme# 3.# :E :ES9E: T:A3N3N8# !he process of further training in wor* currently performed in order to improve :ob performance# 33# :E LECT3ON# !he process of wor*ing out meanings of different training e$periences for themselves by the trainees so that they can digest and integrate the lessons# 35# :E3N O:CE*ENT; Fefers to conditions, which may be introduced into learning situations to increase the probability that a given response will reappear in the same situation# 36# :OLE# ( set of e$pectations of how the occupant of a particular position in an organisation ought to behave# 39# :OLE PLAC3N8# ( learning techni1ue in which students are presented with a situation which they are re1uired to resolve by acting out the roles of those represented in the situation# 5?# S3*=LATE, T:A3N3N8# !he training provided in a specially created environment which reproduces important conditions of the wor*ing situation, in which formal instruction can be followed and an opportunity given for practicing and applying the s*ills learnt in wor*shop or classroom# 5'# S@3LL# (n organi=ed and coordinated pattern of mental and2or physical activity in relation to an ob:ect# 52# SCLLA)=S# ( statement of the sub:ect matter (content) of a training course or part of it# )t may indicate the time to be devoted to each part of the training but not usually the order in which the items should be learnt or the methods of instruction to be used# !he word curriculum is used as synonym of syllabus# 53# SCN,3CATE# ( small group of trainees formed to consider and to report on a 1uestion, problem or e$ercise set as a part of the training course# !he ob:ect of the e$ercise is to promote learning by intra and inter group analysis and discussion#

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5-# SCSTE*# (n operational framewor* of regularly interacting ob:ects, people of events that wor* together to perform one or more functions together# 5.# T>8:O=P T:A3N3N8; ( term used to describe a number of highly participative learning methods whose purpose is to improve trainee,s s*ills in wor*ing with other people# 53# TA:8ET POP=LAT3ON# !he particular group or range of trainees for whom a particular training programme has been designed# 55# TAS@# lement of a wor* or combination of elements of wor* by means of which a specific result is achieved# 56# TAS@ ANALCS3S# ( systematic analysis of the behaviour re1uired to carry out a tas* with a view to identify areas of difficulty and the appropriate training techni1ues and learning aids necessary for successful instruction# 59# TEC9N34=E# ( device by which learners are stimulated and directed towards specific learning goals# ( techni1ue is thus part of a design of the learning e$perience or a 1uality of the interface between the trainer and trainee# 6?# T:A3NE:# (ny person whose primary responsibility includes the analysis of training needs and2or design or conduct of the training programmes 6'# T:A3N3N8# !he systematic development of the attitude2*nowledge2s*ills pattern re1uired by an individual in order to perform ade1uately a given tas* or :ob or )t is a process which prepares an individual to perform a tas* or a set of tas*s# 62# T:A3N3N8 COO:,3NAT3ON # !he process of planning, organising and integrating all efforts re1uired in designing, delivering and evaluating of a training programme# 63# T:A3N3N8 ,ES38N# !he process of converting training ob:ectives in a well thought out and purposefully integrated pattern of different topics to enable the participants to ac1uire learning as effectively as possible# 6-# T:A3N3N8 =NCT3ON# !he specialised activity of training within an organisation#

6.# T:A3N3N8 SESS3ON?3NST:=CT3ON PLAN# ( detailed chronological brea*down in terms of ob:ective, content and method for a given session within a training programme# 63# T:A3N3N8 *ANA8E:# 7erson responsible for the management of training-function and implementation of a training policy in an organisation#

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65# T:A3N3N8 *AN=AL# ( guide for the use by training staff showing in detail the sub:ect area and behavioural ob:ectives to be achieved, method of instruction, e1uipment and materials to be used# 66# T:A3N3N8 O 3CE:# ( specialist appointed to provide a service of advice and e$ecutive action to enable managers to carry out their training responsibilities# 69# T:A3N3N8 PLAN# ( comprehensive statement drawn up in the conte$t of the corporate ob:ectives of an organisation in relation to training and providing for such matters as :ob and personnel specifications, condition of eligibility, selection procedures, trainingob:ectives, and strategy, programmes, time-tables, and syllabuses, location and method of training etc# 9?# T:A3N3N8 P:O8:A**E# (n interpretation of training specifications in terms of units of instruction, or learning e$periences, in chronological order and showing time allowed for each, the place, the method of instruction and the person responsible for giving it# %ynonymous with the word programme schedule# 9'# T:A3N3N8 SC9E*E# ( series of learning e$periences, which may include formal courses2training programmes and off the :ob training devised to meet the immediate and forseable training needs of an individual# 92# T:A3N3N8 SPEC3 3CAT3ON# ( detailed statement of what a trainee(s) needs to learn based on comparison between :ob specification and his present level of competence# 93# T:A3N3N8 TEC9NOLO8C# !he process, s*ills, methods, techni1ues and e1uipments used in the development and operation of a training system# 9-# T=TO:3N8# !he act of giving additional *nowledge and guidance to an individual or small group of trainees in an off-the-:ob informal training situation# 9.# 7AL3,AT3ON# 7rocess of measuring the e$tent to which ob:ectives of a training programme have been achieved# )t is generally done in two steps# 3NTE:NAL# ( series of tests and assessments designed to ascertain whether a training programme has achieved the behavioural ob:ectives specified# EHTE:NAL# ( series of tas* and assessments designed to ascertain whether the behavioural ob:ectives of an internally valid programme, were realistically based on an accurate identification of training needs# OOOOOOOO