Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ColleenDonnelly
STATEUNIVERSITYOFNEWYORKPRESS
Publishedby StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Albany 1994StateUniversityofNewYork Allrightsreserved. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoeverwithoutwrittenpermissionexceptinthecaseofbriefquotationsembodiedincritical articlesandreviews. Forinformation,addresstheStateUniversityofNewYorkPress,StateUniversityPlaza.Albany,NY12246 ProductionbyBernadineDawes MarketingbyDanaYanulavich LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Donnelly.ColleenElaine. Linguisticsforwriters/ColleenDonnelly. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN0791415716(hard)ISBN0791415724(pbk.) 1.Linguistics. 2.Discourseanalysis. 1.Title. P123.D651993 9236122 410dc20 12345678910
CIP
Formysprite,Katriana
BriefContents
Preface Chapter1:LanguageandLinguistics Chapter2:ProcessingInformation Chapter3:AlternativeGrammarsTransformationalGrammar Chapter4:AlternativeGrammarsCaseGrammar Chapter5:AnalyzingandImprovingCoherence Chapter6:AchievingCohesion Chapter7:AnalyzingMacrostructures Chapter8:PragmaticsLanguageinUse Chapter9:SociolinguisticsLanguageandtheCommunityofIndividuals AnswerstoApplications Notes Bibliography Index
ExpandedContents
Preface Chapter1:LanguageandLinguistics TheCommunicationCircuit HumanLanguage TheElementsofHumanLanguage TheFundamentalQualitiesofLanguage TheEvolutionofEnglish ABriefHistoryofLinguistics LinguisticsandPhilology SaussureandtheDawnofStructuralLinguistics Chomsky'sTransformationalGrammar PragmaticsandSociolinguistics ModernLinguisticsandtheWrittenText Chapter2:ProcessingInformation Memory ProcessingInformation Chunking
xiii 1 1 4 4 6 8 10 10 11 14 15 17 19 19 23 28
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FactorsinRetentionandRecallofInformation Expectations,PriorKnowledge,andExpertKnowledge OrganizationalStrategies DesigningTextstoFacilitateComprehension Application Chapter3:AlternativeGrammars(PartI)TransformationalGrammar GenerativeTransformationalGrammar WordConcepts TheBasePhraseStructureRules TransformationalRules GeneratingandAnalyzingCompoundandComplexSentences UsingTransformationalGrammar Chapter4:AlternativeGrammars(PartII)CaseGrammar TheCaseGrammarModel CommonRolesforAnimateBeings CommonRolesforInanimateObjects RolesinActiveandPassiveSentences CaseGrammarasanEditingAid TheAgencyProblem DeliberatelyMaskedAgency TheObjectivityofScientificDiscourse TheInsecureWriter MultipleRoles MoreAdvancedAnalysis,AddingRolesforSpecificProseTypes LimitationsofCaseGrammar Applications Chapter5:AnalyzingandImprovingCoherence MethodsforImprovingCoherence TheGivenNewContract Christensen'sRhetoricoftheParagraph ExpandingUnderdevelopedParagraphs LimitationsofChristensen'sRhetoricoftheParagraph Applications
28 30 33 34 37 39 40 40 42 44 47 49 51 52 52 54 57 58 58 59 60 64 66 71 71 72 75 75 77 81 90 91 91
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Chapter6:AchievingCohesion LexicalCohesion Repetition Synonyms Generalization Reference Substitution Ellipsis Junction HowCohesionWorks:AnExampleAnalyzed Applications Chapter7:AnalyzingMacrostructures TheRoleofGenre AudienceandPurpose ActionOrientedTexts ProcedureforCreatingAbstractsandSummaries AnalyzingMacrostructures:AnExampleAnalyzed MacrostructuresforDiagnosingTextualWeaknesses MacrostructureAnalysisforRevisingTexts Application Chapter8:Pragmatics:LanguageinUse SpeechActTheory AppropriatenessConditionsforSuccessfulCommunication IndirectSpeechActs Indirection Grice'sCooperationPrinciple WhatPragmaticsOfferstheWriter LimitationsofPragmaticApproaches Applications
95 97 97 98 99 100 102 103 105 108 111 113 114 115 117 118 120 135 136 138 139 140 143 145 147 149 154 155 156
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Chapter9:SociolinguisticsLanguageandtheCommunityofIndividuals TheSocialSituationandtheSpeechCommunity SPEAKING ParticipantInteractionStylesofAccommodation EvaluatorsandIntensifiersCluestotheSpeaker'sorWriter'sAttitude DealingwithExperience:ScriptsandSchemas Scripts Schemas Plans:WhenScriptsandSchemasFail EvokingStructuresofExpectationsthroughTextDesign Applications AnswerstoApplications Notes Bibliography
159 160 161 164 166 169 170 173 174 177 179 183 213 233
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Preface
Untilrecently,linguisticshasbeenadisciplinethathasunfortunatelyremainedinaccessibletothelayman.Inpart,thisisbecauselinguisticsisadescriptivescience whichisprimarilydevotedtoidentifyinganddescribingtherulesthatgovernspokendiscourse.Conversely,rhetoricandcompositionstudieshaveconcentratedon methodsbywhichpeoplecanusetheirlanguagemoreeffectively.Linguisticsoffersmanyinsightsintowrittendiscourse,eventhoughithasbeenprimarilyconcerned withthedescriptionofspokendiscourse.Muchofwhatlinguistshavehadtosayaboutspeakingcanbemodifiedanddevelopedintoheuristicsandmethodsthatwill helpwriterscomposeandedittexts,ifwetakecaretonotethedifferencesbetweenspeakingandwriting(asdiscussedinchapter1).Thisbookisdesignedfor studentwriterswhowillbecomepractitionersinallfieldsofprofessionalwriting,suchastechnicalandscientificwriting,editing,journalism,andpublicrelations.Itis alsointendedforpresentandfuturerhetoricandcompositionteacherswhowishtoexpandtheirknowledgeoflanguagebylookingatitfromtheperspectiveof anotherdisciplineandwhowouldliketoexploretheinsightsofferedbylinguisticsforimprovingstudentwriting.WhileIam
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dealingwitharatherdiverseaudience,youallshareonetrait:thereisawriterinsideofeachofyou.ItisthatwriterwhomIhavechosentoaddress.Ihopethateach ofyouwilladaptthemethodsyouwillfindhereforyourownpresentandfutureneeds. Thisbookhastwomainpurposes.Thefirstistodemystifysomeofthemostworthwhileandpowerfullinguistictheorieswhichilluminatespokenandwrittendiscourse. Myintentistofamiliarizethereaderwithbasicprinciplesandtheoriesinlinguistics.Inmanycases,thetheorieshavebeensimplifiedandthetechnicalvocabularykept toaminimumtomakethematerialaccessibletothenonlinguistconsulttheextensivebibliographyprovidedifyouwishtopursueamoretechnicalandrigorousstudy ofthematerialpresentedhere.Thesecondandprimarypurposeofthisbookistopresentwaysinwhichthesetheoriescanbeturnedintopracticaltoolsfordealing withwritingandeditingtexts.MostoftheheuristicsandmethodsdiscussedarebasedontheoriesoriginallydesignedtoexplainspokendiscoursewhichIhave modifiedtomakeusefulforwriters.Moreover,sincethisbookisorientedtowarduserspeoplewhoareseekingmethodstoimprovetextsratherthanforlinguists interestedindescribinglanguage,Ihaveincludednumerousexamplesaswellasexercisescompletewithanswers.Although,atfirstitmayseemthatsomeofthese theoriesandmethodsdonotapplytoyourwork,pleasereadtheapplicationsectionattheendofeachchapterbeforecomingtothisconclusionthetheoriesarequite easilyadaptedtodealwithtexts.Finally,thinkofthebookasasmorgasbordoflinguistictools:samplethoseapproachesandmethodsthatlookappealingandexplore furtherthosewhichseemtopertaintoyourownwork.Iencourageallreaderstomodifyandadaptthemethodstofittheirowntexts. Ihopethatthisbookwillcontributetotheadvancementofaninterdisciplinaryapproachtolanguagebymakingitpossibleforwriterstobegintoincorporatethe insightsoflinguisticsintotheirstudyoflanguage,communication,andwriting.NilsEnkvisthasalreadysetthestageforsuchanapproachbycallingforanewdirection inlanguagestudiescalled"applieddiscourselinguistics"aninterdisciplinaryfield
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thatcombinestheinsightsoflinguistics,rhetoric,cognitivescience,communication,andstylistics. Studentsofthesedisciplineswillfindthatsomeoftheissuesof inquirythatariseinareassuchasrhetoricandcommunicationalsoariseinlinguistics,wheretheyareexaminedfromadifferentperspective.Bringingtogetherthe insightsofferedbythesevariousfieldspresentsexcitingnewavenuesforlanguagestudies.Whilethistextisdedicatedtoexploringalinguisticapproachto communication,agooddealofthematerialpresentedhereisinfluencedbyrhetoric,cognitivepsychology,philosophyoflanguage,andsociology,andthroughoutthis book,whenappropriate,relevantworkintheseotherfieldsismentioned. Thefirstchapterofthisbookisabasicintroductiontolinguisticstudies.Itexplainsthelinguisticapproachtolanguageandprovidessomeinformationonwhatmakes theEnglishlanguageunique.Beforejumpingintoadetailedlinguisticstudyofwrittentexts,Chapter2examinessomefundamentalissuespertainingtohowthemind processesinformation.Theinsightsprovidedbystudiesinpsycholinguisticsandcognitivepsychologydiscussedinthischaptercanhelpusdesigntextstobetterexploit themind'sabilitiestoprocessinformation.AfterChapter2,thebookisorganizedbasedonanexpandingviewoftext.Weinitiallylookattextfromthenarrowest perspective,concentratingonthewordsonthepage(chapters37). Chapters3and4introducenontraditionalgrammarsbyexaminingtwoalternativeformstransformationalandcasegrammarthatmaybeofusetowriters.These grammarsalsooffernewinsightsintohowtextsareconstructedandprovidetoolsfordealingwithcommonwritingproblems.Chapters5and6dealwithtextual coherenceandcohesion.Thechapteroncoherence(chapter5)focusesonhowideasareconnectedandoffersmethodsthatawritercanusetocheckforand improvetextualcoherence.Chapter6examinesthedeviceswritersusetolinkstatementstogether.Chapter7dealswiththeglobalissuesofhowtextsareconstructed andorganizedandprovidesmethodsforcreatingabstractsandsummaries,diagnosinglackoftextualdevelopment,andrevisingtexts.
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1 LanguageandLinguistics
Beforepursuingthestudyoflanguageanddiscoursefromalinguisticperspective,letusexamineourpreconceptionsaboutlanguage.Ifyouaskpeopletodefine language,mostwilltellyouthatitisourmeansofcommunicationsomemayaddthatitistheabilitytoproduceandunderstandwords,ratherthansimplecriesand yells,thatseparatehumansfromanimals.Whiletheseobservationsarecorrect,amoreexactinglinguisticdefinitionoflanguagewillprovideuswithaninvaluable foundationforourinquiryintohowtoimprovethequalityofourwrittentexts. TheCommunicationCircuit Whatisnecessaryforcommunicationtotakeplace?Communicationoccurswhenasenderdeliberatelyandintentionallysendsinformationtoareceiverviaasignaling system.Thecommunicationcircuitconsistsofthreeprimaryelements:sender,receiver,andtext.1Thesender'sintentistoconveysomekindofmeaningfulinformation tothereceiver.He
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doesthisbyselectingtheappropriatemedium,suchasspeaking,writing,dancing,ordrumming,andtheappropriateform,suchasconversation,personalletter,tribal ritual,journalarticle,orpicture.Thuscommunicationisnotlimitedtowrittenandspokendiscourseitalsoincludessignlanguage,codes(suchasMorsecodeand FORTRAN),pictures(includinginternationalroadsigns,graphs,anddrawings),andanimalcries.Thetextisthespecificmessagesent,andifthesenderissuccessful, thereceiverwillunderstandthesender'sintendedmeaning. Inrhetoric,thesethreeelementscorrespondtothecornersoftherhetoricaltriangle.Whereascommunicationparticipantshavereceivedsubstantialattentionin rhetoric,inlinguisticsitwasnotuntiltherecentdevelopmentofthefieldsofpragmaticsandsociolinguisticsthattherolesofthesenderandreceiverreallyreceived systematicattention.Traditionally,linguisticsfocusedonthetextandtreatedthepeoplecommunicatingasidealandstereotypical,asabstractentities.Consequently, linguistscouldnotaccountforindividualandgroupdifferencesinhowpeoplespeakanduselanguage.Forexample,aSouthernspeakermaysay"ya'llcomewith," whileaNorthernspeakerwouldsay"youallwillcomewithme."Bothconveytheidenticalmessagehowever,thedifferenceinpronunciation("ya"for"you"),the droppingofthemodalverb(e.g.,"can,""may,""will")andthepersonalpronounreferringtothespeakerareentirelyacceptableintheSouth.Suchdifferencesare inconsequentialtheydonotaffectthemessage.Inaddition,linguisticshadconcentratedondescribinghowweproduceandcomprehendliteralutterances.Itcouldnot accommodateforthefactthataspeakermightbelying,speakingfiguratively,orjoking.Thepersonalandsocietalfactorsofcommunicationattitudestowardwhatis beingsaidandwhoissayingit,knowledgeofformsofcommunication(e.g.,conventionsforstories,journalarticles,andproceduresforinitiatingandmaintaining conversations),andrecognitionoftheimpactofthesocialsettingwerebeyondthescopeoflinguistics.Duringthe1960s,interestinhowlanguagewasactuallybeing usedbyspeakersspurredre
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searchinthefieldofpragmatics,whichinvestigateshowamessageisusedbyparticipantstoaccomplishanendorgoal.Morerecently,sociolinguisticshasgone furtherinaccountingfortheroleoftheparticipantsbyinvestigatinghowthecommunicationsetting,aswellasculturalknowledgepasseddowninsocieties,directsand providescuestothereaderabouthowtointerpretamessage. Themediumchosenalsodefinescertainparametersofcommunicationspeakingandwritingaresignificantlydifferentmediums.Spokenconversationhasan immediacythatwrittendiscourselacks.Sincebothparticipantsarepresent,theycanconstantlymonitorcommunicationtoensurethatallmessagesaresuccessfully conveyedandcorrectlyunderstood.Considerthefactthatwhenengagedinaconversation,ifyoudonotunderstandwhattheotherpersonhassaid,youcanstopand askquestions.Ifthespeakersensesconfusionbyyourfacialexpressions,shecanrepeatwhatshehassaid.Writtendiscourseisdifferent.Thesenderisabsent. Becausethereadercannotaskthewritertoclarifyconfusingmaterial,thewritermustbeespeciallycarefulinchoosinghowtopresentthetextinordertoensurethe intendedmeaningisunderstood. Whilethisdescriptionmakesitsoundasifspokendiscourseisalwayspreferabletowritten,writtendiscoursehasdefiniteadvantages.Thegrammarofawrittentextis morepreciseandgrammaticallycorrectthanthatofspeech.Inspokenlanguagewefindmoreincompletesentencesandmoreunnecessaryfillerwordsandphrases like"alotof,""well,"and"youknow."Thoughtsinspokendiscoursearestrungtogetherprimarilywith"and"and"but"(coordinating)constructions,whereas"that," "which,""while,"and"besides"(subordinating)constructionspredominateinwrittendiscourse.Writtentextsaremorepolished.Speakersrefineandqualify expressionsastheygoalongbyphrases,suchas"Imeant"and"itwasreally."Inwriting,readersexpectthatthewriterhasfinishedrefiningthetextbefore disseminatingit.Inaddition,thewritercantakemoretimechoosingwordsandarrangingthetextandcanrevisethetextbeforeitiseverreadbytheintended audience.Thereceivercanalsoreadthetextmorethanonce,extractingmoreinformation,andperhapscorrectinginitialfalseimpres
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sionsaboutthewriter'sintendedmessagebycontinuallyreferringbacktothetext.Thechoiceofmediumwillbedictatedbytheneedsofthesenderandreceiver.As specialistsinthefieldofcommunication,wemustbeawareofthefactthattherulesandstrategiesforcreatingsuccessfulwrittenprosearenotthesameasthosefor spokendiscourse. HumanLanguage Apes,chimpanzees,anddolphinsseemcapableofcommunicatingwithoneanotherhowever,theircommunicationsystemsareverysimple.Theycannotcommunicate aboutabstractconceptsandideasor''talk"aboutobjectsthatarenotintheirimmediatevicinity.Theircommunicationapparatusislimitedtosimplegesturesanda verylimitedrangeofvocalutterancesthatvaryprimarilyinpitchandvolume.Ontheotherhand,humanspeechismadeupofdiscreteunitswhich,looselyspeaking, correspondtovowelandconsonantsounds. Whileanimalcommunicationsystemsaregeneticallyinherited,thisisnottrueofhumanlanguage.Atbirth,humansarepredisposedtolearnlanguage:theabilitytolearn isgeneticallyinherited,butlanguageitselfislearnedfrominteractionwithindividualsinsociety.Ifachildwereraisedinanenvironmentwherelanguagewasnever used,thatchildwouldneverlearnalanguage.Fortunately,childrenarenurturedinalanguagerichenvironment,andtheyquicklyacquirelanguageskills. Socialinteractionisfundamentaltohumanlanguage.Moreprecisely,ourlanguageissociallydependentandconventional.Thismeansthatourlanguageisdefinedand controlledbythecommunityinwhichweliveallspeakerswithinourlanguagecommunityagreetoabidebyasystemofrules,calledgrammar,whichgovernsour language. TheElementsofHumanLanguage Languageislikeagameofchess.Inchess,thereisasetofruleswemustlearninordertoplaythegame.Eachpiececanonlymoveincertaindirections:thebishop canonlymoveonthediagonal.Somepiecescanmoveonlyacertainnumberofsquares:thekingonlymoves
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thegrammarsofalllanguagesconsistofrulesforbothsyntaxandmorphology,manylanguagesaremoredependentononeofthesetwocomponentsforthebasic informationaboutthefunctionofwordsinthesentence.Considerhowdifferentlanguagessignalwhetheranounisbeingusedasasubjectorobject.Englishandother Germaniclanguageshaveafairlyfixedsentenceorderweknowhowthewordisbeingusedbyitsposition(relativetootherwords)inthesentence.Romance languages,suchasLatinandSpanish,dependmoreoninflectionstoindicatethefunctionofwordsinasentenceitisthesuffixofthewordratherthanitspositionthat signalsitsfunction. Inadditiontothegrammaticalelementsofalanguage,therearephonologicalelements.Everylanguagehasagrammarandaphonologicalsystem.Phonemesarethe smallestdiscretesoundunitsoflanguage,andthestudyofphonemesiscalledphonology.Phonemescorrespondtosoundelements,nottothelettersofthealphabet. ThereisnotadirectonetoonecorrespondencebetweenthevowelsandconsonantsofthealphabetandthephonemesinEnglish.Consonantclusterssuchas"ch," "th,"and"sh"arephonemes.Somephonemescanberepresentedbymorethanoneletter,asin''cease,"whereboth"s"and"c"correspondtothesamephoneme. Someletterscanalsobeusedtorepresentmorethanonephonemesuchas"c,"whichishardin"cat"(alsorepresentedinEnglishbytheletter"k")andsoftin "niece"(alsorepresentedinEnglishbytheletter"s").Recognizedphonemesvaryfromonelanguagetoanother:Englishrecognizesthephonemerepresentedby"sh," whilesomeotherlanguagesdonotGreekrecognizes"kh"asaphonemeandEnglishdoesnotsomeAfricanlanguagesrecognizegutturalsoundsandclicksas phonemes,althoughtheyarenotrecognizedinanyEuropeanorAsianlanguage.Takentogether,thegrammarandphonologicalsystemmakeeachlanguageunique. TheFundamentalQualititesofLanguage Surprisingly,wecanutterphrasesandsentencesthatwehaveneverheardbefore.Thismeansthatourlanguageisnotimitativewhatwehaveheardandreadbefore doesnotlimitwhatwemaysayorwritein
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thefuture.Ourabilitytoproduceutteranceswehavenotheardbeforeisknownaslanguageproductivityorcreativity.Anativespeakercanspeakaninfinitelylarge numberofutteranceshehasneverheardbefore,andhecanalsounderstandaspeakeroratextcontainingcombinationshehasnotencounteredbefore.Remember, withoutgrammarthiswouldbeimpossible.Thefinitenumberofrulesandconventionsofgrammarrestricttheinfinitenumberofcombinationsoflanguageelements, therebyensuringthatweunderstandothersandtheyunderstandus.Creativity,orproductivity,isoneofthedefiningfeaturesoflanguageidentifiedbyHockett.3He proposedasetofdesignfeaturesoflanguagethatwouldservetocharacterizehowlanguagediffersfromotherformsof(animalandhuman)communication.In additiontocreativity,arbitrariness,discreteness,anddualityarethefundamentalqualitiesofallhumanlanguages. Arbitrarinessreferstothefactthatthereisnothingintrinsicinanobjectsuchasatablethatdemandswecallit"table"inEnglishor"mesa"inSpanish.Thewordchosen torepresentthethingisarbitraryandisacceptedbysociety.Thesocietymustsharethesame''words"forobjectsandideasforcommunicationtobepossible. Discretenessisafeatureofthephonologicalsystem.Inanimalcommunication,thepitchofacrymayhavedifferentmeanings:ashrillcrymaysignaldangeralower pitchedcrymayexpresspleasure.Inhumanlanguage,thereisnogradationofunitsofsound.Eachphonemeisabsolute.Inmusic,fortissimosignalsloudness,anote drawnonthethirdspaceofthestaffsignalshighCversusmiddleC,andthewholenotes,halfnotes,andquarternotessignaldifferentdurations.Inlanguagethereis noloud"b,"high"b,"orhalf"b."Thereisonlythephoneme,representedbytheletter"b."Thesoundsofeachlanguageareabsolute,andineachlanguageonlycertain phonemesmayfollowoneanother.Forinstance,Englishdoesnotrecognizethesequence"bh"or"dl." Thelastofthefundamentalqualitiesisduality.Languagedualitysimplyreferstothefactthateachlanguagehastwoessentialcomponentsagrammarandaphonetic system. Hockettliststwelveadditionaldesignqualitiesoflanguage,andtwoworthnotinghere.Thefirstisprevarication,theabilitytodeceive,
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misinform,orlietoareceiver.Linguisticshaduntilrecentlyonlydealtwithsituationswherethespeakergenuinelywantshermessagetobeunderstood.Wewillsee howthisqualityremainsoneofthemostdifficultforlinguiststoaccountforincommunicationtheories.Thelastqualityworthnotingislanguagereflexiveness. Reflexivenessreferstotheabilityofpeopletocreatealanguagewhichcommentsonlanguageitself.Thislanguageaboutlanguageisoftenreferredtoas "metalanguage."Linguistics,rhetoric,philosophyoflanguage,andcriticaltheoryarealltypesofmetalanguagethesetypesofdiscourseallowustoexamineand evaluatethelanguagethatweuse. TheEvolutionofEnglish EnglishisdescendedfromtheGermanicfamilyoflanguagesthatalsoincludesGermanandDutch.ThisgroupdiffersfromtheRomancelanguagefamilywhichincludes Spanish,French,andItalian.AllGermaniclanguageshaveatwotenseverbsystem.Germaniclanguagesrecognizeonlythepastandpresenttense,andcommonlyuse the"d"or"t"suffixtoindicatepasttense.Future,progressive(ongoing),perfective(completed),andpunctual(occurringatasinglepointintime)actioninthese languagesareexpressedthroughtheuseofmodalandauxiliaryverbs,notbysimplymodifyingtheformofthemainverbitself,asinRomancelanguages. BothGermanicandRomancelanguages,aswellasmanyotherlanguagesspokeninEuropeandAsia,descendfromtheoriginalparentlanguage,IndoEuropean, whichwasspokenapproximately5,000yearsago.Wedonotknowwhatthislanguagewaslike,sincewehavenowrittenrecords,buteffortsarebeingmadeto reconstructsomeofitselementsbasedontheevolutionofthemoremodemlanguages.AlllanguagesdescendingfromIndoEuropeanbeganasinflectionallanguages, includingEnglish.Theconjugationofverbswasmuchmorecomplicatedthanitistoday:averbhadadifferentformdependingonwhetherthesubjectwas"I," "you"(singular),"he/she/it,""we,""you"(plural),or"they."Inflectionswereusedtosignifyanoun'scase,gender,andnumberinformationconveyedinModem Englishbyword
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orderandprepositions.Forinstance,theword"stone"inOldEnglish(EnglishbeforetheNormalConquestof1066),wasdeclinedasfollows:
Case nominative(subject) genitive(possessive) accusative(directobject) dative(indirectobject) instrumental(objectusedto accomplishanaction) Singular stan stanes stan stane stane Plural stanas stana stanas stanum stanum
DuringtheMiddleEnglishperiod(10661500)thedeclensionwasreducedtoonewerecognize:
Case commoncase(includesnominative, accusative,dative) genitive Singular stone Plural stones
stone's
stones'
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Therestofthewordsinthesentencearecontentwordswhichnameobjects,concepts,qualities,processes,andactions.("Small,""set,""word,''and"make"are contentwordsthatalsodescendfromOldEnglish.)Thefunctionwords,likegrammar,aretoolsthatrenderourlanguagecomprehensible. Today,weareabletomakesenseofutterancesbecausesyntaxallowsforonlycertainwordcombinationsincertainsequences.Insteadofdependingprimarilyon inflection,ModernEnglishdependsprimarilyonfunctionwordsandwordorder.Themostcommonsentencetype,asimpledeclarativesentence,hassubjectverb directobjectwordorder.InOldEnglish,thedirectobjectcouldprecedetheverb,andlistenersandreaderswouldhavenoproblemcomprehendingthelanguage, sincetheinflectionalendingsignaledthatthefirstwordwastheobject.IncontemporaryEnglish,ashiftinordersignifiesasentencetypeotherthandeclarative,suchas acommandorquestion,ormarksadialect,suchasHawaiianPidgin. Together,functionwordsandsyntacticrestrictionsareessentialforgeneratingcoherentphrasesandsentencesthatalllanguageuserscanunderstand. ABriefHistoryofLinguistics LinguisticsandPhilology Beforetheturnofthecentury,linguisticswassynonymouswithphilology.Philology,meaning"loveoftheword,"wasprimarilyastudyofliteratureandotherwritten records.Thefirstphilologistsconcentratedonwrittentexts(particularlyliterarytexts),comparingvariousperiodsandstylesofwriting.Bytheendoftheeighteenth century,philologydivergedintotwoschools:theoldinterestinthestylesofliteraryworkscontinued,alongwithanewerandmorenarrowlydefinedfieldthat concentratedon"theinterpretationofthelanguageofwrittenrecords."Thismorenarrowlydefinedphilologicalstudydelvedintophonology(thewaythelanguagewas spoken,asdeducedfromwrittenrecords)andmorphologyofthetextsunderscrutiny.Inthenineteenthcentury,philologicalstudieswerepredominantlyofthislatter type.
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TheearlypartofthenineteenthcenturywasdominatedbytheworkofRasmusRaskofDenmark,JacobGrimm,FranzBopp,andotherGermans,mendevotedto thecomparativestudyofIndoEuropeanlanguages,particularlythecomparisonofphoneticandmorphologicalfeatures.Becauseofthepioneeringworkofthesemen, comparativephilologythecomparisonofrelatedlanguagesgainedrecognitionasanindependentscience.Whilescholarsofthistimewereinterestedincomparing recordsofvariouslanguages,theirstudieswereahistorical.Thatis,theydidnotrecognizethatcertainlanguagesordialectspredatedothers.Therefore,manyerrors abouttherelationsofvariouslanguagesweremadeduetothefactthatalanguagecurrentlyinusemayhavebeencomparedtotherecordsofanotherlanguagethat hadbeeninuse500yearsearlier.Oncephilologiststookhistoryintoaccount,greatstridesincomparativephilologywerequicklymade,andphilologistsbecame betterabletoidentifyandcomparefeaturesoflanguagesthatrevealedtheiractualhistoricalrelationships. InfluencedinpartbyDarwin'sbiologicalwork(185080),philologistssoonbecameinterestedinconstructinggenealogicaltreesoflanguagefamilies,illustratinghow modernlanguagesevolvedfromancientones.Bycomparinglanguageswithrespecttotheperiodinwhichtheywereactuallyinuse,atruepictureofthedevelopment oflanguagescouldbeachieved.Attemptswerealsomadetoreconstructaprototypeofthefirstlanguage,IndoEuropean,whichgaverisetothelanguagesofmostof theEurasiancontinent.Bythe1870s,historicalcomparativephilologywaswellestablishedthroughthecontributionsofsuchmenasHermannPaul,EduardSievers, andWilliamWhitney.Untiltheworkofthestructurallinguists,beginningwithFerdinandSaussure,linguisticsremainedprimarilyahistoricalstudy. SaussureandtheDawnofStructuralLinguistics FerdinandSaussureisthefatherofmodernlinguistics.Intheearlypartofthiscentury(ca.1915),hesucceededinpioneeringaformalsystemoflinguisticstudycalled structurallinguistics.5Saussureintroducedmanyimportantprinciplesforasystematicstudyoflanguage,among
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themostimportant:thedistinctionbetweendiachronicandsynchroniclanguagestudy,thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole,andthedescriptionofthenatureof thelinguisticsign. Diachroniclinguisticsisthehistoricalstudyoflanguage,whereassynchroniclinguisticsisthegeographicstudyoflanguage.Diachroniclinguisticsreferstothestudyof howalanguageevolvesoveraperiodoftime.TracingthedevelopmentofEnglishfromtheOldEnglishperiodtothetwentiethcenturyisadiachronicstudy.A synchronicstudyoflanguageisacomparisonoflanguagesordialectsvariousspokendifferencesofthesamelanguageusedwithinsomedefinedspatialregionand duringthesameperiodoftime.DeterminingtheregionsoftheUnitedStatesinwhichpeoplecurrentlysay"pop"ratherthan"soda"and"idea"ratherthan"idear"are examplesofthetypesofinquiriespertinenttoasynchronicstudy. Whilevocabularyandpronunciationvaryacrossgeographicregion,Saussurealsorecognizedthatthereisadifferencebetweenhowagivensocietyorlanguage communitydefineslanguageandhowanyoneindividualusesit.Sociallydefinedlanguage,whichSaussureterms"langue,"correspondstowhatwasearlierdescribed astheconventionalaspectoflanguage.Itisthesharedsystemofrules,theknowledgeofwhatotherswillacceptandunderstand,thatweallshare."Parole"isthe individual'suseof,andfacilitywith,thelanguage.Tostudyparole,thelinguistlooksatindividual'sactualutterances. Saussurewasalsothefirsttodefinethesymbolicnatureofhumanlanguage.Symbols,icons,andindicesarealltypesofsigns,butasymboldiffersfromtheothertwo typeswhichhavesomeintrinsicconnectionto,orsharesomeinherentqualitywith,theobjectstheyrepresent.Iconscommunicatetheirmeaningbytheirphysical similaritytotheitemrepresented:imaginethenowpopularinternationalroadsignssilhouettesofpedestrianscrossingaroadorofrocksfalling.Indicespointtothe itemsignifiedbytheirphysicalproximitytotheobjectreferredto:ablackcloudisanindexofrain,thescentofchocolatechipsisanindexoffreshbakedTollHouse cookies.Thus,thereissomelogicalconnectionunderlyingtherelationshipbetweenaniconorindexandwhatitrefersto,itsreferent.Butlanguageisasymbolic
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ofthetwointimatelyunitedelementssignifiedandsignifier.Thesignifierisarbitrarilychosentorepresentthesignifiedthelanguagecommunitythenagreestoaccept theassociation.Thelinguisticsignistotallyarbitrary. Theacceptanceofthetheoryofthearbitrarinessofthelinguisticsignquelledalltheoriesthatlanguageoriginallydevelopedbyonomatopoeia.Onomatopoeiarefersto wordswhichresemblethesoundsassociatedwiththethingstowhichtheyrefer,suchas"choochoo"fortrain.Saussureandhisdisciplessuccessfullyarguedthatthe fewonomatopoeicwordscouldnotaccountforthedevelopmentofthevocabularyofalanguage.6 Chomsky'sTransformationalGrammar Inthelate1950sandearly1960s,NoamChomsky'sworkcreatedarevolutioninlinguistictheory.Chomskyintroducedthetheoryoftransformationalgrammar,a systembywhichheproposedtoexplainallpotentialsentencesutteredandunderstoodbyallpeople.Transformationalgrammarconsistsofasetofrulesandoptions fortransformingtheideasorcontentofanutteranceintosyntacticallyordered,grammaticallyacceptablesentences.7 Chomsky'sprimarygoalwastoexplainlanguageproductivityandcreativity.BuildingonSaussure'sconceptsoflangueandparole,hedistinguishedbetweenlanguage competence(ourabilitytoproduceandperceivelanguagethatwehavenotheardbefore,obviouslyowingtoourknowledgeofgrammar)andlanguageperformance (theindividual'sutterances).Hisgrammarisadynamicandinnovativeexplanationofhowvariousindividualutterancescanbederived,andisoneofthefirstattempts toexplainhowthemindactuallyuseslanguegrammaticalrulesandinformationtocomeupwithpropersentencestructures,andindividual'sparole.Hisgrammar, alongwithotheralternativestotraditionalgrammarthatwewilllookat,maybemorepowerfulsystemsforanalyzinglanguagethantheeightpartsofspeechgrammar welearnedinelementaryschool,becausethesealternativegrammarsmoreaccuratelyrepresentthewayweuseandunderstandlanguage.
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Chomsky'stheoryworksontheassumptionthateveryonewhospeaksagivenlanguageusesthesamegrammaticalconstructionsaseveryoneelseallspeakersbelong toa"homogeneous"languagecommunity.ThismeansthateveryonewhospeaksaparticulardialectofEnglish,suchasMidwesternorSouthern,speaksitwithoutany (significant)variationinpronunciationorgrammaticalconstructions,anddoesnotborrowformsfromotherdialects.Thus,youspeakadialectofAmericanEnglish suchasSouthern,oryouspeakadialectofBritishEnglishsuchasCockney.Onceyourlanguagecommunityhasbeenidentified,itisassumedthatallspeakersofthat communitywillusethesamegrammaticalconstructionsindividualvariationsaremarginalandinsignificant.Thishasbeenfoundtobeincorrect.Whilemostpeopledo onlyspeakalimitednumberoflanguagesordialects,allpeopleusearangeofstyleswhentheyspeak.Eachofusbelongstomanylanguagecommunities,andthe styleswespeaktoourchildren,toourlovedones,andtoourcoworkersallhavedifferentcharacteristics.Weusedifferentdegreesofformality,variousintonations, differenttypesofidioms,jargon,andtechnicalterms,allofwhichconstituteourdiscourseindifferentsettingswithvariouspeople. Basically,Chomsky'ssystemdealtwithlanguageandgrammarisolatedfromthecircumstancesinwhichitwasutteredorwritten.Theconcerns,attitudes,and inclinationsofspeakerandhearerwerenotconsidered.Languagewasabstractedfromitsinterpersonalcontext.Yet,Chomsky'sworkisfundamentaltoall subsequentdevelopmentsinlinguistictheoryandartificialintelligence,spurringlinguiststoexplorelanguageinnewways. PragmaticsandSociolinguistics Throughthe1950s,linguiststreatedlanguageasifitsprimaryfunctionwastransactional:languagewasthemeansfortheefficientcommunicationofinformation.But duringthe1960s,thisstancebegantobechallenged.Sometheorists,intheemergingfieldsofpragmaticsandsociolinguistics,recognizedthattheacceptanceofthe transactionalmodelmeantexcludingmanyotherfunctionsoflanguagefromstudy.
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Forinstance,languagecanbeusedtoenlistsomeone'shelpinachievingagoal,toelicitanemotionalresponse,toentertain,ortodeceive.Pragmatistsand sociolinguistsarebetterequippedtoexaminesuchusesoflanguage,becauseinthesefieldstheparticipantsandthecommunicationsettingareconsideredessential elementsthatmustbestudiedinordertounderstandhowlanguageisusedinanygivensituation.Nolongeristhetextofaconversationorofawrittencommunication studiedinisolation.Pragmaticsfocusesonwhattheparticipantsintendtoaccomplishthroughlanguage.Sociolinguisticsstressesthefactthattheparticipants,aswellas thesettinginwhichtheyarecommunicating,shapetheensuingdiscourse. Pragmaticswasthefirstofthetwofieldstoemerge.JohnAustin8andJohnSearle9laidthefoundationforthisstillvitalfieldoflinguisticresearch.Pragmaticsisthe studyoflanguageinuse.Pragmatistsassertthatlanguageisalwaysusedtoachieveagoaltoinform,tomotivatesomeonetodosomething,tomakeapromiseor request.Pragmaticsaimstoidentifytheconditionsplacedonthespeaker,thelistener,thetext,andthesettinginordertoensurethatthegoalisaccomplished. People'sexpectations,attitudes,desires,andgoalswillallimpactthesuccessorfailureofanycommunication.Sociolinguisticsexaminestheinterpersonalandsocial factorsthatinfluencecommunication.10Tounderstandtheinterpersonaldimensionsofcommunication,wemustknowmoreabouttheparticipants,includingtheirage, education,andethnicity.Wemustknowwhatrelationshipexistsbetweentheparticipants.Aretheypeers?Aretheyintimate?Aretheyfromdifferentrungsofthe socialladder?Isoneasuperiorandtheotherasubordinateintheworkplace?Suchrelationshipsdeterminetheformalityofthelanguageweuse,theamountofslang andtechnicaljargonweuse,andhowmuchwefeelwecanintimateandstillassumewewillbeunderstood.Thesettingisalsoafactordetermininghowwespeak:the speechinamen'slockerroomwillbedifferentthanthatofacollegeclassroom.Theplaceitselfimposescertainrestrictionsonwhatisacceptable. Pragmaticsisconsideredtobeamoresystematicandanalyticalstudythansociolinguistics.Inpragmatics,thegoalistoidentify,delineate,andcategorizetherulesand conditionsthatdeterminewhether
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communicationwillsucceedorfail.Sociolinguisticstendstodealwiththelesstangibleaspectsofcommunication,dealingmorewithhowhumanbehaviorinfluences whatwesayandunderstand. ModernLinguisticsandtheWrittenText Modernlinguisticshasalwaysstronglyassertedtheprimacyofthespokenwordoverthewritten.Thus,linguistsofthiscenturyhavebeenfarmoreinterestedin studyingoraldiscoursethaninexplaininghowwrittentextsareconstructed.Writtendiscourse,whichhasonlyexistedinthepast5,000years,hasalwaysbeentreated asaderivativeofspeechsubordinatetoitsincesocialinteractioncanbeachievedbyspokendiscoursealone.Yet,fromanthropologistClaudeLviStraussto philosopherJacquesDerrida,acompellingargumenthasbeenmadethatwrittendiscourseiscentraltotheestablishmentandpreservationoftheinstitutionsof knowledgeandlearningthatconstitutehistoryandculture.11Writtentextsprovideahistoricalrecordthatcanbedisseminatedthroughoutasocietyandpassedonto latergenerations.Butsucharecordisnotnecessarytoensurethesurvivalofacommunityspeechsufficesforsocietalcommunicationneedssuchasthetasksoffood gatheringandbartering.IlliteracyisthenorminThirdWorldcountries,andpeopletheregoabouttheirdailybusinesswithouttheadvantageofknowinghowtoread andwrite. Writtentexts,inandofthemselves,didnotbecomeasubjectoflinguisticstudyuntilthelate1960s,duetotheemergenceofthefieldoftextlinguistics.Textlinguistics, oftenbuildingontheworkofearlierlinguistictheories,attemptstoexplainhowtextsareproducedandcomprehended."Text"referstobothspokenandwritten communicationthatextendsbeyondasentence.Asalargerunitofcommunication,atextmustbecoherentmakelogicalsenseandtheideasmustbeconnected andpresentedinagrammaticallyacceptableform.Textlinguisticsdiffersfromotherfieldsoflinguisticsinmakingwrittendiscourseoneofitscentralobjectsof investigation. Textlinguisticshasactuallybecomeaninterdisciplinarypursuit.Tounderstandhowtextsmakesense,linguistshavehadtoenlisttheaidof
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cognitivepsychologistsinanefforttounderstandhowthemindactuallyprocesseslanguage.Textcomprehensiondependsonourabilitytorelatenewideasto knowledgewehavealreadystoredinmemory.Thus,somefamiliaritywithhowwecognitivelyprocessinformationisaprerequisitefordiscussingtexts.Howcognitive psychologyilluminatesthestudyofwrittendiscourseisthesubjectofchapter2,andpsychologyalsoprovidesafoundationforthediscussionofcoherenceand cohesionthatfollowsinchapters4and5.Oneofthemostrecentareasofinvestigationintextlinguisticshasbeenintheareaofmacrostructures.Macrostructures, whicharethesubjectofchapter6,helptoexplainhowlargescaleconcepts,themes,andtopicsareorganizedanddelimittextdevelopment. Thisbookcoverstheoriesfundamentaltoresearchintextlinguistics.But,whiletextlinguisticsisdevotedtodescribinghowtextsarecreatedandunderstood,myintent isalsotodemonstratehowpracticalapplicationsoflinguistictheoriescanenhancethewriting,editing,andanalysisofnonliterarytexts.Forthisreason,Ireturnto manyareasofmodernlinguisticswhichhavebeenconcernedsolely,orprimarily,withspokendiscourse.Muchofthismaterial,withsomeslightrevision,alsosheds lightonwrittencommunication.Youwillfindthatthroughoutthechapters,Iwilldiscuss"thespeaker"and"listener"(or"audience")whendiscussingtheoriesthatwere originallyintendedtoexaminespokenutterances,inanefforttoremaintruetothetheorists'work,buttheapplicationsectionswillshowhow,withcare,principles usedtostudyspokendiscoursecanbeadaptedtoilluminateaspectsofwrittendiscourseaswell.
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2 ProcessingInformation
Beforewecandiscusshowtodesigntextssothattheyareeasiertocomprehend,weneedtounderstandhowthehumanbrainprocesseslanguageandtext. Memory Psychologiststalkofhumanmemoryasathreepartsystem,consistingofshorttermmemory(STM),workingmemory,andlongtermmemory(LTM).1Apictureor atextappearstoyou,andinyourmindyousimultaneouslyconstructacompletesensoryimageareplicaofwhatyousaw.Oncethepictureortextisremoved,you momentarilykeepthesensoryimageinmind.Thisimagedecaysrapidly:youquicklyforgetwhattypeofshoesthepersonyouwereintentlywatchingwaswearing, andjustasquicklyyouforgetmanyofthewordsonapageyoujustread.WesaythattheimageisheldinSTMandthatitissubjecttoforgetting.Ifweareto rememberanypartoftheimageitmustbestoredinLTM.Forthestorageprocesstooccur,theimagehastobeprocessed.Ifitisnotprocessed,itwillbeforgotten.
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STMactuallyholdsverylittlematerialitfacilitatesholdingaphonenumberinminduntilyou'vedialeditorrepeatingalistofwordsyou'vebeenaskedtostudyuntil someoneasksyoutorecitethelistafewminuteslater.Theprocessofrehearsingmaterialuntilaskedtodeliveritiscalledmaintenancerehearsal.Oncecalleduponto spewthematerialyouusuallyforgetititisnotincorporatedintoLTM. Butwhataboutmaterialyouwishtoremember,thatyouwouldliketoretrieveanduseatamuchlatertime?ThismaterialmustreachLTM.Inorderformaterialto passfromSTMtoLTM,furtherprocessing,calledelaborativerehearsal,mustoccur.Whileelaborativerehearsaltakesplacetheinformationissaidtobeheldin workingmemory.MaterialselectedassignificantisheldherewhileitisprocessedfurtherandincorporatedintoLTM.2Inorderforelaborativerehearsaltotake place,thenewmaterialmustbeevaluatedintermsofitsrelationtomaterialpreviouslystoredinLTM.Associationsbetweenthenewandoldmaterialaremade,and thenthenewmaterialisprocessed.Forinstance,batsmayberecognizedasbeinganimalsthatflylikebirds.Buttheyarenotbirdstheyaremammalslikemice.Thus, "bats"maybestoredinLTMinrelationtobirds,mammals,androdents.Thisexamplepointsoutanimportantfeatureofstoringnewmaterial.Materialisnotsimply storedinisolation,butisactuallystoredinrelationtonumerousbitsofoldinformation.Ifanumberofrelationshipsbetweennewmaterialandoldarenotmade,we canonlyaccessthenewlystoredmaterialinalimitednumberofways.However,usingthenetworkofrelationsthataremadebetweenstoredbitsofinformation,we canretrievenecessarybitsinvarioussituations.Forinstance,becauseyouhaveburnedasteakandfoundoutittastesterrible,youwillknownottoeattheporkchop youjustburned.Proceedingtoeataburnedporkchopisanewexperience,butyoucanaccessinformationthatisanalogous,
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retrievingfromLTMthefactthatburnedfoodtastesterrible.Youtherebysaveyourselffrom''relearning"howburntfoodtastes. Howmuchandhowlongtheinformationwillberetained,aswellashoweasyitwillbetoretrieve,dependsonthedepthofprocessing.Iftheprocessingis"shallow," thenitiseasilyforgotten.MaintenancerehearsalisatypeofshallowprocessingaswellasaformoftemporarystoragethatalleviatessomeoftheburdenonLTM, sincetherearesomethingsthatwejustdon'tneedtoremember.Whenyourehearseatelephonenumberuntilyoudialit,youareengaginginshallowprocessing.You havenotprocessedthematerialinanymeaningfulway,forexample,byrelatingthephonenumbertoanimportantdatealreadystoredinLTMorbycreatinga mnemonic.Ifthephonenumberissubjecttoagreaterdepthofprocessingbyoneofthesemethods,itwillnotbeforgottenaseasily.3Forinformationtobe processedtoanydepth,itmustberecognizedandbrokendownintomeaningfulunitsconcepts,themes,tasks,orimagesthatwerecognize.Informationthatweare consciousoflearningpassesthroughmanyprocessingstagesbeforeitispermanentlystored.Atfirst,newinformationismatchedagainststoredmaterialinLTM.In laterstages,processinginvolvespatternrecognitionandsystematicstorage,asitemsarematchedandprocessedintermsofhowtheycomparetoalreadylearned information.Informationthatentersmemoryislikearadioactiveisotope:ithasahalflife,anditdecays.Inotherwords,theinformationbecomeslessandlessdistinct andmemorableovertime.Rehearsalimpedesthedecayprocess,butonceitstops,decaywillproceed.Thatiswhyelaborativerehearsalissoimportantitallowsthe datatobeintegratedintoLTM.Themoreprocessingapieceofinformationreceives,theeasierthematerialwillbetoretrieveatalatertime. Theconceptofrehearsaltypesmayexplainwhyprogrammedlearningtextsdonotwork.Programmedlearningtextsconsistofpageswithshortparagraphsof information,followedbyaquestionthatisusuallyarestatementofwhatwasjustsaid.Afteransweringthequestion,youfliptothenextpagethereyoufindtheanswer inthemargin,followedbyanotherparagraphandanotherquestion.Youcontinuetoflipthroughthetext,followingthisprocedure.Educatorssoondiscov
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eredthatsuchtextswerepoorteachingtoolsstudentsretainedverylittleofthematerial.Thetextsonlyencouragedmaintenancerehearsalonceyou'dansweredthe questionyoumovedontosomethingelse.Andsincethequestionsweresooftenarestatementofthetext,therewasnorealimpetustoperformelaborativerehearsal. Textsfacilitateelaborativerehearsaliftheyrequirereaderstosynthesizethematerialtheyhavelearnedbyposingproblemstobesolvedorbyprovidingthereader withtaskstoperform.Engagingmaterialinameaningfulwaythroughelaborativerehearsaliscrucial,ifthematerialistobelearnedandincorporatedintoLTM. Once,IwasaskedtoevaluateastudyguidedesignedforaclassonthecomputerlanguagePascal.Thecoursewastaughtinalargemanufacturingcompanytopeople whohadnopreviouscomputerexperiencethiscoursewastheirchancetoadvance,tomovefromassemblyworkintocomputerprogramming.Thestudyguide thoroughlyrepeatedalltheessentialmaterialcoveredinthelectures.Infact,youcouldsayitwasredundant.Theinstructorsweredistressedtolearnthat,despitesuch repetition,75percentofthepeopleflunkedtheexams.OneoftheinstructorsaskedmeifIhadanyideawhattheyweredoingwrong.Firstofalltheyhadincorrectly assumedthattheirstudentsknewhowtostudy.Mostofthesepeopleonlyhadahighschooleducationandhadbeenoutofschoolforyears.Simplymemorizing pagesofmaterial,evenrepetitiousmaterial,wasverydifficultforthem.Becauseoftheirpoorstudyhabitsandthefactthatthetextdidnotstimulatethemtoengagein elaborativerehearsal,alltheycoulddowasfallbackonmaintenancerehearsal.Thisdidnothelpthemtoassimilatethematerial,norweretheyabletomemorize enoughtoperformwellontheexams.However,thesituationcouldberemedied,notbyteachingthestudentshowtostudy,butbyredesigningthestudyguideasa workbook.Aworkbookcouldprovide,forexample,outlinesofflowchartsanddiagramsthatstudentscouldfilloutduring,orimmediatelyfollowing,thelectures.This wouldservetwopurposes:l)thediagramsandflowchartswouldenhanceconceptualprocessingbymakingtherelationsbetweenelementsclearer,and2)thestudents wouldbeengaged,throughfillingouttheworkbook,inelaborativerehearsal.
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Thebestwaytofacilitatethepermanentstorage(learning)ofnewinformationistohavethereaderusethematerialinameaningfulway.However,flowchartsand diagramsmaybeinappropriateforsometypesoftext.Informativeorpersuasivetextsofferseveraloptions:askquestionsofthereadersandincludeanalogiesand metaphorsthatwillencouragethemtocompareobjects,concepts,andissueswithwhichtheyarealreadyfamiliartothenewlypresentedinformation.Thesemethods facilitatedepthprocessingandwillhelpreaderstorememberyourtext. ProcessingInformation Tomakesenseofmaterialwehearorread,wemustbeginwiththelinearsurfaceofthetextthewordsintheordertheyarepresented.Becausethereisalimitto howmuchmaterialwecanabsorbwhenlisteningorreading,wedonotprocesseverywordtoanygreatdepth.Ratherthanprocessingsentenceswordforword,we takeinclauseswe"lagbehind"untilwereadorhearameaningfulunit.Calledshadowing,thisprocessisanessentialcomponentofourabilitytounderstandlanguage, andfortunatelyforusitisafairlyautomatedprocess.4Tryanexperimentonyourself.Quicklyreadthefirstfewsentencesofthisparagraphagain.Thencloseyour eyesandrecallasmuchasyoucan.Youwillnotbeabletoreproducethesentenceswordbyword,butyouwillbeabletorecallsomeoftheconceptsandkey phrases.Thisistheresultofshadowingyouhaveprocessedthematerialbasedonthemeaningfulunitsyouhaverecognized. Ifthebrainweretomatcheachwordithearsorseeswithalreadystoredinformation,itwouldquicklybeoverloadedbymoreinformationthanitcouldhandle.In actuality,wescreenoutmanyfunctionwordssuchasarticles("a,""an,"and"the"),prepositions(suchas"in,""to,""near,"and"of"),andconjunctionsandadverbs (suchas"and,""but,""yet,"and"however"),sincethesewordsdonotcarrymeaningfulinformationnecessarytoexpandordelimitaconcept.Suchfunctionwords simplyclueushowtoevaluatetheconceptsbeingpresentedandclarifytherelationshipsestablishedbetweentheideasinthetext.5Withouttheseelementswecould notmakesenseofatext,butwedonotneed
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themtostoreinformationinLTM. Oncetheessentialconceptshavebeenidentifiedandbrokendownintomanageableunits,theprocessingoftheseconcepts begins. Twodifferenttypesofprocessesareusedtohandlenewinformation:conceptuallydrivenanddatadriven.7Mostinformationthatwereceiverequiresbothtypesof processing,butonetypeoftendominates,dependingonthetypeofinformation.Conceptuallydrivenprocessinginvolveselaborativerehearsal.Ourabilitytorecallor usenewinformationisimprovedbyelaborativerehearsal,sinceweprocessthematerialtoagreaterdepthandmakemeaningfulconnectionswithmaterialalready storedinLTM.Thistypeofprocessingisimportantifwewanttolearninformationandbeabletouseitlater.Inaddition,ourpowertorecallorutilizematerialcanbe limitedbyourabilitytotakeinacertainamountofdata.Datadrivenprocessingislimitedbytheamountofinformationthemindcanprocessoveragivenperiodof time.Weusedatadrivenprocessingwhenreadingorlisteningtoinformationthatwewillonlyuseonceoronlyneedforashortperiodoftime. Readingisataskthatengagesbothconceptuallydrivenanddatadrivenprocessing.Readingabookcallsuponourknowledgeofgrammar,vocabulary,language conventions,andrelatedideasandconceptsalreadystoredinLTMtherefore,weengageinconceptuallydrivenprocessing.Butreadingisalsoadatalimitedtaska readercanprocessonlysomanywordsperminute.Themaximumamountof"data"thatareadercanabsorbisher"datalimitation." Theterm"topdown"isusedtodescribetextsthatinviteconceptuallydrivenprocessing,whiletheterm"bottomup"describestextsthatinvitedatadrivenprocessing. Textscanbeadaptedtofacilitateonetypeofprocessing(orbothtypesatthesametime).8Mostwellwrittentextswillbeofamixeddesign,butoftenatextiswritten sothatreadersareinvitedtopreferonetypeofprocessingovertheother.Textsthatinvitedatadrivenprocessingaredominatedbyabottomupdesign.Instruction manualsforassemblingchildren'stoysandworkoutequipmentorforhookingupVCRsandstereosareexamplesofbottomupdesignedtexts.Thewriterassumes thatyouwillonlybeperformingthe
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taskonce(ornomorethanafewtimes)therefore,hewillassumethattalkingyouthroughtheprocedurestepbystepisthebestapproach.Usuallyitis,butifyouget stuck,iftheinstructionsdon'tmakesense,orifyouperformastepincorrectly,lateryoumayfindthatthepiecesyouhaveleftdon'tfittogetherortheequipment doesn'twork.Thenyoumightwishthatthewriterhadalsodividedtheprocessintostagesoffivetosevenstepsthatdescribedhowonepartofthewholeobjectwas assembled.Bydividingtheworkintostages,thewriterhelpsthereadertoconceptualizethetask.Theparts,eachassembledduringasinglestage,wouldthenbe assembledtoproducethewhole.Havingcompletedasinglestage,youwouldbeabletodeterminewhetherapartwasassembledcorrectly.Ifitwerenot,youwould justhavetorepeatthatonestage,ratherthanhavingtodisassemblethewholeobject.Theinstructionmanualwriterwhogroupsthestepsofbuildingahomegymby frame,weights,andpulleysystems,withawaytocheckthateachassembledparthasbeenputtogethercorrectly(perhapsbyprovidingillustrations)savesthe consumerfromdiscoveringthatthelasttwoandahalfinchboltthatsheusedtoattachapulleywassupposedtobeusedintheframe.Goodinstructionmanuals breakdownlongtasksintostages,therebyintroducingsometopdowndesignintothetext. Topdowndesignedtextsfacilitateconceptuallydrivenprocessing,byprovidingschemas,concepts,orgroupingsofpiecesofdatatherebyallowingustorecognize therelationshipbetweennewandoldpiecesofinformation,understandthesignificanceofthenewinformation,orrecognizeoutcomesandgoalsincumbentonlearning thatnewinformation.9Mosttextbooksaretopdowndesigned.Forexample,let'sconsideralanguagetextbook.First,youaretaughttorecognizethecasesofthe nounsandthetensesandaspectsofverbsthenyouareshownhowtoinflectnounsandverbstoarriveattheproperforms.InEnglish,youweretaughtthatweak verbstake"ed"toformthepasttense.Youlearnedthegeneralruleandappliedittospecificwords.10Asyoumemorizemorewords,youcanthenusetherulesto constructthecorrectformsforeachstatementyouspeak,read,orwrite.Manycrashcoursesinlanguagefortravelersworkintheoppositeway.Thetraveler
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isbombardedwithmanyphrasesandsentencesthatshememorizesinordertomoveaboutfreelyinaforeigncountrythisisabottomupordatadrivenapproach. Sincethetravelerhasnotlearnedanygeneralrulesorasystembywhichtorelateallthesepiecesofinformation,shewillforgetwhatshehaslearnedmuchfasterthan thestudentwholearnedthelanguagebytherules. Onefurtherexamplemayhelptoclarifythedifferencesbetweentopdownandbottomupdesign.LookatthelistofRgroupsofaminoacidsbelow.Youdonot needtoknoworganicchemistrytoseesomeofthestructuralsimilaritiesanddifferences.NotethattheRgroupsarelistedinalphabeticalorder.Ifyoutriedto memorizethematerialinthisorder,youwouldbeperformingdatadrivenprocessing.Thetext,organizedasitis,invitesthiskindofprocessing,becauseitis dominatedbyabottomupdesign. Lookatthechartagain.DidyounoticetheringsinsomeoftheRgroups?Didyounoticethatsomegroupsarenonlinear,insteadcontainingbranches.Somecontain "S"(sulfur).WhatifthechartwerereorganizedsothattheseindividualRgroupswereorganizedintogroupsbasedonsuchsimilarities?Thematerialwouldbeeasier tolearn.Inthiscase,thetextdesignerwouldhavefacilitatedconceptualprocessingbyusingatopdowndesignedchart.Indeed,thosedifferenceswehaveobserved doaccountforthesimilaritiesinchemicalreactionsamongcertainRgroups.Reorganization(topromoteconceptualprocessing)actuallyreflectsthewaychemistry studentseventuallylearnthisinformationandstoreitinLTM. Ifyouwanttolearnsomethingandbeabletoutilizethemateriallater,conceptuallydrivenprocessingisimperative.Asawriteryoucanfacilitatesuchprocessingby properlyorganizingthetext.Grouplikepiecesofinformation.Donotsimplyorganizeyourtextbasedonchronology,anorganizingprinciplethatworksbestin narrativesandstories.Whenyouarewritinginformative,evaluative,orpersuasiveprosemakesurethatrelatedideasandconceptsfollowoneanother.Byproperly organizingatext,youcanincreasetheamountofinformationthatyourreaderswillremember.
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RgroupsofAminoAcids
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Chunking Wehavetalkedabouthowthemindprocessesinformation,butwehaveyettodealwiththefactthatwearecontinuallybombardedwithmoreinformationthanwe arecapableofprocessing.Researchhasshownthathumanrecalltendstobelimitedtoapproximatelysevenunits,plusorminustwo.11Wecallthisthe"magic numberseven"weareabletoholdfivetonineitemsatagiveninstantinSTM,eitherforrecallorforfurtherprocessingintoLTM.Butobviously,almosthourly,when weareinvolvedinataskassimpleaslisteningtotheTVorreadingabook,weareexposedtomorethanfivetoninepiecesofnewdataatatime.Howdowe processanamountofmaterialthatseemstobebeyondourcapacity?Chunkingisthestrategythemindexploitstoovercomedatalimitations. Chunkingisaprocessbywhichsmallunitsofmaterialarerecodedintolargerbitsofmaterial,therebyallowingustoremembermorematerial.Forinstance,learninga listoffifteensingledigitnumbersisverydifficult(3,8,5,4,7,1,8,9,2,6,4,7,3,0,5),butifyourecodethemintofivethreedigitnumbersequences(385,471, 892,647,305)youhaveincreasedtheamountofinformationyoucanassimilate.Byassociatingandgroupingnewinformationweneedtoprocess,wecandecrease theactualnumberofpiecesofinformationweneedtolearn.Wecontinuetorecodeinformationuntiltherearefewenoughchunksthatwecanprocessandretainallof theoriginalinformation.12Chunkingisessentialtolearning.Ifyoureturntothelistofaminoacids,youwillseehowgroupingtheindividualRgroupsbylike characteristicswouldmakelearningeasier.Byprovidingsomenecessarypreliminaryconceptualization,chunkingtheinformationintorings,branches,sulfur containinggroups,etc.thetextdesignerhelpsthereadertolearntheinformation. FactorsinRetentionandRecallofInformation Besidesthelimitationonourabilitytotakeinonlysomuchnewdataatatime,afewotherfactorsalsodeterminehowmuchmaterialwecan
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process,retain,andrecallatalatertime.Recency,superordination, primacy,andproactiveinterferencehaveagreatimpactonretentionandrecall:13 1.TheRecencyEffect:Webestrecallthemostrecentorlastmaterialinatext.Sincenomorematerialcomesinforprocessingafterthelastpieceofdata,thereader candwellonitandwillretainitbest.Byrecappingimportantpointsandputtingsummariesandconclusionsattheendofanessay,youhelpthereadertoremember whatisimportant. 2.Superordination:Webestrecallconceptsandideasthatarehighlightedasbeingofgreatestsignificance.Repetitionhighlightsconcepts,asdoesreferringdirectlyto theconceptinheadingsandtitles. 3.Primacy:Aswebegintoattendtoanynewmaterialweimmediatelydirectourfullattentiontothefirstnewitem.Thefirstitem(oritems)requiresourcomplete attentionbecauseatthistimeweactivateconceptuallydrivenprocessesthatwillfacilitatetheprocessingofsubsequentinformation.Oftensubsequentitemsdonot receivethesameattentionasthefirstitem,sincewetrytocompleteprocessingoftheformeritemsbeforewecanmoveon(andwealsohavetodealwithdata limitations).Thus,thereisagreaterpotentialforforgettingsubsequentinformation.14Byincludinganovervieworintroduction,youprovidethereaderwitha frameworkbywhichtointerprettheinformationthatfollowsandhelphimtoengageinconceptualprocessing. 4.ProactiveInterference:Ifaskedtoprocessanumberofsimilarpiecesofinformation,thereader'sattentionmaywaneashecontinuestoreadfamiliarmaterial therefore,hisabilitytoretainalltheinformationdecreases.Theinformationinthemiddleismosteasilyforgotten.Assuggestedbytherecencyandprimacyeffects, itemsprocessedfirstandlastwillberememberedbest.Tocombatproactiveinterference,youmayintroduceimportantpointsintheintroduction,recapthematthe end,anduserepetitiontoreinforcethoseideasthatareattheheartandmiddleofyouressay.
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Askilledwritercandesignatextateverylevelsentence,paragraph,andcompletecompositiontoexploitrecency,superordination,andprimacy,andtoavoid proactiveinterference.Atthesentencelevel,placeimportantmaterialattheopeningandclosingofthesentence.Donotwastethesetwopositionsbyusingempty introductoryclausessuchas"itis,""itwas,""thereare,"and"therewas,''whichdonotprovideinitialinformationoracontextthatwillhelpthereaderprocess subsequentinformation.Donotendthefirstandlastsentencesofyourparagraphsvaguelywithapronounsuchas"it"oranindefinitereferencesuchas"something," andavoidendingasentencewithapreposition(placeitnexttotheverbitnaturallyfollows).Trytoendthosemostimportantsentencesthefirstandlastinthe paragraphwithnouns,verbs,orsignificantphrases. Thesameadviceholdstrueforparagraphsandwholecompositions.Putyourmostimportantinformationinthebeginningand/orclosingsentencesofaparagraph.In termsofthewholecomposition,especiallythosedesignedtoinformoreducatethereader,useanintroductionoroverviewthatwillactivateconceptuallydriven processingandasummaryorconclusionthatconfirmsandrecapstheimportantinformationandinsightsofferedinthetext.Areaderwillbestrememberthelastwords ofaparagraphoressay,andasawriteryouwantthelastwordsyourreaderprocessestobeimportant.Byfollowingthisadviceyoucanactuallyavoidthenegative consequencesofinterferenceandtherebyhelpyourreadertoretainthemostimportantconcepts. Expectations,PriorKnowledge,andExpertKnowledge Whenweapproachanytext,ourexpectations,priorknowledge,andindividualexpertiseallaffectourabilitytoprocessthattext. Whatfactorsinfluenceourexpectationsabouttexts?Weformsomeexpectationsbasedonthegenreinwhichthetextiswritten.Thegenreistheclasstowhichthe textbelongsnewspaperarticle,editorial,instructionalmanual,proposal,scientificpaper,novel,poem,etc.andeachgenrehasarangeofacceptablecontextual materialandanex
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pectedform.Forexample,ajournalist'spersonalopinionisnotappropriateinreportingapresidentialpressconferenceforafrontpagefeaturestory,butis appropriatematerialfortheeditorialpage.Wealsohaveexpectationsbasedonfactswehavelearnedthroughoutourlives.Ifwereadastoryaboutthelaunchofa spaceshuttle,weexpecttohearthattheshuttlewaslaunchedintothevacuumofspace,notthatitisfloatingaroundtheearthinaliquidether,aswasbelievedtrue untiltheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury. Theexpectationsweformandholdaboutwhatistocomeinatextareshapedbypriorknowledge.15Asanextremeexample,theBushmeninAfricawouldnot understandacommentaboutlaunchingthespaceshuttlebecausetheyhavenoconceptofspaceflight.Frequently,we,too,mustdealwiththelimitationsofourown priorknowledge.Ifyouarenotamechanic,tryingtoreadyourcar'smaintenancemanualinordertoperformasimpletuneupmayproveimpossible.Ifyouhaveno legaltrainingandarebuyingyourfirsthouse,thecontractsnecessarytocloseonthehousecanbenearlyimpenetrable,andyoumaybeatthemercyoftherealestate agent,lawyer,orbankerwhoofferstoexplainthemtoyouinwhathebelievesare"simpleterms."Andhowmanypeoplehavebeenbaffledbytheexplanations doctorshavegivenoftheirailments?Ineachcaseatexthasbeenconstructedbyspeakersorwriterswithparticularexpertisemadepossiblebytheirprior knowledgeofthefieldandwrittenorspokenasifthereaderorlistenersharestheexpert'sknowledge. Expertsandnovicesdiffernotonlyinthequalityofknowledgetheyhaveonagivensubjecttheyalsodifferinhowtheyorganizethatknowledge.Muchexpert knowledgeisstoredinmemoryintheformofheuristics(techniques/aidsforsolvingproblemsanddealingwithcomplexinformation),rules,strategies,spatialarrays (suchasmatrixes,charts,andgraphs),andschemasthatallowexpertstoprocessinformation.16Schemasprovidetemplatesbywhichexpertsprocessnew information.Whenexpertsencountertexts,theyautomaticallycalltomindschemasthatwillallowthemtorecognizeandextractthepertinentmaterial,quicklychunkit intomeaningfulunits,andrelateittootheralreadyknowninformation.Typically,theschemaprovidesinformation
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aboutthenatureofmaterialthatshouldbecontainedwithinthetypeoftextpresented(forexample,aneditorialwillpresentanopiniononacontroversialtopic)and informationaboutthepurposeofthetext(suchasinstructingthereaderhowtouseanewsoftwareprogram).Thus,schemasprovideacontrollingframeworkoraset ofparametersthatthereaderusestobegintocomprehendthesignificanceoftheincomingnewinformation. Tomaketextscommunicatemoreeffectively,weneedtolearntoexploitexperts'methods:chunkmaterialintosectionstohelpreaderstobetterprocessnew information,andutilizeplansandheuristicstoorganizetextseffectively.Thiswillhelpnotonlythenovice,speedinguplearningbyprovidingguidancetoperform conceptuallydrivenprocessingitwillalsohelptheexpert,whowillappreciateastreamlinedtextwhichallowshertoquicklyextracttheessentialinformation. Speakersandwritersalwaysassumethattheyshareacertainamountofknowledgewiththeiraudience.However,thenumberoftimeswritersactuallycreatetextsfor anaudiencethatsharetheirsamepriorknowledgeisprobablymuchsmallerthanwethink.Writersdependheavilynotonlyonsharedconceptualpriorknowledge, butalsoonsharedschemas.Ascommunicators,thefurtherwemovefromcommoneverydayexperiencetowardmaterialthatrequiresspecializedlearning,themore wemustbeawareofthepotentialshrinkingpoolofknowledgewemaysharewithouraudience.Therefore,wemustconsciouslyhelpourlayaudiencetoconstruct schemasandconceptualizetheinformation,byincludingoverviews,headings,andsummaries,andbyhighlightingorrepeatingkeyconcepts. Manytextsmust,infact,bereadbynonexpertsorbymixedaudiencesthatincludeexperts,relativelyinformedlaypeople,andevenuninformedlaypeople.For example,aproposalforanewcityairportwillbereadbycityplanners,architects,governmentofficials,engineers,andcityandruralresidents.Somegroupswillbe interestedinthecostsassociatedwiththeproject,othersintheeconomicimpactonthecity,andsomewillbeinterestedintheenvironmentalimpact.Veryfewwill havetheexpertisetounderstandeveryaspectoftheplan,buttheproposalcanbewrittensothatitisaccessibletoall:bydividingthe
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proposalintosections,andbyusingheadingstosignalwhichsectionsareappropriatefortheexpertandwhichareappropriateforthelayperson.Overviewsand summariesofthemostimportantaspectsoftheprojectcanbewritteninlaypeople'stermssothatthenonexpertcangetthegistoftheideas.(Theexpertwillsimply skimorskipthisinformationandturntothemorespecificchartsandtables.)Allreadersbenefitfromthistypeoftextualdesign:thelaypersonobtainsatleasta minimalunderstandingoftheprojectingeneralaswellasanunderstandingofhowhisparticularconcernsarebeingaddressedandthevariousexpertsalsofindthe informationtheyrequiretoconsiderandcompletetheproject. OrganizationalStrategies Twodifferentorganizationalstrategiescanbeusedtofacilitatedifferentlearningprocesses:objectorganizationandaspectorganization.17Ifthewriterusesobject organization,hefocusesoneachitem,goingthroughallofitsaspectsorqualitiesandthenproceedingtothenextitem.Whenthewriterusesaspectorganization,he focusesontheaspectsofitemsthatcanbecomparedorcontrasted.Thewriterexaminesthesameaspectforallobjectsbeingcompared,andthenproceedstothe nextaspectandrepeatstheprocess. Thismayremindyouoftwodifferentapproachestowritingpersuasiveessays.Foragivenissueyoucanstatetheproponent'ssideintotalandthenstatethe opponent's.ToorganizebyobjectyoucouldfirstgivetheDemocrats'platformandthentheRepublicans'.Toorganizebyaspecttakeeachfactor(aspect)oftheissue andexamineeachside'sposition,forexample,comparetheDemocrats'andRepublicans'viewsonthebudgetdeficit,foreignaid,andwomen'srights.Manykindsof texts,reports,andproposalscanbeorganizedbychoosingoneoftheseoptionsthechoicewilloftendependonwhatyouperceivetobeyouraudience'sneeds. Whatifyouhavetowriteareportontwoormorecompaniesbiddingforajob?Employingobjectorganization,youcoulddividethereportintosectionsoneach biddingcompany,givingtheircharges,abilitytostayonschedule,servicerecord,etc.Employing
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aspectorganization,youcoulddividethereportintosectionsbasedoncosts,abilitytomeetdeadlines,servicerecord,etc.,andcomparecompaniesineachofthese sections.Infact,themostusefulwaytoorganizethereportmaybetouseaspectorganizationinthebodyofthereport(eachaspectcouldbeasection)andthenuse objectorganization(anoverallcomparisonofthetwocompanies)intheconclusion. Whenchoosinghowtoorganizeatext,consideryouraudienceandhowyouwantthemtoapproachtheinformation.Objectorganizationrequireslittleprior knowledgeofthematerial,anditismoreaccessibletotheinexperiencedreader.Aspectorganizationfacilitatesconceptuallydrivenprocessing,engagingthereaderin elaborativerehearsal.Areader(usuallyonlyawellinformedorexpertreader)mayperformelaborativerehearsalonanobjectorganizedtext,butthewritercannot countonsuchrehearsalhappening,sincethetextdoesnotinvitethatkindofprocessing.Aspectorganizedtexts,ingeneral,requiremorereadingandprocessingtime, butatextorganizedinthisfashionisoftenmoreusefultoreaderswithsomepriorknowledgeofthesubject. DesigningTextstoFacilitateComprehension Inpracticalterms,whatcanwedotoproducetextsthatareeasiertocomprehend?Considerusingthefollowingelementsoftextualdesigntofacilitateprocessingand learning.18 Organize:Clearorganizationisfundamentaltocreatingaccessibletexts.Simplystringingasequenceofideastogetherusingrhetoricalconnectorssuchas"first," "second,"and"third"doesnotcreatelogicalcoherence.Organizationneedstobebasedonlogicalconnectionsthatexistbetweentheconceptsunderdiscussion. Goodorganizationfacilitatesconceptuallydrivenprocessing,chunking,andtheactivationofschemasinLTMthataidinlearning.Organizationcanbeimprovedand mademoreexplicitby: 1)Overviewsorintroductions:Thesetellthereaderthepurposeofthetextandprovideinformationaboutthenatureoftheinforma
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tiontofollow.Thewriterconveysherintentionsandtheexpectationsthatshebelievesthereadershouldhaveaboutwhatthetextwillaccomplish. 2)Advancedorganizers:Tablesofcontentsandmenusfacilitatelearningbytellingtheaudiencewheretheyare,whatsteptheyareon,andwheretheywillbegoing. 3)Hierarchicalordering:Itemsshouldberankedinorderofimportance.Itemsthataresuperordinatepresentedasmostimportantwillberememberedbest.Put themostimportantitemfirstandworkdowntotheleastimportant,orstartwiththeleastsignificantitemandbuilduptothemostsignificant.Ineithercasemakesure youhavealogicalstrategyinmindfordevelopingyourtextlogicalorganizationwillmakethetexteasiertocomprehend. CreateGoalsorProvideMeaningfulTasks:Iftheaudienceknowstheyareworkingtowardagoal,suchascompletingaproject(likerunningacomputerprogram correctlyorassemblingabicycle),theywillworkhardertounderstandthetext.Therefore,makesureyourobjectivesareclearlypresentedtothereader.Youmay wanttoencouragethereaderbybreakingthetaskdownintosmallerstagesandpointingouttheachievementofminorgoals.Theaccomplishmentofsmalltasks culminatesinthecompletionoftheproject.Areaderwillthenfindsatisfactioninmeetingshorttermexpectationswhileworkingtowardthecompletionoflongterm goals. Ifthereisnotataskorgoalaroundwhichyoucandesignthetext,youmaystillbeabletoengagethereaderinconceptualprocessing.Whenaskedtoanswera question,filloutachart,summarizewhathasbeenread,orsolveaproblemusingthenewinformation,areaderwillengageinelaborativerehearsalandlearnthe informationmoreeffectively. HighlightCriticalItems:Youcanhighlightimportantpointsforyourreaderwithtitlesandheadings,aswellasbyplacingtheessential
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ideasinfirstandlastsentencesofparagraphsandinthesubjectpositioninthesentence.Headingsshouldnotbeempty,genericheadingslike"introduction,""major factors,"and"conclusion"(unlessrequiredbythegenre),sincethesedonotfacilitateconceptualization.Useheadingsthathighlightkeytermsandconceptsorthat orientthereaderintermsofthetaskyouwishhertoperform(e.g.,"startingthecomputer,""installingtheprogram'').Topicsentencesandgrammaticalsubjectsof sentencescanalsobeusedtohighlightimportantinformationandtherebyfacilitateconceptuallydrivenprocessing.Informationpresentedfirst,assuggestedbythe primacyeffect,isamongthatrememberedbest. CreateManageableUnits:Foracomplextaskorconcept,itisbesttogroupdataintoclustersofaboutfiveelements(chunking),underaheadingthatprovidesa conceptualframeworkbywhichtointerprettheelements.Bylimitingthenumberofelementsineachgrouping,youmakesurethatyoudonotoverloadthereader's datadrivenprocessingcapacity. ConcretizationsandAnalogies:Concretizationsmakeconceptsandabstractideaseasiertoimagineandidentify.Concretizationscanbecreatedthroughexamples, welllabeleddiagrams,charts,pictures,andspatialrepresentations.(Rememberexpertsoftenpreferdiagrams,charts,andotherspatialandvisualrepresentations ratherthanalengthywrittenexplanation.TheyrelyonspatialarraysandschemasalreadystoredinLTMtoprocessnewdata.Aswriterswecanhelpouraudience conceptuallyprocessinformationifwecarefullyintroducesomeofthetechniquesusedbytheexperts.) Analogiesarementalimagesinvokedbycomparinganew,unfamiliarobjecttoacommonobject.Forexample,"thewordprocessorisatypewriterthatdoesn't requireacarriagereturnattheendofthelineandthatenhancesawriter'sabilitytoeditashewrites."Theunfamiliarobjectorconceptisdemystifiedbycomparisonto thecommonobject.(Usuallyananalogyfirstshowshowthetwoobjectsaresimilarandthenpointsouthowtheunfamiliarobjectdiffersfromthemorecommonone.)
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Conceptualizationandanalogyareparticularlyusefulwhenyouhaveanaudiencewhodoesnotshareyourpriorknowledge.Bothtechniquesfacilitateprocessing unfamiliarmaterialbyprovidingtheaudiencewithapointofreferencefromtheirownpriorexperience. Thesedesignelementscanbeusedtoconstructinformative,evaluative,andpersuasivetextsthatareintendedtobeconceptuallyprocessed,aswellastoconstruct datadriventextssuchasinstructionmanualsandreferenceguides.(Advancedorganizersareagreataidtothefrequentuserofsuchmanualsandguides,sincethey allowreaderstofindquicklytheparticularsectiontheyneedratherthandemandingthattheyreadthroughthewholetext.)Differentdesignelementstakeprecedence indifferenttypesoftexts.Forexample,analogiesandexamplesareappropriatefortextbookswherethewriterintendsthatthereaderlearntheconcepts.But analogiesandexamplesarenotusefulintextswrittentodescribeataskthatwillonlybeperformedonce,suchasasetofinstructionsforassemblingachild'stoy.Asa writer,youselectthedesignelementsappropriateforyourtextandforyourparticularaudience. Application Iwillendthischapterbyposingaproblemforyouthatwillillustratehowanunderstandingoftheconceptspresentedinthischaptercanhelpawritertodesignatext. Itinvitesyoutoengageinelaborativerehearsalofthematerialpresentedinthischapter. Problem Thebenefitsclerktookthefollowingnotesatameetingonthecompany'snewinsuranceplan.Theclerkhasbeenaskedtoprepareabrochureforthecompany. Chunkthefollowingmaterialsoitiseasiertocomprehend(sothatacompanyemployeecaneasilyaccessandrefertothematerial)andpreparethetextforthe brochure.
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NocoverageofpreexistingconditionsonMajorMedical Automatic$12,000termlife,paidbyemployer 75percentoforthodonticscostscovered Allfulltimeemployeesarecoverednocontributionrequired Dentalbenefits=preventivetreatment,100percentothermajorcharges,80percent MajorMedicalfiftydollardeductibleforeachhospitaladmission Optionaltermlife200percentofyourannualsalary.Employeepaysfiftycentsper$1,000 Parttimeemployees,spouses,andchildreneachpayfortydollarsamonthforcoverage Annualdeductibledentalfiftydollarsonmajordentalcare MajorMedicalexclusionsacupuncture,chiropracticservices Childrenmustbeaddedintocoveragewithinthirtydaysofbirth Dentalexclusions=preexistingconditionsandocclusions EligibleexpensesofMajorMedicalhospitalstays,diagnostics,hospice,andhomehealth Lifeinsurancemaybepurchasedforspouseandchildrenatadditionalcost
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3 AlternativeGrammarsPartI)TransformationalGrammar
Doyouknowwhatagerundis?Arcyoubaffledbyprogressivesandperfectives?Didyouknowthatadverbscanmodifyadjectives?Morethanlikely,youarea memberofthevastmajorityofpeoplewhoareeitherunfamiliarwith,orwhohavealessthanperfectknowledgeof,thetraditional"partsofspeech"grammar.For many,ithasbeenyearssincetheystudiedgrammarandtheyhaveforgottenmuchoftheinformationotherssimplywerenottaughtgrammaradequatelyduringtheir formativeyears.Educatorsfindthatmostadultshaveasenseofwhatasubjectis,whataverbis,andwhatanounis.Beyondthatweareoftentreadingonthinice whenwediscusssentencestructureintheworkplaceorclassroom. Thedevelopmentofalternativegrammarswasnotpromptedbyaneedforasimplifiedgrammar,butratherbyadesiretofindagrammarthatbetterdescribedthe waythemindactuallyprocesseslanguage.1Whatyouwillfind,aswediscusstwoofthemostinfluentialandpowerfulalternativegrammars,isthattheyenableusto discusslanguagewithwriterswithouthavingtocompletelyreteachtraditionalgrammarintheprocess.Chomsky'sgenerativetransformationalgram
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marworkswithonlyafewbasicunits:nounphrases,verbphrases,prepositionalphrases,andtheunitsthatconstituteeachofthosephrasetypes.Casegrammar,first developedbyCharlesFillmore,andalsoknownasrolerelationgrammar,definesandcategorizesnounsbasedontheirfunctioninrelationtotheverbitisa commonsenseapproachtogrammarbasedonthetypeofinformationthatwordsconveyinasentence. GenerativeTransformationalGrammar GenerativetransformationalgrammarisadynamicgrammarsystemcreatedbyNoamChomskytoexplainhowwecanbeconfidentthattheutteranceswecreateare acceptableandwillbeunderstood.Chomsky'sgoalwastoexplainlanguagecreativity:howweareabletoutterandinterpretsentenceswehavenotheardbefore. Creativityismadepossiblebythegenerativenatureoftransformationalgrammar.Inordertocreateandunderstandnewlygeneratedsentences,wemustdependon ourlanguagecompetence.Ourcompetencederivesfromourknowledgeofgrammar:grammarshapeseachofourutterances,settingtheboundariesforwhatis acceptableandensuringthatwewillbeunderstood.Wecomposeandstructureeachofourutterancesbasedonourknowledgeofwhatisacceptableaccordingto thegrammaticalsystem.2 Chomsky'smodeliscomposedoftheelementsshowninthediagramonp.41. WordConcepts Wordconceptsexistinthemindpriortotheformationofanysentence.Thewordsareinnoparticularorderandareunmarked.Unmarkedreferstothefactthatthere arenoinflectionsaddedtothewordstoindicatesuchinformationaswhetherthewordisplural,possessive,orpasttense.Youcanthinkofanunmarkedformas correspondingtothelexicalentryforawordthatyouwouldlookupinthedictionary.Youlookup"break"insteadof"broken"or"breaking."Thedictionaryoften
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ProducingSentencesbyTransformationalGrammar
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andmodificationconstitutesthesyntacticdescriptionattheheartoftransformationalgrammar.Wordconceptsarecombinedusingphrasestructures(rulesthat provideinformationabouttheskeletalstructureofasentence)toformabase.Thebaseisadeepstructurerepresentation.Itisanutterancethatcontainswords, informationonhowtoputthewordsintoanacceptableorder,andinformationoninflections,modals,andauxiliariesthatneedtobeadded.However,thisinformation doesnotyetprovidearecognizablesentence(asurfacestructure)thatwewouldspeak,write,orunderstandthatrequiresfurthertransformations. WhydidChomskydevelopsuchacomplexnotion?Thecomponentsandstepsofthisprocessareintendedtorepresenthowpeopleactuallyutilizelanguageunitsand languagerulesthattheyhavelearnedinordertospeakandunderstandtheirlanguage. TheBasePhraseStructureRulse Thephrasestructurerulesprovidesomeofthebasicinformationabouthowtoorderandcombinewordconcepts.Thewordconceptsaretreatedasagivenor prerequisitethatundergoessyntactictransformation.3Therefore,inallpracticality,themodelbeginswithadescriptionofthebase,particularlywithhowthephrase structurerulesaccountfortheskeletalstructureofthesentence. Thephrasestructurerulesexplainhowthebasicunitsofasentenceareassembled.Chomskyexplainsthattheyarebasically"rewriting"rules.Forinstance:asentence canberewrittenasanounphraseplusaverbphrase.Inthenotationoftransformationalgrammar,thisruleiswrittenas:S NP+VP.Suchderivations,asthe processofrewritingsentencesintermsoftheirconstituentsiscalled,alwaysproceedfromasingleunittoastringofconstituentunits(orfromasmallerstringofunits toastringwithagreaternumberofunits).Anounphrasecansimplybeanounsuchas"he"inthesentence"hewalks."Andaverbphrasecanhaveonlyasingle element,astheverb"walks"inthesame
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sentence.Butthenounphrasecanalsocontainmanyotherelementssuchasarticles,adjectives,andadverbsthatmodifythenoun.Andtheverbphrasemaycontain anauxiliaryverbsuchas"is"and/oramodalverbsuchas"will."Sentencesmayalsocontainmorethanonenounorverbphrase,aswellasanumberofprepositional phrases.Inallcases,Englishsentencesmusthaveatleastonenounphraseandoneverbphrase. Wordconceptsandthephrasestructurerulesprovideallthematerialweneedtocreateawellformedsentencethatissimple,active,anddeclarative.Allsentencesin deepstructurearesimple,active,anddeclarative,andarecalledkernelsentences.Transformationsperformedonthebaseindeepstructurebeforeitbecomesa recognizableutteranceasurfacestructurecreatecomplexandcompoundsentences,passives,andothersentencetypessuchasinterrogatives(questions), imperatives(commands),andnegatives.4 Letusnowlookatthephrasestructurerulesthatyieldthebase.Thefollowingtablefirstliststhephrasestructureruleinthenotationoftransformationalgrammar, followedbyanexplanation.Weworkbackwardsfromthecompletesentencetoadescriptionofitssmallestcomponentparts.Hereyouwillnoticeadeparturefrom thetraditionalpartsofspeechgrammar.Wedonotspeakofdirectobjects,indirectobjects,orcomplements,butonlyofthreephrasetypes:noun,verb,and prepositionalphrases.Obviously,whenchildrenlearnlanguagetheyhavenoconceptofthecategoriesofobjectsandcomplements,buttransformationalgrammarians believethattheydolearntodistinguishbetweenthesethreephrasetypes. PhraseStructureRules5 Note:Parenthesessignaloptionalelements. 1.S NP+VP.Asentencecanberewrittenasanounphraseplusaverbphrase.
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aretwodeterminers,thearticle"the"andtheadjective"intercontinental." 3.VP V(NP)(PP).Averbphrase,alsoknownasapredicate,musthaveaverbandmayhaveanounphraseand/oraprepositionalphrase.Forexample, considerthesentence,"Hesangasongtohissister."Intheverbphrase"sangasongtohissister""asong"isanounphrase,and''tohissister"isaprepositional phrase."Sang,"theverbalone,asin"Hesang,"couldalsobeusedasacompleteverbphrase."Sangasong,"averbfollowedbyanounphrase,V(NP),couldalso beusedasaverbphrase.Finally,"sangtohissister"couldalsobeusedhere,wehavetheverbfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase,V(PP). 4.V aux+verb.Theverbconsistsoftheverbplusitsauxiliary. 5.Aux Tense(+M).Theauxiliarymusthavetense,eitherpastorpresent.(Pasttenseisgenerallymarkedwith"ed"asin"walked"orachangeinthestemvowel oftheverb,asin"ran.")Theauxiliarymayalsotakeanoptionalmodalverb:"have"and"be"createprogressivesandperfectives.6Theothermodalsare:"will," "would,""can,""could,""shall,""should,""may,""might,"and"must." 6.PP prep+NP.Aprepositionalphrasehasaprepositionplusanounphrase,suchas"tothewoods."(Thisnounphrasecanthenbefurtherbrokendown employingrule2). TransformationalRules Transformationalruleschangetheactivedeclarativesentencesintoothersentencetypes.Someoftheserulesareobligatory,meaningtheyarerequiredtoproduce otherbasicsentencetypessuchasquestions(interrogatives),commands(imperatives),andnegatives.Othersareoptionalandproducestylisticvariations,most significantlythepassivestructure.Interrogatives,imperatives,andnegativesentencescanallbeexplainedbyonetransformationalrule:
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Now,let'slookatoneoptional,stylistictransformationtheoneusedtogeneratepassivesentences.Therulesforpassivetransformationsareincludedherebecause mostwriters,atonetimeoranother,arefacedwiththetaskofeliminatingpassivesentencesfromtheirtexts.Byunderstandinghowpassivesentencesarisefrom activeones,wecanmoreeasilychangeourpassivediscourseintoactivediscourse. Passivesentencesarederivedfromactivesentences.Forexample,thepassivesentence"Theboxesarecarriedbythemovers"isderivedfromtheactivesentence, "Themoverscarriedtheboxes."Wewillstartwiththepassivesentence,sinceweareusuallytryingtorevisetocreateamoreactiveprosestyle(andbecausein transformationalgrammarweworkbacktotheactivekernelsentence).Theabovesentencecanbedescribedasfollows: Theboxeswerecarriedbythemovers. NP1+"be"+V+by+NP2 IneverypassivesentencetherearetwonounphrasesthatarelabeledNP1andNP2.Tocreateanactivesentence: 1.Crossout"by." 2.Crossoutthe"tobe"auxiliarywhichisusually"is,""are,""was,"or"were.''(Sometimesyouwillalsohavetochangetheinflectionoftheverbform.) 3.Reversetheorderofthenounphrases. Thesentencethenbecomes:
Themoverscarriedtheboxes.
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Sometimesyouwillhavetoidentifytheactionverbthathasbeenburiedordeletedbythisweakverbconstruction.Simplyrestructurethesentencearoundthetrue activeverb.
Therewerefiveregionalrepresentativesatthemeeting. Therewerefiveregionalrepresentatives(attended)themeeting. Fiveregionalrepresentativesattendedthemeeting.
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4 AlternativeGrammars(PartII)CaseGrammar
Aswesaw,todiscusstheskeletalstructureofasentence,transformationalgrammarstillutilizesaterminologyderivedfromtraditionalgrammar(dividingthesentence into"partsofspeech"componentssuchasnoun,verb,andprepositionbelievingthatthesecomponentsprobablyrepresenthowweprocessverbalandwritten information).However,otherlinguistsbelievethattheseelementsdonotprovideanaturalmeansbywhichtounderstandhowcomponentsofasentencearerelated andcommunicateamessage.Yet,inanotherproposedalternativegrammar,casegrammar,thebaseelementsoftheutteranceprovidenotonlysyntacticinformation (onthefunctionalrelationshipsbetweentheelementsinthesentence),butalsosemanticinformation(aboutmeaning).1Challengingthepurelysyntacticmodelof transformationalgrammar,casegrammarisamodelinwhichsyntaxandsemantics(meaning)interact.Bydevelopingamodelinwhichsentencestructureandmeaning arerelated,CharlesFillmoreintendedtoprovideagrammarthatcouldaccountforhowweperceiveobjectsandideasinteractinginourworld,aswellasagrammar thatcouldbetterilluminatehowweexpressthoseperceptionsthroughlanguage.
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TheCaseGrammarModel Incasegrammar,thesentenceisfirstdividedintotwoprimaryparts:theverbtheactionofthesentenceanditsarguments.The"arguments"arethevariousnoun phrasesfoundinthesentence.Eachnounphrasehasafunction,orrole,definedintermsofitsrelationtotheverb.Verbsoftendo,infact,determinewhichnoun phraseswillbefoundinasentenceandinwhatrole.Considertheverb"strike.""Striking"isanactionwhichonlyapersonoranimatebeingcanperform.Theroleof thepersonorbeingis''agent."Thoughwehavedeterminedthattheverb"strike"requiresanagent,as"themanstrikes"illustrates,thatinformationaloneisnotenough tocreateacompletegrammaticalsentence.Theverb"strike"alsorequiresanobjectorbeingactedupon.Thebeingacteduponiscalledthe"patient."In"theman strikesthedog,""dog"isthepatient.Intraditionalgrammarwewouldsaytheverbistransitive(requiresadirectobject).Butcasegrammarprovidesmoreinformation aboutthenatureoftheobject,addressinghowtheelementsofthesentencearerelatedsemantically,andhowtheyfunctioninrelationtooneanother. Writersintimidatedby,orunfamiliarwith,traditionalgrammarmayfindthattheanalysisofnounphrasesaccordingtotheirrolesinasentenceisaneffectivemethodfor dealingwithsomeofthegrammaticalissuesintexts.Itisfairlyeasytoidentifythefunctionofeachnounphraseinasentence.Belowisalistofcommonrolesthatnoun phrasescanoccupy.2Toaidinyourunderstandingofroletypes,Ihavealsoincludedhowtheserolessometimesrelatetotraditionalpartsofspeech,aswellashow certainrolesmayrequirespecificphraseorsentencestructuresand/orparticularprepositions. CommonRolesforAnimateBeings Agent:Animatebeingwhoinstigatesanaction.Theagentisgenerallyfoundinthesubjectposition.Agentcanalsofollowtheprepositions"by"or"with,"particularlyin passivesentences.
Theprincipalorderedthestudentstoendthedemonstration PlatowastaughtbySocrates.
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Patient:Animatebeingaffectedbytheaction.Patientsarepassivebeingsactedupon.Thepatientisoftenfoundinthedirectobjectposition.Andthedirectobject positioninEnglishdoesnotrequireapreposition.
Thebabysitterfedthetoddler.
Experiencerscanappearastheobjectsofthepreposition"to."
Themusicwaspleasingtome.
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Experiencerscanalsoappearasthedirectobjectsofverbswithanin/enrefix.
Thewaterinvigoratedme.
Opponent(Malefactor):Animatebeingwhodetersonefromactsandgoals.Opponentcanbefoundinthesubjectpositionorfollowingthepreposition"by." Opponentisusedwithaverbsignifyingdeterrence.
Thegroupiewaspreventedfromenteringbythesecurityguard.
Adjuvant(Benefactor):Animatebeingwhoaidsoneinaccomplishinghisactsandgoals.Adjuvantcanbefoundinthesubjectpositionorfollowingthepreposition "by."Adjuvantisusedwithaverbsignifyinghelporaid.
Cinderella'sFairyGodmothergaveheradressandacoachtogototheball.
Possessor:Animatebeingdefinedbythefactthatithasanobject.Manygrammariansviewthepossessorasalocationinwhichanobjectisfound.Possessormaybe thesubjectofverbssuchas"have,""hold,""keep,"and"belongsto.''
ThePresidenthasmorepoliticalcloutthananyoneinAmerica.
Thepossessorcanalsobeusedasamodifier,identifiedby"'s"orfollowingthepreposition"of."
TheCPAdoestheshopkeeper'staxes. SheisthethirddaughterofthekingofEngland.
CommonRolesforInanimateObjects Force:InanimateforcethathasNOVOLITIONandthatisthecauseorperpetratoroftheresultingaction.
Page55 Thetornadodestroyedfivehouses.
Instrument:Inanimateobjectemployedtoelicittheensuingaction.(Theseareobjectsthatmustbewieldedbyanagent/animatebeing.)Instrumentoftenfollowsthe preposition"with."
ProfessorPlumdidit,withtherope,inthediningroom.
Aninstrumentcanalsooccurinthesubjectpositionwithcertainverbs.Inthiscasetheagentisimplicit.
Thecarstruckthetelephonepole.
Object:Inanimateobjectaffectedbytheactionoftheverb.Theobjectmayoccurinthedirectobjectpositionanddoesnotrequireaprepositioninthatposition.
Theflyballbrokethewindow.
Possessionsareaparticulartypeofobject,definedbytheirrelationtoanounphraseinthepossessorrole.
TheCPAdoestheshopkeeper'staxes.
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Locationcanalsobethesubjectofasentence.
Atsunset,thedockisromantic.
Source:Placeoforiginordirectionfromwhichsomethingorsomeonecomes.Sourcecanbeaplaceorananimatebeing(sender)andoftenfollowsapreposition.
Thepresentcamefromhisgrandmother.
Goal:Placeordirectioninwhichsomethingorsomeonegoes.Goalcanbeaplaceorananimatebeing(receiver).Goaloftenfollowsthepreposition"to"andisoften foundintheindirectobjectpositionifthegoalisananimateobject.
Thewaitergavethebilltohim.OR Thewaitergavehimthebill.3
Path:Routetakenbyabeingorobject.Thepathmaybeimpliedratherthandirectlystated.Itisextremelyrarethatpathwillbeusedasthesubjectofasentence. Pathisfoundwithmanycommonprepositionsincluding:"around,""by,""across,""over,""through,''"along,"and"on."
Thethiefdoubledbackthroughthealleytoescapethepolice.
Inapassivesentencetheagentismovedtoalessprominentposition,andthepatientorobjectbecomesthesubject.
ThelakewaspollutedbySigmaChemical.
Oftentimes,thewriterwillthendeletethe"byagent"phrasethen,theagentiscloaked.
Thelakewaspolluted.
Experiencedwritersoftendeliberatelyusepassivestructurestoobscureagency,tomasktheidentityofthepartyperformingtheaction.Thesestructuresarealsoused whenthewriterwantstheobjectorpatientinthe
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prominentsubjectpositionandwhentheagentisobviousorirrelevant.Asresponsiblewriters,wemustbesuretoincludetheagentwhenitisessential,anddeletethe agentandcreatepassiveproseonlyundertheappropriatecircumstances. Otherrolesmaybedeliberatelydeletediftheycanbeeasilyinferredfromthecontextofthetext.Transitiveactionverbsrequireanagent,apatientorobject,andmay takeaninstrument.Inthesentence"Shehitthebaseball,"theinstrumentisdeleted.Weassumethattheinstrumentisabat,unlessanother,lesslikelyinstrumentis specified. CaseGrammarasanEditingAid Casegrammarcanbeusedtoidentifyavarietyofsentenceproblems.Here,weshallexaminehowitcanbeusedtoidentifyandcorrectlyassignagency,aswellas howitcanhelptoremedytheproblemofobscurityresultingfromassigningmultiplerolestoasinglenounphrase. TheAgencyProblem Clarifyingagencyisamajorissueinmanyareasofwritingtoday.Whyisagencysometimesobscure?Writersmaydeliberatelymaskagencytoavoidtheissueof responsibilitythisispopularinpropagandaandadvertising.Formanyyears,therewasamovetosuppressagencyinscientificprose.Scientistsbelievedthatifthe proseconcentratedontheobjectofinquiryratherthanontheagent,theprosewouldbemoreobjective.Todaythispositionisbeingchallenged,andtheproblemsthat arisefromdisplacingagencyinscientificprosewillbeaddressedhere.Finally,welookathowtheagentisoftenabsentintheproseofinsecurewriters,particularlyif theagentis"I."Afraidtoasserttheirownauthority,thesewritersdenyagencyandendupwithproseheavilyladenwithpassivesentences.Ifwritersreintroduce agencyintotheirprose,theproblemofpassiveproseoftendisappears.Letusnowexaminevariouscaseswhereagencyhasbeendeletedanddiscusshowcase grammarcanbeusedtoanalyzeandeditsuchprose.
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Page60 mainnameless.Wecircledaboutthemagainandagainandfoundnoopeninginthethickumbrellaofcloudsthatcoveredthem.DestinychoseNagasakiastheultimatetarget.
Thesentence,"Thefinalchoicelieswithdestiny"couldberestatedas"destinymakesthechoice.""Destiny"functionsasanagent.Agencyisobscuredbythefactthat theagenthasbeendisplacedtotheendofthesentencefollowing''with."Destinyisalsotheagentinthelastsentence,"DestinychoseNagasaki."Weexpect"destiny" tooccupytheroleofforce.However,destinyisnotassignedtheroleofanonvolitionalforce,sinceitisthesubjectoftheverb"chose"thatrequiresasubjectthatisan animatebeing.Destinyisnotananimatebeing,butisrepresentedbytheauthorasanagent.Thesamethingistrueof"winds.""Winds"shouldalsooccurintheroleof force.Eventhoughthepredicateslinkedtowinds"makethedecision"and"favor"defineactionsthatrequireanimatebeingsasagents,"winds"ratherthanpeople arepresentedasagents.Responsibilityisagainobscuredtoprotecttheagentimmediatelyresponsibleforthebombingthebombersthemselves. ThenarratorofthisaccountwasamemberofthecrewthatbombedNagasaki.Byassigningwindsanddestinytherolesofagents(whetherconsciouslyornot),heis abletodenyhisculpability,claimingitwasnotmen,butgreaterforcesthatdeterminedwhichJapanesecitizenswoulddie.Suchdisplacementofresponsibilityisa usefultoolforsuchinstitutionsasthemilitary:ifagencyisdisplaced,thenthosewhocarryoutordersareunlikelytoquestioncommandsorfeelremorseabouttheir actions.Ifpeoplerealizetheyareresponsiblefortheiractions,thenperhapstheywouldnotbeabletocarryouttheirordersorlivewiththeconsequences.Obscuring agencyisapowerfulwaytodeceivethepublicaboutwhoisresponsibleforaparticularaffairtherefore,itisoftenacommoncomponentofpropagandaand brainwashing. TheObjectivityofScientificDiscourse Inscientificandtechnicalwriting,theagentisoftendeleted,andthesubjectofthestudyisusedasthesubjectofthediscourseinordertocreatetheillusionof objectivity.Frequently,thewriteremployspassive
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Sentencessuchasthesearequitecommoninscientificandtechnicalprose.Casegrammarindicatesthattheverbswhichappearinthesesentences"conclude"and "determine"requirepersonalagents.Buthere,inanimateobjectsreplaceagents,andtheresultisungrammatical,denseprose.Thewriterneedstoidentifyverbsthat requirepersonalagentsandtorewritethesentencesusingtheappropriateagents.(Anotheroptionistoreplacetheverbrequiringapersonalagentwithaverbthatcan accommodateaninanimatesubject.Theverb"indicate"canbeusedproperlywith"data.") Whenawritermakesanefforttoemphasizetheobjectoftheactionratherthantheagent,confusionoftenarisesconcerningwho'sdoingwhat.Thisisadirect consequenceoftheprofusionofpronomialforms,suchas"it"and"one,"inevitablyemployedinpassivelywrittenscientificdiscourse.Whenapassageisheavilyladen withpronomials,itmaybehardtodeterminewhateachindividualoccurrenceofthepronomialrefersto,asin"oneanalysislogicallyprecedestheother,thoughone mayalsoapplythemalternately."(Thefirst"one"referstotheanalysis,andthesecond''one"referstoaperson.)Obviously,suchswitchingbetweenagentsand objects,commonwhenpronomialsareusedextensivelythroughoutapassage,createsunnecessaryconfusion.Inmethodologyandinstructionsectionsoftechnical papers,pronomialsareoftenoverused:
(1)Benzenesolutionwaspouredintothebeaker.(2)Itwasthenplacedinadistillationapparatus.(3)Thenalcoholwasaddedtoit.
Page62 (4)Onethenshookit.(5)Themixtureseparated.(6)Thebottomlayerwasthenextracted.(7)Thatonewasplacedaside.
Inthispassage,"it"isanunclearreferent.Insentencetwo"it"referstothe"benzenesolution,"butsince"beaker"istheclosest(antecedent)noun,thereadermight expectthatthe"it''refersbacktobeaker.Thereadermustthentakeextratimetounravelthesentencesinordertoarriveatthecorrectreferent,benzenesolution.In sentencethree,"it"couldrefertoeither"apparatus"orwaybacktothebenzenesolutionthepronomialreferstoareferentwhichishardtofind.Insentencefour,"it" referstotheyetunnamed"mixture,"firstreferredtoinsentencefive.Toavoidconfusion,pronomialsshouldnotbeusedtorefertoanobjectnotalreadynamed. When"it"isusedtorefertomorethanoneobjectand/orisusedinconsistentlythroughoutanypassage,theprosebecomesdenseandconfusing.Moreimportantly, becauseoftheunclearreferencesthatresultfromusing"it"inmanyroles,aproceduremaybereproducedincorrectly,thuscallingtheresearcher'sconclusionsinto question. Intryingtoemphasizetheprocessratherthantheagent,thewriterofthepassageabovehaswritteninthepassivevoice,usingverbssuchas"waspoured"and"was placed."Insteadofnamingtheagent,shehasusedtheelusiveandnameless"one"thatresultsinstiltedprose.Inthispassage,thepronomial"one"isusedtorefertoan agentinsentencefourandtoaninanimateobject(extractedlayerorbeaker)insentenceseven.Reintroducingtheagentintotheprosewillhelp:itwillhelptoeliminate thepassiveconstructionstheagentperformingtheprocedurewillbecomeclearandtheobjectswillbefoundinthemorenaturalobjectandinstrumentrolesand positionsinthesentences.
Thestudentpouredbenzenesolutionintothebeaker.Shethenplacedthesolutioninadistillationapparatus.Sheaddedalcohol.Sheshookthemixture.Themixtureseparated intotwolayers.Sheextractedthebottomlayer.Sheplacedthebeakercontainingtheextractedlayeraside.
Thepassagestillsoundsratherstiltedbecauseitiswritteninbasic,primerstylesentencesyetthepassageiseasiertofollow,sincethe
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turntheirpassivesentencesintoactiveones,theyfinditeasiertocomeupwithmorevividandpreciseverbs.Sinceactivesentencestructuresareeasiertomanipulate, subsequentrevisionswillcreatemoreforcefulandpreciseprose.Theearlierexamplecanberevisedtoread:
Afterreviewingtheavailablearticles,Iconcludedthatthepresshadmisreportedthefacts.Thegovernmentcontrolledthefactsdisseminatedbythepress.First,government channelscensoredanystatements.Andevenaftercensoringwascompleted,agentsstillmonitoredtheprogramming.
Thepassagenowsoundsmoreassertiveandforceful,andsentencesareconstructedaroundmorepreciseandvividverbs. Danglingmodifiersareanothercommonproblem,asinthesentence:"Havingadjournedthemeeting,westoodupandleft."Mostcasesofobscurityresultfromthe factthattheagentofthedependentclauseisnotthesameastheagentofthemainclause.(Participialclausesbeginningwiththe"ing"formoftheverbseemtocreate themostproblems.)Thewritersimplyneedstoidentifywhoorwhatisperformingtheactioninthedependentclauseandtoaddthatagentbackintothedependent clause,ortorewritethesentencesotheagentisthesameinbothclauses. Aseriesofquestionscanbedevisedtohelpwritersidentifyagentsandrecognizeanddevelopappropriatesentencestructures.Thewritershouldaskhimself: 1.Whoorwhatisperformingtheaction?Thisquestionidentifiestheagent. 2.Whatobjectorpersonisactedupon?Thisidentifiesthepatientorobject. 3.Withwhatobjectwastheactionperformed?Thisidentifiestheinstrument. Suchquestionsmayalsobeusefulforanalyzinghowtoconstructproperpassiveconstructions,whentheyareindeedcalledfor.Toidentifythesubjectofapassive sentenceask"whoorwhathashadsomethingdone
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tohim/her/it?"The"who"or"what"ofthisquestionidentifiesthepatient,thesubjectofthepassivesentence.Agentisidentifiedbythequestion"bywhomwasthe actiondone?"Thewritermustthendecideiftheagentmustbeexplicitlystated,oriftheagentisanoptionalelementthatcanbedeleted.Writersmaywanttodevelop morequestionstohelpthemtoidentifywhatotherrolesnounphrasesoccupyintheirsentences.Oncerolesareproperlyidentified,thewritermayfinditeasierto revisethetext.Editingandstylisticrevisionaremucheasieriftherolesofthefundamentalelementsareexplicitorunambiguouslyimpliedintheearlydraftsofa text.Continuallyandconsciouslyapplyingthisapproachduringthewritingprocesswillmakeiteasiertoconstructclear,lucidprose.Withpractice,thisprocesswill eventuallybecomeintuitive. MultipleRoles Dense,complicatedprosealsoariseswhenasinglenounphrasetakesonmorethanonefunctionalrole.Thoughanounphrasecantakeonmorethanonefunction,all functionsmustbeclear.And,iftoomanyfunctionsareassociatedwithasinglenounphrase,theprosethenbecomesdifficulttofollow.Ifrelationsbetweennoun phrasesareinconsistentorshiftwithinashortspanoftext(suchasaparagraph)thenthereadermaybecomeconfused.7 Let'stake,forexample,apieceofphilosophicalprose,anexcerptfromHazelBarnes'explanationofSartre'sconceptsofegoandconsciousnessinherintroductionto BeingandNothingness.Philosophicalproseisinherentlydensebecauseoftheuseofmetaphysicallanguagethatisincomprehensibletomostlaypeople.Barnes' introductionisdesignedtoexplainkeyconceptstotheuninitiatedyet,herlanguageisatleastasdenseasSartre's.8Inphilosophicandacademictextssuchasthis,itis oftendifficulttodeterminetherolesandfunctionalrelationshipsofnounphrases,becausethenounsareusedmoreabstractlythaninmoreconcreteprosethatis concernedwithidentifiablerealworldobjectsandissues.Still,casegrammarmaygivesomeinsightsintohowthepassageisconstructed,revealingthatitisnotonly theunfamiliar
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termsthatmakeitdense,butthesyntacticstructuretherelationsbetweensentenceelementsaswell.
AccordingtoSartre,theEgoisnotinconsciousness,whichisutterlytranslucent,butintheworldandliketheworlditistheobjectofconsciousness.Thisisnot,ofcourse,to saythattheEgoismaterialbutonlythatitisnotasubjectwhichinsomesensemanipulatesordirectsconsciousness.Strictlyspeaking,weshouldneversay"myconsciousness" butrather"consciousnessofme."Thisstartlingviewislessextremethanitatfirstappears.Itdoesnotmeanthatconsciousnessisgeneral,auniversalpanpsyche.A consciousnessisevenatthestartparticular,fortheobjectsofwhichitisconsciousareparticularobjectsandnotthewholeuniverse.Thustheconsciousnessesoftwopersons arealwaysindividualandalwaysselfconsciousness,buttobeindividualandtobeselfconsciousdoesnotmeantobepersonal.AnotherwayofputtingitistosayEgois"on thesideofpsyche."9
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consciousnessisplacedintheroleofpatient,buttheagentmanipulatingconsciousnessisundefinedandobscure.Intheprevioussentence,consciousnesswasagent andEgowaspatient.Rolesnowappeartobereversed,thoughthisisnottheauthor'sintent.Inaddition,thenegationofroleswithnoclearstatementastothenew roleofeachtermmakestheproseconfusing.Suchsentencestructuresbegthequestions:Who(orwhat)isagentandwho(orwhat)ispatient?Ifthepassageis intendedtobecomprehensiblethereaderexpectstheanswertofollowimmediately. Sentence3:Weshouldneversay"myconsciousness"butrather"consciousnessofme." Consciousnessisdefinedasnotpossessionandasexperiencer,cognitivelyexperiencingtheself.(Thisconclusionisfurthersupportedbysentencefiveinwhich consciousnessisconsciousofobjects.)Implicitly,consciousnessmaystilloccupythepatientrolesince"theconsciousnessofme"mustbeperceivedconsciousnessis acteduponorperceivedbyanagentorexperiencer.Egothendropsoutandtheagentofthenextsentenceis"we,"thoughweisnottheagentforthepatient, consciousness. Wecanalreadydrawafewconclusionsastowhythispassageisdenseandobtuse.Therearetoomanyrolesintroducedinthefirstfewsentences,andthewriter quicklyshiftsanounphrasefromoneroletoanotherwithoutmakingtherelationshipbetweentheoldandnewroleclear.Consciousnessislocation,experiencer, agent,patient,andpossessor,allwithinthreesentences.Itisparticularlyconfusingtohaveanagentbecomeapatientwithoutaclearstatementofhowthatchange occurs.ThedefinitionofEgoisalsohardtograspformanyreasons.First,Egodropsoutoftheparagraphaftersentencetwoanddoesnotreenteruntilsentence eight,whereitsrelationtoconsciousnessisdifficulttoascertain.Itssuddenabsencemakesthepassagedifficulttocomprehend.Inaddition,thewriterdefinesEgoby whatitisnot.Mentally,weproceedbyidentifyingEgoasagentinsentencetwo,and
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then"erase"itinthisrole.Suchnegationisastandardtechniqueindefinitionbuttousenegationamongthemyriadofconfusingrelationsexpressedhere,without clearlystatingwhatEgois(ifitisnotanagent),impedescomprehension.Furthercomplicatingmattersistheintroductionof"we"asanagentinsentencethree,and "panpsyche"asagentandexperiencerinsentencefour.Bothweandpanpsycheappearonlyonceinthisparagraph,andduetotheirabruptappearances,neitheris clearlydefinedinrelationtothemainelementsconsciousnessandEgo.12Iftheyintroducematerialperipheraltothemainargument,theirappearancehereonly servestomakealreadydenseprosemoreobtuse.Suchcomplexitymakestheprosevirtuallyimpossibletofollow. Beforerevisingthefirstfewsentences,letmeemphasizethemainpointstheauthorintendstocommunicate.Consciousnessisdirective.ConsciousnesscreatesEgo whenitanalyzestheworld.ConsciousnessactsuponEgoEgocannotactuponconsciousness.Keepingthesebasicdefinitionsandrelationshipsinmind,thefirstfew sentencesoftheparagraphcanberevisedsothatrolesarepresentedclearly,andsothatthenumberandtypeofrolerelationsestablishedbetweenvariousnoun phrasesdonotoverwhelmandconfusethereader: 1)BoththeworldandtheEgoareobjectsofconsciousness.2)Egoexistsintheworld.3)ButEgoisnotmaterialasisthetangibleworld.4)Egodoesnot directconsciousnessratherconsciousnesscreatesEgo.5)Consciousnessisnotsomethingwepossessratheritisanessentialelementoftheself.6) Thereforeweshouldneversay"myconsciousness,"but"consciousnessofme." Roles: 1.EgoandWorldarepresentedaspatients(orobjects)oftheagent,consciousness. 2.Egoisobject.Worldislocation. 3.Egoisnottangibleliketheworld.(Simplesentencessuchastwoandthreecouldbecombinedintoonecomplexsentence:"WhileEgoexistsintheworld,itisnot materialasisthetangibleworld."Andinturn,complexsentencescanbebrokendownintosimplesentencesforanalysisaccordingtocasegrammar.)
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4.Egoisstillapatient/objectofconsciousnessandtheintangibilityofEgoisreinforced. 5.Consciousnessisexperiencer(andasnotpossession,clearlydefinedasnotbelongingto"we,"thenotpossessor). 6.Theroleofconsciousness,asinsentencefour,isreinforced. Inthepassageabove,casegrammarhelpedtoelucidatehowthepassageshouldberevisedandilluminateswhytherevisionismoreintelligible.Thepassageiseasier tofollow,sincethenumberofdifferentrolerelationshipshasbeenreduced.Notehowmucheasieritistodeducetherelationshipsbetweennounphrases.Forthe mostpart,eachelementisassignedonerolepersentence,andtherelationshipsbetweennounphrasesareclearlyexpressed.Egoispresentedconsistentlyasan (intangible)objectorpatientacteduponbytheagentconsciousness.Consciousnessisexperiencerandagent.Theelementsoftheargumentareclearlypresented,and thepassageismorelucidlydeveloped.(TocontinuewiththerewritewouldrequirechangesthatwouldcontinuetoexploretherelationshipbetweenEgoand consciousnesscentraltotheargumenttherefore,Egocouldnotabruptlydropoutandsuddenlyreappearlaterintheparagraphasitdoesintheoriginaltext.In addition,aconcreteanalogymightalsohelpthereadertocomprehendthesehighlyabstracttermsandrelationships.)Therevisionislongerthantherewrite,sothatthe functionsofnounphrasesandrelationshipsbetweenthemarepresentedunambiguously.Whiletheexpert'sphilosophicalknowledgeisstillneededtoensurethatthe materialispresentedcorrectly,casegrammarhelpstoensurethatthecontextualmaterialispresentedintheclearestmannerpossibleandevenhelpsthelayreaderto understandwhatthepassagesays. Oneusefulruleforthewritertofollow,suggestedbythisgrammar,istolimittheroleofeachmainnounphrasetoonepersentence(twoatmostifyouareexpressing achangeintheelementorcomparingittosomethingelse).13Thenumberofrelationsbetweenelementsinaparagraph,suchasagentpatient,possessorpossessed, shouldalsobelimitedthegreaterthenumberofrelationships,thegreaterthepotentialforobscurityandmiscommunication.
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Cause:Aspecifictypeofagencythatcanbeaforce,animatebeing,inanimateobject,orstate.Thecauseisdeterminedtobenecessaryiftheactionistooccur.This roleisoftenfoundwithchangeofstateverbs.
Snowforcedtheclosureofthemountainpasses.
Quality:State,facet,orelementofanobjectorbeing.Qualityiscommonlyfoundwithstateofbeingverbssuchas"has"and"is."
Theexamisdifficult.
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bestdoneduringtherevisionprocessatthattime,thewritercanidentifyandcorrectanysentencesthatareobtuseordifficulttofollow. Thegreatestobstacletoapplyingcasegrammaristhatitrequiresawritertohaveagoodworkingknowledgeofthetopicathand.Obviously,thisisagreaterproblem forbeginningwriters.Indiscourseonabstractorconceptualideas,therolesbecomemuchhardertoidentify,andhereexpertiseonthetopicisoftennecessaryin ordertoassigntheproperrolestothenounphrases.Butifwriterskeeptheneedforlucidproseandclearlydefinedrolesandrolerelationsinmind,theywillproduce prosethatismoreintelligible.Evenexpertsreadingatextintheirfieldappreciatemorelucidprose,asitrequireslessoftheirtimeandefforttoreadandcomprehend. Certaincomponentsofsentencestructurearenotilluminatedbycasegrammar.Itdoesnotaddressallthecomponentsofthepredicate,suchastenseandaspect.Nor doesithelptodistinguishbetweenelementsthatgiverisetodifferentsentencetypes,suchascommandsandquestions,thoughitcanhelptoilluminatethedifference betweenrelatedsentencestructuresactiveandpassive.Butthechoiceofwhichstructuretouseisstillthewriter'scasegrammarwillnotdictatewhichstructureis better.Thisdependsontheauthor'sintent.Indeed,therearetimeswhentheagentisimplicitandneednotappearinthesurfacestructurethenthewritermaychoosea passivesentencestructurethatfocusesontheobjectoftheaction.Nogrammarcandealwiththeauthor'sintent.Intentmustbediscussedintermsofthepragmatics, aswellasthesocialandinterpersonalaspectsofthecommunicationsituation. Whilecasegrammarmayhelpthewritertoclarifyandcontroltherelationshipsbetweenelements,itwillnotspecifytheorderinwhichtheseelementsshouldbe presented.Casegrammarcannotaidusindecisionsabouthowtodevelopandorganizetexts.But,byusingroleanalysisinconjunctionwithtechniquespresentedin thenextchapterthatfacilitatecoherence,wecancreatesuperiorqualityprose. Applications 1.Assumethatthefollowingpassageispartofareportsubmittedtoyoubyajuniormemberofyourfirm.Outlinehowyouwoulddirect
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thewritertoimprovethepassage,makinguseofChomsky'stransformationalgrammar.Whatpatternproblemwouldyouteachhimtorecognize,andhowcouldyou teachhimtocorrectit? Themanualwaswrittenbythecompany'stechnicalwriter.Theeditingthatnowneedstobedoneshouldbesupervisedbyatechnicalwriter.Approvalofthe finaldocumentmustthenbegivenbythemarketingteam. 2.Assignrolestotheitalicizedwordsinthispassage.Whatdoesthisassignmentofrolestellyouabouthowtheauthortreatshiscontextualmaterial? NowthatIknowaboutthesituation,Icanfindallkindsofthingstoworryabout.Viruses,forexample.Ifmyorganellesarereallysymbioticbacteria, colonizingme,what'stopreventthemfromcatchingavirus,oriftheyhavesuchathingaslysogeny,fromconveyingaphagetootherorganelles?(FromLewis Thomas'"OrganellesasOrganisms")16 3.Hereisanexampleofineffectiveprose.Discusshowyoucouldusecasegrammartoadvisethewritertoreviseherresumecoverletter. ToWhomItMayConcern: ThisletterisrespondingtoyouradvertisementforatheParalegalposition.Theadvertisementstatedthattheentrylevelpositionsoughtaparalegaltoreview andorganizedocuments. Fouryearsofexperienceasaparalegalmakesmequalifiedforthisposition.Ihaveresearchedforvariousemployersandorganizationsmanylegalissues.My experiencedemonstratesanabilitytoresearchandorganizecomplexdata. Thankyouforyourconsideration.Ihopethepositioncanbediscussedbyusinthenearfuture.
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5 AnalyzingandImprovingCoherence
Whenweareconfrontedwithwritingorreadingatext,weareconcernedwithbothtextualcoherenceandtextualcohesion.Atextthatiscoherentiseasierto comprehendandisprocessedmoreeffectively.Ifthetextisalsohighlycohesive,itwillbeprocessedevenmoreefficiently.Coherencereferstoestablishinglogical connectionsbetweentheideasandconceptspresented.Cohesioniscreatedbyusingstructuralfeaturesofsentences(suchasrepetitionandellipses)andcohesive devices(suchasconjunctionsandcoordinatingandsubordinatingadverbs)toincreasethespeedatwhichwecanreadandprocesstext.Cohesivedeviceshighlight theconnectionsbetweensentences,ratherthanbetweenideas.Coherencetakesprecedenceifideasarenotcoherent,thereisnotext.Thischapterisdevotedtoan explorationofmethodsforanalyzingandimprovingtextualcoherence. MethodsForImprovingCoherence Anymethodforexaminingandimprovingtextualcoherencemusttakeintoaccountwhatisexplicitlystated,aswellastheunderlyingassump
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tionsandimplicationsthatholdideastogethertherearenosimpletechniquesthatcanbemechanicallyappliednosoftwareprogramswhichcheckstylethatcan actuallyanalyzewhetherideasandconceptsconnect.Andhereinliesthedifficultyinanalyzingtextualcoherenceoftenthewriterwillseeimplicitconnectionsbetween theideasbeingpresented,whilethereadersfeelthatthetextlackscoherenceandthatmoreexplicitconnectionsneedtobemade.Howdowedeterminewhatneeds tobeexplicitlystatedinatext?Nohardandfastrulesthatwecanlearnascommunicatorswilldictatewhatneedstobeexplicitlystatedinatext.Agoodamountof thedecisionmakingwedowhenwewriteandreadcoherenttextsisintuitiveorunconscious.Wedonothavetostopandconsciouslyconsiderifwhatwehavejust saidorreadisconnectedtotheprecedingidea.Yet,whilethereisstillmuchtolearnabouthowweactuallyprocesstexts,ifimprovingcoherenceisourgoal,wecan limitourdiscussiontomethodsfordeterminingwhereabreakincoherenceoccursandforrepairingsuchdisjunctions.Inparticular,weshallexploretheefficacyofthe givennewcontractandChristensen'srhetoric. Idonotadvocateusingthemethodsthatwewillbediscussingtowritetexts.Theyaremethodstobeusedduringrevisingandediting.Whileworkingonafirstdraft,a writershouldallowideastoflowfreely.Concentratingoncoherencemakingsurethateachsentencelogicallyconnectstotheprecedingonecancauseawriterto forgetessentialpointsandstifleideasandconnectionswhichwouldnaturallyoccur.Consciousattentiontocoherenceshouldbeanissueofrevision.Havingsufficiently developedatopicduringtherevisionprocess,thewritercanthenreorganize,tighten,andfurtherdeveloptheprosesothattheideasarepresentedinacoherent manner.Whilewetendtothinkinlogicalandcoherentpatterns,sometimeswhatweactuallywriteonapagemayreflectourownidiosyncraticwayofenvisioningan idea.Thetextmayincludematerialthatwewouldconsiderobtuse,irrelevant,ordigressive,ifwelookedatthetextdispassionatelyandobjectively.Inaddition,the pen,whichmovesslowerthanthemind,sometimesfailstorecordafleetingthoughtthatmaybeworthincluding.Thus,wemayhavetoexpand,reorganize,tighten, and/ordevelopideasmorefully,inordertomakeatextthatmayseemcoherenttous,coherenttothereader.
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TheGivenNewContract Thegivennewcontracthasbecomeapopulartoolusedbywriterstocheckforandtoimprovethecoherenceoftheirtexts.Ofthemethodsweareabouttodiscuss, itistheonewithwhichyoumayalreadybefamiliar.Thegivennewapproachassureslinear,notglobal.coherence.Inotherwords,itguaranteesthateachsentence connectstothenext,butitcannotguaranteethattheoverallparagraphoressaymakessense.Givennewcannottellusifthetopicormainideaofoneparagraph connectslogicallytothenext,orifalltheideasdevelopedindependentlyinparagraphsactuallymakesenseasawholeessay.(Theissueofglobalcoherencewillbe dealtwithinchapter7.) Thegivennewformulaworksonthepremisethateverysentencecontainssomematerialthatwillbefamiliartothereader,"given,"andsomematerialthatisunfamiliar, "new."Mostoftenthegivenisfoundatthebeginningofthesentence,followedbythenew.Thenewinformationofasentenceoftenbecomesthegivenofthe subsequentsentencethus,newinformationisincrementallyaddedwitheachensuingsentence.1Thegivenpartofthesentenceissaidtobespeakerorientedthe speakerannounceswhatheisconcernedwith.Subsequentreferencestogivenmaterial(includingnewmaterialthatwillbecomegiveninsubsequentsentences)canbe madebysimplerepetition,usingpronouns(suchas"this,""it,''"they")orsynonyms.Thiscreatesvarietywhilestillrecallingsomegiveninformation,therebymakingit easiertoacquireandprocessmorenewinformationaswecontinuetoread. Giveninformationisinformationthatisrecoverablebecauseithasbeenreferredtoexplicitlyintheprecedingdiscourseorthatiseasilyinferred
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namingpreviouslygivenmaterialinanewway("do"referringtoapreviousaction)theseareallinstancesofusingwordsofrelatedmeaning.Thomasalsomakesuse ofimplicitgivens.Heexpectsthereadertorecognizeandprocessclausessuchas"noreallossofauthorityinthis,sinceyougettodecidewhethertodothething"as impliedbypreviouscontext,aspreviouslygiven. Therearemanycasesinwhichanimplicitgivenisatwork.Takeforexamplethepreparationinstructionsonthebackofacanofsoup."Preparation:Emptycaninto pan.Add1cupwater.Heatatmediumtemperatureuntilwarm."Thoughtherearenoexplicitgivenshere,theinstructionsarecomprehensiblefortworeasons.Implicit intheinstructionsarethesubjectoragent"you"andtheobject"soup"whichconnectallthesentences.Iftherewereaneedtobemoreexplicit,theinstructionscould berestated:"Youemptythecanofsoupintoapan.ThenyouaddIcupofwatertothesoup.Thenyouheatthesoupatamediumtemperatureuntilwarm."Butsuch explicitnessisunnecessary.Inaddition,becausewhenweseetheinstructionsonthelabelwereadthemasinstructionsforcooking''preparation"or"recipe."Afirst wordortitle,suchaspreparationorrecipe,establishesacoherentfocusfortheinformationthatfollows.Titlesandheadingsoftenworktoestablishoveralltextual coherenceoraframeworkthathelpstoestablisha(global)givenorfocusthatthenconnectsthesubsequentdiscourse. Usedresponsibly,thegivennewformulacanbehelpfulinidentifyingsentencesintextsthatcreateproblemsforcoherence,especiallyifwetakeintoaccountimplied givenmaterialaswellasovertlystatedgivenmaterial.Aswehavediscussed,oneofthebiggestproblemsinusingthegivennewcontractisdealingwithimplicit information.Textsinherentlyhavediscontinuitiesthatarefilledinthroughinferencing.Whenweactuallyemploythegivennewformula,weshouldtakeintoaccount impliedgivensbyconsideringwhethertheaudiencewillbeabletocorrectlyinfertheimpliedgiven.Inanycase,thegivennewcontractshouldneverbeusedaloneas acheckforcoherence.Coherencemustbemaintainedgloballyaswellaslocally,andmanagingglobalcoherencerequiresothertechniques(asdiscussedinchapter7) inadditiontolocalcoherencecheckssuchasthegivennewcontract.
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Christensen'sRhetoricoftheParagraph FrancisChristensendevelopedagenerativerhetoricofthesentenceandparagraphtoteachstudentstogenerateandwritecumulativesentencesandtighter paragraphs.7Christensenintendedthismethodtobeusedduringtheinitialstagesofwriting,butratherthanhavingpeoplewriteparagraphsasprescribedbyany methodology,Iencouragewriterstousehismethodintheeditingstage,tocheckparagraphstheyhavewrittenandmayneedtorevise,andtolookforweaknessesin coherence.Wewill,therefore,adapttherhetoricoftheparagraphsothatitcanbeusedtoedit,check,andimprovecohesionwithinparagraphs. Christensen'srhetoricresemblesthegivennewcontractinthatbothfocusattentiononlocalcoherence,byanalyzingtherelationshipsbetweensentencesthatarenext tooneanotherneitherdealswiththeoverall,globalstructureoftheessayortext.Christensenrefinesthenotionofaparagraphasmovingfromgeneraltospecific, insteaddefiningthemovementoftheparagraphastowardmoreconcrete,specific,qualifyingstatements.Ingeneral,eachadditionalsentenceisaddedatalowerlevel ofgenerality.Therearesomeexceptions.Anadditionalsentencemaybeathigherlevelthanthepreviousone(calledsuperordinate),especiallyifitisthelastsentence ofaparagraphthatsummarizesorconcludestheparagraph,orifitisatransitionsentencethatpreparesthereaderforthesubjectofthenextparagraph.Still,in general,thedevelopmentofaparagraphisfromgeneral,abstractstatementsaboutanideatospecificqualificationofthatidea.Themoresentencesawriteraddstoa paragraph,themoretheideaisdevelopedandthegreaterthe"texture"or"depth"ofthoughtexhibitedintheparagraph. Inmostcases,theparagraphbeginswiththetopicsentence.Therearetwonotableexceptions:l)Thetopicsentencecanappearinthedirectlyprecedingparagraph, andattimes,theentireprecedingparagraphmayactasatopic"sentence"fortheparagraphthatfollowsitand2)atopicsentencecanalsobeimpliedratherthan explicit.Inadditiontotopicsentences,paragraphsarecomposedoftwotypesofsentences,coordinatingsentencesandsubordinatingsentences.Coordinating sentencesemphasizethe"sameness"ofideastheideasare
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1Butitisalsotruethatthefashionswearespeakingabouthavechangedseveraltimessince1911 1weknowthatduringthe1920s,womenwerebindingtheirbreastsandbobbingtheirhairandhopingtolooklikeboys 1andwerememberthatin1960MarilynMonroe,whenshemadethefilmSomeLikeItHot,wasstillpermittedtobeaslargeasawomaninadrawingby ModersohnBecker. 2Wewhofellinlovewithherthenandyearnedasgrowinggirlstolooklikeher,seeingthisfilmnow,andthesizeofthewomanwhowasourheroine,must marvelatwhathashappenedtoourveryperceptionofbeauty. (SubordinatemorespecificaboutMonroeanddependentupontheintroductionofMonroeasatopic) 3ForMonroe,ifshewerealivenow,andstillasgrandandvoluptuousasshewasthen,wouldtodaynodoubtbeconsideredfat. (Subordinatespecifyinghowperceptionofbeautyhaschanged) 2Itisunlikelythattodaysomeoneseeingherforthefirsttimewouldbetakenwithjealousybecauseoftheabundanceinherbody,thewaySusanStrasbergwas, thefirsttimeshesawher. (Paralleltolevelof2above:agenericgroupwatchingMonroe) 3"Wearetalkingafterthescene,"saysStrasberg,"whensuddenlyastreamofenergyvitalizedthestage. (Subordinatemorespecificactionanddefinedspeaker) 4HeadsbegantoturnandpeoplestaredasMarilynMonroeundulatedacrosstheroominadresssofittedshecouldbarelymove. (Subordinatespecifiesactiononstage) 5Iwasinstantlyjealousofher,her'zaftig'body,herblondeness,theeasewithwhichshecommandedattention." (Subordinatemorespecificdescriptionofaction"we"narrowsto"I") from"TheBoutique,"KimChernin9
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1Ageyserisaspecialkindofhotspringthatfromtimetotimespurtswateraboveground. 2Itdiffersfrommosthotspringsinhavingperiodiceruptionsseparatedbyintervalswithoutflowofwater. ?Thetemperatureoftheeruptingwaterisgenerallyneartheboilingpointforpurewater(212For100Catsealevel). 3Somegeyserseruptlessthanafootandafewerupttomorethan150feet. 3Somesmallgeyserserupteveryminuteorso,butothersareinactiveformonthsorevenyearsbetweeneruptions. 3Contrarytopopularopinion,mostgeysersareveryirregularintheirbehaviour,andeachisdifferentinsomerespectsfromallothers. ?Amongthemajorgeysers,onlyafew,suchasOldFaithfulinYellowstoneNationalPark,arepredictableenoughtosatisfyanimpatienttourist. (subordinatetoprecedingsentence)ButevenforOldFaithfultheintervalbetweeneruptionsvariesfromabout30to90minutes,withanaverageofabout65 minutes. Thisparagraph,too,ismadeupofbothcoordinatingandsubordinatingsentences.Sentencesfourandfivewhicharebothlevelthreeareobviouslycoordinating becauseoftherepetitionofsentencestructureinaddition,Iwouldincludesentencesixatthesamelevelbecauseitisanothersentencethattalksaboutthebehaviorof somegeysers.Allthreesentencesaresubordinatetosentencetwowhichisleveltwo.Sentencetwodistinguishesbetweengeysersandhotsprings,andsentence fourfurtherdefinesperiodiceruptionsthuswehaveidentifiedasubordinatingstructureherebasedonqualifyingstatements.Butwhatofsentencethree?Asitis written,itdiscussesthetemperatureoferuptingwateranddoesnotdevelopfurtheranyoftheconceptsinsentenceoneortwo.Thistellsusthatsentencethreethe levelofwhichisunassign
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ableasitiswrittenandplacedintheparagraphdisturbsthecoherenceoftheparagraph.Thereadermustinferthatthewriteristalkingaboutgeyserwaterstill,the materialistoospecificatthispointintheparagraph,sincethefollowingsentencereturnstoadiscussionofhowgeysersbehave.Talkingaboutthetemperatureof geyserwatertransportsthereadertoamuchlowerlevelofgeneralitythantherestoftheparagraph.Thelasttwosentencesalsocreateaproblem.Sincethewriter hasbeendiscussingwhatgeysersareandhowtheybehave,atwhatleveldoesreferencetoatouristattractionfit?Itdoesnotfitdirectlyaboveorbelowthelevelof theprecedingsentence.Ratherthanasmoothtransitionfromonelevelofgeneralitytothenext,levelsofgeneralityhavebeenskipped,signalingabreakincoherent development.Thelastsentenceissubordinatetotheonedirectlybeforeit,butthesetwosentencesdisturbthecoherenceoftheparagraphandbelonginanother, separateparagraph. IndoingaChristensenanalysis,itislessimportantthatyouassignlevelscorrectly,thanthatyounoticewhenasentenceisnotatthesamelevelorthenextlevelof generality,sincethissignalsacoherenceproblem.Aleapinlevelsofgeneralityprovidesevidencethattheparagraphisnotcoherentlystructured.Suchaleapcreatesa largegapordiscontinuitythatthereadermustfillinthroughinferencingifthegapisgreatenoughthatoneormorelevelsofgeneralityareskipped,thentheinferencing requiredmayovertaxthereader. Developmentproblemsalsooccurifaparagraphisexclusivelycomposedofeithersubordinatingorcoordinatingsentences.Ifaparagraphcontainsonlysubordinating sentences,theprimaryfocusmaybeunclearbecausenospecialemphasishasbeenusedtoidentifythetheme.(Suchemphasiscanbeachievedbyrephrasingthemain idea,orbyusingcoordinatesentencestohighlightthethemeoftheparagraph.)Forexample:
RapidgrowthanddevelopmentarebecomingtheruleratherthantheexceptioninWyomingasresourceextractiveindustriesbecomemoreimportanttothestate'seconomy. Rap
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Furtherimprovementscouldbemadebyaddingmorecoordinatestructuretotheparagraphsandmovingorrewritingthesecondtolastsentence.
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Wemayalsofindthatparagraphsthatareprimarilycoordinating,thatmaintainthesamelevelofgeneralityfortoolongastretch,alsoimpedeprocessing,sincethe topicisnotreallybeingdeveloped.Forexample:
Withthenew,revolutionaryJackSpratfatburningdietpillyouwilllosemoreweight,faster,thanyoueverhaveonanyotherdiet.Itisarevolutionarydietaid,becausewiththe JackSpratdietpillyouactuallyburnfat.TheJackSpratdietpillgivesfastresults.Yourweightlosswillbegreaterthananyotheryouhaveeverexperiencedusinganyotherdiet aid.
Thisparagraphistotallycoordinating.Eachsentence,afterthefirst,simplyrestatestheinformationinthefirstsentence,eitherbychangingwordorderorbyusing synonyms.Afterthefirstsentence,theparagraphbasicallysaysnothing.Thiskindofwritingisoftencalleddoubletalk,particularlywhenallthematerialispresentedin vaguegeneralities.Theadisaformofwrittengymnasticsthatsimplyrestatesthefirstgeneralstatement.Thistypeofwritingiscommonbothinadvertisingandinthe politicalarenaitis,infact,aformofpropaganda. Thebestruleofthumbfordevelopingagoodcoherentparagraphthatwecanderivefromtheprecedingmethodsis:mainideasneedtobesupportedbyboth coordinatingandsubordinatingsentences.Coordinatingsentenceswillhighlightanddrawattentiontothemainpoint,whilesubordinatingsentenceswilldevelop, elaborate,orqualifytheidea.Ifaparagraphdependssolelyononestructureoranotherorthepatterncontinuesoverthreeorfoursentences(i.e.,122222or1 2345)communicationmaybeimpededthereaderwilleithergetlostbecausethereisnodevelopmentoftheconceptorbecausethereissomuchelaborationthat majorpointsbeingmadedonotstandoutfromthedetails. ExpandingUnderdevelopedParagraphs Onceyouunderstandtherhetoricoftheparagraphandunderstandthedifferencebetweensubordinatingandcoordinatingsentences(whichis
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bestdonebyfirstanalyzingwellwrittenparagraphs),youcanusethistechniquetoedityourowntexts.
12
Atonetimeoranother,mostofushavebeentoldtoexpanduponourideasortodevelopourparagraphs,butourcriticsusuallyfailtoprovidepracticaladviceon howtodoso.Ifyouknowhowtousecoordinatingandsubordinatingsentences,youcaneasilyreworkandexpandavagueparagraph.Youmightconsiderhowyou couldusecoordinatingandsubordinatingsentencestodevelopyourparagraphfurther: Addcoordinatingsentences: 1Comparetheideapresentedtoasimilarnotion. 2.Contrastyourideawithanideayoufeelmaybearsomeresemblancetoyours,butwhichisreallydifferent. 3Restateyourideainanotherwaytoemphasizewhatyousaid. Addsubordinatesentences: 1Giveanexample. 2.Statemorespecificallywhatyoumeant,usingmorevivid,precisenounsandverbs.(Forexample,specificallynamewhoisinvolvedandwhatheisdoing.) 3.Giveareasonforwhatyouhavejustsaid. 4.Telltheresultsoftheactionjustdescribed. 5.Discusswhatcausedtheactiontooccur. 6.Discusstheconditionssurroundingtheactiontakingplace.13 Theseconcretesuggestionsshouldhelpyoutoexpandvagueparagraphs.
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a.Doagivennewanalysisofthefourthparagraph.Discusstheusefulnessofemployingthisapproachtothistext.
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b.CanChristensen'srhetoricbeappliedtoparagraphsthreeandfour?Whyorwhynot?Andwhatdoesthattellyou? c.Whatisthebiggestoversightorlimitationofthesetwoapproachesintermsofdealingwiththisparticulartext?
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6 AchievingCohesion
Cohesionandcoherencearethetwoelementsnecessaryforproducingacommunicabletext.Cohesionreferstothesurfacetextdevicesthatsignalconnectionsina text.Thesedevices,suchasconjunctions,subordinatingadverbs,andpronouns,donotnecessarilyhavetobeusedtoproduceatextthatmakessense,nordoestheir appearanceguaranteethatatextwillbecoherent.Take,forexample,thefollowingmemo:
Theimportantmessagesareverysimple,butmostofusdon'tevenstartfiguringthemoutuntilwe'repast40.Forexample...painandtimearegreatteachersthereismoretolife thanincreasingitsspeedsometimeswemovesofastafterquantity,thatweforgetaboutquality.Another,ifatfirstyoudon'tsucceed,youarerunningaboutaverage.Often,we setupsomanyexpectationsforourselvesthatwedeclareourselvesfailuresbeforeevenstarting.Next,yourgrowthandwisdomcanbedirectlygaugedbythedropinyourill temper.Therearealotofgrouchesouttherewhoareimpatientandcriticalandpessimistic. Anonymous
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Everysentenceafterthefirstbeginswithatransitional,cohesivedeviceyet,theideasareunconnected.However,whenusedinconjunctionwithcoherentideas,these deviceswillhelptomaketextcomprehensionproceedmoreefficiently.Cohesivedevicesfacilitatetextprocessingbyrhetoricallysignalingtherelationshipsbetween conceptsinthetext,highlightingtheconnectionsforthereaderandmakingtheconnectionsmoreverballyexplicit. Cohesionisthelinking,notofideas,butofsentences.Whatthismeansisthatcohesionmakestextualconnectionsexplicittoalistenerorreader.Ideascanbe coherentwithoutbeingcohesive.1Butifwewishtocommunicateourideastosomeoneelse,wemustconsiderhowbesttomakethetextcomprehensiblewemust considercohesion. Theelementsthatestablishcohesionarerecognizedbytheircontributiontothestructureofsentencesratherthantothemeaningofthesentences.Forexample, conjunctionsandadverbialssuchas"but,""rather,"and"instead"indicatethatthetwostatementspresentedaretobecontrasted,buttheconjunctionsdonottellus anythingabouttheideaspresentedinthestatements.Proformsarealsocohesivedevicespronounssuchas"he,''"she,"and"it"substitutefornounsandcanrefer backtotheantecedent(thenounthatcameearlierandthathasbeenreplaced).Therefore,theyfunctionasabbreviatedreferencestoantecedents,streamliningthe text.Take,forexample,"Theczarwastoldtostepdown.TheczarwastoldthePartywouldassumepower."Thesestatementscanbestreamlinedusingapronoun: "Theczarwastoldtostepdown.HewastoldthePartywouldassumepower."Additionalcohesivedevices,suchasellipsis,canbeusedtohighlighttherelationship betweentheideasandfurtherstreamlinethetext:"Theczarwastoldtostepdown,sothatthePartycouldassumepower."Usingellipsiseliminatestheredundant phrase,andtheadverbial"sothat"highlightsthecausalrelationship.Notetheoriginaltwosentencessaythesamething,butthesinglecompoundsentenceismore efficientandsoundsmorepleasingtotheear. Textualcontinuityisimprovedbyusingcohesivewordsandphrasestomaketherelationshipsbetweentheideasbeingpresentedmoreexplicit.Astudyofcohesion emphasizesthesyntaxofsentences
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andindicateshowcohesivedevicescanbeusedtomakeatextmorecompact,sothatthetextiseasiertocomprehend.Wewilldiscussfivemajorcohesiondevices: lexicalcohesion,reference,substitution,ellipsis,andjunction.2 LexicalCohesion Lexicalcohesioniscohesionresultingfromtheselectiveuseofvocabulary.Repeatingatermisonewayofcreatingcohesion.Ratherthanrepeatingthesameterm overandover,sothatthetextbeginstosoundredundant,wecancreatelexicalcohesionbyusinganotherwordtorefertothatsameitem.Therearethreeprimary techniquesofachievinglexicalcohesion:repetition,synonymity,andgeneralization.Thesetechniquesaccountformuchoftheresultinglexicalvarietyofatext. Repetition Thefirsttechniqueforachievinglexicalcohesion,repetition,issimplytherepeateduseofthesamewordorphrase.Forexample,Ihavealreadyusedthephrase "lexicalcohesion"fourtimesinthissectionthatissimplerepetition.Repetitionhelpstocognitivelyreinforcekeyideasandnewterms.Thedangerofoverusing repetitionisthatitoftenresultsinatextwhichdronesoninamonotone.Forexample,
Criticsareoftencalledtheartists'parasites.Criticsmaketheirlivingtellingotherpeoplewhattheyshouldlike.Criticsdonotjudgeartbysomeobjectivecriteria.Criticsconsider whatappealstothemtobegoodart.Criticscallwhatdoesn'tappealtothembadart.
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givencontext.Icannotstresshowimportant"inthegivencontext"is.Ifyougotothethesaurustofindmoreimpressivesoundingsynonymstoplugintoyouratext,the textmaybereturnedtoyouwiththoseverywordsthatyouselectedfromthethesauruscircledand/ormarked"wrongword"or"errorinusage,"becauseyouhave usedthesynonymsincorrectly.Whatyoumaynotrealizeisthatmeaningiscontextdependentwordsaresynonymsonlyincertainsituations.Forexample,"She answeredthequestion"and''Sherebuttedthequestion"donotmeanthesamething,eventhough"rebut"islistedasasynonymfor"answer"inathesaurus.In addition,asynonymmayrequireadifferentsentencestructurethantheoriginalword.In"ThesenatorurgedCongresstopassthebill"and"Thesenatorcalledfor Congresstopassthebill,"thesecondsentencerequirestheadditionofthepreposition"for."("For"wouldactuallybecalledaparticleinthisinstance.)"Thepackage arrived"containsanintransitiveverb"thepackagereachedus"containsatransitiveverbthatrequiresadirectobject. Generalization Thelasttechniqueforachievinglexicalcohesioninvolvesclimbingtheladderofgeneralization.Take,forexample,theword"aspirin."Ifweconsiderthetermsthat couldrefertoaspirinfromthemostspecifictotheleast,wemightconstructaprogressionlikethis:
aspirinpainrelieverdrugstufforthing
Wecanrefertoanitembyaclassorgrouptowhichitbelongs(suchaspainrelieverordruginthecaseofaspirin).Wecanalsorefertoanitembyabstractgeneric termswhichsimplydistinguishbetweenpeople,animals,objects,facts,andthelike,suchas:
people,human(being),person animal,creature,(nonhuman)animatebeing thing,object,stuff idea,concept,fact
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Thefurtheruptheladderofgeneralizationthewritergoesforasubstitutenameorword,thelessspecificthelanguageofthetextwillbe,resultinginagreaterchance thatthereaderwillmisreadormisinterpretthetext.Abstractwords,highuptheladder,canrefertonumerousitems.Theydonotevokespecificvisualorconcrete imagesandareharderforareadertocomprehend.Consequently,thesegenerictermscreateweak,lifelessproseandshouldbeusedsparingly.Toavoidconfusion whensuchtermsareused,thereferent(thespecificwordwhichisbeingreferredto)mustbeclear.Inliteraryprose,writersmayexploittheladderofgeneralization, startinghighupwithavaguetermandthenworkingtowardthemorespecificnamingoftheitemtocreateadramaticeffectsuchassuspense.(Seetheexampleof cataphorainthefollowingsection.) Reference Theprimarydeviceofreferencecohesionistheproform.Mostcommonly,proformsareusedtoreferbacktoapreviouslymentioneditem.Proformskeepthe meaningofthepreviouslyreferredtoobjectactive,whileusingashorthandformtorecalltheobject.Wearemostfamiliarwiththepronounformofanaphora (referringback),asinthefollowingexample:"Thedoggotinthegarbage.Hegotsickfromeatingthestalebread."Inthiscase"he"refersbackto"dog." Apronouncanalsoprecedetheobjecttowhichitrefers.Suchreferringaheadiscalledcataphora.Cataphoraisusedfordramaticeffect.Itcreatessuspenseand keepsthereaderwaiting,thusslowingcomprehension.Cataphoraiscommonlyusedinliteraryprose,asin:"Itcreepsslowlyupthestairs,inthedeadofnight.It slowlypushesthedooropen.Dothosebeadyeyesbelongtoaprowler?No,theybelongtothefamilydog."(Thisexamplealsoillustrateshowtoexploittheladderof generalizationforeffect.) Therearemanykindsofpronouns:personalpronounssuchas"I,""we,""you,"and"she,"relativepronounssuchas"that"and"which,"anddemonstrativepronouns suchas"this,""these,"and"that"whichpointto,orindicatetheproximityof,thethingbeingreferredto."This"
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and"these"refertothingsthatthespeakerconsidersnearinspaceortime,"those"and"that"tothingswhicharefurtheraway.("That''canactuallyfunctionaseithera relativeorademonstrativepronoun.)Aspeakerwilloftenuse"this"or"these"torefertosomethingjustspokenaboutand"those"or"that"torefertosomething someoneelsehasmentioned.Aspeakermayalsosignalherpsychologicaldislikeordetachmentfromtheobjectbytheuseofadistancingdemonstrative.Takethe angrymotherwhosaystoherhusband,"Iwishyou'dhaveatalkwiththatsonofyours."Thechoiceof"that"ratherthan"my"or"our"reflectsthemother'sdisdainor disapproval.Articlesarealsodemonstratives:"the"indicatesapersonorobjectthatthelistenerorreaderhasalreadybeenintroducedtoandwillrecognize,whereas "a"or"an"indicatesanunspecifiedorunfamiliarpersonorobject."Thehat"versus"ahat"demonstratesthedifferencebetweenthedefinitearticle"the"andthe indefinitearticle"a." Problemswithreferenceoccurwhenapronounisusedobscurely,orwhenitcanreferbacktomorethanoneitemthatprecededit.Problemsarisemostcommonly withthepronouns"it,""this,"and"that."Forexample,"Thereisacrackedbellinthecrumblingsteeple.Itcanberestored."Thereadermaythink"it"referstobell sinceitisthesubjectoftheprecedingsentence.Orthereadermaythinkitreferstosteeple,sincethatistheclosestnounto"it."Theverboffersnohelpsince"restore" couldrefertoeitherbellorsteeple.Commonly,peopleassume"it"referstothesubjectoftheprecedingsentence.Butiftheprecedingsentenceisverylengthyandthe subjectisfollowedbysubsequentnouns(objectsofthesentence)thatcanalsoserveasantecedent(s)forthepronouninthesubsequentsentence,thenthereadermay becomeconfused.(Often,whenawritercreatesalengthysentence,thepronouninthesubsequentsentenceisintendedtorefertothelastmentionediteminthe precedingsentence.)Likewise,problemsoccurifthepronouncanreferbothtoanitemintheprecedingsentenceortoawholeideaexpressedinthatsentence.For example,"ThehumanitiesmajorisawellroundedliberalartsmajorincludingcoursesinliteratureaswellasFineArts,whichisJohn'sfavoritefieldofstudy.Thatis whyheismajoringinhumanities.""That"mayrefertothepredicateofthe
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mainclausewhichstatesthatthemajoriswellrounded,or"that"maybeintendedtorefertothefinalclausewhichemphasizesthatJohnbecameahumanitiesmajor becausethatmajorincludedclassesinfinearts.Obviously,itishardtodeterminewhatthewritermeantbecauseidentifyingtheantecedentisdifficult.Obscureor ambiguousreferencecanresultinboththewriter'sintentandmessagebeingmisunderstood.Thebestruleofthumbistomakesurethatthereisonlyoneclear antecedentforeachpronoun. Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofreferenceandlexicalcohesion(withtheexceptionofgeneralization)isthatbothcohesivestrategiesrestrictthesubjectofthe discourse.Becausekeytermsarecontinuallyrepeatedandreferredto,thereaderknowsthatthesearethetermswhicharethemainobjectsofinterestwithinthetext andknowstoprocessthesenewterms,items,orconceptsbasedonhowtheyrelatetoalreadyidentifiedkeyitems. Substitution Substitutioniscloselyrelatedtoreferenceinthatproformsarealsousedtoaccomplishsubstitution.Thereareproformsubstitutionsfornouns,verbs,andclauses. Theproformfornounsis"one"(plural"ones").Forexample,"Helosthisgloves.Theyweretheoneshisgirlfriendgavehim.""One''willalwaysoccurwithanarticle whenitfunctionsasaproform.Insubstitutiontheproformmustalwaysbefurtherdefined,aswithanarticlesuchas"a"or"the."Thisdistinguishesthesubstitution functionfromthereferencefunctionwherenoarticleisrequired. Confusionoccursbecause"one"canbeusedasagenericpronoun,inreferenceto"anyone"aJohnSmithcharacter.This"one"doesnotrefertosomeonealready mentionedinthetext.Itisnotconsideredtobeacohesivedevice,sinceitreferstoanunspecified"who"forexample,"Onemustfirstmeasureouttheingredients." Usedinthismanner,"one"canbefoundasacomponentofcompoundwordssuchas"someone,""everyone,"or"anyone."Infact,seeingifoneofthesethreewords canreplace"one"inthesentenceisagoodmethodfordetermin
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ingif"one"isfunctioningasagenericpronoun.Thenumerousfunctions"one"mayserveinasentence("one"isalsoacardinalnumber)accountforitstoocommonly encounteredobscureuse,asinthesentence:"Onemethodisbetterthantheother,thoughonemayemploythemalternately.''Byrecognizingthedifferentfunctionsof "one"andbymakingsurenottomixormisusetheminashortspanofprose,someoftheobscuritymaybeavoided. "Do"istheEnglishgeneric,allpurposeverb,alsocalledaproverb.Justas"one"canbeusedtosubstituteforanyobject,"do"canbeusedtosubstituteforalmostany actionoreventasin:"Haveyouwashedthedishes?""I'vealreadydonethem"or"Hetriedtostartthecar.Hediditatlast."Usedasaproverb,"do"canbefoundin allitsconjugatedforms:"do,""does,""did,""doing,""done." Sometimes,whenwritersareunabletothinkofthepreciseverbrequiredtocompleteasentence,theysimplyplugin"do"forexample,"Theydidtherumba"rather than"Theydancedtherumba."Whenitdoesnotreferbacktoapreviouslyusedverb,"do"isnotaproform.Itisagenericverb,fromthetopoftheladderof generalization,andpeopleoftenresorttousingitsimplybecausetheyareunabletocomeupwithamoreaccurateverb,and"do"willsufficeinmostcases.Take,for example,thenowpopularsaying,"Let'sdolunch."Butbecauseofitslackofspecificity,"do"oftenresultsinlifelesssentences,andthereforewritersshouldavoidusing it(exceptasaproformorauxiliary).3Usedasagenericverb,"do"doesnotcreatetextualcohesion. Ellipsis Ellipsisisthephysicaldeletionofelementsofasentencethatthewriterconfidentlybelievesthereaderswillinsertontheirownastheyread.Itisthereader,ratherthan thewriter,whothensuppliesthemissingelementstofillinthegap.Ifpresentinthetext,themissingelementwouldbetherepeatedwordorphrasealreadyexplicitly stated.Sincethepressureisonthereadertomakethecohesivelink,thewritercanassumethegapwillbefilledincorrectlyonlyif:1)thestructureofthetextprovides thereaderwiththenecessarycluesabouthowtofillinthe
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missingmaterial,and2)thetopicandkeytermsofthepassageremainconsistent.Awritercannotshifttoadifferentsubjectofdiscourseinthesentencethatcontains anellipsis.Thefollowingpairofsentencesareacceptable:"Theyhavenotfinishedcleaninguptheaccidentyet.Ihopetheywillhavebeforerushhoursstarts."To interpretthesecondsentencethereaderprocesses"Ihopetheywillhavefinishedcleaninguptheaccidentbeforerushhoursstarts."Thisnextellipsisisunacceptable: "Theyhavenotfinishedcleaninguptheaccidentyet.Rushhourstartssoon.''Herethereistoomuchmaterialleftouttolinktheideathatrushhourwillbeworseifthe accidentisstillthere.Notethatintheacceptablesentencesthestructure"theyhave"(withtheaddedmodal"will"whichdoesn'tupsetthestructure)isrepeated.This bitofconsistentstructure,properlycalledparallelstructure,isenoughtocluethereadertocarryoverthemainideaofthefirstsentencenosuchstructuralconsistency isfoundinthesecondsetofsentences.Parallelstructureafewsignificantwordsorphrasesoccupyingthesamepositionsandmaintainingthesamefunction(i.e., subjectorobject)orrole(i.e.,agentorpatient)inadjoiningsentencesensuresthatthereaderwillproperlyinferandinsertthemissingwordorphrase. Theideasexpressedbythetwoclausesorsentences(thecompleteclauseorsentenceandtheonecontainingtheellipsis)mustalsobeconsistent.Thefollowing sentenceisacceptable:"HegavehisspeechattheSenatemeetingandattheambassadors'dinner.""Hegavehisspeech"istheellipticalitemdeletedfromthesecond clauseandcanbeinferredbythereaderwithoutanyproblem,becausethesecondphraseisparalleltothefirst"HegavehisspeechattheSenatemeeting,andhe gavehisspeechattheambassadors'dinner."Commonlytheverborpredicateisleftoutinanellipsisandoftenanawkwardsentenceresults:"Hegavehisspeechto theSenateandatdinner."Thoughthephrase"hegavehisspeech"canprecedebothprepositionalphrasesinisolation,thetwoprepositionalphrasescannotbejoined togetherinonesentence.Whilethereisnogrammaticalproblemperse,thetwoclausesarenotcompatible.Problemsincomprehensionarisebecause"totheSenate" referstoagroupofpeople,while"atdinner"referstoanevent.To
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createparallelism,onwhichellipsisdepends,bothclauseswouldhavetohaveprepositionalphrasesreferringtoeitherpeopleortoevents. Oftentimesfunctionwordsandphrases,ratherthancontentwords,areagoodcluetosuccessfulcohesion.Sincefunctionwordsprovidethesyntacticskeletonfora sentence,theyareoftenexploitedtocreateparallelismandellipses.Lookforparalleluseoffunctionwordsintwoclausesorsentencesinwhichellipsisoccurs.When thewriterchangesfunctionwordsandtherebyunderminessyntacticconsistency(asbyshiftingfromthepreposition"to"to"at"inasentencecontaininganellipsis),the readerwillhavetroublecorrectlyidentifyingtheellipticalitem. Wealluseellipseswhenwewrite.Tomakesurethattheyarefilledincorrectlybyourreaders,wemustdotwothings:makesuretheideasarecompatibleintermsof meaningandestablishsyntacticconsistency.Referenceandellipsisarebothdevicesforachievingcompactness,butwhenweusethesedevices,wemustbecareful nottosacrificeclarity.Ifthereadercannotrecovertheintendedmeaning,compactnessisnotworththecost. Junction Junctives,conjunctions,andcoordinatingandsubordinatingadverbs,DONOTcreatecoherence.Theyareelementsthatreinforceandhighlighttherelationship betweenotherelementsofthetext.Theirmeaningisalwaysconstantandtheyhaveaconsistentfunction:theysignaltherelationshipbetweenadjacentclausesand sentences.Therelationshipsbetweenideasandsentencesmustalreadybeestablishedfortheprosetobecoherentjunctives,thespecificconnectingwordsusedto createjunction,arejustanefficientwayofhighlightingtherelationshipsforthereader.Thechoiceofjunctivesprovidesthereaderwithcluesastohowthewriter perceivesthestatementstoberelated.Forexample,doesthewriterseetheincidentsastemporallyrelatedorbelievethatoneincidentcausedtheothertohappen? "Johnresigned.ThenAllentookoffice"highlightsatemporalrelationship.Ifinsteadthestatementread,
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Themisuseofjunctivesoccurswhenawriterdoesnotunderstandwhattypeofconnectionthejunctivesignals.Sincejunctivesarefunction
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wordsthatsignalrestrictedrelationsbetweenclausesandsentences,suchmisusewillconfusethereader.Adversativejunctivesarethemostcommonlymisused writerssometimesmistakenlyuse"but,""yet,"or"however"whereanadditiveorconditionaljunctivesuchas"and,""therefore,''or"since"isrequired.Forexample, "Thereportmustbefinished,althoughitwillbepresentedtomorrow."Thereisnoexplicitcontrastinthissentencethemeaningofthefirstclausedoesnotcontrastthe second.Thewriterhasnotstatedanyreasonwhypresentingthereporttomorrowisanactionopposedto,orthatcallsintoquestion,thereportbeingfinished.The sentencecanbecorrectedinoneoftwoways.First,ifthewriterintendstoconveythefactthatthesecondclauseisaconditionforfinishingtheproject,eitherthe conditionaljunctive"since"or"because"isappropriate:"Thereportmustbefinished,sinceitwillbepresentedtomorrow."Ontheotherhand,ifthewriterintendsto implythattherewillbetimetocompletethereporttomorrow,butthatforsomereasonitmustbecompletedtoday,thecontrastivejunctive"although"isappropriate however,thewriterneedstomakethemeaningofthestatementclearerandeasiertocomprehendbyaddingacontrastingtimereferencetothefirstclause:"The reportmustbefinishedtoday,althoughitwillbepresentedtomorrow."(Betterphrasingwouldbe"thereportmustbefinishedtoday,althoughitwillnotbepresented untiltomorrow.")Thisillustratesthefactthattheideasthemselvespresentedinthetwoclausesmustbecoherent.Thecohesivedevicealonedoesnotmaketheideas coherentitjustreinforcestherelationshipbetweentheclauses. Whenyouareunsureofwhichjunctivetochoose,thefollowingquestionsmayhelpyoumaketherightchoice. 1.Isthereadertoconsiderthesecondstatementalongsidethefirst?Doestheseconditemaddnewinformationthatshouldbelinkedtothefirst?(Thenanadditive junctiveisneeded.) 2.Doesthesecondstatementqualifythefirst?Doesthesecondstatementcontrastthefirst?Ordoesthesecondstatementcallintoquestiontheinformationpresented inthefirst?(Thenacontrastivejunctiveisneeded.)
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shouldbe
Themoreexpensivemealsoftendifferfromtheselessexpensiveonesbecausetheyaremadewithbetterqualitymeatsandagreatervarietyofseasoning.
Themoststrikingaspectoftheparagraphisitslyricism,createdbytherepetition(aformoflexicalcohesion)ofthephrases"itwasacountry"and"weremissing." Didionalsoemployscontinuousrepetitionoftheprefix"mis"in"misplaced,''"misspelled,"and"missing."Thisrepetitiondramaticallyreinforcesherpoint."Children" arementionedbythesamenamethreetimesintheparagraphandbythesynonym"adolescents"once.NotethatDidionskillfullyvariesherreferencetochildrenwith phrasessuchas"misplacedchildren"and"childrenweremissing"thussheavoidsdull,monotonoussoundingprose."Families"arebrokendownintomorespecific members,"parents"and"children,"whoarealsomembersof"people"and"society."Here,Didionmanipulatessynonymsaswellastheladderofgeneralizationto createlexicalvariety."Reports"isanotherkeywordrepeatedintheparagraph,butnotethatitisrepeatedwithdifferentmodifiers:"commonplacereportsofcasual killings"and"desultorymissingpersonsreports."Keytermsmustberepeatedinatext,notonlytocreateormaintaincohesiveness,butmoreimportantlytocreatea coherentflowofideas.Cohesionandcoherencearecloselytiedtogetherinawellwritten,comprehensibletext. Didionusesthepronouns"they,"those,""who,""which,"and"themselves"tocreateanaphoricreference.Sheuses"it"inthesecondsentenceasacataphoricpronoun: "it"refersto"country"whichcomesafterthepronoun.Thecataphoricreferencecreatesmoredramaticprose.
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Didionalsousesellipsestwice.Thereisanellipsisintheclause"childrenwhowerenevertaughtandcouldneverlearnthegames."Again,Didionmanipulatesthe languagefordramaticeffect.Wewouldexpecttheellipsistofollowthesecondverb,butthisiscataphoricellipsistheellipsisprecedestheexplicitstatementofthe deletedelement"thegames."Didionalsoemploysellipsisinthelastclauseofthelastsentence:"thoseleftbehind"isdeletedfromthatclause. Finally,let'slookatthejunctivesorthelackthereofinthispassage.(The"ands"herecreatecompoundsubjectsorpredicatesanddonotconnectsentencesor clausestherefore,theyarenotusedascohesiveconnectors.)Theonlyjunctivethatactuallyappearsinthepassageisthetemporaljunctive"then"whichappearsinthe lastsentence.Thepassageiswrittentoachieveacumulativeeffectthereaderismeanttofeeloverwhelmedbythelistofeventsthatimplythatthecountryisoutof control.Thelackofjunctivesworkstomakethereaderfeeloverwhelmedandaddstotheatmosphereofchaos.Byavoidingtheuseofjunctivesandbylistingevents withoutconditionsorcauses,Didionavoidsexplicitlystatingwhytheeventsareoccurringandavoidsnamingtheresponsibleparties.Didion'sproseisaseriesof picturesshe'sthephotographerwhosnapsthem,butsheleavesittotheviewer/readertointerprettheimages.Didiondependsagreatdealonherreader'sintuitive knowledgeofhowcohesionworksinatext.Becauseshefeelsshecanconfidentlytakeherreader'sknowledgeforgranted,Didionfeelsfreetoskillfullymanipulate language,allowingherreaderstofindtheconnectionsbetweentheimagesandsentencesforthemselves. Ifreadersandlistenersdidnotunderstandhowcohesivedeviceswork,writerswouldhavetoexplicitlyexpresseveryidea.Wecouldnotvarythewaywereferto peopleorthingswecouldnotusesynonyms,pronouns,orsubstitution.Ourprosewouldbecomecumbersome.Becausewecouldnotusereference,substitution, andellipsis,textswouldincreaseinlength,andwriters'prosestyleswouldbecomeponderousandboringbecauseofincessantrepetition.Take,forexample,this passagefromLorenEiseley's"TheStarThrower":
Ithaseverbeenmylot,thoughformallymyselfateacher,tobetaughtbynone.TherearetimeswhenIhavethoughttoread
Ifthepassagewerewrittenwithoutcohesivedevicesitmightlooksomethinglikethis:
Ithaseverbeenmylot,tobetaughtbynone.Iwasmyselfateacher.TherearetimesIhavethoughttoreadlessonsinthesky.TherearetimesIhavethoughttoreadlessonsin books.TherearetimesIhavethoughttoreadlessonsfromthebehaviourofmyfellows.Myperceptionsofthebehaviourofmyfellowshavefrequentlybeeninadequateor betrayedbymyfellows.Iventuretosaythatmanmaybesomething.Ihavecaughtafugitiveglimpseofwhatmanmightbe.Icaughtafugitiveglimpsenotamongmultitudesof men.Icaughtafugitiveglimpsealonganendlesswavebeatencoastatdawn.Thereisthisapparentbreak.Thisapparentbreakisariftinnature.Theinsightcomes.Theterrible questionhastotranslateitselfintoanevenmoreterrifyingfreedom.
2.Hereispieceofproseinwhichcohesivedevicesaremishandled.Identifythemisusedcohesivedevicesanddiscusshowtheyaremisused.
[TheStoryofWomen]isbasedonthetruestoryofawomaninNazioccupiedFranceduringthewar.Becauseofhavinganineffectualhusbandandtwochildrentocarefor,she startsdoingabortionswhichwereillegalinFranceatthetime.Shedoesthefirstoneasafavorforafriendandtheneventuallystartsdoingthemformoneywhichvastlyimproves herfamily'slivingconditions.Sincethisisatruestory,ithasatragicyettriumphantending.(PegYorkin,"ReviewsFromaFeministPerspective")8
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7 AnalyzingMacrostructures
Whiletextsaremadeupoflineararraysofwordsonapage,weretainmuchlessthanthewordbywordpresentation.Inourminds,wesummarizeandorganizewhat wereadandhearintomacrostructures.Thesearecondensedversionsoftextthatembodythemostimportantideasandessentialconcepts.Macrostructuresreduce theamountofcomplexinformation,creatingamoregeneralizedorglobalmeaningthathasbeenderivedfromtheindividualsentences.Suchglobalmeaningisan inherentqualityofanywellwrittenessay,sinceatextisnotmerelyastringofsentences.Ifwelookateachparagraph,eachparagraphhasaunifyingideaor "macrostatement"moreover,ifwelistthemacrostatementsoftheparagraphsinorder,weshouldfindthatthesestatementsdevelopthethemeor"gist"oftheessay. Theconnectednessofthemacrostatementscreatesthe"globalcoherence"oftheessaywithoutthisglobalcoherenceanessaywouldnotseemto''flow."Itwouldnot readasacoherentwholebutsimplyasacollectionofunconnectedsentences. Macrostatementstakentogetherandunifiedbyasinglethemeorpurposeformmacrostructures.1Weformmacrostructuresinourmindstoreduceandorganizethe barrageofincominginformationthatweread
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Eachlevelabove"I"representsamacrostructure,inwhichmoregeneralizedmacrostructureshavebeenderivedfrommorespecificsentencesorstatements.The numberofmacrostructuresthatcanbederivedfromagiventextisvariable,dependingonhowmuchlocalmeaningisdeletedorabsorbedintomoregeneralized statements. Anunderstandingofmacrostructureformationfacilitateswriting.Often,wefindourselvesfacedwithwritinganabstract,summary,oroutline.Forsome,thisisaneasy task.Forothers,determiningwhatmaterialshouldbeincludedinan"abbreviated"versionofatextisarduousandtedious.Byutilizingtheprinciplesofmacrostructure formation,wecanlearnhowtoextractthemostimportantconceptsandideasandhowtoreducetheamountofinformationinordertosummarizeatext.When intuitiveabilityisnotenough,writerscanrelyonthismethod.Identifyingmacrostructuresalsohelpsustorecognizepointswheretheglobalcoherenceofanessay breaksdown,andwill,therefore,helpustoimprovetheoverallorganizationanddevelopmentaswewriteandrevise. TheRoleofGenre Creatingabstractsandsummaries,throughmacrostructureanalysis,dependsonmorethanjustrecognizingthemainideasandidentifyingthe
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themeofthetextandthemainideaofeachparagraph.Whichstatementsareactuallymostimportantispartlydeterminedbythegenreofthepiece.Genreistheclass towhichanindividualspokenorwrittentextbelongs.Telephoneconversations,verbalnarratives,lectures,andconversationsaretypesofverbalgenres.Written genresincludenovels,poems(epic,lyric,etc.),scientificreports,instructionalmanuals,newsreports,andeditorials.Genreoftenindicateshowtheinformationshould beorderedanddistributedthroughoutthetext,anditmayplaceconstraintsonwhatistobeincluded. Thegenre,foralargepart,determinestheperspectivethatthewriterusestoselecttheimportantmaterialthatwillappearinthemacrostructure.Whileawritten narrativemightincludewonderfuldescriptionsofthecharactersandthesetting,inthesummarytheplottakesprecedence,anddescriptionisoneoftheelementsthat canbedeletedasirrelevantorperipheral.Abstractsofscientificpapersallowforthedeletionofwholeformalsectionsofthepaper.Thescientificjournalarticle typicallyincludesinintroduction,areviewofliterature,materialsandmethods,data,adiscussionand/oraconclusion.Butmostabstractsthatresearchersareaskedto produceneedtobelessthan200words.Therefore,anabstractcanonlyincludeabriefstatementofwhattheresearcherdid,whatresultsheascertained,andthe significanceofthefindings.Thus,beforeevenferretingouttheessentialmaterialinthediscussionandconclusionsections,theauthorcansimplydeletethereviewof literature,materialsandmethods,anddatasections(iftheessentialdataispresentedinanabbreviatedforminthediscussionand/orconclusion). AudienceandPurpose Inadditiontogenreconstraints,thewriter'spurposeandtheaudience'sneedsshouldbetakenintoaccountwhencreatingabstractsandsummaties.Byincludingsuch considerationswhenwegeneratemacrostatementsandmacrostructures,weaddressthepragmaticdimensionofthetext.2Macrostructureanalysismeanslookingat agivenstatementincontext,butcontextdoesnotsimplyrefertohowsentencesinatext
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relatetooneanother.Contextmustalsoincludethesituationinwhichthetextisdeliveredcontextincludesthepragmaticsituationtheperceivedrelationofwriteror speakertotheaudience.Whatmaterialisirrelevantorperipheralandwhatmaterialistobeconsideredmostsignificantdepends,inalargepart,onwhatthereader expectsandwantstogetoutofthewriter'ssummaryorabstract.Genredesignationcreatessomeexpectationsaboutwhatistobeincluded,butaddingthefactorsof audienceandpurposenarrowthepossibilitiesevenfurther.Takeforexampleaproposalforreplacingalargemanuallaborworkforceofacompanywithanew technologicallyadvanced,mechanizedassemblylinethatmightbereadbythreedifferentaudiences:ownersandstockholders,engineersandcontractors,andthe currentmanualworkforce.Whileallmay,infact,lookatthewholeproposal,summatiesareoftenpresentedtothesedifferentgroupsatvariousmeetings(orin lettersandpressreleasesinordertodisseminateinformationabouttheproject)stressingtheneedsofeachindividualgroup.Aversionoftheproposal(whichmay includeasummary)forownersandstockholderswouldprobablyemphasizethepotentialincreaseinrevenueandsavingsgeneratedbydecreasingthecompany's dependenceonmanuallabor.Iftheaudiencewerecontractorsandengineers,thenquestionsofdesign,cost,andlaborinvolvedinbuildingtheassemblylinewould movetotheforefront.Thecurrentplantworkerswouldbemostconcernedwiththesecurityoftheirjobs,soaninplantnewsletterwoulddeletemost,ifnotall,ofthe informationofinteresttotheengineers,contractors,andstockholders.Anewsletterwouldneedtosummarizeinformationconcerningtheimpactonthepresentwork forcethenumberofjobsthatwouldbegeneratedorabolished. Audiencealsoputsconstraintsonspecificdetailstobeincludedaswellasthevocabularythatcanbeused.Ifwearediscussingtechnologicaladvancesinadaily newspaper,intendedfortheaveragereader,hightechjargonwillimpedecommunication.Ifthearticleisintendedtocommunicateinformationaboutanew technologicaladvancementtoalayaudience,technicalwordingshouldbeverysparseandonlyusedwhennecessarytocorrectlyidentifymajorconcepts.The introductionofatechnicaltermshouldbefollowedbyadefinition(andananalogytosomefamiliarobjectisoftenuseful).Iftheaudienceisconversantinthe
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specifictechnicaldiscourse,usethetechnicalvocabulary,whichisbothabrieferandamoreprecisewayofidentifyingtheissuesandconcepts.Examples,definitions, andanalogies,crucialforthelayaudience,canbeusedmuchmoresparinglyandinmanycasestotallydeletedwhenyouarewritingforanexpertaudience. Asawriter,youshouldalwaystrytodefineyouraudienceandwhattheywillneedtoknowbeforeyoubegintosummarize.Youshouldalsoidentifythepurposeof thesummaryorabstractbeforeyoubeginwriting.Trytoconstructasentenceorbriefstatementthatidentifiesthepurposethatyouintendtoconveytoyourparticular audience.Consciouslyrefertothispurposeasyouconstructyousummary. ActionOrientedTexts Thereisnohardandfastsetofrulesfordeterminingwhatcontextualmaterialisessential,sincethematerialyoumustretainwillbedeterminedbythecontentofthe text,thegenre,andthepragmaticsituation.Butitmaybehelpfultolookatonecommontexttypeinordertotrytomakesomeusefulgeneralizations.Onetypeoftext youmaydealwithfrequentlyis"actionoriented,"whereanactionoractions,achangeinthecourseofevents,orachangeinthestateofthesubjectofthetext,isthe majorconcern.Narratives,essaysdealingwithdiscoveriesandadvances,progressreports,andfeasibilitystudiesareallactionorientedtexts.Suchtextsusually containthefollowingfundamentalelements:
Adescriptionoftheinitialstate/thesetting Causesofchange/action Motivesandreasonsforaction Initiatingactions Stepstakentoachieveoutcome Outcometoaction Consequencesofaction
Inanattempttosummarizeanactionorientedtext,allmaterialthatdoesnotfitintothesecategoriescouldbedeleted.Ifthereisstilltoomuchmaterial,theelements themselvescanbeprioritized,andtheleastimportantdeleted.Thedescriptionoftheinitialstateandtheoutcomeof
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theactionwillalwaysbeessential,butadetaileddescriptionofthestepstakentoachievetheoutcomeisoftenoneofthefirstelementstobeeliminated. ProcedureforCreatingAbstractsandSummaries Weallmustsummarizeanyvisual,verbal,orwrittentextinordertoprocessit,sincewecannotrememberandprocesseverydetail.Formostpeople,muchofthe time,theprocessisfairlyautomatic.Butwhathappenswhenawriterisaskedtowriteanabstractofaphilosophicaltreatiseorsummarizeatechnicalarticleforthe firsttime?Unfamiliar,densematerialpresentsachallenge,andoftenthewriterfeelsunabletocalluponthoseprocessesthatonlymomentsearlierseemedso automatic.Atsuchatime,consciouslypracticingastrategy,suchastheonepresentedhere,maymaketheimpossibletaskpossible. Byusingamacrostructureproceduretocreateasummaryorabstract,thewriterwillpreservetheessentialmeaningofthetext,andthewriterwillnothavetoworry aboutdeletingimportantfactsandconcepts,sincemacrostatementsarederivedfromsentencesthatappearinthetext.Themacrostructureisbasedonreducing, organizing,andconstructingnew,broaderconceptstatementsfromlowerlevel,morespecificsentences. Tocreateasummaryorabstract,beginbyidentifyinggenre,audience,andpurpose.Thenemploythefollowingsteps:3 CreatingAbstractsandSummaries:AMacrostructureApproach 1.Deleteallmaterialthatreadilyappearsirrelevant. 2.Reorganizeallassociateddetailsspreadthroughoutthetextsothattheynowfollowoneanother. (Thisstepalsoallowsustoanalyzehowwelltheessayisorganized.)
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3.Construct/Combinealllocallyrelevantdetailsthatcanbejoined. Initially,theidentificationofthegenre,audience,andpurposeofthetextmayhelpthewritertodeletewholesectionsofperipheralorirrelevantdetails.Oncethetext hasundergoneoneroundofdeletionreorganizationconstruction(steps13),itcanberepeatedlysubjectedtoroundsof: 4.Deletion:Selectanddeletestatementsthatnowseemperipheralorirrelevant. 5.Construction:Sameasstep3above. 6.Generalization:Firstcombinerelateddetails,thenmakeamoregeneralstatementthatsubsumesthedetails. Retain:Statementswhichcontainessentialinformationthatcannotandshouldnotbedeleted,combined,orgeneralizedremainunaltered. Togenerateahigherlevelmacrostructure,thatismoregeneralandmoresuccinct,repeatsteps46untilyouproduceatextthatsuitsyourneeds. Subsequentroundsofdeletionrequirethatthewritermakenewdeterminationsaboutwhatmaterialnowappearsperipheralorirrelevant.Asonemovesupthe pyramidofmacrostructurestogreatergeneralization,morelocalmaterialwillbeconsideredirrelevant,andthewriterwillhavetocontinuallyreassesswhatinformation ismostsignificant. Generalizationisessentialwhendealingwithlongeressaysandworks.Whenwholeparagraphsandpagesofspecificsupport,examples,andelaborationneedtobe summarizedbriefly,oneeffectivetechniqueforcreatinganabbreviatedtextistocopydownthefirstandlastsentenceofeachparagraph,thenapplytheprocedure abovetofurthercondenseyourconstructedtext.Thisprocedurewillusuallywork,sincewritersnormallyplacetheirmostimportantpointsinthefirstandlast
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sentencesofparagraphstherefore,thosesentencescontainthematerialwhichisessentialtothemacrostructures. Youmightquestionwhetherapplyingamacrostructureapproachispracticalwhendealingwithlongertexts.Whilethesetechniquesaremostpracticalfordealingwith articlelengthtexts,theinitialdeletionofirrelevantlocaldetail,and/ortheselectionoffirstandlastsentencesofparagraphswillalsoallowawritertotacklemuch longertexts.Thisprocedureisintendedasaheuristicforpeoplewhoneedguidanceinwritingsummariesandabstracts.Hopefully,afterconsciouslypracticingthis procedureitwillbecomemoreintuitive.Thenwhenfacedwithalongertext,muchofthesummarizingprocedurecanbeperformedmentally,inthesamemannerthat weprocessmuchoftheinformationwereceivefromourworldeveryday.Meanwhile,thismethodoffersawaytoapproachatextthatwillallowawritertobeginto recognize,prioritize,andcondenseinformation. AnalyzingMacrostructures:AnExampleAnalyzed WewillbedealingwithanarticlefromtheNewYorkTimes,entitled"DoctorsSayBabywithBaboonHeartIsDoing'RemarkablyWell'"4(seefigure7.1).Wewill becreatingsummariesforvariouspurposes.First,assumeyouwrotethisarticleorthatyouareacollaboratoronaprojectwhichinvolvesproducingpressreleases aboutthisevent.Then,youcancomfortablyassumethatyoucancopy,edit,andalterthetextasneeded.Thisactuallyreflectsrealworldwritingsituations,sincemost writerseitherwritesummariesandabstractsoftheirownworkorarepartofawritingteamwheretheyareauthorizedtoworkwiththeoriginalauthor'swords. Thefirstsummarywillbeapressreleaseforanewspaper,designedtoinformageneralreadingaudienceaboutthissignificantmedicalbreakthrough.Webeginby deletingmaterialreadilyrecognizedasirrelevanttoasummaryintendedtoinformthegeneralpublicaboutthismedicaladvancement.Refertofigure7.2toseewhat materialisdeleted.Therationaleforeachdeletionisgivenbelow.
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Paragraph2 Thelengthoftimeofoperationisunimportant.
Paragraph3 ThesecondreferencetoBaileyisunnecessary,andsinceheistheonlyonequoted,thereferencetootherdoctorsisunnecessary.
Paragraph6 Theopinionpresentedhereisunnecessaryparagraphsoneandtwomorepreciselysummarizethebaby'scondition.
Paragraph7 Theappealtoemotionsandtheanecdotalmaterialisunnecessary.
Note:Donotbeuncomfortabledeletingsectionsofquotedmaterial,solongasyoudonotalterthemeaning.Inallarticlesthatweread,whatpeoplesaidhasalready beenexcerpted.Youaresimplyfurtherexcerptingordeletinginformation.
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Figure7.1. Reprinted,bypermission.fromTheNewYorkTimes(October29.1984).
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Figuremovedtopreviouspage
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Figure7.2 MedicalAdvancement(1strounddeletion).Reprinted,bypermission.fromTheNewYorkTimes(October29.1984).
Page125 Figuremovedtopreviouspage
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Paragraph10 Emotionaljustificationisirrelevant.
Paragraph11 Justificationofdecisionforperformingprocedureisirrelevant.
Paragraph12 Delete''availabletoparentsofchildren.""Onlyoption"issufficient.
Paragraph13 Bracketnameofdrugusedtosignalthatitmaybedeletedlaterasbeingtootechnicalfortheintendedaudience.
Futureplansdonottellusaboutthisparticularadvancement,but
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Paragraph20 Personalresponseofparticipant/observerisunnecessary.
Paragraph21 Sexandweightofbaboonisinsignificant.
Thefirstroundoflocaldeletionproducesthefollowingsummary:
A16dayoldinfantremainedincriticalbutstableconditiontoday,"doingremarkablywell"afterreceivingtheheartofababoonatLomaLindaUniversityMedicalCenter. But"shemaybeinforalongbattleintheweeksahead,"saidDr.LeonardBailey,thepediatricsurgeonwhoperformedthetransplantoperation.Headdressedsomeofthe technicalandethicalaspectsofthe"highlyexperimental"operation. Thebabynearlydiedonhersixthdayoflifebecauseofabirthdefect[calledhypoplasticheartsyndrome],whichgavethebabyvirtuallyonlyhalfaheartandnochancetolive. Untilnow,withrareexceptions,babiesbornwiththeconditiondidnotsurvivebeyondtwoweeks.Theonlyoptionforachildbornwiththeconditionhasbeensurgerytorelieve itseffects.Suchsurgeryentailsgreatriskandhasuncertainresults. Dr.Baileysaidhebelievedhiswastheonlygroupintheworldthatwasexperimentingwithanewdrug[cyclosporinA]foranimalhearttransplantsininfants.Thedrugcombats thebody'snormalrejectionofforeigntissuesuchastransplantedorgans.ThebabyreceivedcyclosporinA.Theteamwasconcernedaboutthepotentialtoxiceffectsofthedrug, hesaid,addingthatthebaby'sbloodismonitoredfrequentlytodetectanyadverseeffects.
Page129 birthdefect[calledhypoplasticsyndrome],whichgavehervirtuallyonlyhalfaheartandnochancetolive.Untilnow,withrareexceptions,babiesbornwiththeconditiondidnot survivebeyondtwoweeks.Theonlyoptionwiththeconditionhasbeenhighrisksurgerytorelieveitseffects.Suchsurgeryhasuncertainresults. But"shemaybeinforalongbattleintheweeksahead,"saidDr.LeonardBailey,thepediatricsurgeonwhoperformedthetransplantoperation.Headdressedsomeofthe technicalaspectsofthe"highlyexperimental"operation.Dr.Baileysaidhebelievedhiswastheonlygroupintheworldthatwasexperimentingwithanewdrug,[cyclosporinA], foranimalhearttransplantsininfants.Thedrugcombatsthebody'snormalrejectionofforeigntissuesuchastransplantedorgans.ThebabyreceivedcyclosporinA.Theteam wasconcernedaboutthepotentialtoxiceffectsofthedrug,hesaid,addingthatthebaby'sbloodismonitoredfrequentlytodetectanyadverseeffects.Dr.Baileysaidthatthe babywasreceivingasteroiddrugbutnoheartdrugs.Hesaidtheteamhopedtoweanthebabyfromthemechanicalventilatorthathashelpedherbreathe.[Theresearcherssaid thattheyhadfoundthatabouthalfofanunspecifiednumberofhumanshadpreformedantibodiesagainstbaboonsifthebabyneedsabloodtransfusion,additionaltestswill havetobedoneonthedonatedblood.Dr.Baileyalsosaidthebaby'sdoctorswouldhavetostudy,ingreaterdetailthanusual,theimmunizationsthatshereceivedtoprevent similaradversereactions.] Thesurgeonsaidthathisteamplannedtoperformfivesuchoperationsandthentoevaluatetheresultstodeterminewhethertheyshouldgoaheadorretreattothelaboratory beforetryingtheprocedureagainonhumans.
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thechild'sconditionlikewise,deleteothercloselyrelatedcommentsonherconditionwhichcannowbeconsideredredundant. Combinesentencesonsurgery.Deletecommentaboutsurgery"relievingitseffects"thisisobvious.
Paragraph2 Deletecommenton"herbattle"whichrepeatsideasinparagraph1.
Theresultingtextis:
[1]A16dayoldinfantremainedincriticalconditionbutwas"doingremarkablywell"afterreceivingtheheartofababoonbetweensevenandeightmonthsold,atLomaLinda UniversityMedicalCenter.Thebabynearlydiedonhersixthdayoflifebecauseshehadonlyhalfaheart[calledhypoplasticheartsyndrome]whichgavehernochancetolive. Babiesbornwiththeconditionrarelysurvivebeyondtwoweeks.Theonlyoptionwiththisconditionhasbeenhighrisksurgerywhichhasuncertainresults.
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generalizations,somedeletionswillinevitablyoccur.Tofurthereditparagraphtwo: Removethereferencetothetechnicalaspectsoftheoperation.Allstatementsshouldfocusonthebaby'scondition.Thiscreatesageneralization,focusedonthe baby,thatcanbeusedtounifythewholeparagraph. IdeletemuchofthespecificinformationoncyclosporinAthatisnotappropriateforthisaudienceandreplaceitwithageneralstatementaboutan"experimental drug"used.Thereferencetotoxiceffects,whichmaybeuncleartomyaudience,isreplacedbyamoregeneralstatementonapossible"adversereaction." Aventilatorisatypeoflifesupportsystem,Ireplacethestatementsconcerningthiswithamoregeneralstatementthatthebabyison"lifesupport."Again,such astatementwillhavemoremeaningformyaudience. Allthematerialonbloodtransfusionsisabittechnical.Mostreaderswillnotknowwhatpreformedantibodiesareorwhythebaby'simmunizationrecord matterssoIwillagainmakeageneralizationthatismoreappropriateformyaudience. Ihavealsomovedthematerialonlifesupporttotheendoftheparagraph,sinceitistheleasttechnical.Italsodealswiththebaby'sgeneralconditioninthe present,aftertheprocedurehasbeenperformed.Thisformatpresentsthematerialmorelogically. Inowhavethefollowingsummary:
Asixteendayoldinfantremainedincriticalconditionbutwas"doingremarkablywell"afterreceivingtheheartofababoonwhichwasbetweensevenandeightmonthsold.The babynearlydiedonhersixthdayoflife,becauseshehadonlyhalfaheartwhichgavehernochancetolive.Babiesbornwiththisconditionrarelysurvivebeyondtwoweeks. Theonlyoptionhasbeenhighrisksurgerywhichhasuncertainresults. Dr.LeonardBailey,thepediatricsurgeonwhoperformedthetransplantoperation,spokeonthebaby'scondition.Thebabyreceivedanexperimentaldrug,developedbyBailey's groupforanimal
Mysummaryisnowunder200words,whichisacceptableformostpurposes.WhatifIhavetoproduceashortersummary?Rigidlengthconstraintsareoftenplaced onabstracts,summaries,andarticlesinvariousprofessionaljournals,andauthorsmustcomply.Whileaskilledwritermaynotneedtoemploythemacrostructure strategytoproduceasummary,hemightfinditavaluableaidwhenhehastoeditatextthatisstill10,20,or30wordsoverthemaximumallowablelength.Insucha situation,awritermostcommonlyprioritizestheremainingmaterialanddecideswhatelsetodelete.Rememberthatthereareotheroptionssuggestedbythis procedure:combinationandgeneralizationalsowillreducethenumberofwordsinatext,butwillallowforsomeretentionofcontentthatdeletionpermanently eradicates.IfIhadtofurtherreducemysummary(somejournalsaskforsummariesunder150words),Imightsay"youngbaboon"insteadofgivingtheageandleave outthereferencetothebabyalmostdyingonhersixthdayoflife.Imightalsodeletethesentenceaboutthebabybeingonlifesupportlettingthefirstsentence,which sayssheisincriticalcondition,standastheonlystatementofhercurrentstatus.Thelastparagraphmayalsobedeleted,ifIamonlyconcernedwiththeprocedure thathasjustbeenperformed.Thesechangeswouldproduceasummarythatislessthan150words.WhileIamdeletingrelevantmaterial,Inowconsiderthismaterial tobeoflowerpriority.Furthergeneralizationandcombinationmayalsobeuseful.
[1]Asixteendayoldinfantremainedincriticalconditionbutwas"doingremarkablywell"afterreceivingtheheartofayoungbaboon.Thebabynearlydied,becauseshehad onlyhalfaheartwhichgavehernochancetolive.Babiesbornwiththisconditionrarelysurvivebeyondtwoweeks.Theonlyoptionhasbeenhighrisksurgerywhichhas uncertainresults.
It'spossiblethatyoumaynotagreewiththematerialthatIchangedineachround.Youmayhavebeenmoreconservativeasyouperformedeachroundofdeletion, oryoumayhaveefficientlycombinedvarioussteps.Ineithercase,thegoalistoproducethedesiredfinalsummaryorabstract.Itisnothowmanytimesyourepeat thestepsthatmattersit'syourresults. Obviouslyindealingwiththisparticulararticle,somemedicalknowledgeisusefulfordetermininghowtogeneralizeandwhattodelete.5Familiaritywiththematerial youareworkingwithalwaysmakesgeneratingsummariesandabstractseasier.Inmostcases,youwillhavethenecessaryprerequisiteknowledge,andifyoudon't, thisprocedurewillstillhelpyoutoidentifymajorconceptsandsignificantpoints.Often,ifthemacrostructurecannotbeidentified,youhaveidentifiedapointwherethe textbreaksdownandbecomesobscuretherefore,thisproceduremayhelptoidentifymajorideasthatarenotclearlyexplained. MacrostructuresForDiagnosingTextualWeaknesses Intheaboveapplication,problemsincreatingpartofthemacrostructurearosewhendealingwithoriginalparagraphsfifteenandtwentytwo.Theseparagraphsare verytechnical,andtheinformationisonlylightlytouchedupon.Forthelayaudiencewhoreadsadailynewspaper,thismaterialisprobablyquitemeaningless,because thesignificanceofmedicalcommentsabout"preformedantibodies"andtheuseofsteroidsarenotexplained.Anyreaderwhotriestogenerateamacrostructure,to determinethethemeandmajorpointsofthetext,willhave
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problemswiththeseparagraphs.Shouldthesetechnicalparagraphsberetainedatathehigherlevel?Aretheyofmajorimportanceoraretheyinsignificant?Iftheyare ofmajorimportance,howso?Byansweringthisfinalquestion,thereaderattemptstosupplytheinformationthewriterhasomitted.Ifthereadercannotascertain neededinformationandanswersuchquestions,thewriterhasfailedtoproduceatotallycoherenttext. Whenitisdifficulttoextractamacrostructurefromatext,becauseitseemstobreakdownatcertainpoints,youmayhaveidentifiedpointsatwhichglobalcoherence isaproblem.Theinabilitytocreateacompletelysatisfyingsummary,ortogenerateamacrostructure,usuallysignalsaflawedtext.Mostcompetentwriterswillclearly statetheirthesisandgeneratecoherentparagraphsthusthetopandbottomlevelsofthemacrostructurepyramidwillbeinplace.Problemsariseinthelevelsin between.Often,thetextisflawedbythemannerinwhichconceptsandideasarelinkedtooneanotherfromparagraphtoparagraph.Thewritermayneedtoreorder theparagraphsandclarifythelinksbetweenconcepts(oftenbyusingthecorrectjunctive)sothattheglobaldesigniseasierforthereadertoascertain. Take,forexample,thearticlewehavebeenworkingwith.Thisarticleiswritteninajournalisticstyle,sotheparagraphstendtobeshortandchoppytherefore, writingaphrasedownwhichsummarizeseachparagraphwon'tworkwell.Instead,IwrotedownafewmainideasIfoundintheessayandidentifiedtheparagraphs inwhichIfoundthatinformation:
Basicinformationabouttheprocedureandchild Technicalmedicaldetails Progressandplansoftheresearchteam Funding Professionals'reactionsandobservations Ethicalcontroversy [1],[2],[6],[8],[12] [8],[1315],[22] [11]and[16] [1719] [7],[20],[23] [35],[9],[10],[21],[23]
Clearly,thearticlecouldbeorganizedmorecoherently.Ifthisweremyarticle,Iwouldrearrangetheideasbeginningwithbasicfactualinformationandexpandmytext toconsiderthereactionsofthoseclosesttothesituationandthenexaminethereactionsofthepublicasawhole.
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Theorderofideasmightgolikethis:basicinformation,technicaldetails,progressandplansofteam,professionalreactions,andethicalissues.Thisorganizational strategyindicatesthatfundingisaperipheralissuethatcannotbeeasilyintegratedintotheessayconsequently,lwouldleavethattopicout. Missinginformation,lackofclearorganization,gapsindevelopment,and/ortheneedforadifferentorganizationaldesignmayallbeeasiertoidentifyandcorrectusing suchamacrostructureanalysis. MacrostructureAnalysisForRevisingTexts Wehavejustexaminedhowmacrostructureanalysismayhelptoidentifyorganizationanddevelopmentproblemsincompletedtexts.Obviously,itwouldbebestifthe writercorrectedsuchproblemsduringtherevisionprocess,beforethetextwasfinished.Macrostructureanalysismaybethedynamicrevisingtoolyouneed. Oftentherevisionprocessinvolvesstrengtheningtheglobalcoherenceofatext.Rememberthatmostcommonproblemsresultfromnotclearlylinkingconceptstoone anotherfromparagraphtoparagraph.Asaresult,thelogicofyouressaywillbeunclear.Revisionwillusuallyinvolvereorderingtheparagraphsandclarifyingthelinks betweenconcepts.Suchrevisionwillmakeiteasierforthereadertodeterminewhatyouaretryingtoconvey. Whenyouarewriting,mostimportantly,getyourideasdownonpaper.Lettheideasflowfreelyontothepage.Don'tworryaboutgettingthetextperfectthefirst timewhenyoureviseyoucancomebacktothetextandworkonorderanddevelopment.Onceyouhaveadraftwhichyoubelievecontainsalltheinformationyou wanttoconveytoyouraudience,youcanbeginrevising. First,aswediscussedearlierinthechapter,identifyyouraudienceandyourpurposes.Isthedraftyouproducedappropriatefortheaudienceandpurposeyou originallyidentified?Orhasyouraudienceor
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yourpurposeshifted?Ifso,youmayhavetorethinkwhoitisyouarewritingforandwhatyouwishtosaytothem. Next,readwhatyou'vewrittenandwriteamacrostatementthatidentifiestheunifyingideaofeachparagraphinthemarginnexttothatparagraph(orlistthe macrostatementssequentiallyonaseparatepieceofpaper).Ifyouhaveproblemscomingupwithamacrostatementforeachparagraph,youhaveprobablyidentified paragraphsthataretooshortand/orthatlackaunifyingidea.Ifthatisthecase,youwillneedtoeithercombineshortparagraphsintolongeronesthatdevelopa significantpoint,oryoumayneedtousethetechniquesfordevelopingideasandexpandingparagraphssuggestedattheendofthecoherencechapter.Your macrostatementsmaybephrasesorwholesentences.Icallthisprocessofidentifyingtheideasdevelopedintheessayan''afterthedraftoutline."Onceyouhave createdyouroutline,youcanreaddownthelistofmacrostatementsandanalyzetheoverall,globalcoherenceofyouressay.Thislistisveryusefulforexamininga numberofcoherenceissues.Youcanreassessthethesis(orgist)ofyourpaperbasedonthepointsyouhaveactuallydeveloped.Doyourmacrostatementssupport anddevelopyourthesis?Ifnot,youmaywanttoreformulateyourthesisbasedonwhatyouhaveactuallysaid.Doyourmacrostatementsfollowalogicalprogression? Lookatyourlistofmacrostatementsandaskyourself:HaveIincludedperipheralinformation(paragraphs)thatIshoulddelete?HaveIleftoutanyvitalpieceof informationthatmyreaderwillneed?Aremymacrostatements(andparagraphs)intherightorder,orwouldmovingaparagraph(orparagraphs)makemyargument strongerandeasiertofollow?Inotherwords,toreviseforbetterorganizationanddevelopment,awriterneedstodeletesuperfluousinformation,addmissingpieces, andreorganizetheinformationsothattheparagraphsareintherightorder.Youmaywanttoreviseatexttwoorthreetimesyoudon'thavetogetitperfectthefirst time.Reviseuntilyouarehappywiththeresults.6 Macrostructureanalysiscanbecomeanintegralpartofyourrevisingprocess.Itcanhelpyoutostrengthenanessay'soverallorganizationanddevelopment.
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8 Pragmatics:LanguageinUse
Untilthelate1950s,linguistics,likethestudyofliterature,concentratedonthetext,divorcedfromitsproducersandconsumers.Whileintheearlierpartofthe century,Saussurehadidentifiedspeakersandhearersasfundamentalelementsofthecommunicationcircuit,theystillreceivedlittleattention.And,aswehaveseen withChomsky,thefirstattemptstodealwithspeakerandlistenertreatedthemmoreasabstractentitieswithperfectlanguagecompetence,ratherthanasindividuals withvaryingdegreesofcommunicationcompetencewhoseindividualattitudesandintentionscolortheirdiscourse.Butwiththeemergenceofpragmatics,thestudyof languageinuse,speakersandtheiraudiencesbegantoreceiveattention.Inpragmatics,speakersandlistenersandbyextensionwritersandreadersarestill somewhatidealisticallydefinedwhatisstudiedistheirrightandabilitytoparticipateincertaindiscoursesituations,andtheirabilitytosuccessfullycommunicate accordingtoprescribedlanguageconventions.Here,thetypeofcommunicationseemstodefinetheparticipants,ratherthantheparticipants'personalitiesdetermining thecommunication.Itisthefactthatthespeaker"makesapromise"or"issuesacommand"(twotypesofspeech
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acts),ratherthanthefactthatthelistenerdistrustsordislikesthespeaker,whomhemightperceivetobeathreatoradversary,thatdeterminesthetypeofspeechact anddictatesthistypeofanalysis.Itwasnotuntilthedevelopmentofsociolinguisticsthatlinguistsbegantostudyhowanindividual'spersonalbackgroundandsocial statusaswellasthepsychologicalandphysicalsettingforcommunicationinfluencethemanydifferentlanguageinteractions.Yet,pragmaticswasadramaticstep forward,sinceitwasthefirsteffortbylinguiststomethodicallydealwiththefactthattheparticipantsareintegraltothecommunicationcircuit.1 SpeechActTheory ThebeginningofpragmaticsasafieldoflinguisticresearchcanbetracedtothepioneeringworkofJohnAustinandJohnSearle.Austinproposedanew methodology,calledspeechacttheory,fordealingwithutterances.2Aspeechactisanutterancethathasaparticular,singularpurpose,suchascommanding, questioning,orstatingafact.Speechacttheoryisconcernedwiththedescriptionoftheperformanceofthespeechact:aspeechactisperformedbyaspeaker(or writer)anddirectedatalistener(orreader). ItisJohnSearle'simprovedversionofspeechacttheorythatisusedbymostlinguiststoday.3Searledividesthespeechactintotwocomponents:1)the1ocutionary actiswhatthespeakermeans2)theillocutionaryactisthetypeofperformancethespeakerisexecuting,suchasacommand,promise,ordeclaration,andhis utteranceisdeliveredwithacertainillocutionaryforce. Example:utterance="Getoutofmyway!" locution(meaning)=moveyourselffromblockingme illocutionaryforce=anorder(atypeofdirective) The1ocutionaryactisastatementthatmostcommonlycontainsasubjectandpredicate.However,aspeechactcanbemuchlongerthanasimplesentenceitshould notbedefinedbygrammaticalunits,butsimplyastheamountoftextittakestocreateaparticularspeechactor
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:Thespeakercommitshimselftothetruthoftheexpressedstatement.
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EXAMPLE
:Ibelievethatanecumenicalgovernmentisinourdistantfuture.
Directives
PURPOSE
:Thespeakerattemptstogetthehearertodosomething. :Iwantyoutocompletethejobimmediately.
EXAMPLE
Commissives
PURPOSE
:Thespeakercommitshimselftosomecourseofaction. :IpromiseIwilltakeyoutothemovies.
EXAMPLE
:IresentyourtakingthedessertyouknowIwanted.
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tofurnishsomeinformation.Ourabilitytosuccessfullycomprehendvariousspeechactsisinpartdeterminedbyourfacilitywithgrammar,aswellasbyour knowledgeofthelesstangibleaspectsofcommunication.Deliveringthespeechactthatsuitsyourpurposeisnotenough.Asweshallsee,thespeechactmustalsobe spokenundertheappropriateconditions.Ifspeechactswerenotconventional,wewouldbeunabletounderstandandproperlyrespondtoaspeakerorwriter. Fortunately,everynativespeakeracquiresanddevelopsaworkingknowledgeofspeechactsbeforeadulthood. AppropriatenessConditionsForSuccessfulCommunication Ifanyspeechactistobesuccessfullyexecutedtheappropriateconditionsmustbeinplace.Inorderto"know"what"appropriatenessconditions"apply,the participantsmusthavecommunicativecompetence.Inotherwords,everyonewhoparticipatesinalanguagecommunitymustlearnwhatconditionsarenecessaryto successfullycarryoutthespeechact.Ascommunicators,aknowledgeoftheseconditionscanoftenhelpustodeterminewhyatextsucceedsorfailsin communicatingthespeaker'sorwriter'sintendedmessage.5 AppropriatenessConditions 1. Theappropriateparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeactivated: thespeakerhastherighttomaketheutteranceatthetime theaudiencehastherighttorespondappropriatelyatthetime theutteranceisappropriatetotheongoingdiscourseintermsofsubjectmatter.
EXAMPLE
:Averdictcanonlybegiveninacourtroom,attheendofatrial,andcanonlybedeliveredbytheforemanofthejury.
2.
Aconventionalproceduremustbeestablished.
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EXAMPLE
:Awelcomecanonlybegivenatthebeginningofaconversation.Anapologyisonlyappropriatewhenyouhaveinsultedorinjuredanother'sfeelings.
3.
4. Thespeakermustbesincereinhisdesiretocommunicatehismessage,andtheaudiencemustbesincereinwantingtounderstandwhatthespeakermeans. Bothspeakerandaudiencemustbelievethatallotherappropriatenessconditionshavebeensincerelymet.6 Inmostcases,nativelanguagespeakersintuitivelyknowwhenappropriatenessconditionsarebeingobserved.Buttheseconditionsofteneludeforeignspeakers,since theyarenotdirectlyaddressedinlanguageclasses.Thisisperhapsthemostdifficultaspectoflearningaforeignlanguage.Ingeneral,foreignlanguagecoursesand textsdealonlywithvocabularyandgrammar,andnotwiththeinterpersonalcommunicationsituation.Thisiswhyanonnativespeakermayerrinspeakingtoo informallytohisboss,orderinghimto"Gimmeamatch,"orinspeakingtooformallytoaclosefriendwhenaskinghim,"Ifitisnottoomuchofaninconveniencecould youpleaseallowmetoborrowamatchfromyou?"7Wetendtorequirethatpeoplelearntheselesstangibleaspectsoflanguageusefromexperience,ratherthan throughformallanguagetraining.Yet,suchknowledgeisfundamentaltothesuccessofanyspeakerinanewlanguagecommunity.Peoplemustbeawareofthe appropriatenessconditionsassociatedwitheachspeechactinordertounderstandwhatchoices(words,pitch,degreeofpoliteness,etc.)areappropriateinagiven setofcircumstances.Itisimportanttorecognizethatdifferentspeechactshavedifferentappropriatenessconditionsthat
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allowforcertainparticipants,circumstances,andsettings:inturn,theappropriatenessconditionsdeterminethekindsofspeechactsallowed.Whenyougotoa friend'shousefordinner,itisinappropriatetositdownatthetableandorderasifyouwereinarestaurant.AndthoughaMarinesergeantmayissueacommandtohis childrenathome,theymayignorehim,thoughhismeninthebarrackswouldnot.Thus,participantsandsituationslimitthenumberandtypesofspeechactswemay expect,andtheyprovideimportantcluesabouthowwearetointerpretandrespondtoaspeechact.Theimportanceoflanguageconventionsincluding appropriatenessconditionsandpragmaticconventionstoourabilitytouseandunderstandourownlanguagecannotbeignored. Thesetofappropriatenessconditionsprovidedaboveisgeneralenoughtobeusefulforevaluatingallspeechactsituationsspecificdetailscanbeaddedtodescribe eachsituation.Whathappensiftheappropriatenessconditionsarenotobserved?Communicationbreaksdown.Ifthespeakerorlistenerisinsincereanddoesnot reallywanttoparticipateinthecommunicativeact,wesaytherehasbeenan"abuse"ofthespeechact.A"misfire"istheresultofinappropriateparticipants, circumstances,orincorrectorincompleteprocedures.Inallthesecases,theresultisanunsuccessfulspeechact.Successismeasuredbythefactthattheaudiencehas successfullyunderstoodthemessageasitwasintendedbythespeaker(orwriter).Thiscanonlyhappeniftheappropriatenessconditionsareobserved. IndirectSpeechActs Anindirectspeechactoccurswhenthespeakercommunicatesmoretothehearerthanheliterallysays.Often,thecluethataspeakerisusinganindirectspeechactis thattheactionspecifiedbytheindirectspeechact,performedliterally,wouldbeinappropriateinsomeway.Forinstance,ifsomeoneasksyou,"Canyoutellmewhat timeitis?"Heisprobablynotinsultingyourintelligencebyaskingifyouarementallycapableoftellingtime,astheliteralquestionwouldimply.Rather,heisaskingif youwouldmindmakingtheefforttolookatyourwatchand
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tellhimthetime.Indirectspeechactsareoftenusedtosoftenthespeaker'smannerofaddressingthelistener."Tellmewhattimeitis"isanorderusing"can"makesit a(lessabrasive)request.Peoplewhoknoweachotherwellrarelyneedtousethemoreformaldirectivesandcommissivespreviouslydiscussedtherefore,theyoften useindirectspeechacts.Inadditiontosofteningthespeaker'smanner,indirectspeechactsoftenaddemphasisorexpressanattitudetowardwhatisbeingsaid,asin "Idodeclare,he'saliar."Amongthemostcommonmethodsoftransformingdirectspeechactsintoindirectspeechactsare:1)questioningaconditionassociated withtheact,forexample,"can"2)explicitlystatingthespeaker'sobligation,forexample,"must''3)askingpermissiontoperformtheact,forexample,"may"4) statinganemotionalattitudeassociatedwithperformingtheact,forexample,"want"or"desire."Bysaying,"IbelieveProf.Jacksonwillgiveatesttomorrow,"when youheardhimmakethatannouncement,youareplacingthesincerityconditionintheforeground,explicitlybringingyourbeliefthatyourstatementistruetoyour listener'sattention.Callingaconditionintoquestioniscommonlyusedtotransformordersintorequestsorfavors:"can"turnsordersintorequests.All"can" questions"canyoupassthesalt?","canyoutakeoutthegarbage?"arenotquestionsofone'sphysicalability,butconventionallyinterpretedasmorepolitewaysof askingsomeonetodosomethingforyou. Ifthemessageconveyedinanindirectspeechactistobesuccessfullycommunicated,thespeakermustrelyonthelistenersharingthesamelanguageconventionsand necessarybackgroundknowledge.Thehearerwillusesuchknowledgetoinferwhatthespeakerhasleftout.Todecodeanindirectspeechactthehearermust:1) haveastrategyforestablishingtheexistenceofanulteriorpointthisisdone,forexample,byrecognizingthatoneoftheappropriatenessconditionsisbeinggiven specialemphasis2)haveastrategyfordeterminingwhattheulteriorpointis.Thelistener'sabilitytodeciphertheindirectspeechactcomesfromunderstanding languageconventionsandfromknowledgeabouttheworldthatthespeakerandlistener(orwriterandreader)share.
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Indirection Agreatdealofthediscourseweparticipateineverydayisintheformofindirectspeechacts.Perhapswecanputtogoodusewhatwehavelearnedaboutindirect speechactstostudyanassociatedphenomenon,"indirection."Indirectionispopularinadvertising,bureaucratese,andasadeviceusedbychildrentomanipulatetheir parentsintoagreeingtothingstowhichtheywouldnotnormallyagree.Consequently,indirectionisoftenadeliberatelymanipulativeact,lessbenignthanthesimple indirectspeechact.Whenanalyzingindirectspeechacts,weareusuallylookingatsinglesentenceshowever,indirectionisaqualityofacompletetext.Forinstance, bewaretheadolescentwhobeginsaconversationbyaskingyouifpunctualityisaqualityyoubelievesheshouldstrivefor.Shemayaskyouifyoubelievesheshould doherbesttoarriveatschool,atwork,andatappointmentsontime.Shemaynextrequestthatyoureplaceherdilapidatedthreespeedwiththelatesttwentyfive speedmountainbike.Youcouldsaythattheappropriateconditionsfortheconventionalprocedureofaskingafavorhavebeenflouted.Youmaybesurprisedthatthe samechildwhocouldnotunderstandyouwhenyousaid"takeoutthegarbage"hasnowshowndazzlingcommunicativecompetence.Ofcourse,youcanalways respondbytellingyourprecociouschildtosimplysetherwatchaheadfiveminutesandthenshe'llalwaysbeontime.Inamoreseriousvein,lookatthePentagon's directive5122.fwhichstatesthegovernment'spositiononreleasinginformationtothegeneralpublicthisdirectivestatesthattheSecretaryofDefenseforPublic Affairsisresponsiblefor: 1. Provid(ing)theAmericanpeoplewithmaximuminformationabouttheDepartmentofDefenseconsistentwithnationalsecurity.
2. Initiat(ing)andsupport(ing)activitiescontributingtowardsgoodrelationsbetweentheDepartmentofDefenseandallsegmentsofthepublicathomeand abroad.(J.W.Fulbright,ThePentagonPropagandaMachine)8
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ThefirststatementbeginswithanassertionthatthePentagonsincerelybelievesthepublichasarighttoknowandsincerelybelievesthatthegovernmenthasadutyto tellthepublicwhatitneedstoknow.Butthisisimmediatelyfollowedbythedisclaimer"consistentwithnationalsecurity,"whichwouldseemtomakeitvirtually impossibletorelease"maximuminformation."Thesecondstatementalsobeginsbygivingprecedenceto"good"publicrelationsbutthisstatementisdisquieting becauseofacovert,implicitmessagethatgoodrelationstakeprecedenceovertruth,sincereleasingunpopularinformationwoulddestroythepublicimageforwhich thePentagonisstriving.Theresult?Wequestionthesincerityclaimplacedintheforegroundinthefirststatement,andthenwebecomesuspiciousofallinformation releasedtousbythePentagon.9 Ratherthanexplicitlystatingwhatwemean,indirectspeechactsservetoimplymeaning.Ineverydaydiscourseindirectspeechactsareusedinfriendly,benign exchanges,suchasaskingforfavorsormakingrequests.Theyareoftenusedtocreateamoodofcooperationtheyareformsoffriendlycoercion.Butindirect speechactsandglobal,textualformsofindirectioncanalsoleadtoproblems.Ifyouaresincerelytryingtoconveymaterialintendedtoinformorinstructyour audience,thenitisbesttoavoidanyformofindirectionasitcanleadtomisdirectionandmiscommunication.Anindirectspeechactalwaysrequiresextracognitive processing.Thisplacesobstaclesinthewayofsuccessfulcommunication,particularlyincaseswherethelistenersorreadersareunfamiliarwiththenuancesand conventionsofthetypeofdiscoursethespeakerorwriterisusing.Forexample,anonnativespeakermayhaveproblemsunderstandingthepoliteformofEnglish questions,andahumanitiesmajormayhaveproblemsreadingaScientificAmericanarticleonrecombinantDNA.Listenersorreadersarerequiredtomake inferences,andtheseinferencesmayleadthemtoentertainpossibleinterpretationsthespeakerorwriterwouldpreferthattheaudiencenotconsider.Indirectioncan createconfusion.Listenersorreadersmaymissthepointandgrowirritated,iftheyfeeltheyareunabletounderstandwhatisbeingcommunicated,oriftheyfeelthat theyarebeingmanipulated. Sometimesthewriterorspeakerdeliberatelymisdirectsorcreatesconfusion.InthecaseofthePentagondirective,thewritermaybe
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bankingonthereadermissingthepointofthecommunique.Thiswouldmeanthatthesincerityconditionwasblatantlyviolated.Inthatcase,therewasnotruedesire tosuccessfullyandeffectivelycommunicateinformation.Theintentofthewriterbecomesofparamountimportancehere(thoughthisisnotanissuetraditionallydealt withinspeechacttheory).Obviouslyaconsciousdesiretodeceivethroughindirectionhasseriousconsequencesitdisruptscommunication.Suchissues,concerning theobligationsofthespeaker,arethesubjectoftheworkofPaulGrice. Grice'sCooperationPrinciple PaulGriceproposedthatifthespeakerandhearerwishtocommunicatesuccessfullyandeffectively,thentheymustcooperate.Hecallsthissharedgoalthe CooperationPrinciple.TheCooperationPrincipleissupportedbyasetofmaximspresentedbyGriceasasetofinstructionswhich,ifobserved,accordingto Grice,willguaranteesuccessfulexecutionofspeechactsandeffectivecommunication. MaximsoftheCooperationPrinciple10 MaximofQuantity: 1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired. 2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired. MaximofQuality: 1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse. 2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence. MaximofRelation: 1.Berelevant. MaximofManner: 1.Avoidobscurity.(Obscurityreferstovaguenessmeaningisunclear.)
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2.Avoidambiguity.(Ambiguityreferstothepossibilityoftwoormorepossiblemeaningsforawordorspanoftext.) 3.Bebrief. 4.Beorderly. MaximofConsistency: 1.Donotcreateinternalinconsistencies. 2.Donotcreateparadoxes(exceptforintentionalrhetoricaleffects.) 3.Avoidoxymorons. Grice'smaximsmustbeupheldifsuccessful,unobscuredcommunicationistooccur.Butthemaximsareoftendeliberatelyfloutedandviolatedinbureaucrateseand advertising,wherethewriteroftenintendstoimpedeorpreventcompleteaccesstothematerial.(ThePentagondirectiveisanexampleofaviolationofthemaximof consistency,sincetheSecretaryofDefensecannotreleasemaximuminformationandprotectnationalsecurityatthesametime,norcanhereleasemaximum informationatalltimesandmaintainapositivepublicimage.)Thus,theaudienceissubtly,andsometimesnonetoosubtly,manipulatedandcoerced. LegaldocumentsareexcellenttextstoanalyzeforbreachesintheCooperationPrinciple.Whilethelanguageoflawyersseemsobscure,lawyersrightlycontendthe jargonisnecessaryinordertobepreciseandtoavoidandcloseloopholes.Yet,thisobscurityalsoservestopreventlaypeoplefromunderstandingcontractsand legalrecords,andthereforeforcesthemtoenlisttheservicesoflawyers,when,forexample,theyhavetosignleases.Lookatthefollowingstatementtypicallyfoundin alease:
IftitleisnotmerchantableandwrittennoticeofdefectisgivenbyLeaseetoLeasoronorbeforeclosingdate,theLeasorshallusereasonableefforttocorrectsaiddefectpriorto dateofclosing.
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Layreaders,whoarenotlawyers,maysensethatthemaximofmannerisviolatedherethelanguageisdeliberatelyobscure,andthesamemessagecouldprobablybe statedmorebrieflyandsimply.Thereadersmayalsofeelthatthewriterhasviolatedthemaximofquantitysincethedocumentdoesnotprovidethemwithenough informationtointerpretthemeaningofthestatement.Youwillfindthatwhenonemaximisviolated,oftenothermaximsareviolatedtoo.Themaximssometimes behavelikearowofdominos:toppleoneandtheothersfollow.Asforthelease,thoughthelanguageisobscureasfarasthelaypersonisconcernedandoneormore maximsappearstobeviolated,thestatewillcallthedocumentpreciselywrittenandlegallybinding. Advertisingalsodeliberatelyfloutsthemaxims.TakeallthosepainrelievercommercialswherewearetoldthatfouroutoffivedoctorsrecommendbrandA.Whatwe arenottoldishowmanydoctorsweresurveyedthousands,hundreds,orten?Wearealsonottoldifthesedoctorsgetfreesamplesfromthecompanythatis promotingthedrug.Ifadoctortakesfreesamplesfromthecompanyandhandsthemouttohispatients,isthatconsideredanendorsement?Themaximofquantityis violatedinallsuchadswearenotgivenenoughinformationtomakeaninformedjudgmentastothevalidityoftheclaimsoftheadvertiser.Griceananalysiscanbe quiteusefulinsuchcases,revealinghowspeakersandwritersdeliberatelyobscurematerial.Let'slookatonefinalexampleofviolatingtheCooperationPrinciple dealingwithreportsbyourmajorTVnetworksthatpossibleassassinationattemptsweretobemadeonhighU.S.governmentofficials.
Lookingoverthenetworks'24reportsabouthitteamsairedontheeveningnewsbetweenNov.25andDec.25,1981,itwaspossibleforviewerstobetoldthat:
Thenumberofhitmenbeingsearchedforwas,variously,three(ABC),five(CBS),(NBC),six(ABC),10(ABC,CBS),12(CBS)or13(NBC). TheassassinshadenteredtheU.S.FromCanada(ABC,CBS).
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VirtuallyallofGrice'smaximsareviolatedinthesenetworkreports.WhatistherelevanceofpersonalhabitsthewearingofAdidasorcowboyboots?Doesthis meanallAmericanaretobesuspiciousof,and
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shouldreport,anyonewholooksMiddleEasternandwhoisdressedinsuchafashion?AndwhatdoesitmatterthatDumas"visited"Phoenix?(Notetheobscurepast tenseofthereference.)Obviously,theseareexamplesofviolationsofthemaximofrelation.Informationonthenumberofhitmenandthenationalityofthemembers violatethemaximsofmanner(beorderly),quality(donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence),andconsistency.Notonlydothethreemajornetworks disagree,buttheycontinuallychangedtheirownreports,thoughsurelytheywouldcallthis"updating"theirnumbers.Iflistenersweretoassumethatafactualevent wasbeingreportedhere,onethatcouldberesearchedandverified,comparingnetworkversionswouldcertainlyconfoundanddisenchantthem.Amassingallthedata presentedbyallthreestationsrevealsthatthereportsintotobreakthemaximsofqualityandmanner.Tosaythehitteamisorisn'tinMexicoisambiguousand revealsthatsomeoneobviouslylacksevidencetomakeanysuchstatement.Themostflagrantviolations,andthemostcontemptuous,arethoseofthemaximsof quality:allthreenetworksareguiltyoffabrication,orofbroadcastingreportsforwhichtheylackadequateevidence.(Themostdamningpieceofevidenceisthatboth NBCandCBSreportedCarlos"theJackal"wasahitteammember.TheJackal,asknowntothegeneralpopulace,isafictionalassassincreatedbyRobertLudlum forhisBournetrilogy.Thisisaflagrantviolationofthemaximofquality.)Byreleasingsuchinformation,thenetworksalsoflagrantlybreakthemaximofquantity, givingmoreinformationthanisrequired.Infact,noinformationneedstobedisseminatedtothepublic,becausethereisnorealstory,andthenetworkshaveactually spuntalltalesandpulled"information''outofthinair. Returningtotheappropriatenessconditionsforspeechacts,wecouldalsosaythatappropriatenessconditionshavealsobeenbreached.Oneofthemostbasic conditions,sincerity,hasbeenviolated.Reynoldscouldnotsincerelybelieveinthemessagehewasconveying.Andsecondly,thebroadcastershaveexploitedthe conventionalprocedure.NewscastscomposeaconventionalgenrethatAmericansaretaughtwillalwaysconveyfactualnotfictionalorspeculative(unlessduly representedassuch)information.Thesebroadcaststookadvantageofthe
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viewers'beliefthatthenetworkshadcompletelyandcorrectlycompliedwiththeestablishedprotocolfornewsreporting. TheCooperationPrincipleanditsmaximsarequitehelpfulindetermininghowwritersespeciallyinadvertising,technicalwriting,journalism,andothertypesof professionalwritingmayeitherunintentionallyordeliberatelyobscurematerialandimpedecommunication.Incaseswherelanguageisdeliberatelyobscuredto coerceormanipulatethereader(asinadvertising,informsofdoublespeak,andinprofessionaljargon),analyzingthetextusingaGriceanmethodcanbequitehelpful indetermininghowskilledwritersmanipulatetheirlanguage.12 WhatPragmaticsOffersTheWriter Pragmaticapproachesareperhapsmostusefultothewriterwhoisrevisingatextoranalyzingafinishedpieceofprose.Aswehaveseen,Griceananalysiscanbe usedtostudyhowthemediacanmanipulateitsaudience,anditcanbeusedtoexplainwhyatextmayfailtocommunicatethewriter'sintendedmeaning.Themaxims areeasytolearnandusesincetheyareclearlywrittenasasetofsimpleinstructions.Don'tworryaboutdeterminingwhetheryouhave"violatedthemaximofquality" rather,followtheinstructionstochecktoseeifastatementisirrelevantorifyoulacktheevidencetosupportaclaim.Suchobservationsshouldhelpyoutorefocus yourargument.Thesetofmaxims,asawhole,offersthewriterasetofguidelines,especiallyusefulduringtherevisingprocess,bywhichtoidentifypotential problematicstatements. Pragmaticsacknowledgestheconventional,socialcomponentofthelanguagesituation.Successfulwritersmustbeawareofthepragmaticfeaturesofcommunication, suchasthosethatwehavediscussedhere,iftheyaretowritetextsthatwillsuccessfullyconveytheirmessages.Experiencedcommunicatorsandwritersinspecialized fieldsoftenforgetthatnovicewritersandreadersmustbetaughttheconventionsofthatfield.Forexample,theconsumerwhopurchaseshisfirstcomputerhastobe taughthowtoreadacomputerinstructionmanualhemustlearnwhathecanexpectfromthemanualandhowbesttouseit.Aswriters,weoweittoouraudienceto becomefamiliarwiththe
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conventionsandcircumstancesthepragmaticdimensionsofthesituationforwhichwearewriting.Forwhomarewewriting?Whatexpectationswilltheyhave?13 Whataretheconventionsofthegenreinwhichwearewriting?Wemustaskourselvessuchquestionsandconsiderthepragmaticaspectsgoverningthetypeof discourseinwhichweareengaging,ifwewanttoproducetextsthatareacceptableforthegivensituationandthatmeettheneedsofourreaders.14 LimitationsofPragmaticApproaches Pragmaticsoccupiesaninterestingnicheinlinguisticstudies.Itisthefirstfieldwithinlinguisticstoattempttoexaminethoughinanidealistic,abstractmannerthe interpersonalparametersoflanguage.Butatthesametime,speechacttheoryhastriedtoremainaprecise,logicbasedapproachbywhichtheoristscanconstruct structuraldescriptionsofclassesandtypesofspeechacts.Thesegoalspresentaparadoxforlinguists:howaretheytoaccountforinterpersonalandcircumstantial aspectsoflanguagethatareinfinitelydiverse,andatthesametimeconstructananalytical,systematicapproachfordealingwithspeechacts(i.e.,ataxonomythat wouldclassifyallutterances).Amindbogglingtaskindeed,andtheresults?Speechacttheoryhasgenerallydealtwith1)singlespeechactsorasingleexchange betweenspeakerandhearersuchasquestionanswer,requestreply,or2)fairlyconventionalspeechactsituationsandtextssuchasthefirstfewexchangesofa telephonecall,greetings,orderingfromamenu,andhighlystructured,short,simplenarratives(suchasthosetoldbychildren). Theparadoxpresentedbypragmaticstudiesinspiredtheinceptionofanewlinguisticbranch,sociolinguistics.Thesociolinguist'smainconcernisthesocial, interpersonal,andsituationalaspectsoflanguage.Aswelookatsociolinguisticsinthenextchapter,youwillseethatAustin'sappropriatenessconditionscanbe consideredthegerminatingseedofthisnewbranchoflinguistics.Insociolinguistics,theconditionsareexpandedanddelineatedingreatdetailtoallowforamore seriousinquiryintothemoreelusiveinterpersonalandsocialaspectsoflanguage.
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Applications 1.Whatappropriatenessconditionisbrokenineachofthefollowingcases? a.Someonesays,"Ithankyouforwhatyouareabouttodo." b.Ahusbandcomeshomeandannounceshehasjustacceptedaninvitationtoworkoutwithhisbossatthehealthclubtonight,havingforgottenhehadpromised totakehiswifeoutonthetownoveraweekago.Sheiswearingalavisheveningdressandobviouslyspenttwohoursonhermakeupandhair.Afterhemakes hisannouncement,shereplies,"Oh,gorightahead.It'snobigdeal.Ireallydon'tmind." c.Ateacher,knowingthatastudenthasbeenunabletofinishtheessayduetoday,callsonthatstudenttoreadhisessayinfrontoftheclass. 2.Streetsignsoftenrelyonconventionalknowledge.Tourists,inparticular,mightbemomentarilyconfusedbysuchsignsas:15 a.SignpostedinGerman'sBlackForest:"ItisstrictlyforbiddenonourBlackForestcampingsitethatpeopleofdifferentsex,forinstance,menandwomen,live togetherinonetentunlesstheyaremarriedwitheachotherforthatpurpose."Whatmaximisviolated? b.SigninaJapanesehotel:"Youareinvitedtotakeadvantageofthechambermaid."Whatmaximisviolated? c.SignonatrashreceptacleinEngland:"Pleaselitter."Whatappropriatenesscondition(s)doesthesigndependonifthereaderistoproperlydecodethe message? 3.ThefollowingexcerptisfromanationallydistributedsurveybytheRepublicanNationalCommitteeonReaganAdministrationDefenseStrategy.Thedirectionsand fourselectedquestionsfromtheoriginalsevenquestionsaregivenhere.Allquestionsrequiredtherespondenttocheckoffyes,no,orundecided. a.Whatmaximsareviolatedinthefollowingtext?
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Directions:Answereachquestion,thenreturnthisforminthepostagepaidenvelope.Soasnottoprejudiceyourresponses,pleasedonotreadtheRepublican positionslistedattheendofthissurveyuntilyouhavecompletedyouranswers.OnlytotalresultswillbereleasedtoReaganAdministrationandPartyofficials. 1)DoyousupportappropriationsformodernizingourdefenseswhichbecamedangerouslyobsoleteasaresultofcutbacksbytheCarter/Mondale administration? 2)DoyousupportanuclearfreezebytheUnitedStates,whetherornottheSovietsdothesame? 3)DoyouagreewithDemocratswhosaythatSoviet/CubaneffortstotoppleproWestgovernmentsinCentralAmericaposenodirectthreattoU.S. security? 4)TheSovietshaveamassedthelargestnavalforceintheworldandhaveincreasedthenumberofsubmarinespatrollingtheU.S.coast.ShouldtheU.S. NavyreceivemorefundingtoreplaceouragingseaforceandbuildmoreTridentnuclearsubmarines? b.Areanyappropriatenessconditionscompromisedbythissurvey?
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9 Sociolinguistics:LanguageandtheCommunityofIndividuals
Arulegovernedsystemisjustonebaseofknowledgewerelyuponwhenconstructingourdiscourse.1Inotherwords,grammaralonedoesnotofferallthe informationweneedtoknowinordertospeakorwriteineverygivensituation.Why,forexample,isitappropriatetoyell"hello"toattractafriend'sattentionwhenhe isstandingacrossthestreet,butnottogreetapriestatthebeginningofmassinthesamemanner?Othertacitknowledge,besidesgrammar,isnecessaryifweareto communicateeffectivelyinthenumeroussituationsthatwefindourselvesineveryday.Theinterpersonalsituationitselfprovidesacontextwhichlimitsthetypesof verbalandwrittenexchangesthatwilloccur.Sociolinguisticsaddressesthequestionsofhowweappropriatelygaugeinterpersonalandsituationalfactorstoensurethat whatwesayandwritewillbeinterpretedasweintend.Sociolinguisticsattemptstoidentifyandunderstandthemultitudeofcomplexhumanfactorsaffecting communication:factorssuchashowwhoweare,whatwebelieve,andwhatattitudesweholdaffectwhatwesayandhowwesayit.Moreover,sociolinguistsalso studyhowourgestures,behaviors,tone,
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andstyleofspeakingandwritingcontributetotheactofcommunication. TheSocialSituationandtheSpeechCommunity Inpreviouschapterswherethetextwasourprimaryconcern,ourabilitytosuccessfullycommunicateseemedtobedeterminedbyourmasteryoftherulegoverned systemofourlanguage.Astudyofdiscoursefromsuchaperspectivenotonlyemphasizesgrammar,itconcentratesonthereferentialaspectoflanguage,how languagereferstorealworldobjectsandevents.Theemotionalaspectofdiscourseisignored:thepsychologicalstateofthespeakerandlistener(i.e.,participants' personalandsocietalmotivesforinteractingandattitudesaffectingtheirwillingnesstocommunicate)aswellasthetoneandmannerofthespeaker(e.g.,serious, jesting,orsarcastic)receivenoattention.Whenwelookedatthepeoplecommunicating,theyremainedidealized.Consequently,welookedonlyatconventionally definedintentsandgoals,suchasaskingafavorormakingapromise.Underlyingsuchatraditionalapproacharetheassumptionsthatallpeopleinvolvedintheactof communicatinghavethesamelanguagecompetence2andbelongtoanidealized,homogeneouslanguagecommunity.Thismeansthateverypersonwhospeaks (American)English,speaksthesameEnglish:weallcananddousethesamegrammaticalstructures(exceptwhenweinadvertentlymakeamistake),andweuse thesesamestructuresallthetime,athome,atwork,atplay.However,asweknowfromexperience,thisisnotthecase. Languagealwaysservestofurthertheneedsofthepeopleengagedincommunication,whetherbycomforting,instructing,seducing,orinforming.Evenifyouspeakto yourself,inwhichcaseyouarebothsenderandaudience,youaresatisfyingapersonalneedtoexpressyouremotionsorto"hearyourselfthink."Sociolinguists acknowledgethateachlanguagespeakerhasarepertoireofstylesor"waysofspeaking"thatservevariousneedsthesestylesvarydependingonwhothespeakeris, wherethespeakeris(thelockerroomortheboardroom),andwhotheintendedrecipientis(aloverorboss).Weareseenasparticipatinginmanyspeech communitiesandadaptingourlanguageforeachparticular
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situationandaudience.Forexample,ablackinnercityyouthattendingPrincetonmaybeableto"rap"withthekidsdownthestreetduringsummervacationbutwill speakmoreformal"StandardEnglish"whenhisprofessorcallsonhiminclass.Situationsinwhichwecommunicatearenotgovernedbyanestablishedsetofrules rathertheyserveascontextsthathelptodefineandcircumscribethekindsofdiscoursethatwilltakeplace. Thespeechsituationisbothaphysicalsettingthetimeandplaceaswellasapsychologicalsetting.Thepsychologicalsettingissociallydeterminedandcanbe consideredtheoverallmoodoratmosphereserious,festive,formal,casual,andthelike.Whilethenumberofpossiblediscoursesthatcanpossiblyoccurseemsas infiniteasthenumberofverbalandwrittenexchangesweengagein,onceaspeechsituationisidentified,notallimaginablecombinationsoftopics,channels,genres, andtonesandmannersofaddressinganaudiencecanoccur.Onceeitherthesituationorparticipantsareidentified,theinfinitevariablesbecomefinitethen,only certaincombinationsofdiscoursefeaturesarepossible.Now,wecanbegintodescribetheparticularspeechsituation. SPEAKING DellHymesidentifiedasetoffundamental,interpersonalcomponents ofcommunication.TheseelementsarepresentedunderthemnemonicSPEAKINGwhichstandsfor: SSituation:Thisincludesboththephysicalsettingtimeandplaceaswellaspsychologicalsettingmoodoratmospheree.g.,serious,festive,formal,casual, andthelike. PParticipants:Thisincludesthepersonwhosendsthemessage(speakerorwriter)aswellastheaudience(thelistener[s]orreader[s]).Thismayinclude (demographic)informationabouttheirsocialstatusandposition(heldordesired),ethnicity,age,sex,vocation,aswellasinformationabouttheirattitudes.
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EEnds:Thisincludesthegoalsthatthoseengagedinthecommunicationintendtoaccomplishandanyunexpectedoutcomes. AActSequence:Thisincludesthecontentwhatissaid(topic)andformhowitissaid(grammaticalusageandwordchoice)ofthemessage. KKey:Thisincludesthetoneandmannerinwhichthecommunicationisperformed,includingserious,mocking,ironic,sarcastic,andperfunctory. ITheInstrumentalities:Theseincludethechannelsandstyles.Channelisthemodeofdelivery,includingspoken,sung,written,telegraphed,orsigned.Styleisa measureofhowformalorintimatethespeaker'slanguageisbaseduponthesituationandwhoisbeingspokento. NNormsofInterpretation:Thisincludesthedeterminationofwhatbehaviorsareacceptableinparticularspeechcommunities.FormiddleclassAmericansthis includessuchthingsasinsertingfillerswhenyouhesitate(e.g.,"uh,""youknow").Forblacksthismayincluderecyclingbacktothebeginningofanutterance(a practicemanywhitesunjustlyviewasadefectinspeech).Thisalsoincludesissuesofhowmucheyecontactisappropriatebetweenparticipants,howclosetheymay standorsit,andwhethertheycantoucheachotherwhilespeakingthesefactorsvaryfromclasstoclass,andculturetoculture. GGenre:Thesearethecategoriesbywhichwerecognizespokenandwrittentypesofdiscourse,includingeditorials,proposals,lectures,romancenovels,mystery novels,letters,etc.3 SPEAKINGoffersthewriteracompendiumofconsiderationsbeyondthecontextualmaterialofthetext.Theseconsiderationsarebestformulatedasaseries ofquestionsthewritercancontemplatewhilewritingandevaluatingthetext'seffectiveness: S:Isthetextappropriateforthesituation? P:Whoisyourintendedaudience?(Demographicallycharacterizethemandconsidertheirneeds.)4Isthecommunicationgeared
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fortheintendedaudience?Isthevocabularyappropriatetotheirlevelofknowledge?Istheinformationpresentedinamannertheywillunderstand?Forexample, givingcomputerspecificationsinauser'smanualisinappropriate,sincetheuserwillnotunderstandthatmaterialandmaydevelopanxietyaboutusingcomputers, ifheisledtobelievethatusingthecomputerrequiressuchtechnicalknowledge. E:Arethegoalsofyourcommunicationclear?Doyoumakeclearwhatyouwanttheaudiencetodo,learn,orconsiderafterreadingyourtext?Haveyouanticipated unexpectedresponsestheymayhavetowhatyouhavewritten?Forexample,ifyouinadvertentlyinsultedyourreaders'intelligencebygivingtoomuchelementary information,youmaycausethemtoreacthostilelytowardyouandyourproposal. A:Arethegrammarandformofthecommunicationcorrectandappropriatefortheaudience?Arethetopicseasytoidentify? K:Isyourtoneappropriate?Doyousoundcondescendingorunsureofyourself?Ishumorappropriate?Doanecdotesanddigressionsaddtothepresentationor makeyousoundunprofessional? I:Isthestyleanddegreeofformalitychosenappropriatefortheaudience?Forexample,theformalstyleofascientificjournalarticleshouldbetoneddownbeforeitis deliveredataconference(perhapsaddingmorepersonalpronounsandusinglessstatisticalinformation).Anoralpresentationislessformalthanawrittenarticle. N:Isthereanything,inthemannerinwhichyoupresentyourinformation,thatmayoffendyouraudience,suchasassumedfamiliarityor(unintended)sexismor racism? G:Haveyouchosenthecorrectgenreforyourintendedaudienceandobservedtherulesofthegenreinwhichyouarewriting?Forexample,inaconversationpeople taketurnsspeaking.Ifyoudonotallowtheotherpersontospeak,hemaybecomeirritated.Or,ifyouwriteabusinesslettertocolleaguesatyour
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placeofbusiness,theymayconsidertheletterathreat,sincealessformalinterdepartmentalmemoisperceivedtobetheappropriatemodeofcommunication. Thesequestionstouchuponmajorsociolinguisticconcernsandwillhelpwriterstoconsidertheinterpersonalfacetsofeffectivecommunication. ParticipantInteractionStylesofAccommodation Inadditiontochoosingastyleofwritingappropriateforouraudience,wemustalsobaseourchoiceofstyleonhowwewishtobeperceived.Asawriter,youselect amannerinwhichtopresentyourselfthatwillaccommodateyourownintentionsandyouraudience'sneedsandtheirpossibleresponsestowhatyouintendto communicate.Wecansaythatthewriterchoosesastyleofaccommodation.Inchoosingastyle,youmustconsiderhowyourtone,manner,andattitudesaswellas thereaders'loyalties,mood,andattitudeswillaffectthecommunication.5Accommodationtheoryemphasizesthefactthatcommunicationisaninteractiveprocessthe participants'attitudestowardeachotherandtherapporttheydevelop,orlackthereof,haveadirecteffectontheoutcomeofthecommunication. Youwillchooseastyleofaccommodationbasedonwhatyouperceivetobeyourrightsandresponsibilitiesinthecommunicativeexchangeaswellaswhatrightsand responsibilitiesyouhaveassignedtoyourreaders.Youwillalsochoosea"facetoputforth,"a"publicface,"towinyouraudience'sapproval,andatthesametime youwillneedtomaintaina"privateface"toprotectyourrighttowritewhatyouseefit.Awritermustfindtheappropriatestyletogainaudienceapprovalwithout compromisingself.6Faceismostevidentintheformalityofaddressandthedegreeofpolitenessthewriteruses.Faceisindicatedbytheformsofaddress,sentence length,vocabulary,andsyntax.(Passivesyntaxiserroneouslybelievedtobemoreformal,whenitsimplydistancestheaudiencebycreatingobtuseprose.)Writers andreadersalsochoosethe"footing"onwhichtheyengageoneanother.Asawriter,
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youtakeonaroledeterminedbytheamountofauthorityyouwishtoclaimforyourwork.Youcanpresentyourselfasa''reciter"whosimplyreportssomeoneelse's wordsorasthe"author"whoselectstheinformationpresentedandwhoclaimstobeanauthorityonwhatissaid.Theaudiencecanalsotakeonanumberofdifferent roles,includingpassivelisteneroractivechallenger.Thetoneandmanner(keyandinstrumentalities)youadoptinyourwritingoffercuesaboutthefootingyou perceiveyourselftobeonwithyourreaders.7 Accommodationtheorydoesnotprovideawriterwithaseriesofrulesforinstantsuccessincommunication.Yet,usingthisapproach,asetofquestionscanbe devisedthatwillhelpyoutogaugetherapportyouhaveestablishedwithyouraudience.Thesequestionsarebestaskedduringtheprewritingandrevisingstages. 1.Whatdoyouexpecttheattitudeofyouraudiencetobe:passive,challenging,skeptical,oreagerforyourcommunication? 2.Howhaveyoupresentedyourselfinthetext?Doesthefaceandfootingyouchooseforyourselfencouragetheattitudeyouwishtoelicitfromyouraudience?Isthe mannerinwhichyoupresentyourselfappropriate?(Areyouauthoritativewithoutseemingoverbearing?) 3.Whatattitudedoesyourtextencourage?Doyouhavetoattempttochangetheattitudeofyouraudiencetomakethemwillingtoengagetheinformationpresented inyourtext?(Informationthatmayhelpyoutonegotiatewithyouraudienceappearslaterinthischapter,inthesectiononplans.) Youshouldkeeptherelationshipbetweenthewriterandreaderinmindwhenyoudesigntexts.Thoughyoumaynothavetoexplicitlydealwithreaders'attitudesin thetext,theformsofaddress("we"includestheaudience,whereas"you"canbeattimesinvitingandatothertimesaccusatoryanddistancing)andthesyntaxand grammaryouchoose(precisegrammarandpassivesyntaxsignifyformalityanddistancetheaudience)offerimplicitcuesaboutthefaceyouhavechosenandthe
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footingyoubelieveyouareonwithyouraudience.This,inturn,willaffecthowreaderswillrespondtoyourtext.Asawriter,howyouperceiveyouraudienceand wantthemtoviewyouarealwaysrevealedbythemannerinwhichyoupresentyourselfandyourmaterial. EvaluatorsandIntensifiersCluestotheSpeaker'sorWriter'sAttitude Evaluatorsandintensifiersarewordsandphrasesthatindicateandcontributetothekeyandstyle(instrumentalities)ofapieceofprose.Evaluatorsandintensifiersare notpartofthefactualcontentofwhatthewriterispresentingandare,therefore,notessentialtothedevelopmentofthetopicofdiscourse.Rather,theyareaformof commentarythatweavesthroughoutthetext,indicatingwhichpointsarebeingemphasized,highlightingthewriter'sattitudetowardtheinformationbeingpresented.8 Forexample,ifafriendsaystoyou,"Ihaveagreatjob,"hehasnotgivenyouanyfactualinformationaboutwhathedoeshehassimplyexpressedhissatisfaction withhisjob.Manyevaluatorsandintensifierscanoccurwithinsentences:ashiftinverbtense,repetitionofawordorphrase,qualifyingwordsandphrasessuchas "best,""very"emphaticssuchas''do"(in"Idowanttogo"or"Idobelieveit"),andcomparators("er,""est,""more,"and"most"formsofadjectives)negativessuch as"no"and"not"andmodalverbssuchas"may,""could,"and"might."Howyouuseevaluatorsandintensifierswillgivethereaderasenseofyourlevelof confidence,sincerity,andattitudetowardboththeinformationyouareconveyingandyouraudience.Evaluatorsandintensifiersareaprominentfeatureinadvertising andmarketing,inspeechesandpersuasivearguments. Considerhowashiftintenseworksasanevaluator.Inexpositorywriting,ashiftintensemaysignalthatthewriterisdigressingorhasaddedmaterialthatis nonessential:ifthetextiswritteninpresenttense,thewritermayshifttopasttensetoofferananecdote,testimonial,orsometypeofbackgroundinformation.Ashiftin tensemayalsosignalthatthewriterisgivingheightenedsignificancetoaparticularpoint:ifthetextiswritteninpasttense,ashifttopresent(e.g.,"andthatisthe
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Theonlyfactsinthisadare:thereisanewdetergentcalledDudzee,andonlyonetablespoonisrequiredtodoaloadofwash.Thetestimonialstylesignaledbythe shiftfrompresenttenseinthefirstsentencetopasttenseinthesecondisrhetoricintendedtoselltheproduct.Repetitionisobviouslyused"whites,""whiter,"and "brighter"arerepeatedtotryandconvinceyouthatthisdetergentisbetterthanothers."Whiter,"''brighter,"and"cleanest"areexamplesofcomparativeforms. "Improved"alsocreatesacomparison,butwhatDudzeeisanimprovementoverorhowithasbeenimprovedisnotstated.(Infact,"new"and"improved"couldbe consideredcontradictory.)Suchdeletionsofnecessaryinformation,orhedging,arecommonevasivetacticsofadvertising.Anothercomparisonismadeusingthe negative"it'snotlikealltheothers,"andagainthecriteriaforcomparisonismissing.Certainqualifyingphrasessuchas"youhaveeverseen"addemphasis,sincesuch aphrasepacksmoreofapunchthan"youhaveseen."Thetestimonialendsbyshiftingfrompresenttofuturetensethestatement"youwillbeamazed"isthefinal attempttocoaxtheconsumertobuytheproduct.Whilethemajorityoftheadvertisement,thetestimonial,isinpasttense,themainmessageoftheadvertisement,buy theproduct,ishighlightedbytheuseofpresentandfuturetenseinthefirstandlastsentences("trynew,improvedDudzee"and"youwillbeamazed"). Theuseofintensifiersandevaluatorsinwritingisextremelyimportant.Theycreateatonethatmayengagetheaudienceorputpeopleoff.Theappearanceoftoo manyevaluatorsburiestheinformation,andthe
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prosemaysoundtootentative,toodramatic,orincredulous.Overuseofqualifyingwordsandphrasesandemphaticssuchas"probably,""possibly,""perhaps," "maybe,"and"Idobelieve''revealsindecisiveness,underminesauthority,andinadvertentlyweakensprose.Awritercanalsouseevaluatorstocreateatonethat soundsoverbearingandarrogantforexample,"itwouldbeabsolutelyabsurdtoconsideranypositionotherthanmine,"or"Iamassuredlycorrectinmakingthat statement."Suchphrasesstrewnthroughoutatextcanbedisastrousthereadermayquicklydecidetoseekalesspompousandegotisticalwriter'sperspectiveonthe subject.Thereisalsoaproblemiftoofewqualifiersoccur.Byfailingtoinsertthenecessaryorcorrectqualifier,awriterbecomesguiltyofovergeneralization:saying thatafactistrueof"all"whenitis,infact,trueofa"few,""some,"or"most." Byrecognizinghowevaluatorsareusedinprose,wecanbegintoanalyzehowtherhetoricofadvertising,propaganda,andpersuasivewritingworks.Evaluatorscan beexploitedbyskilledwritersinordertohedge,whentheylacksufficientfactsorwhenthefactsappeartosupportaperspectiveotherthantheirown.Bysaying "maybe,""perhaps,""itispossible,"or"webelieve"writersprotectthemselvesfromchargesoflibel,sincetheydonotassertthatthestatementstheyhavemade representthetruth.(Forexample,awritercouldstatethat"itispossiblethatthepresidenthasdefectedtoRussia."Anythingispossible,thoughsomethingsarehighly improbable.Oftenthisishowgossipcolumnsandragsheetsgetawaywithprintingmanyoftheirscoopsandstories.Seealsotheexcerptfrom"WhyAmericanTVIs SoVulnerabletoForeignPropaganda"inchapter8.)Ifwritersastutelyuseevaluators,theycanmakehighlysuspectcommentsandevenavoidlegalrecourse.The choiceofhowyouqualifyyourinformationis,intheend,apersonalandethicalone. Allwritersuseevaluatorsandintensifiersintheirprosetostressoremphasizecertainpoints.Thesedevicescanbeusedresponsibly,ortheycanbeusedtomanipulate readers.Beconsciousofhowyouuseevaluatorsandintensifiersconsiderhowtheappearanceofthesedeviceswillaffecthowyouraudiencewillreadandrespond toyourtext.
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DealingWithExperience:ScriptsandSchemas Scriptsandschemasprovideuswith"structuresofexpectations"thathelpustodealwiththeexperiencesweencountereveryday.Wecallupthesestructuresthat arebasedonoldexperiencesandstoredinlongtermmemorytodealwithtypical,dailyeventsandcommonoccurrences,suchasorderinginarestaurant,writinga labreport,orinvitingsomeoneout.Structuresofexpectationsarebuiltonculturalandinstitutionalinformationthatwehavecollectedthroughoutourlivesaboutthe appropriatenessofvariousactionsandwordsindifferentsituationstheyareastoreofsharedsocialknowledgethatpeopleinagivenculturecarryintheirmemories. Whenweexperienceaseriesofsituationsthatseemalike,werecognizeactionsandutterancesthatwehaverepeatedandthatweresociallyacceptablewethenstore informationinmemoryabouthowtoactinthattypeofsituationasageneralizedepisode.Inotherwords,astructureofexpectationsisacompendium,whichtakesthe formofanabstractedorgeneralizedsituation,createdbyfirstexperiencingandthenprocessingspecific,similarevents.Onceastructurehasbeenformed,thenext timeweencounterasimilarsituation,wedonothavetoworkashardtointerpretorprocessthenewinformationbeingpresentedbecausewecancallupthescripts andschemasstoredinmemorytoguideus.Becausescriptsandschemasareevokedbasedonourabilitytorecognizethatanexperiencesharessignificantfeatures withpreviousones,scriptsandschemasonlyhelpustohandlestereotypicalorcommonlyencounteredsituations.Inaddition,sinceourscriptsandschemasarebased onsharedculturalunderstandingaboutourworld,thesestructuresnotonlyhelpustodeterminewhichofouractionswillbeviewedassociallyacceptable,butalso helpustodeterminewhatwecanappropriatelysayorwrite. Scripts Scriptsaredesignedspecificallytohelpuspredictandinterpretaneventsequence,aseriesofactionsandutterances,thatcouldbecollectivelycalledanactivity.For example,the"eatingoutatarestaurant"event
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includesordering,havingfoodbroughttoyou,eating,andpayingthecheck.Ascriptisaprogrammatic,standardsequencethattypifiesagivenactivityorsituation suchasansweringthephoneorbuyinggroceries.Aparticularscriptisactivatedwhencertainkeyconceptsofasituationarerecognized.Thesekeyconceptsgenerally involvespecificallyidentifyingthesituationorakeyaction(i.e.,pickingupgroceriesinagrocerystore)and/oridentifyingtherolesoftheparticipants(i.e.,theclerkat thecheckoutandthepurchaser).Scriptsareintendedtodescribehowpeopleactuallybehavewhenengagedintheevents(theirbehavior)aswellashowweexpect themtobehave(theirattitude).9 Quitecommonly,asituationmayinvokemorethanonescript,butthisisaminorproblemthatisquicklyresolvedasweprocessinformationaboutthesituation. ImaginethatyouaretravelinginEuropeforthesummer,notonlytoseeEuropebutalsohopingforsomeromanticadventure.YouenterthediningcaroftheOriental ExpressasitlumbersthroughthepicturesqueandromanticSwissAlps.Yousitdowntohavelunch,andasinglepersonoftheoppositesexaskstojoinyou.You gesturetowardtheseatnexttoyou,asyourmindracesthroughthepotentialscriptsfortheconversationthatmaysoonensue.Possiblescriptsinclude"getting acquaintedconversation,""travelingconversation,""orderingandeatinglunchconversation,"and"romanceconversation."Often,atthebeginningofacommunicative encounteravarietyofscriptsarepossible,andtheparticipants'attitudesandbehaviorwilllargelydeterminewhichscriptisfinallychosen.Ingeneral,onescriptis chosentopredominateforagivenamountoftime,thoughlatertheparticipantsmayshifttoanother.Continuingourstory,youmaybothorderyourfood,thenshiftto a"gettingacquaintedscript"todetermineifthepotentialforaromanticencounterexists.Attitudesandbehaviorcomeintoplay:Doesyournewacquaintancesignal interestinromancebymakingflirtatiouscomments,drawingnearerasyouspeak,orsuddenlyedgeawayfromyouasifresentingyouradvances?Havingaskedafew questionstogetacquainted,youmayhavediscoveredthatyourfellowtravelerissimplyawelldressed,fasttalkingsocialitewhofreeloadsoffofvariousrelatives. Youmaydecideyoudonotwanttopursuethisrelationshipanyfurther.Changingyourtoneofvoice,shiftingthe
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topicofdiscourse,andinchingawaywillallconveythemessagethatyouareshiftingscripts.Youmaythenpulloutyourmapsandyourtripdiaryandengageinthe "travelingconversationscript"orcommentonthefoodandengagein"lunchconversation,"signalingthataromancescriptisnolongeranoption.10 Scenariosarescriptsforwrittentexts.Whereasscriptsdealwithcommunicationingeneral,writersusescenariostodesigntextsthatareeasierforreadersto understand.11Inotherwords,awritercanimplicitlyevokeaschemathatthereaderprobablyhasalreadystoredinmemoryorexplicitlydevelopascenariointhetext tohelpthereaderformanewscenario(orexpanduponanalreadyexistingscenario).Thescenario,likeascript,isdeterminedbythesituationwhotheaudienceis andthepurposeofthetextanditwillprovideparametersconcerningwhatthewritershouldincludeinthattypeoftextandsituation.Forexample,manyofusare familiarwiththescenarioforscientificjournalarticles: ScenarioforScientificArticles12 1.Introduction(andreviewofliterature)section(s): a)astatementoftheproblemtobeinvestigatedincludingahypothesisthatindicatestheinvestigators'proposedsolutions b)reasonsforlookingatthisparticularproblem c)reviewofearlierattemptstodealwiththeproblem 2.Methodologysection a)materialsalistofinstrumentsand/orconditionsnecessarytotestorimplementthesolution b)procedureastepbystepguideforperformingtheexperimentorimplementingthesolution 3.DataandResultssectionapresentationoftestingand/oroftheresearchers'implementationofasolution,includingstatisticalanalysis 4.Discussionand/orConclusionsection(s)includesinterpretationandqualificationofresults,inferences,andtheoreticalim
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plications.Thissectionwillusuallyplacethesolutionintoalargercontextbeyondthespecificquestionaddressedbythisparticularexperiment.Itmayalsoinclude directionsforfurtherresearchanddiscussconsequencesofresearchintermsofitsimpactonotherresearch. Ifthewriterissuccessfulinevokingascenario,thenthereaderwillrelyuponthatscenariowhilereadingthetext. Ascenarioapproachisparticularlyusefulindesigningandrevisingtechnicaldocumentssuchasinstructionalmanuals.Inusingthescenarioapproach,emphasisis placedonanticipatingtheaudience'sneeds:whatwillthereaderneedtoknowtoperformtheactivity?Togenerateorelicitscenariosforreaders,thewritershould organizetextheadings(andtopicsentences)aroundtheaction.13Organizingheadingsandtopicsentencesaroundtheactionemphasizesthereader'sroleandthe actionstobeperformed,andidentifiestheparticularsituationinwhichtheactionstakeplace.Writersshouldalsotrytoanticipatethereader'squestionsandconsider turningthesequestionsintoheadings.Whileexperiencedwritersintuitivelyknowwhenandwhatrelevantinformationismissing,whenintuitionfails,thefollowinglist maybehelpfulindetermininghowtoreviseatexttoincludeinformationareadermayrequire: 1.Informationonthereader'sroleandactionsabouttobeperformed. 2.Identificationoftheresultsorgoalsdesired. 3.Asequentiallyorganizedlistofactionsthatexplainshowtoaccomplishthegoal.Thismayincludeanexplanationofthereasonsforandtheconsequencesofeach action,andalternativepathsforachievingthegoaliftheprimarysequencefails. 4.Informationaboutpreconditionsnecessarytobegintheactivityortouseanobject.Thismayincludeexplainingwhytheactionistobeperformed. 5.Informationonhowtousetheequipmentneeded. 6.Informationoncommonproblemsthatmightarise.
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7.Anoverview,beforethedetailedlistofactions,thatsetsupaseriesofexpectationsandsubgoals. 8.Analogiesthatexplainhowtheactivityorobjectbeingusedresemblesother,morefamiliarones,aswellasexamplesofhowtheobjectcanbeused.14 (Areadermayneedalloronlysomeofthisinformation,dependingonhispriorknowledgeandhisinvestmentintheactivity.) Schemas Aschemaisadynamicandcomplexknowledgestructurethatisactivatedtohelpusdealwithagivensituation.15Aswithascript,aschemaisactivatedtodealwitha typicalsituation,andakeyconcept(orconcepts)isrequiredtoactivatethewholeschema.Butunlikescripts,whichdealwithsequentialactivitiesoreventsand representinformationinthatsameway,informationstoredinschemasisorganizedhierarchicallyand/orspatially.Aschemaislikeathreedimensionalspider'sweb whereeachjunctureofthreadscontainsabitofinformation.Considerawebfor"geometry."Eachnodewouldgiveinformationonaparticularterm,suchasaxioms, corollaries,theorems(storedtogetherinonepartofthewebasaspectsofproofs),isoscelestriangles,hexagons,orplanes(storedtogetherinanotherpartoftheweb asfigures). Hierarchicalandspatialschemasarebelievedtobethemethodbywhichexpertsstoreknowledgeintheirparticularfield,sincesuchschemasaremoreflexibleand efficient,allowingforagreaternumberofrelationsamongtheitemsofinformation,andthereforeprovidingagreaternumberofwaysofaccessingthestored information.Thisresultsinfasterprocessingandcomprehensionofincominginformation.Sinceexpertsstoreknowledgeinvariouskindsofvisual,spatialarrays,they oftenpreferthatinformationbepresentedingraphicformssuchastables,matrices,maps,graphs,hierarchies,andnetworksthatmirrortheschemasintheirminds.16 Aformischosenthatsuitsthespecifictypeofinformation.Forexample,tablesmaybethebestmethodforexhibitingthevariousqualitiesofoneitemorfor comparingalimitedsetofitems.Expertisedevelopsfromworkingwithmaterialuntilit
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becomesfamiliar,whilesimultaneouslyformingorexpandingschemasbywhichtostorethatmaterial.Theschemasformedaredynamictheycontinuetodevelopas newmaterialisaddedtothem.Laypeopleandnovicesdonotpossessschemasforunderstandingunfamiliarmaterialinspecializedfields.Astheyarerepeatedly exposedtoinformation,andasthatinformationbeginstoberecognizedasfamiliar,theywillbeingtodevelopschemas. Oftenawritermayfinditusefultoincludeavisualrepresentationofmaterialinthetexttoreinforcethewrittenmaterial.Becauseavisualdisplay(atable,graph, schematicpicture,etc.)isofteneasiertocomprehendthanawrittenexplanation,suchadisplaymayhelpthenovicetobegintoformschemasliketheexperts'.But keepinmindthattheselectionofthetypeofvisualdisplayisextremelyimportant,sincechoosingthewronggraphicarraycanimpedecomprehensionirritatingthe expertandconfusingthelaypersonjustaschoosingthecorrectgraphiccanfacilitatecomprehension. Plans:WhenScriptsandSchemasFail Inanewsituation,wecannotdependonstructuresofexpectationsformedforsituationsandeventswehavealreadyencountered.Whenwelackascriptorother structureofexpectations,plansarethedefaultorbackupstrategiesweusetoapproachthenewsituation.Tocreateaplan,wefirstascertainourgoalinthegiven situation,andwethenattempttoconstructastrategyforachievingit. Wedoinfacthavesomestandardplansthatweuseforapproachingcertaintypesorcategoriesofproblems.Plansnotonlyhelpustodetermineourchoiceofactions inagivensituation,theymayalsosuggestwritingoptionsusefulfordealingwithasituationorproblem.Letuslookatausefulplanfornegotiatingagoal.Weallfind thatweoftenneedstrategiesfornegotiatingvarioussituations.Youmaywanttoconvinceyourspousetogotothemovieyouwanttosee,getyourkidstodochores, orpersuadeafriendorcolleaguetohelpyoufinishaproject.Writersinvolvedinnegotiatingprojectsandproposalsmayalsofindaplanfornegotiationuseful.Insuch cases,thewriterisoftentryingtogetthe
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carrythroughonyourthreat,andifyouintendtooverpoweryouraudience,youmustbeabletoperformtheactionwithouttheirhelp. Itisvirtuallyimpossibletobacktrackinthissystem.Onceyouhavecommittedyourselftoaspecificstep,orescalatedtoaconfrontationalstrategy,itisnearly impossibletobackdown.Thus,whileitispossibletostartwithanystrategyintheplan,itisimportantnottostartwithastrategymoreforcefulthanrequired.Itis neveragoodideatothreatenyouraudience,ifaskingorinvokingathemewillgetyouwhatyouwant,sincebythreateningyoucreateanimosityandmayfindyour audiencerejectingyourproposal.Friendsoftensimplyneedtobeasked.Inaprofessionalsituation,startbyofferingarationaleorreasonforwhatyouareproposing. Remember,youarewastingtimeandyourcommunicationwillbelesseffective,ifitismoreelaboratethannecessary. Considerasituationinwhichyouhavebeenadissatisfiedcustomer:perhapsacompanymiscalculatedyourbill,aproductyouboughtbrokewithinaweek,orthe servicemanfailedtoshowuponthedayyouspecificallytookoffworksothatyourfurnacecouldberepaired.Angered,youmightcallthecompany'scustomer servicecenter,andinarage,youbarkyourcomplaintatthepersonontheotherendofthephone.Butthatpersonmayhavebeenquitewillingtohelpyou,evenifyou hadrestrainedyourself.Ifyoustartintheplanatthelevelofathreat,andthecustomerservicerepresentativeissympatheticandquitewillingtoassistyou,thenyou willfindyourselfquiteembarrassedbyyourownrudenessandbythefactthatitisquitedifficulttoreturntoapolite,cooperativeconversationalexchangewhenyou havealreadythreatenedtheotherparty.Inaddition,therepresentativemaybecomelesscooperativeinresponsetoyourabrasivemanner. Inanygivensituation,wewillalwaystryascriptorschemafirst,sinceplansrequiremorementaleffort.However,onceaplanisreenactedafewtimes,ithasthe potentialtobecomeascriptorschemaitself. EvokingStructuresofExpectationsThroughTextDesign Headingsareanefficientwaytoelicitschemasthatyouraudiencemayalreadyhavelearned.Iftheywillneedtoworkonforminganew
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schemaorwillneedtoresorttoaplan,systematicallyorganizedheadingswillstillbeanenormousaid.Inmanycases,headingsthatstatewhoisdoingtheaction (agent)and/orwhattheactionis,18orthatidentifytheobjectofinquiryorthetopic,areappropriate.Butifthereaderisnotexpectedtoperformataskorachievea goal,agentandactionheadingsmaynotbeuseful.Moreover,inalongertextthatcontainshierarchicallydevelopedsections,whileatopicheadingmaybeusefulfor thetopmost,superordinatelevel,youmayneedtobreakthetextintomorediscrete,smallerunitswithmorespecificheadings. Justasconcretelanguagemoresuccessfullycommunicatesamessagethanabstractlanguage,soconcreteheadingsarepreferabletoabstractones,sincetheyelicit structuresofexpectationsalreadystoredinmemory.Caseinpoint,theconventionalheadingsfoundinscientificjournalarticlesdolittletohelpreadersprocess information,otherthanidentifythegenreandindicatetheorderinwhichmaterialwillbepresented.Sincetheseheadingsareabstractandconventionalanddonot relatetothespecificmaterialpresentedinanygivenarticle,theyoffervirtuallynoinformation.Aheadingsuchas"methodology"callsupnospecificschemaforany particulartypeofinformation(asforaspecifictypeofexperimentwhichwouldbeusefulinthiscase),onlyaweaksetofexpectationsaboutthe"kind"ofmaterialthat willfollow(proceduralinformation).Amorespecificstatementlike"ProcedureforDNAExtraction"stimulatesthereaders'knowledgeofprocedurespertainingtothe contextualinformationtofollow(DNAextraction)aswellasthetypeofinformation(procedural).Namingthetypeofproceduredescribedinthemethodology section,specifyingthekindofresearchortheresearchersconsultedfortheliteraturereview(i.e.,"therhetoricalandlinguisticresearchindiscourseanalysis"),naming theprimaryobjectofstudyorstatingthehypothesisunderstudyasaheadingforthedatasectionmayallbeofaidtothereader.Scientificandtechnicalwritingwill continuetoevolveoverthenextfewdecades,andifwriterscontinuetoimplicitlyevoketraditionalscenariosbycontinuingtopresentmaterialinsectionsasprescribed bythosescenarioswhilealsodesigningconcreteheadingsreferringtotheinformationbeingdiscussed,thenfuturereaderswillbeabletocomprehendtheinformation moreefficiently.
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Applications 1.Considerthefollowingformletterthatwassenttoanumberofcustomers:
Dearcardholder: Foraccounthistoryreasons,wewillnotrenewyourcardwhenitexpires.Duringourreviewofyouraccount,weconsideredmanyfactors.Ifyouhaveanyquestionsaboutthe decision,contactthecustomerservicedepartmentduringbusinesshours.
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a.You,asawriter,havebeenaskedtosubmitaproposaltotheAudubonSocietytoelicittheirsupportinstoppingthebuildingofadamthatwilljeopardize and/ordestroythehabitatsofendangeredwildlifespecieslivinginthatarea. b.You,asawriter,areaskedtosubmitaproposaltostoptheconstructionofthedamtotheelectriccompanythatwillbebuilding,running,andprofitingfromthe dam. c.Anemployeehasbeenlatetoworkforthefifthtimethismonth.Duringthepastthreemonthshewascontinuallylate.Hewaswarnedthreetimesthatsuch behaviorcouldcosthimhisjob.(Considerthepreviouswarningsas"informing[him]ofareason"tocometoworkontime.)Nowyou,hisemployer,mustdeal withthesituation. d.Theairlinehaslostapieceofyourluggage.Itwassupposedtoarriveonalaterplaneandbedeliveredtoyourhomelaterthatday.Itisthenextmorningand yourbagstillhasn'tarrived.Youcalltheairline'slostandfound,wantingyourluggage. 3.IdentifytheevaluatorsandintensifiersinthefollowingexcerptfromJesseJackson'sspeechtotheNationalDemocraticConvention,July19,1988. [1]Americaisnotablanketwovenfromonethread,onecolor,onecloth.WhenIwasachildgrowingupinGreenville,SouthCarolina,andgrandmommacould notaffordablanket,shedidn'tcomplainandwedidnotfreeze.Insteadshetook [5]piecesofoldclothpatcheswool,silk,gaberdine,crockersackonlypatches,barelygoodenoughtowipeoffyourshoeswith.Buttheydidn'tstaythat wayverylong.Withsturdyhandsandastrongcord,shesewedthemtogetherintoaquilt,athingofbeautyandpowerandculture.Now,Democrats,wemust [10]buildsuchaquilt. Farmers,youseekfairprices,andyouarerightbutyoucannotstandalone,yourpatchisnotbigenough.Workers,youfightforfairwages,youarerightbut yourpatchoflaborisnotbigenough.Women,youseekcomparableworthandpayequity. [15]youarerightbutyourpatchisnotbigenough.... Butdon'tdespair.Beaswiseasmygrandma.Pullthepatchesandthepiecestogether,boundbyacommonthread.
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Whenweformagreatquiltofunityandcommonground,we'llhavethepowertobringabouthealthcareandhousingandjobs [20]andeducationandhope....Wethepeoplecanwin. 4.Designascriptorschemaforatypeoftextyoucommonlywrite:aformofcorrespondence(memoorbusinessletter),aproposalorreport,aneditorialorpieceof persuasivewriting. a.UsingSPEAKINGquestions,analyzeyouraudienceandyourelationtothem. b.Considerwhatmaterialneedstobecovered,whatscriptsorschemasyouraudiencecancallupon,andwhatheadings(ifappropriate)youcouldemploythat wouldbeofusetoyouraudience. c.Onceyouhavewrittenadocument,usingaccommodationtheoryandtheinformationpresentedonplansandevaluatorsinlanguage,analyzethewayyou presentyourselfandthewayyoudealwiththeaudience.Arethereanychangesyoushouldmakethatyouhavediscoveredbydoingthisanalysis? Thisapplicationmayactuallyserveasaguidefora"sociolinguistic"evaluationandrevisionofmosttexts.
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Answers
Chapter2ProcessingInformation Thefirstthingtoconsideriswhotheintendedaudienceiscompanyemployees.Theirgoalwillbetoquicklyidentifywhatcoveragetheyhave.Howshouldthe materialbeorganized?Paragraphstructuremakesaccessingnecessaryinformationbyscanningthetextdifficult.Therefore,somekindofchartispreferable. Shouldthetextbedatadrivenorconceptuallydriven?Sincewehavealistofitemshere(bestpresentedinacharttomakeiteasyfortheemployeetorefertoitems pertainingtohissituation)thetextshouldbeprimarilydatadriven.Yet,itwillhelptohaveanintroductionthatidentifiesthepurposeofthetextandthematerialthatthe chartwillprovide,aswellasheadingsthatgroupitems.Toreiterateamainpointofthischapter,evenmaterialthatisprimarilydatadrivenrequiressome conceptualizationorconceptuallydrivenprocessing,ifthereaderistounderstandwhytheinformationissignificant.
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EmployeeInsuranceCoverage Thisbrochureexplainstheinsurancecoverageavailabletoouremployees.Itexplainswhoiseligible,whatlife,medical,anddentalinsuranceisavailable,andthecosts andcoverageoftheplan. WhoisEligible? Allfulltimeemployeesareautomaticallycovered.Nocontributionisrequired. Parttimeemployees,spouses,andchildrencanbecovered.Costis$40permonthperperson. Childrenmustbeaddedintocoveragewithinthirtydaysofbirth. LifeInsurance Allemployeesautomaticallyreceive$12,000termlifethatispaidbyemployer. Optionaltermlife:Employeescanpurchaseadditionallifeinsurancethatequalsupto200percentoftheemployee'sannualsalary.Theemployeepaysfiftycents per$1,000ofthetotallifeinsuranceamount. Lifeinsurancemaybepurchasedforyourspouseandchildrenatanadditionalcost. MedicalInsurance Coverage:Hospitalstays,diagnostics,hospice,andhomehealthcare Exclusions:Preexistingconditions,acupuncture,andchiropracticservices Deductibles:$50foreachhospitaladmission DentalInsurance Coverage:Preventivetreatment100percent Majorcare80percent Orthodontics75percent Exclusions:Preexistingconditionsandocclusions Deductibles:$50onmajordentalcare Thetextbeginswithaconceptuallydrivenoverview.Thetextprogressesfromidentifyingwhetherornottheemployeehascoveragetowhatkindofcoverage.The datadriveninformationisarrangedunderheadingsthatconceptuallygroupthematerialmakingspecificitemseasiertolocate.
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Headingsusekeytermsofthetexttherefore,theyareusefulforthereader.Notethat"Life,""Medical,"and"Dental"subheadingsareparallel(allaresingleword adjectivesmodifyingandidentifyingthetypeofinsurance)again,thismakesthetexteasierforthereadertouse.UnderMedicalExclusionsandDentalCoverage, informationislistedinalogicalorderfrommostfrequentlyrequestedservicestotheleastfrequentlyrequested. Elaborativerehearsalisnotanissueforthistext.Butifthewriterwantedemployeestobecomefamiliarwiththeirowncoverage,andifthistextweremore complicated(asportfoliosexplaininginsurancecoverageusuallyare),thewritercoulddesignaworksheetfortheemployeestofilloutandrecordtheirownpersonal coverage. Chapter4AlternativeGrammars(PartII)CaseGrammar 1.Pointoutthatthepassageiswrittenentirelyinpassivevoice.Thewritercanbetaughttorecognizethe"tobe"+verbconstructionsandthe"by"constructionsin ordertoidentifythisproblemonhisown.Then,explainhowtocorrecttheproblembyperformingthefollowingprocedure:1)crossoutallinstancesof"by"2)cross outall"tobe"verbsin"be''+verbconstructions3)reversetheorderofthenounphrasessothesubjectofthepreposition"by"comesfirstinthesentence.Theresult is:
Thecompany'stechnicalwriterwrotethemanual.Thetechnicalwriternowshouldsupervisetheeditingthatneedstobedone.Themarketingteammustthengiveapprovalofthe finaldocument.
Page186 Thecompany'stechnicalwriterwrotethemanual,andheshouldsupervisetheeditingthatneedstobedone.Themarketingteammustthenapprovethefinaldocument. 2. line2: organelles= Agents,sincetheyperformanact "colonizing" Alsoapossessionbelongingto"me" Patientactedonbyorganelles Patientactedonbyvirus Agent Agent"conveying" Patientinfectedbyphages
line3:
line4:
line5:
Afewbrieflines,analyzedusingcasegrammar,tellsusagreatdealaboutthepowerofLewisThomas'prose,aswellaswhythispassagedoesn'tsoundlikean excerptfromacellbiologytextbook.Organelles,themainsubjectsandagents,arecombinedwithverbsthatarereservedforanimatebeings.Hence,cellsandcell partsbecomeautonomousentitiesorbeingsthatarethentreatedanthropomorphically.Eachofourbodiesbecomesacolonyoflittleindividuals,andthis personificationisessentialtoThomas'styleandvisionofbiology.Organellesareagents,capableofactingindependentlyofthehumanorganismofwhichtheyare parts.Anditisorganelles,nottheperson,thatareattackedbyvirusesandthatinturnspreadthevirustootherorganelles.Hence,theorganellesbecometheagentsto blamewhenwebecomesick. Rolesandrelationshipsbetweensentenceelementsareclearlypresentedhere.Agentandpatientaretheprimaryrolesusedinthispassage.Thenumberofvariables phrasesandthenumberofrolestheytakeonistightlycontrolledandrolesareusedconsistently.Whenthereisashiftintheroleofanoun,itiswithinaclearly developedprogression:theagent"organelles"becomespatientofthe"virus,"andthentheagentspreadingdiseasetootherorganelles. 3.Beginbycommendingthewriterfortryingtosoundprofessional.Alsoimpressuponthewriterthatadoptinganimpersonal,passivetoneinordertosound authoritativeandobjectiveactuallymakesherletterunclearandunderminesherauthority,sinceshedistancesherself
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fromherownaccomplishments.Byassertingherselfandclaimingresponsibilityforherachievements(astheagentperformingtheactions),shewillsoundmore authoritativeandforcefulandthatisthekindimagesheshouldwanttoconvey. First,havethewriteridentifytheprimarynounandverbphrases(thesubjectmaterial)ofeachsentence. S1)letterisresponding S2)advertisementstated entrylevelpositionsought S3)experiencemakesmequalified S4)Ihaveresearched S5)experiencedemonstrates S6)thankyou S7)Ihope positioncanbediscussed Proceedbydiscussingtheissueofagency.Pointoutthattheverbs"responds,""sought,""demonstrates,"and"discussed"allrequirepersonalagents.Alettercan't respond,apersondoes.Anexperiencecan'tdemonstrate,apersonmust.Askthewriterwhotheagentis:obviously,itisthewriterherself.Discusshow,through revision,shecanbecomeapresenceinthetext,andthenproceedbyhelpinghertocorrectlyidentifytheagentofeachsentence. S1)Iamresponding S2)Youseek S3)experiencemakesmequalified(Thispassivedoesworksincetheactivitydonecanbehighlightedasthesubjectofthesentence.) S4)Ihave(done)researched S5)I(have)demonstrate(d)ormyexperienceshows/reveals S6)thankyou S7)wecandiscuss
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problemneedstobeaddressed."Ihaveresearched"isnotproperEnglishusagethewriterhastouse"done,"andwrite"Ihavedoneresearch."Thenecessityof"do" withparticularconstructionsisanaspectofgrammarthatcan'tbedealtwithusingcasegrammar,butthatneedstobeaddressed. Tosomeofus,thisletterstillmaynotsoundveryeloquent.But,moreimportantly,itisstillinthewriter'sownwords.(Thisisparticularlyimportantifyouknowthat theintendedaudiencee.g.,aprospectiveemployerorateacherisexpectingtoreadthewriter'sownwords.)Furthertinkeringwiththevocabularyandsentence structurewillturnthisintotheeditor'sworkandmisrepresentthewriter.Workingsolelywiththegrammaticalproblemswillhelptheeditortofocusononlythose correctionsnecessarytoconveythewriter'sintendedmeaning. Chapter5AnalyzingandImprovingCoherence 1.FIRSTPARAGRAPH: 1Waterfromrainandsnowcanseepthousandsoffeetunderground. 2Insomevolcanicareasitisthenheatedbycontactwithdeeplyburiedhotrocks. 3Temperaturesofthiswatercanattain400F(204C)orhighermuchabovethetemperatureofboilingwateratthesurface. 4?Such"superheating"ispossiblebecauseofthehighundergroundwaterpressure. 3Whenthewaterbecomesheated,itexpandsandrisestowardthesurface. Inthefirstparagraph,coherencebreaksdowninthefourthsentence.Isthisalevelfoursentence?Itishardtodeterminebecausethereferenceto"suchsuperheating" isunclearthe"such"impliesthatweknowwhatisbeingreferredtofromapreviousreference,butwedonot.Asentenceneedstobeincludedthatstates"when waterisheatedto400Forhigherinvolcanicareasthephenomenoniscalledsuperheat
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Thefirstparagraphnowservesasaleveloneintroductiontothesecondparagraph.Now,let'slookatthesecondparagraph(havingaddedthelastsentenceof paragraphone): 2Whenthewaterbecomesheated,itexpandsandrisestowardthesurface. 3Nearthesurfacewherepressuresbecomesufficientlylow,someofthewaterboilstosteam,producinghotsprings. 1Inmosthotsprings,thesteamandtheheatenergyofthehotwaterarelostbysteady,quietescapestothesurface. 1Afewsprings,however,deliversomuchenergytothesurfacethatitcannotallbelostbysteadyescape. 3?Fromtimetotime,steambubblesbecometooabundanttoescapequietlythroughthewater 3?insteadthesteamliftsthewater,sweepingitupwardandoutofthevent. 4Asthisoccursthepressureatdeeperlevelsislowered,boilingactionincreases,andachainreactionisstartedthatleadstoaneruption. 2Thesehotspringsthateruptandintermittentlydeliverlargeamountsofenergytothesurfacearecalledgeysers.
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Thethirdsentenceisactuallythetopicsentenceofthisparagraphandconnectsthegeneralintroductionofthefirstparagraphtotheinformationinthesecond("quiet escapes"isanotherwayofsaying"undergroundwaterpressure").Thesentenceshouldbemoved.Abetterorderis:
Inmosthotsprings,thesteamandtheheatenergyofthehotwaterarelostbysteady,quietescapestothesurface.[Once]thewaterbecomesheated,itexpandsandrisestoward thesurface.Nearthesurfacewherepressuresbecomesufficientlylow,someofthewaterboilstosteam,producinghotsprings.
Theonlygivensinthispassageare"Reuters"andthepronouns"they"and"their."Aswediscussedearlierinthischapter,therepetitionofanameandofpronouns doesnotreallyservetocreatecoherence,unlessmainpointsarealsocoherentlyconnected.(Engineersandsystemsare
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givenscarriedoverfromearlyparagraphs,butagainlittleisdonetoconnectsubsequentmentionstoearlieronesortodeveloptheideasfurther.)Ifwelookathowthe ideaandconceptsconnectfromsentencetosentence,wealsoseethatthereisanotablelackofcoherence.Givennewshowsthatmostsentencesdohavean orientinggiven,"they,"butthisorientationisalmostuseless.Thegivensarenotthekeyconcepts(security,creativity,ethics,etc.)therefore,theyareofnohelptothe reader.Actually,usingthegivennewcontractwouldbeagoodwaytoapproachthisletter.Focusonrepeatingkeyconceptsandideasasgivens. b.Thethirdparagraphbeginswithalevelonesentence.Butafterthateachsentenceseemstoleapalevelofconnectedness(somethingalongthelinesof1357).In otherwords,itisvirtuallyimpossibletoassignlevelstothisparagraphbecausethesentencesareunconnected. Thefactthatyoucan'tevenuseChristensenonthetexttellsyousomethingaboutthelackofcoherencehere.Itdoesn'tsimplytellyouthatthereisabreakdownof coherenceataparticularpointittellsyouthatthereisnocoherenceatall. c.ThebiggestproblemhereisthatReutersisneverclearlydefined.Thecoherencetechniquescanhelpustoidentifythefactthattherearedisjunctions,orgaps,inthe text,butthesetechniquescannottelluswhatinformationneedstobeadded.Inaddition,themainpointsareobscuredwhatthewriterintendstosaymustbe determinedbeforetheissueofconnectingpointscoherentlycanevenbeaddressed.Theletterneedstobeevaluatedintermsofoverall,globalcoherencethe developmentofasinglepointordeliveryofaclearmessage.Whatarethemainpointshere?Coherencetechniquescannothelpusdealwithsuchquestionsofglobal meaning.Butoncethemainpointshavebeenidentified,techniqueswehavediscussedforimprovingcoherencemaybeuseful. Chapter6AchievingCohesion 1.Reference:Pronouns"its,""their,""them,"and"these"areused.Carsonavoidssubstitution(whichistheweakestformofcohesion).
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Ellipsis:Anexampleofellipsiscanbefoundinthesecondsentence:"soilis"isdeletedfromtheclausebeginning"bornof...."Inaddition,"chiselsoffrostandchisels ofice"hasbeencompactedthroughellipsis. Lexicalcohesion:Obviously"soil"and"life"arethemostfrequentlyrepeatedwords.Notethattheyareusedinavarietyofpositionstoavoiddull,lifelessprose. "Soil"istheobjectofthepreposition"on''inthefirstsentenceandthesubjectinthesecond"life"isthesubjectatthebeginningofthefirstsentenceinthephrase "agriculturebasedlife,"andtheobjectoftheprepositionalclause,"ofamarvelousinteractionoflife,"towardtheendofthesecondsentence. "Life"isalsousedasacomponentofotherwords,"nonlife,"andinitsadjectiveform,"living."Usedasanadjective,"life"thenshiftspositioninthesentenceit functionsasamodifierratherthananoun(assubjectorobject)asin"livingthings."Inaddition,theterms"livingthings"and"livingplantsandanimals"canbe consideredsynonymsfor"life,"whichaddabitofvarietytotheterminologyofthepassage. Junctives:Thecontrastivejunctive"yet"occursinthefirstsentence,connectingthisparagraphtoonethatactuallycamebeforeitinthecompletetext."Itisequally true"worksasanadditivejunctivephrase."As"isusedasatemporaljunctive(meaningatthesametime)tobegintheclause"aswatersrunning...."Carsonalsouses "for"asaconditionaljunctivetoconnectthesecondsentencetothefirstand"then"asatemporaljunctivetoconnectthelastsentence.Sheuses"and"inthethird sentencetoconnecttheeventof"chisels[which]splitandshattered"tothe"parentmaterials[which]gatheredtogether." Theideasthemselvesarecoherent,andthecohesivedevicesreinforceandhighlighttherelationships. 2.Notethattheuseofthejunctives"because"and"since"signalsaconditionalrelationship.Theauthortriestousethejunctivestocreateconditionallinkage,butthe ideasdonotconnectinthatmanner.Anunhappymarriagedoesnotleadtodoingabortions,andtruestoriesarenotnecessarilytragic. Inthethirdsentencetheuseof"one"(substitution)and"them"
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(reference)toreferbacktoabortion(s)isconfusing,duetoshiftfromsingletopluralformandtothefactthat"them"isseparatedbytwentyfivewordsfromitstrue antecedent(and"one"intervenesinbetween"abortion"and''them").Anotherreferenceproblemresultsfromtheambiguoususeoftherelativepronoun"which."Does "which"inthethirdsentencerefertomoneyorto"doingthemformoney"?Thewriterclearlyhasaproblemusingtherelativepronoun"which,"sinceinthesecond sentencesheusesittoaddaclausethatisinnowayconnectedtothetwoprecedingclauses.Thisjeopardizescoherence.Theimproperuseof"which"andof junctivessuggeststhewriterdoesnotunderstandhowherideasconnectandrevealsthatthereisanunderlyingcoherenceproblemthatneedstobeaddressedbefore thewritercanchoosethecorrectjunctives. Thewriterusescohesivedevicestoconnectclauseswhichdonotcontaincoherentideas.Thistextillustratesthefactthatsimplyutilizingcohesivedevicesdoesnot guaranteeacoherenttext. Chapter7AnalyzingMacrostructures DeletionsOnEthics,intendedforageneralreadingaudience: Paragraph1 Samedeletionsasforsummaryofmedicaladvancement.
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Paragraph6 Opinionofconditionisirrelevant.
Paragraph7 Anecdotalandemotionalstatementsareirrelevant.
Paragraph8 Basicfactsareneededforclarity,butdeletemedicaljargonwhichisunnecessary.
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Themythicalsignificanceoftheheartisnottheissueforthosewhoopposedtheprocedure.Theissueisthesacrificeofahealthyanimal.Thisstatementisanon sequitur,thereforedeleteit. Forthetextresultingfromthesedeletionsseethefigure"Ethics"onpage200. Imustnowreorganizethismaterial.Whilethearticlewillfocusonethics,beforeengaginginsuchadiscussion,factsabouttheprocedureperformedonthebabymust begiven.Ihavereorganizedthetextintofourparagraphs.(Byjottingdownthe"gist"oramacrostatementabouteachparagraph,Icanidentifyfourmajorsectionsin thisarticle.)Iwillnowbegincreatingasummaryusingthesefourgists/macrostatementstoorganizemypieceeachgistwillbethefocusofaparagraph. Inthefirstparagraph,informationonthebaby'spresentconditionisgiven.Sinceherconditionistenuous,thequestionofwhetherthebaboonshouldhavebeen sacrificedbecomescrucial,leadingintoanethicaldiscussion.ParagraphtwodetailsBailey'swork,addingtotheethicalcontroversy.Paragraphthreepresentsboth sidesofthecontroversyandofferscommentsbyauthorities.Paragraphfourlookstowardthefuture,suggestingthattheethicalcontroversywillcontinue. Reorganization:
A16dayoldinfant,afterreceivingtheheartofababoonbetweensevenandeightmonthsold,weighing7pounds,remainedincriticalbutstableconditiontoday,butwas "doingremarkablywell,"saidDr.Bailey,thepediatricsurgeonatLomaLindaUniversityMedicalCenter.Thebabynearlydiedonhersixthdayoflife,becauseofabirthdefect whichgavethebabyvirtuallyonlyhalfaheartandnochancetolive.Untilnow,withrareexceptions,babiesbornwiththeconditiondidnotsurvivebeyondtwoweeks.Theonly optionhasbeenhighrisksurgerytorelieveitseffects.Suchsurgeryentailsagreatriskandhasuncertainresults.[Theresearcherssaidthattheyhadfoundthatabouthalfofan unspecifiednumberofhumanshad
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Figure7.3 Ethics(1strounddeletion).Reprinted,bypermission.fromTheNewYorkTimes(October29.1984).
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Figuremovedtopreviouspage
Page202 preformedantibodiesagainstbaboons.Thebabyisstillonmechanicalventilationthathelpsherbreathe.] Dr.Baileyhadspentsevenyearsdoingtheanimalandlaboratoryresearchneededbeforethetransplantattemptwasmadeonahuman.Dr.Baileysaidthathehadchosentodo thecontroversialoperationnowbecausehisteamhadgoneasfarasitcouldinexperimentsonanimals.Hesaidtheoperationwasundertakenonl3yaftermonthsofdiscussion amongtheuniversity'sethicscommitteesandhoursofdiscussionwiththeparents. Aboutadozendemonstratorsmarched,halfofwhomprotestedthesacrificeofahealthyanimaltoprolongthelifeofasickhuman.Theotherhalfsupportedtheboldexperimental procedure.Inanewsconference,Dr.Baileyaddressedsomeoftheethicalaspectsofthe"highlyexperimental"operation.Hesaidhewas"sympatheticwiththeissueofanimal rights.HoweverIamamemberofthehumanspecies.Idealwithdyingbabieseveryday.Iammoresympatheticwiththem.IamananimalloverbutIlovebabiestoo.Theyweren't watchingthebabiesdieasIwas,"hesaid.Dr.SandraNehlsenCannarella,atransplantimmunologist,invitedtoparticipateintheexperimentaloperation,describedtheatmosphere astheheartwastransplanted:"Atthemomenttheheartbegantobeat,therewasabsoluteawe.Itwasjustanincredibleeventtoseethatlittleheartstartup.''Dr.JackProvonsha, directoroftheuniversity'sbioethicscenter,discussedtheneedtosacrificeaprimate."Itisdifficulttolookataprimate'shandandnotfeelkinship.Primatesareclosertousonthe evolutionaryscale." Thesurgeonsaidthathisteamplannedtoperformfivesuchoperationsandthentoevaluatetheresultstodeterminewhetheritshouldgoaheadorretreattothelaboratorybefore tryingtheprocedureagainonhumans.
"Stable"and"doingwell,"aswellas"nochancetolive"and
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Paragraph2 Deleteredundantreferencestooperationandcombineclausesabout"undertakingoperation."
Paragraph3 Bailey'scommentsaboutbeing"sympathetictoanimalrights"andbeingaloverofbabiesandanimalsarecloselyrelatedcombineandretainonlyone.
Paragraph2 Deleteanyperceivedunnecessarywords.
Paragraph3
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Paragraph4 Ifyouaredeterminednotto"goahead"youobviously"retreat"/gobackremoveredundancy.
Theresultingtextis:
[1]A16dayoldinfantremainedincriticalconditionafterreceivingtheheartofayoungbaboon,accordingtoDr.Bailey,thepediatricsurgeon.Thebabynearlydied,becauseshe hadonlyhalfaheart,whichgavehernochancetolive.Theonlyoptionwashighrisksurgerywhichhasuncertainresults.[Theresearcherssaidthattheyhadfoundthatabout halfofanunspecifiednumberofhumanshadpreformedantibodiesagainstbaboons.Thebabyisstillonmechanicalventilationthathelpsherbreathe.] [2]Dr.Baileyhadspentsevenyearsdoingtheanimalandlaboratoryresearchneededbeforethetransplantattemptwasmadeonahuman.Histeamhadgoneasfarasitcouldin experimentsonanimals,andonlyaftermonthsofdiscussionamongLomaLinda'sethicscommitteesandhoursofdiscussionwiththeparents,didtheyperformtheoperationona human. [3]Aboutadozendemonstratorsmarched,halfofwhomprotestedthesacrificeofahealthyanimaltoprolongthelifeofasickhuman.Theotherhalfsupportedtheprocedure.Dr. Baileysaidhewas"sympatheticwiththeissueofanimalrights.Idealwithdyingbabieseveryday.Iammoresympatheticwiththem."Dr.JackProvonsha,directorofthe university'sbioethicscenter,discussedtheneedtosacrificeaprimate."Itisdifficulttolookataprimate'shandandnotfeelkinship.Primatesareclosetousontheevolutionary scale." [4]Theteamplannedtoperformfivesuchoperationsandthentoevaluatetheresultstodeterminewhetheritshouldtrytheprocedureagainonhumans.
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Youmayfindyouperformadifferentnumberofroundsofdeletion,reorganization,construction,andgeneralization.Youmayhave
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changedordeletedwords,phrases,andsentencesinadifferentorder.Thisdoesnotmatter,solongasyouareabletoutilizethesetechniquestoproduceasummary orabstract.(Sincewemayhavedifferentbackgroundsinscience,youmayhavemadesomedifferenteditingchoices.)Usingthesetechniques,youshouldhavebeen abletoproduceasummarysimilartomineincontent:thereshouldhavebeenastatementonthesituationthathasgivenrisetothecontroversy(ahealthyyoung baboonsacrificedforababywhichwouldhavediedduetoaheartcondition)thereshouldbesomeattentiontoboththoseinfavorandthoseopposed. Chapter8Pragmatics:LanguageinUse 1a.Theproceduresarenotcorrectandcomplete:youdonotthanksomeonefordoingsomethingbeforetheyhavedoneit. b.Thesincerityconditionisbreachedthewifeisnotsincereinsayingthatnotgoingoutisnobigdeal. c.Thisisaninterestingexample.Wecouldsaythatappropriateparticipantsandcircumstancesarenotactivatedsincethestudentcannotrespondappropriatelytothe request.Theteacherhastakenadvantageofaconventionalprocedureof"teachercallingonstudenttoperform."Ontheotherhand,someteachersmightarguethat noappropriateconditionshavebeenbreachedsincetheteacherhastherighttocallontheunpreparedstudenttoteachhimthatheisexpectedtocometoclass prepared. 2a.Themaximofquantity(don'tgivemoreinformationthanisrequired)isviolatedbythestatements"peopleofdifferentsex,forinstancemenandwomen"and "marriedwitheachother."Themaximofmanner(avoidobscurity)isalsoviolatedbythestatement"livetogetherinonetentunlesstheyaremarriedwitheachotherfor thatpurpose." b.Themaximofmannerisviolatedthereisanunintendedsexualallusionhere(ambiguity)andtheintendedmeaningisobscured. c.Appropriatecircumstancesmustbeactivatedthesignmustbeonatrashreceptacle.Alsoyoumayconsiderconventionalprocedure,inthatthereaderofthesign willknowthroughculturalexperience
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that"pleaselitter"isnotaninvitationtothrowtrasharoundtheareabutarequestthatyounotlitterandinsteadplacethetrashinthereceptacle. 3a.Thedirectionsfloutthemaximofquantitydonotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequiredbytellingusnottolookattheanswersattheend ouranswersare,infact,prejudicedbyknowingthattheRepublicanpositionisgivenattheendofthesurvey. QuestionIviolatesthemaximsofquantityandquality.Tellingusthat"thedefensesbecameobsoleteasaresultofcutbacksbytheCarteradministration"isopinion thereisalackofadequateinformation(especiallyasthestatementispresentedhere)tomakethatclaim.Inaddition,thisinformationhasnobearingonwhetherthe respondentshouldbelievethatdefensesshouldbemodernizedthecontributionismoreinformativethanrequired. Question2violatesthemaximofqualitybytheuseofthetaggedonstatement"whetherornottheSovietsdothesame."Therespondentssupportofanuclearfreeze shouldbeindependentofthisinformation. Question3violatesthemaximofrelationwhethertheDemocratsbackthepositionornotisirrelevant.Whatisinterestingaboutthisquestionisitscoercivetactics.If youalignyourselfwiththeDemocratsyouaremadetofeelthatyouareantiAmerican.Thequestionalsoviolatesthemaximofmanner(avoidobscurity):exactlywhat are"proWest"governments?Aretheyalldemocratic,ordotheysimplyengageinfriendlyrelationswiththeUnitedStates?TheUnitedStatesisknowntosupport certaindictatorshipswhicharefriendlytotheUnitedStates,evenifthepeopleareoppressed.Thisquestioncouldalsobeconsideredaviolationofthemaximof quality,sincethereisnotenoughinformationonwhatconstitutesaproWestgovernment. Question4violatesthemaximofquality,thatour"seaforceisaging,"impliesthatitisinadequatetodothejob.Thatisamatterofopinion.Adequateinformationis lackingtosupportthisclaim.Notethattherearenostatisticscomparingthesizesofthefleets
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thiscanbeconsideredtobeanotherviolationofthemaximofqualityandperhapsalsoofthemaximofmanner,sincefactsareobscured.Anotherinstruction underthemaximofmannerisalsoviolatedbeorderly.Whydoessupportingequalizingtheseaforcesmeanthatweshouldbuildmore"nuclear"submarines? Thereisnologicalconnection. b.Nowlet'slookattheappropriatenessconditionsatworkinthissurvey. Sincerity:Isthereasincereefforttocollectunbiasedopinions?Hardly.Wearetoldwhatthe"right"answersareaccordingtoadministrationpolicytheseanswerscan befoundattheendofthesurvey.(Thiscouldalsobeconsideredaviolationoftheconventionalproceduresforconductingsurveys.)Thesurveywriterstrytocoerce usintoacceptingthepartyline.Thequestionnaireiswordedinsuchawaythatifwedisagreewiththepartypositionwearemadetofeellikesubversivesortraitors. Participants:Whoreceivedthissurvey?Republicansonly?Middleandupperclass?Wehavenoideawhothepollinggroupwas. Procedure:ConsiderthefactthatwearetoldthatonlycompletedresultswerereleasedtotheReaganadministration.Whowouldsendsuchasurveyin?Amajority ofthosewhowouldactuallysenditinwouldprobablyagreewithpartypolicy.AnddidtheReaganadministrationseethesurveyoronlytheresults?Weretheysimply toldthatxnumberofpeopleoutofthosepolledsupportthepartyposition?Didthepeoplewhoreceivedtheresultsactuallylookatthesurveyandseethatitis designedtoascertainonlyresultsacceptabletotheparty?Aretheyawareofthecoercivetacticsthatwereused? Analysisofthissurveyshouldmakeusalittlemoreskepticalwhenwehearorreadtheresultsofpolls,particularlyifwearenotgiveninformationonhowthepollwas administeredorinterpreted.
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Chapter9SociolinguisticsLanguageandtheCommunityofIndividuals 1a.SThesituationiswritingtoinformcustomersthattheircardsarebeingcanceled.Thesettingisbusiness.Thepsychologicalsettingisseriousthoughthedegree ofseriousnesstheimplicationsofcancellationdependsonwhetheryouhaveabadcredithistoryornot.Unfortunately,thisdistinctionisnotdealtwithinthe communiqu. PHerewecanidentifythefirstproblem.Twodifferentgroupsofcustomers(participants)havebeentreatedasone.Thefirstgroupneedstoknowtheircredit historyisbadtherefore,theircreditisbeingcanceled.Thesecondgroup'scardsarebeingcanceled,simplybecausetheyhavenotprovidedrevenueforthecompany. Theletterdoesnotclearlydiscriminatebetweenthetwogroups,andinsultsandantagonizesthesecondgroup.Toavoidthisproblem,twodifferentlettersshouldhave beendraftedandsentout. EThesender'sgoal(end),lettingthecustomersknowthatthecardwillnotberenewed,isclear.Buttheresponsesofbothgroupshavenotbeenanticipated. Thesenderhasnotconsideredthatthecustomersofthesecondgroupwillbeoffendedbythesuggestionthattheyarebadcreditrisks. ATheformofabusinessletterisappropriateitprovidesarecordthatthecustomerhasbeenofficiallynotified. KToneisabitharshandsuggeststhatallpeoplewhoreceivetheletterhavedonesomethingwrong,hencecreatingthepossibilitythatsomepeoplewillbe wrongfullyaccusedofbeingbadcreditrisks.Alettersuchastheonebelowisbettersuitedforthosewhosimplyhavenotusedtheircardsrecently: Dearcardholder: Regretfully,wehavedecidednottorenewyourcardwhenitexpires.Wehavemadethisdecisionsinceyourcredithistoryindicatesthatyouhavenotusedyourcard foranextendedperiodoftime.Ifyouhaveanyquestions,pleasecalloneofourrepresentativesbetween8:00and5:00,MondaythroughFriday.
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Notetheincreaseduseofpersonalpronouns"you,""our,"and"we"whichcreatesafriendliertone.Thereasonfortheactionisclearlystatedsonooffenseisgiven, norshouldanybetaken,andthisalsomakestheletterseemlessabrasiveandostentatious. IAslightlylessformallettermaybeappropriate(seerewriteabove). NThereisnothingherethatviolatesnormsofinterpretationforabusinessletternotifyingcustomersthattheircreditistobecanceled.Yet,theattitude conveyedbytheletterisnotappropriateindealingwiththosecustomerswhodonothavebadcredit. GThebusinessletter(genre)isacceptable. Thebusinessthatsentthiscommuniqumayhavefeltitwassavingtimebyonlysendingoutoneletter.Butconsideringthenumberofcomplaintstheymayreceive fromiratecustomers,itmayhavebeenmoreefficienttodrafttwoletters. b.Thewriteroftherevisedletteranticipatesthattheaudiencemaybestartledandoffendedbythecommuniqu.Byusingpersonalpronouns,aqualifiersuchas "regretfully,"andbyofferingtoexplainthedecisionifthecustomerwill"pleasecontactus,"thewriterencouragesthecustomernottooveract.Thewriterstillinforms thecustomerofthesituation,butencouragesfriendlyrelations,whichmayencouragethecustomertodobusinesswiththecompanyagain. 2a.Audubonwillprobablybemostsympatheticwithyourproposal.Youcouldassumeyoujustneedtoaskforhelp.Butsimplyaskingisreallyonlyappropriatein casualsocialsituation,orifyouareaskingsubordinatestodoataskforyou,inwhichcaseyoudonothavetogivethemareason.Ifyouarewritingaformal proposal,orifyouareaskingforacommitmenttoaprojectthatrequiresalargeamountofmoneyand/ormanpower,youshouldinvokeathemeandinformofa reason. b.Inthiscaseinvokingathemewillnotbeenough.Youwillhavetoinform[them]ofareasonwhytheyshouldconsiderhaltingconstruc
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tion.Areasonstillmaynotbeenough.Morethanlikely,youwillhavetotrybargaining.Iftheywillloserevenuebynotbuildingtheirdam,theywillprobably requiresomethingofequalvalueinreturnforhaltingconstruction.(Butyoushouldn'tbargainuntilyouhavetriedstepsthatrequirelesscommitmentonyourpart andknowthatyoucan'tgetwhatyouwantwithoutofferingsomethinginreturn.) c.Iftheemployeehasbeenwarnedbefore,andyouarethesuperior,youcanthreatentofirehim.Ifyoufindtheemployeeworthkeepingbecauseofthevalueofhis expertise,youcouldtrybargainingandofferinghimsomekindofperkifheestablishesandmaintainsarecordofcomingtoworkontimethebehavioryoudesire. d.Inthiscaseyou,theinitiatorofthediscourse,areprobablyalreadyirate.Donotbeginwithathreat,orbytryingtooverpowerthepartyontheotherend.(Though youcanwritelettersandcomplaintotheFederalAviationAssociation,thesethreatswilldonothingtoresolvetheimmediatesituation.)Inaphoneconversationthe otherpartycanalwayshangupthreatshavelittleeffect. Sincethepartyyouarespeakingtoonthephoneworksinthelostandfound,sheistheretoserveyouandisconversantwiththistypeofproblem.Youdonotwant toattackher,sinceshemaybecomeunwillingtohelpyou.Simplyinvokeatheme,tellherofyourparticularsituation,andaskforhelp. 3.Thespeechisprimarilywritteninthepresenttense.Theshifttopasttense(linetwo)introducesananecdotewhichintensifiesandreinforcesthemessageofthe speech.Jacksonalsoshiftstofuturetense:"wemustbuild,""we'llhavethepower,""thepeoplecanwin."Notealsothemodal"must''ismoreforcefulthan"should"or "could."
Negativessuchas"didnotfreeze"(45)aremorepowerfulthansimplystatingthesameideainthepositive,suchas"wewerewarmenough." Repetition:"youareright"and"yourpatchisnotbigenough"(1014). Qualifiers:"barelygoodenough"(5)and"notbigenough"(1114). Comparison:"beaswiseasmygrandma"(15).
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Theidentificationofevaluatorsandintensifiershelpstoidentifysomeoftherhetoricalflourishesthatmakethissuchapowerfulspeech(thoughobviously,inlookingat thewrittentranscript,wecannotexaminehowaspectsofvoiceandtoneaffectedthedelivery).
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Notes
Preface 1.NilsEnkvist,"TextandDiscourseLinguistics,Rhetoric,andStylistics,"inDiscourseandLiterature,ed.TeunvanDijk(Amsterdam:Benjamins,1985),pp.11 33. Chapter1.LanguageandLinguistics 1.Theclassiclinguisticmodelofthecommunicationcircuit,moredetailedthantheonehere,canbefoundinFerdinanddeSaussure,CourseinGeneralLinguistics, ed.CharlesBally,AlbertSechehaye,andAlbertRiedlinger,trans.WadeBaskin(NewYork:McGrawHill,1966). 2.Ofcourse,otherlanguagesdoallowformoremovementofindividualwordsinasentence.Oftenthisisbecausethelanguageisinflectional,meaningtheprefixes andsuffixesattachedtowordsindicatetheirgrammaticalfunctioninthesentence. 3.ForC.F,Hockett'sdesignprinciplesoflanguage,see"TheOriginOfSpeech,"ScientificAmerican203(1960),8996,andACourseinModernLinguistics (NewYork:Macmillian,1958).
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4.ForfurtherinformationonthehistoryofEnglish,seeforexample,W.F.Bolton,TheLivingLanguage:TheHistoryandStructureofEnglish(NewYork: RandomHouse,1982). 5.Unfortunately,theprimarytextweusetoderivehistheorieswasnotwrittenbySaussurehimself,butwasacorroborativeeffortofasmallgroupofstudentswho consolidatedalltheirnotesfromhiscourseofferedin19078,tocreateCourseinGeneralLinguistics.(Imentionthisnottounderminetheimportanceofthis workitisindeedtheseminalworkofmodemlinguistictheorybuttoqualifythenatureofthistext,whichmaynotcaptureallofthesubtletiesofSaussure'sown thoughtsonhistheories.) 6.Saussure,CourseinGeneralLinguisticspp.6569.ThispresentationofthenatureofthelinguisticsignisderiveddirectlyfromSaussure's. 7.ForinformationonChomsky,seeJohnLyons,NoamChomsky(NewYork:Penguin,1978)foragoodintroduction.Chomsky'sownworksaremuchmore difficulttoreadseeSyntacticStructures(TheHague:Mouton,1957)andAspectsofaTheoryofSyntax(Cambridge:MIT,1965). 8.JohnAustin,HowtoDoThingswithWords(Cambridge:Harvard,1962). 9.JohnSearle,SpeechActs:AnEssayinThePhilosophyofLanguage(Cambridge:Cambridge,1969). 10.ThebestintroductionisDellHymes,FoundationsinSociolinguistics:AnEthnographicApproach(Philadelphia:PennsylvaniaUniversityPress,1974).Peter Farb's,WordPlay:WhatHappensWhenPeopleTalk(NewYork:Bant1975),isaninterestingpopcultureapproachtotheseissues. 11.ClaudeLviStrauss,TheSavageMind(Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress,1966)andJacquesDerrida,OfGrammatology,trans.GayatriChakravorty Spivak(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins,1974). Chapter2.ProcessingInformation 1.ThismodelisbasedprimarilyonthemodelproposedbyWalterKintschandhisassociates.SeeWalterKintsch,MemoryandCognition(NewYork:Wiley, 1977)andWalterKintschandTeunvanDijk,"TowardaModelofTextComprehensionandProduction,"PsychologicalReview85(1978)36394aswell DonaldNorman,Memory,andAttention:AnIntroductiontoHumanInformationProcessing,2ded.(NewYork:Wiley,1976)andsuchcollectionsonhuman informationprocessingasDanielBobrowandAllanCollins,ed.,RepresentationandUnderstanding:StudiesinCognitiveScience,(NewYork:Academic,1975) andThomasBever,JohnCarroll,andLanceMiller,ed.,TalkingMinds:TheStudyofLanguageinCognitiveScience,(Cambridge:MIT,1984). 2.GeorgeMiller,"proseComprehensionandtheManagementofWorkingMemory"inNewMethodsinReadingComprehensionResearch,ed.byDavidKieras andMarcelJust(Hillsdale:L.Erlbaum,1984),32746.Millerdistin
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guishesbetweenshorttermmemorywhichisusedtolearnlistsand"workingmemory"whichisusedtoperformtaskssuchascomprehensionandproblem solving:"workingmemory[is]astorethatallowsrapidaccesstoitscontentsandlongtermmemory[is]astaticrepositoryinwhichinformationcanbestoredor retrievedbutnotactivelyprocessed"(332).Workingmemoryrequireselaborativerehearsal.Essentially,Millerdescribesworkingmemorybytheprocessesthat occurthereratherthanbythenatureofthestoragesite. 3.F.I.M.CraikandR.S.Lockhart,"LevelsofProcessing:AFrameworkForMemoryResearch,"JournalofVerbalLearningandVerbalBehavior11(1972): 67184. 4.Seeforexample,AnneTreisman,"VerbalCues,LanguageandMeaninginSelectiveAttention,"AmericanJournalofPsychology77(1964):21516. 5.Thelargenumberofthesewordsineveryspokenandwrittentextalsopartiallyaccountsforourabilitytoreadapagemuchfasterthanwecouldreadeachword aloud.Whenweread,wecanquicklyskimoverfunctionwordswhichsimplyprovidealogicalframeworkwithinwhichweinterpretconcepts.Thuswereadmuch morequicklythanwecanspeak,sinceoureyescanmoveacrossthepagemuchfasterthanwecanspeak. Wealsodonotreadtheindividuallettersofeachword,butrecognizetheshapesandfirstfewlettersofaword,andthusanticipatetherestofitthisinpart accountsforreadingspeed.SeeFrankSmith,UnderstandingReading:APsycholinguisticAnalysisofReadingandLearningtoRead(NewYork:Holt, Rinehart,andWinston,1971),esp.chap.9. 6.CharlesOsgood,"TowardanAbstractPerformanceGrammar"inTalkingMinds,14780,pointsoutthatfunctionwordsandwordordercontributetocreatinga comprehensibletext,butthismaterialisinconsequentialtoprocessinginformationintolongtermmemory. 7.Seeforexample,D.A.NormanandD.G.Bobrow,"OnDataLimitedandResourceLimitedProcesses,"CognitivePsychology7(1975):4464. 8.Foradiscussionoftopdownandbottomupprocessing,seeforexampleS.E.Palmer,"VisualPerceptionandWorldKnowledge,"ExplorationsinCognition, ed.Norman,Rumlehart,andtheLNRgroup(SanFrancisco:Freeman,1975),279308. 9.MarilynAdamsandAllanCollins,"ASchemaTheoreticViewofReading,"NewDirectionsinDiscourseProcessing,ed.RoyFreedle(Norwood:Ablex,1979), 122. 10.Thisprocess,calledgeneralization,isunconsciouswhenwelearnournativelanguage,butconsciouswhenwelearnaforeignlanguage. 11.SeeGeorgeMiller,"TheMagicalNumberSeven,PlusorMinusTwo:SomeLimitsonOurCapacityforProcessingInformation,"PsychologicalReview63 (1956):8797.
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12.See,forexample,W.A.Bousfield,B.H.Cohen,"TheOccurrenceofClusteringintheRecallofRandomlyArrangedWordsofDifferentFrequenciesofusage," JournalofGeneralPsychology52(1955):8395.SeealsoDonaldNorman,MemoryandAttention,9194. 13.Seeforexample,DonaldNorman,MemoryandAttention,1068,orKintschandVanDijk,"TowardaModelofTextComprehensionandProduction,"or RonaldJohnson,"Retrieval,CuesandRememberingProse:AReview,"DiscourseProcessing,ed.FlammerandW.Kintsch(Amsterdam:NorthHolland,1982), 21937.Togetherrecencyandsuperordinationarecalled,byKintsch,the"leadingedge"phenomenon. 14.N.C.WaughandDonaldNorman,"PrimaryMemory,"PsychologicalReview72(1965):89104,presentexperimentsontheeffectofserialpresentationof data,andtheydiscusswhatwasrememberedbest. 15.MargretRihsMiddel,"ExpectancyStructuresinProseReadings,"inDiscourseProcessing,ed.A.FlammerandW.Kintsch(Amsterdam:NorthHolland, 1982),7686. 16.Spatialarraystaketheformsofmatrixes,hierarchies,graphs,maps,etc.Differenttypesofspatialarraysaremoreeffectivefordealingwithcertainkindsof material.Thesevariousarrayscomplementschemabysupplyingkeyconceptsandgeneralizationsaswellasfactual,detailedinformation.Moreinformationon schemascanbefoundinChapter9.Formoreonspatialarrays,seeNancyM.CookeandJamesMcDonald,"AFormalMethodologyforAcquiringand RepresentingExpertKnowledge,"ProceedingsoftheIEEE74(1986):142230,andCarolMcGuinness,"ProblemRepresentation:TheEffectsofSpatialArrays," MemoryandCognition14(1986):27080. 17.Schnotz,Wolfgang,"HowDoDifferentReadersLearnwithDifferentTextOrganizations?"DiscourseProcessingandComprehension,ed.RoyFreedie(New York:Ablex,1977),8797. 18.Manyofthesefeaturesarediscussedby:ConnieBridge,SusanBelmore,SusanMoskow,SheilaCohen,andPatriciaMatthewsin"TopicalizationandMemory forMainIdeasinProse,"JournalofReadingBehavior16(1984):6180.SeealsoThomasHuckin,"ACognitiveApproachtoReadability,"90108,andLinda Flower,JohnHayes,andHeidiSwarts,"RevisingFunctionalDocuments:TheScenarioPrinciple,"4158,bothinNewEssaysinTechnicalandScientific Communication:Research,Theory,Practice,ed.PaulAnderson,R.JohnBrockmanandCarolynMiller(Farmingdale:Baywood,1983). Chapter3.AlternativeGrammars(PartI)TransformationalGrammar 1.Traditionalgrammaris"prescriptive,"dictatinghowspeakersandwritersaretousetheirlanguage.Bycontrast,linguistspropose"descriptive"grammarssuch grammarsdonotprescribehowpeoplearetousetheirlanguage,butdescribehowpeopleactuallydospeakandwrite.
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2.Chomskycallssuchutterances"wellformed,"andheisonlyinterestedinaccountingforgrammaticallywellformedutterancesinhissystem.Hedoesnotaccount forthemanysentencesthatarespokenbypeopleeverydayandthat,despitetheirincorrectness,arestillunderstoodbyalistener. 3.Lexicalentriesaresimplypluggedinattheappropriatetime,byusingwhatremainsavaguelydefinedsetoflexicalinsertionrules.Inaddition,howthewordsare chosen,whattheymean,andhowanuanceassociatedwithawordinaspecificcontextaffectshowasentenceisformedarenottreated.Words,inflections, auxiliaries,andmodalsappearsasdemandedbydeepsyntacticstructuredescription. 4.Acompoundsentencehastwoormoreindependentclauses.Acomplexsentencehasamainclauseandoneormoresubordinateclauses.Seethesectionon "CompoundandComplexSentences"inthischapterforfurtherexplanation. Apassivesentenceisonethatreversestheorderofthenounphrasesfoundinanactivesentence.Thedirectobjectoftheactivesentencebecomesthesubject,the activeverbisreplacedbyaformoftheauxiliaryverb"be"(i.e.,"is,""are,""was,"''were"),andthesubjectoftheactivesentencemayappearina"byphrase."For example,"Theboywasbittenbythedog"ratherthan"Thedogbittheboy." 5.BasedonNoamChomsky,SyntacticStructures(TheHague:Mouton,1957)andAspectsofaTheoryofSyntax(Cambridge:MIT,1965).Forothergood basicinformationontransformationalgrammarseeTraugottandPratt,LinguisticsforStudentsofLiterature,NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,Jovanovich,1980).For athoroughintroductionseeJohnLyons,NoamChomsky(NewYork:Penguin,1978).Thisisahighlysimplifiedmodel. 6.SeeChapterIofthistext.EnglishisatwotensesystemlikeGerman.Thismeansperfectivessuchas"havebeenseen"andprogressivessuchas"isworking"are theresultofverbphrasesusingauxiliariesandmodals,ratherthanaffixestothemainverbasareusedinRomancelanguages. 7.Allimperativeshavethedeepstructure"you+verb,"asin"youstop."Asafurthertransformation,theimperativeundergoesthedeletionofthesubject"you,"and wegetacommandsuchas"stop!"Transformationalgrammaralsoincludesdescriptionsofhowtocreatecontentquestions,orwhquestions("who,""what,""where," and"why"),aswellasyesnoquestions.Yesnoquestionsrequire"do"(ifnootherauxiliaryappears).Negativestatementsalsorequire"do"(again,ifnoother auxiliaryappears).Therefore,transformationalgrammarincludesatransformationalrulefortheuseof"do,"calledthe"dosupport"rule.Otherimportantobligatory transformationsincludethosethatgiverisetotheproperwordandaffixorder,suchasthe"affixhoppingrule."Acompletedescriptionoftherulesfortransformational grammarcanbefoundbyconsultingJohnLyons,NoamChomskyorChomsky'sowntextsSyntacticStructuresandAspectsofaTheoryofSyntax. 8.Thisprocessisimportantwhenthepersonorobjectexpressedinthe
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deletedphraseneedstobeexplicitlystated.Ifthepersonorthingresponsiblefortheactisconsideredinsignificant,thenthepassivestructuremaybepreferred,in ordertocallgreaterattentiontotheactitselfortheaffectedpersonorobject.Forexample,"thestovewasturnedon"maybepreferableto"thestovewasturned onbythecook." 9.Havingappliedtheobligatoryandoptionaltransformationalrulesnecessarytogeneratethesurfacestructure,thewriterisnowreadytoapplythephoneticrulesof English.Phoneticrulesarenotspecifiedintransformationalgrammar,sincephoneticsisaseparatefieldoflinguisticstudy.Thusthetransformationalgrammar descriptionofanutteranceendshere. 10.Transformationalgrammardoeshaveitslimits.Chomsky'sintentionistoexplainourlanguagecompetence.Indoingsohecreatesanidealspeaker:onewhoonly uttersgrammatical,wellformedsentences,whoknowsgrammarperfectly,andwhohasnomemorylimitations.indeed,whenitcomestoperformanceinthereal world,thereisnosuchthingasanidealspeaker.Manyofourutterancesarenotperfectlywellformedyetwearestillunderstood.Transformationalgrammarcannot explainwhylistenerstoleratecertaingrammaticalerrorsandunderstandwhatthespeakeristryingtoexpress,whilerefusingtotolerateothererrors.Transformational grammarisnotconcernedwiththefactthatveryfewofusknowgrammarperfectlyoruseitcorrectlyatalltimes.Thisseverelylimitstransformationalgrammar's powertoexplainamajorityofrealspokenorwrittendiscourse. Inaddition,transformationalgrammarcannotdealwithnonliteral,nonfactualstatements.Awaytodealwithfigurativelanguage,irony,orsarcasmhasnotbeenbuilt intothissystem.Figurativeuseoflanguagerequiresthatwelookatthecontextofthestatement,whileironyaswellassarcasmrequirethatweexaminethe relationshipofthespeakertothelistenerandthespeaker'sintentions.Suchaspectsoflanguagecannotbeexplainedbyworddefinitionandsyntacticanalysisandare onlyexaminedwhenlinguistsinvestigatehowlanguageisusedinagivencontext.Inactuality,sincebothtraditionalgrammarandtransformationalgrammardealwith sentencesinisolation,neithercandealwithnonliterallanguage. Chapter4.AlternativeGrammars(PartII)CaseGrammar 1.CharlesFillmore,"LexicalEntriesforVerbs,"FoundationsofLanguage4(1968):37393,and"TheCaseforCase,"UniversalsinLinguisticTheory,ed. EmmonBachandRobertHarms(NewYork:Holt,Rinehart,andWinston,1968),188. 2.BasedonFillmore,withaddedrolesbasedon:AlgirdasGreimas,"Lastructuredesactantsdurcit:Essaid'approachegnrative,"Word23(1967):22138 FredricNef,"CaseGrammarvs.ActantialGrammar:SomeRemarks
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onSemanticRoles,"Textvs.Sentence:BasicQuestionsofTextLinguistics,Part2,ed.JansPetfi(Hamburg:HelmutBuskeVerlag,1985),63453and MaryPrattandElizabethTraugott,LinguisticsforStudentsofLiterature(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,Jovanovich,1980),187204.Theadditionofroles basedonGreimashasresultedinthistypeofclassificationalsobeingcalledrolegrammar. 3.Thesetwosentencesarerelatedbywhatiscalledindirectobjectmovement.Bothformsareacceptableoneissimplyastylisticvariationoftheother.Wemost commonlyusethesentencestructurethatdeletes"to." 4.MichaelGray,"WhatReallyHappenedatThreeMileIsland,"inPopularWritinginAmerica:TheInteractionofStyleandAudience,ed.DonaldMcQuade andRobertAtwan(NewYork:Oxford),353.OriginallypublishedinRollingStone,May17,1979. 5.WilliamLaurence,"TheAtomicBombingofNagasakiToldbyaFlightMember,"inPopularWritinginAmerica:TheInteractionofStyleandAudience,144. OriginallypublishedinNewYorkTimes,September9,1945. 6.Chomsky'stransformationalgrammarcouldalsobeusedtocorrectthepassivesentences. 7.Cognitivepsychologicalresearchsupportsthisconclusion.WalterKintsch,E.Kozminsky,W.Streby,G.McKoon,andJ.Keenen,"ComprehensionandRecallof TextsasaFunctionofContentVariables,"JournalofVerbalLearningBehavior14(1975):196214,demonstratethatasthenumberofcontentvariablessuch asnounphrasesoccupyingparticularrolesinastretchofproseincreases,theprosebecomesmoredifficulttofollowandtocomprehend. 8.Sartre'sprosemaybeatleastaseasy,ifnoteasier,todecipher,sincehecommonlyusesconcretemetaphorsasanalogies. 9.HazelBarnes,"IntroductiontoSartre'sBeingandNothingness,"inJeanPaulSartre,BeingandNothingness(NewYork:WashingtonSquarePress,1966),xii. (Ihaveremovedalltagphrasesandevaluatorshere,whichareunnecessaryforthisanalysis.) 10.IamindebtedtotheworkofmygraduateassistantKatyWegnerwhodidthefirstanalysisofthispassage. 11.Egoisdefinedas"comingintobeing"intheprecedingparagraphthus,Egoasexperiencerspatiallyexpressed"existingintheworld"alsocarriesoveras anotherroleofEgointhisparagraph. 12."We"existsonanotherlevelofdiscourse.Itisnotpartofthedescriptionofthesysteminsteaditisusedtotellthereaderhowtoengageindiscourseaboutthe system.Sincepersonalpronounsareusedsparselyinthispassage,theappearanceof"we"isabruptanddifficulttoprocess. 13.Fortheexperiencedwriter,thisstatementshouldbemodifiedto:limittheroleofeachmainnounphrasetooneperclause(twoatmostifyouareexpressinga changeintheelementorcomparingittosomethingelse).Iftheprosecontainscomplexsentences,treateachclauseasasentence.
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14.RobertdeBeaugrande,Text,Discourse,andProcess(Norwood:Ablex,1980),8087.Hereistheirlist: agent:entitythatperformsanaction,andthuschangesthesituation affectedentity:(patient)entityacteduponbytheagentandaction objects/entities:entitieswithstableidentity instrument:objectusedbyentitytocauseaneventtooccur location:theplacewhere time:atwhichorinwhichstateoreventoccurs situations:inwhichentitiesarepresented event:occurrencewhichchangesthesituationorstateoftheentities action:eventswhicharecausedbyagentorentity state:temporaryconditionofanentity relation:detailedrelationshipssuchasmotherdaughter,mentorpupil attribute:thecharacteristicstateofanentity motion:changeoflocation form:shape substance:materialcompositionofanentity part:componentofanentity cause:necessaryforeventtohappen enablement:allowseventtooccur reason:foroccurrenceofstateorevent purpose:forstateorevent emotion:sensorystateexperiencedbyentity communication:transmittingknowledgebetweenentities volition:actionofwillordesireofentity cognition:knowledgeofentity possession:relationshipbetweenanobjectandentitywhoownsorhasit specification:relationsbetweenaclassandasmallerelement,statingthenarrowertraitsofthelatter,orhowitisaspecificinstanceofthelargerclass value:worthofentityintermsofotherentities quantity:numberofwhich,alsoscaleormeasurement modality:conceptofnecessity,probability,possibility,obligation equivalence:equality,sameness,orcorrespondence opposition:converseofequivalence coreference:differentexpressionsusedtoactivatethesameentity 15.Casegrammarwasdesignedtoworkwithindividualsentences,butaswehaveseen,itcanbeappliedtowholepassagesofdiscourse.(FredricNefhadpointed outthatcasegrammarcouldonlyexplainsentences.HebelievedGreimas'roles,ratherthanFillmore'scasegrammar,workedacrossastretchoftext.Fillmore'sroles caninfactbeeasilymodifiedtoworkonapassageoftext,
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and,infact,themostpracticalsolutionistocombinetherolesofbothFillmoreandGreimasinordertoarriveatthemostusefulsetofrolesforaparticulartypeof prose.) 16.LewisThomas,"OrganellesasOrganisms,"inLivesofaCell:NotesofaBiologyWatcher(NewYork:Viking,1974),85. Chapter5.AnalyzingandImprovingCoherence 1.Varioustheoreticiansoffervariousversionsofthegivennewcontract.SomeofthemostinfluentialhavebeenputforthbyS.HavilandandH.H.Clark,"What's New?AcquiringNewInformationasaProcessinComprehension,"JournalofVerbalLearningandVerbalBehavior13(1974):51221and"Comprehension andtheGivenNewContract,"DiscourseProductionandComprehension,ed.RoyFreedle(NewYork:Ablex,1977),140W.L.Chafe,"DiscourseStructure andHumanKnowledge,"LanguageComprehensionandtheAcquisitionofKnowledge,ed.J.B.CarrollandR.O.Freedle(Washington:Wiley:1972)and "Givenness,Contrastiveness,Definiteness,Subjects,Topics,andPointsofView,"inSubjectandTopic,ed.C.N.Li(NewYork:Academic,1976),2755M.A. K.Halliday,"NotesonTransitivityandThemeinEnglish,''JournalofLinguistics3(1967):199244,and"ModesofMeaningandModesofExpression:Typesof GrammaticalStructure,andTheirDeterminationbyDifferentSemanticFunction,"inFunctionandContextinLinguisticAnalysis,ed.D.J.Allerton,Edward Corney,andDavidHoldcroft(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979),5779.Ifyouwishtoreadagoodsummaryofmanyofthemajortheories,consult GillianBrownandGeorgeYule,DiscourseAnalysis,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983),16989. 2.Thismanneroflookingatgivennew,basedonthepsychologicalstatusofthespeakerandlistener/reader,isHalliday'sandisfoundin"NotesofTransitivityand ThemeinEnglish."Thespeakertreatsasgivenmaterialthatwhichisrecoverablefrompreviousmentionorinferablefromcontextitself. 3.Ifthewriterdependssolelyonelementsofsentencestructureforcoherence,heismuchlikeliertoabuseandreducegivennewtoamechanicalformula,sinceheis creatingcohesion,notnecessarilycoherence.Usedinthisfashion,thegivennewcontractbecomesatestofcohesion,NOTcoherencedealingwithlinkingforms, notideasthencoherencemayinfactbelacking.Thewritermustpayattentiontotheideas,towhatisbeingsaid,notjusttorepetition.(Seechapter6formoreon thispoint.) 4.Seetheexample,"SomeUsesandAbusesofEconomicMultipliers,"inthefollowingsectiononChristensen'sRhetoricoftheParagraph.Thepassagerigidly adherestothegivennewformula.(Keytermsusedtoachievecoherenceareitalicizedfirstuseofaterm=new,subsequentuses=given.)Whilethistexthaslinear coherenceandmakessense,itseemstoramble,sincethetruefocusoftheessayisnotannounceduntilthelastsentenceofthesecondpara
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graph.Muchofthefirstsixtosevensentencesseemtosuggestthatthearticlewillfocusonhowthedecisionmakersperformtheirduties.Theintroduction,while linearlycoherent,issomewhatmisleadingandperfunctory,andshouldbetightenedtoreflectthetruefocusofthearticle.Letthisbeawarningthatsequential coherenceisnotenough,andthatoftenitisusefultocheckcoherencewithmorethanonemethod(particularlyasecondmethodthatdealswithoverall,global coherence,asdiscussedinchapter7). 5.Hallidaywouldsaythislineisinferredbythepreviousstatement,bytheimplicitconnectionmadeherebasedoncomparingthebody'sandthemind'sresponsibility foraction.Also,byplacingitfirstinthesentence,thespeakertreatsitasagiven. 6.LewisThomas,"Autonomy,"inTheLivesofaCell:NotesofaBiologyWatcher,(NewYork:Viking,1974),75.NotethatIhavedividedphrasesintogiven andnewsincewedoinfactprocessinformationbyphrases,andthusthismoreaccuratelyrepresentshowwecognitivelyprocessgivennew.Withinthenewphrases, HavilandandClarkconsiderpronounstobegivenlinksthatestablishcoherence.Wecanseefromthisexamplethatthepronounsthemselvesmakethenew informationeasiertoprocess,butarenotaloneenoughtoturnthenewphrasesintogivens,since"you"isnotsufficienttocalluptheearlierkeyconceptofyou controllingyouractions. 7.FrancisChristensen,NotestowardaNewRhetoric(NewYork:HarperandRow,1967),5481,isdevotedtotheparagraph.Unlikethegivennewcontract, Christensen'srhetoricisgenerative.Usingpassagesfromvariouswellknownwriters,hetakesthetopicsentencewhichisalsousuallythefirstsentenceand demonstrateshowitcanbeelaborated,developed,andspecifiedbythefollowingsentencesoftheparagraph. 8.CharlesDickens,ATaleofTwoCities(1859NewYork:Penguin,1970),35.Theparagraphiswrittenasasinglesentence.IfDickenssatinafreshman compositionclass,histeacherwouldprobablypointouttheseriesofcommasplicesandtellhimthateachclauseisactuallyasentence.Yet,asreaders,wecansee thatDickens'onesentenceparagraphservesasanexcellentexampleofcoordinatingstructure. 9.KimChernin,"TheBoutique,"TheObsession:ReflectionsonTheTyrannyofSlenderness(NewYork:HarperandRow,1981),8889. 10."WhatisaGeyser?"inGeysers,U.S.GeologicalSurvey(GovernmentPrinting1986491402/01).Thispamphletisthetypeyouwouldgetataninformation centerwhenyouvisitanattractionsuchasOldFaithful. 11.EugeneLewis,"SomeUsesandAbusesofEconomicMultipliers,"WyomingIssues1(1978):7. 12.TeachersmayfindthatChristensen'srhetoriccanbeusedtodesignexercisesthatmayhelpwriterslearnhowtodevelopandexpandtheirownparagraphsduring therevisionprocess.Atfirst,developexercisesthatgivewritersaskeletalparagraphtofillin.
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EXERCISE: Thefollowingparagraphneedstobefurtherdevelopedsothatitmoreeffectivelyexpressestehmainidea Peoplewhowatchsoapoperasareoneoftwotypes,"thebreaktakers,"or"theaddicts."Thebreaktakersonlywatchoneortwofavoriteshowsasadiversion fromhouseholdchoresorasabreakduringtheworkdayfromtheirjob.Addictswatchsoapoperasallday,everyday. Rewritetheparagraph,addingsentenceswhereindicated.Youwillbedirectedwhethertoaddasubordinatingorcoordinatingsentence. 1Peoplewhowatchsoapoperasareoneoftwotypes,"thebreaktakers,"or"theaddicts." 2Thebreaktakersonlywatchoneoftwotypes,"thebreaktakers,"or"theaddicts." 3Addasubordinatesentencethatfurthertellswhypeopletakeabreakfromhouseholdchoresorwhichfurtherdescribesthehouseholdchorebreak takers. 3Addacoordinatesentencethattellswhypeopletakeabreakfromtheirworkday,orthatfurtherdescribesthejobbreaktakers. 2Addictswatchsoapoperasallday,everyday. 3Addasubordinatesentencethatelaboratesonwhotheaddictsare,orhowtheiraddictionaffectstheirdailyroutine. 4Addanothersubordinatesentencethatbuildontheprevioussentence 1Superordination:Addageneralstatementthatconcludestheparagraph. Writeyournewparagraphoutinparagraphform.ComparetheparagraphIhavegivenyou,whichis122,withyourownparagraphthatis12332341. Discusswhichisthebetterparagraphandwhy. Aswritersbecomemorecomfortablewiththisprocedure,teacherscandesignsubsequentexercisesthatarelessdirective.(Givethemathemeandthenaskthem todevelopitwithaspecificstructuresuchas11231,orgivethemathemeandalistofinstructionsto"addasubordinatesentence"or"addacoordinate sentence.") Usingexercisessuchasthiswassuggestedbyoneofmygraduatestudents,WillGrantin"PreTextPostText:AStudyinRevisionStrategies,"unpublished. Mre.Granthastriedthisapproachwithhishighschoolstudentswithexcellentresults. 13.Ratherthanwriting"vague"or"expand,"teachers,editors,andwritersrespondingtoeachothers'workinworkshopscouldbetterhelponeanotherbygivingthem suchinstructions.
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Thislistisbasedontheoreticaldiscussionsof"entailment,"howsentencescanbelogicallyconnected.See,forexample,RogerSchank,"TheStructureof EpisodesinMemory,"23772andDavidRumelhart,''NotesonaSchemaforStories,"21136,bothinRepresentationandUnderstanding:Studiesin CognitiveScience,ed.DanielBobrowandAllanCollins(NewYork:Academic,1975). 14.OnelimitationofChristensen'sworkisthathisobservationsonparagraphtypesarebasedsolelyondescriptiveparagraphs.Thismayprejudicehisstatementson howtypicalparagraphswork.Butasadiagnosticdevice,hismethodologymaybeusefulforlookingatallparagraphtypes.Also,heisinterestedinusinghis methodologyforteachingstudentshowtowriteparagraphs,ratherthanasacheckforparagraphcoherenceandasatoolforrevision.AsIpreviouslystated,I believethatthemethodologyisbetterusedtodescribehowalreadywrittenparagraphsareworking,ornotworking. Chapter6.AchievingCohesion 1.Cohesionisfirstandforemostafeatureoftexts,whereasideasbythemselvesexistasmentalimagesthatmaybethoughtofinspatialorgraphictermsratherthanas lineartexts. 2.BasedonM.A.K.HallidayandRuqaiyaHasan,CohesioninEnglish(London:Longman,1976). 3."Do"alsohasotherfunctionsinEnglishitisnecessaryinmanyquestionsandmanynegativesentences.Insuchinstances"do"isnotusedforsubstitutionbutasan auxilaryverb. 4.ElizabethRudolph,"ConnectiveRelationsConnectiveExpressionsConnectiveStructures,"TextandDiscourse,ed.JansPetri(NewYork:deGruyter, 1988),97133. OthersystemsarepossibleHallidayandHasan,DressleranddeBeaugrande,andothersprefertobreakadversarialrelationsintodisjunctionsandcontrajuntion andtoclumptemporalandconditionalintosubordinaterelations.IpreferRudolph'ssystemwhichismoreappealingtoawriter'ssenseofconnections(as opposedtoatheoreticallinguist). 5.JoanDidion,"SlouchingTowardBethlehem,"SlouchingTowardBethlehem(NewYork:Dell,1968),84. 6.LorenEiseley,"TheStarThrower,"TheStarThrower(NewYork:TimesBooks,1978),169. 7.RachelCarson,"RealmsoftheSoil,"SilentSpring(NewYork:HoughtonMifflin,1962),53. 8.PegYorkin,"ReviewsfromaFeministPerspective,"ReportsfromtheFeministMajority2(1990):7.
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Chapter7.AnalyzingMacrostructures 1.ThischapterisbasedonTeunvanDijk,Macrostructures(Hillsdale:Erlbaum,1979). 2.ForastartondefiningaudienceissuesseeArthurWalter,"Articlesfromthe'CaliforniaDivorceProject':ACaseStudyoftheConceptofAudience,"College CompositionandCommunication36(1985):15059DouglasPark,"TheMeaningof'Audience,'"CollegeEnglish44(1982):24757andWalterOng,"The Writer'sAudienceisAlwaysaFiction,''PublicationsoftheModernLanguageAssociation90(1975):921. 3.ThisprocedureisbasedonVanDijk'smacrorules,Macrostructures,2873.VanDijkproposesfivemacrorulesforderivingmacrostructures,whicharelisted hereintheorderinwhichtheyareperformed: 1.Weakdeletion:isthedeletionofmaterialnotrelevanttothelargerissueorpoint.Thisiscalledthedeletionofirrelevantdetail. 2.Generalization:istheprocessofabstractingdetailfromspecificstatementsinordertocreateamoregeneralstatement.Thisrequiresgroupingfactsandideas, anddevelopingastatementthatsubsumesthewholegroup. 3.Construction:joinssentencesorclausestogetherinasinglemacrostatement.Theclausesthatarejoinedmaycomefromdifferentsectionsofatext. Constructionisthejoiningtogetheroftwoormoreclausesorstatementsintoonestatement.(Thisdistinguishesconstructionfromabstractionhere,nodetailor materialislost.) 4.StrongDeletion:isthedeletionofmaterialthatisrelevantatalocal,specificlevel,butwhichbecomesirrelevant,orperipheralatamoregenerallevel. 5.Zerorule:leavesastatementintactandraisesittoahigherlevelofgeneralization.Thezeroruleisreallyadescriptionofstatementsthatarenoteditedbutthat aremovedtoahigherlevelwithoutanyadaptation. Ihavefoundthatreorganizationisessentialtotheproductionofmacrostructums,sinceoftentextmustbereorganizedtoidentifythebestmethodforpresentingthe materialinalogicalorder.Secondly,IhavereplacedVanDijk'sweakandstrongdeletionwithdeletion.Asonemovesupthepyramidofmacrostructurestogreater generalizationitisnotnecessarytodistinguishbetweenstrongandweakdeletion,buttorecognizethatateachlevel,morelocalmaterialisconsideredirrelevantor peripheral. 4.LawrenceAltman,"DoctorsSayBabywithBaboonHeartIsDoing'RemarkablyWell,'"NewYorkTimes,October29,1984,A15.UsedbypermissionofNew YorkTimes,1992. 5.Forexample,thesentenceonthechild'simmunizationrecordwasnotwellexplainedinthearticle:doesimmunizationmeanshemayhavepreformed
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antibodiesagainstthebaboonthatmaystillcauserejection,ordoesitmeanshemayhaveantibodiesagainsttransfusedhumanblood?Ihavemadegeneralizations basedonwhatIbelievethewriterintendedtosayabouttheimmunizationrecord.InrecognizingthatIhavetospeculateabouthisintendedmeaning,Ihaveidentified asentencewhichcreatesacoherenceproblemandwhichmakesitdifficulttoeditthetext.IfIweretopublishanyformofthisarticle,Iwouldwanttoclarifythis sentence. 6.ThisrevisionprocessissimilartotheonesuggestedinPeterElbow'sWritingwithPower(NewYork:Oxford,1981),3238and12838.Hereisasummaryof hisprocedure(seepages38and138): Haveyouraudienceandpurposeclearlyinmind. Readoverrawwritingandmarkimportantbits. Findyourmainpoint. Putthepartsinorderonthebasisofyourmainidea. Makeadraft. Possibledetour:dealwithabreakdown.(Addmissingpieces.Reorder.Tightenandclarifybycutting.) Tightenandcleanupyourlanguage. Removemistakesingrammarandusage. LikeElbow,Ibelievethatcorrectinggrammar,punctuation,andothermechanicalerrorsshouldcomelast.Conveyingyourmessageinaclear,orderlyfashionismost important. Chapter8.Pragmatics:LanguageinUse 1.Atthispointinthedevelopmentinlinguisticstudies,linguisticsbeginstorelatetoanotherfieldoflanguagestudy,rhetoric.Inboththesefields,theoristsrecognize threeprimaryelements:speaker(orbyextension,writer),audience,andtext. 2.JohnAustin,HowtoDoThingswithWords(Cambridge:Harvard,1962). 3.JohnSearle,ExpressionandMeaning:StudiesintheTheoryofSpeechActs(Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1979).SearlereplacedAustin'sthree componentspeechactwithatwocomponentdescription.(Hedispensedwiththenotionoftheperlocutionaryact,sinceeffectorconsequenceisinfactsignaledor determinedbytheillocutionaryact.Healsodefinesthelocutionaryactmorepreciselylocutionisnolongerbasedontheverbused.)
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4.Eachclassalsohasacharacteristicsyntacticform. assertives:I+verb(+that)+S. directives:I+verb+you+futurevolitionverb(+NP)(+adv). commissives:I+verb(+you)+I+futurevolitionverb+(NP)+(adv). expressives:I+verb+you+I/youVP whichyields declaratives:I+verbNP1+NP2beV ORwhichcanbetruncatedtoyield I+verb+S Srepresentssentenceorstatement. Elementsinparenthesesareoptional. Ineachcase"I+verb"canbedropped,forexample"Iwilltakeyoutothemovies." 5.Austin,HowtoDoThingswithWords,LectureII,1220. 6.Here,theoristsdealinaverylimitedfashionwiththespeaker'sandaudience'sattitudesandbeliefs.Obviously,thisisaverylimitedwayoflookingattheissues, sinceonlytheparticipants'attitudesandbeliefsregardingtheirdesiretoparticipateinthecommunicationofasinglemessagearedealtwith.Howtheymayinterpret andrespondtothemessage,basedonculturalbackground,orbeliefsandattitudes,isnotdealtwith(thoseareissuesforsociolinguistics). 7.Issuesofstatusareculturallydependent.Oneculturemayperceiveapersonasoccupyingapositionofpowerorrespectwhileanotherculturemayperceivethat positiondifferently(e.g.,someculturesaffordateacherapositionofrespect,whileinAmericawetendnotto).Thiswillaffecthowthespeakeraddressesthehearer. Formalityisalsodealtwithdifferentlyinvariouslanguagesandcultures.RomancelanguageshavedifferentformsofformalorinformaladdressEnglishdoesnot. 8.J.W.Fulbright,ThePentagonPropagandaMachine(NewYork:Liveright,1970),3233. 9.Suchexamplesofindirectionareobviouslymorecomplicatedthanthe"canyoutellmewhattimeitis"speechact.Todate,speechacttheoryhasdealtprimarily withsimpleindirectspeechactsthatareusuallysingleconventionalutterances,suchasrequestsorpromises,orverybriefconventionalexchangesbetweentwo people,suchasanexchangeofgreetings.Butwecanseethatappropriatenessconditionsdonotapplyonlytoisolatedutterances,theprinciplesusedtodiscuss speechactscanbeusedtodiscussandrevealinterestingfacetsofcompletetexts.
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10.PaulGrice,"LogicandConversation,"inSyntaxandSemanticsIII,ed.PeterColeandJerryMorgan(NewYork:Academic,1978),4158.Themaximof consistencyismyownaddition. 11.JohnWeisman,"WhyAmericanTVIsSoVulnerabletoForeignPropaganda,"TVGuide,June12,1982,78. 12.TheproblemwithGriceananalysisofnonliteraryproseisthatitassumesallcommunicationisstraightforwardandliteral.Gricegenerallyassumesthatthespeaker isobservingthesinceritycondition.andthatthespeakerisnottryingtoobscuremeaning,createdoubleentendres,orotherwisetoywiththelistener.Griceananalysis wasnotdesignedtodealwithmetaphor,puns,humor,orironyfoundinpoetryandfiction,wherewerecognizethatbreachesofmaximssuchasavoidambiguity donotnecessarilyimpedecommunication.Already,linguistsinterestedinliteraryanalysisarefindingwaystoadaptGriceananalysistodealwithnonliteraltypesof languageuse.SeeMaryPrattandElizabethTraugott'sLinguisticsforStudentsofLiterature(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace,Jovanovich,1980)orMaryPratt's TowardaSpeechActTheoryofLiteraryDiscourse(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1977). 13.Audienceanalysis,arhetoricalfieldofstudy,offerspracticalinformationabouthowtoanalyzeyouraudience.Forgoodinformationonaudienceanalysisyoumay wanttoconsultthefollowing:J.C.MathesandDwightStevenson,"AudienceAnalysis:TheProblemandaSolution,"inDesigningTechnicalReports,ed.John Mathes(BobbsMerrillEducationalPub:Indianapolis,1976)WalterOng,"TheWriter'sAudienceIsAlwaysaFiction,"PublicationsoftheModernLanguage Association90(1975):922LisaEde,''Audience:AnIntroductiontoResearch,"CollegeComposition&Communication35(1984):14054andLindaFlower, JohnHayes,andHeidiSwarts,"RevisingFunctionalDocuments:TheScenarioPrinciple,"NewEssaysinTechnicalCommunication:Research,Theory,Practice, ed.PaulAnderson,R.JohnBrockman,andCarolynMiller(Farmingdale:Baywood,1983). 14.Teachersandeditorsmayfindthatcritiquingproblemsintermsofhowthetextdoesnotaccommodatethecircumstances,audience,orprocedurebeing addressedoftendiffusesapotentiallyawkwardsituationinwhichaninexperiencedwriterperceivescriticismasanattackonhisability.Approachingatextinthisway mayalsodiffusesomeofthewriter'sanxiety,sincethisapproachtoevaluatingwritingemphasizesobjectivecriteriawhichthewritercanlearn,ratherthanmorevague, subjectivecriteria. 15.RichardLederer,AnguishedEnglish(NewYork:Doubleday,1987).ThesignfromtheBlackForestisonpage96,andthesignfromaJapanesehotelison page94.
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Chapter9.SociolinguisticsLanguageandtheCommunityofIndividuals 1.Sociolinguisticshasoftensufferedfrombeinglabeledapseudosciencebysometraditionallinguistswhopridethemselvesondevelopingandpracticingananalytical fieldofstudy.Sociolinguisticinquirycannotbeperformedusingtheformalorlogicbasedmethodologiesoftraditionallinguisticsthatweredesignedtostudygrammar andtextsisolatedfromthecommunicationsituation.Muchofhumanlanguagebehaviorasitoccursintruesocialsituationsisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,toexplainbya setofrules. 2.Thecomplaintofsociolinguistsagainstsuchtraditionalapproachesisthatlanguagecompetenceinadvertentlybecomesthesameasperformance.Accordingtoa traditionalapproach,weareallidealizedlanguagespeakersandhearers.(IfsomeonedeviatesfromacceptableEnglishitisunintentionalhehaserredorisindolent.) Thereisnowaytoaccountforindividualorgroupdifferencesinsuchanapproach.Forthesociolinguist,competencehasainterpersonalorculturalaspectthatcannot beaccountedforbygrammaralone. 3.Hymes,Dell,FoundationsinSociolinguistics:AnEthnographicApproach(Philadelphia,PennsylvaniaUniversityPress,1974),5462.Iwouldliketodefine keyandstyleabitmoreprecisely. Manycluesthatthekeyisnotseriousarenonverbal,suchasthewinkofaneyeoragestureofthehand.Unusualemphases(i.e.,pitch)ofwordsofrphrasesin sentencesmayalsobeanindicatorofkey.Theacceptableintheboardroomitisnot. Style(Instrumentalities)ismorepreciselydividedintodialect,register,andcode.Dialect,suchasMidwesternorSouthern,isafeatureofwhoyouareandwhereyou grewup.Registerisdeterminedbothbythesiturationandtheaudienceitisprimarilydetermindedbythesocialatmosphereofthesituation.Forexample,yourstyleis differentwhenyouareouttodinnerwithafriendatMcDonaldsthanwhenyouarediningatafourstarrestaurantwithyourboss.Yourlanguagewillbemore elaborateinformalsituationsandmorerestrictedincasualsituations,andyouwillchoosethecodeappropriatejforthesituation.Theelaboratecodeisdefinedas verballyexplicit:grammarispreciselittleornocontextualmaterialisleftout,andthegrammarislooserandlessprecise.Sincethiscodeisonlyusedwithintimates, weexpectthattheycanmentallyinsert(infer)whatwehaveleftout. ForalessformaltreatmentofSPEAKINGforthenonlinguistseePeterFarb,Wordplay:WhatHappensWhenPeopleTalk(NewYork:Bantam,1975),37 40.
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4.Seenote2,Chapter7andnote13,Chapter8,forrecommendedresearchinaudienceanalysis. 5.TheresearchandapproachesdiscussedinthissectionarebasedondescriptionsofinteractionsofspeakersandlistenersinDellHymes'Foundationsin SociolinguisticsIhaveadaptedthisresearchforwriters.UnlikeSPEAKING,accommodationtheorylooksatindividualsnegotiatingcommunicationrather thanatparticipantshavingaroledetermineinalargesocialnetwork.Seeforexample,"WomenandPoliteness:ANewPerspectiveonLanguageandSociety," DevelopmentsinAnthropology3(1976):24041HowardGiles,DonaldTaylorandRichardBourhis,"TowardsaTheoryofInterpersonalAccommodation throughLanguage,"LanguageinSociety2(1973),17792andLisaSimard,DonaldTaylor,andHowardGiles,"AttributionProcessesandInterpersonal AccommodationinaBilingualSetting,"LanguageandSpeech19(1976):37487. 6.PenelopeBrownandStephenLevinson,"UniversalsinLanguageUsage:PolitenessPhenomena,"QuestionsandPoliteness:StrategiesinSocialInteraction (Cambridge:Cambridge,1976).BrownandLevinsondealwithspeakersandlisteners. 7.ErvingGoffman,FormsofTalk(Oxford:BasilBlackwood,1981),seechap.3,"Footing,"esp.pp.12428.Thisapproachwasalsodesignedtodealwith speakersandlisteners.Goffmanobservesthatthetoneofvoice,thegestures,andthebodylanguageoftheparticipantsarecuestofooting. 8.InWilliamLabovandJoshuaWaletzky,"NarrativeAnalysis:OralVersionsofPersonalExperience,"EssaysontheVerbalandVisualArts,ed.JuneHelm (Seattle:WashingtonUniversityPress,1967),1244,evaluatorsandintensifiersarediscussedaselementsofnarrative. 9.SeeRogerSchankandRobertAbelson,Scripts,Plans,GoalsandUnderstanding:AnInquiryintoHumanKnowledgeStructures(Hillsdale:Erlbaum,1977) foroneofthebestandmostextensiveworksonscriptsandplans.Thefollowingsectionsonscriptsandplansarebasedontheirwork. 10.Oneproblemwithusingscriptsasatoolisthatwedon'tknowhowmuchmaterialisessentialtoagivenscript.Whatinformationisnecessary,andwhatis expendableorsuperfluousdetail?Shouldarestaurantorderingscriptincludethewaiter'srecommendations?Inaddition,howdoesonefindasystematicmeansof limitingtheextralinguisticknowledge,suchasinformationonattitudesandgestures,necessarytocarryoutthesequenceofevents? 11.Commonly,scenariosaredefinedaswrittenscripts.LindaFlower,JohnHayes,andHeidiSwarts,"RevisingFunctionalDocuments:TheScenarioPrinciple,"in NewEssaysinTechnicalandScientificCommunication:Research,Theory,Practice,ed.PaulAnderson,R.JohnBrockman,andCarolynMiller(Farmingdale: Baywood,1983),4158,usethe"scenarioapproach"tomeanprosestructuredaroundagent,action,andsituation. 12.BasedonAPAstyle.
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13.BasedonFlower,Hayes,andSwarts,"RevisingFunctionalDocuments:TheScenarioPrinciple,"4158. 14.BasedonRogerSchank,"RulesandTopicsinConversation,"CognitiveScience1(1977):42141. 15.ForadetailedtheoreticaldiscussionofschemasseeMarilynAdamsandAllanCollins,"ASchemaTheoreticalViewofReading,"inNewDirectionsin DiscourseProcessing,ed.RoyFreedie(Norwood:Ablex,1979),121andDanielBobrowandDonaldNorman,"SomePrinciplesofMemorySchemata," RepresentationandUnderstanding:StudiesinCognitiveScience,ed.DanielBobrowandAllanCollins(NewYork:Academic,1975),13150.Formore completepracticaldefinitionsofschemasandtheiruses,seeS.T.FiskeandP.W.Linville,"WhatDoestheSchemaConceptBuyUs?"PersonalityandSocial PsychologyBulletin6(1980),54357andLindaFlowerandJohnHayes,"Images,PlansandProse:TheRepresentationofMeaninginWriting,"Written Communication1(1984):195235. 16.NancyM.CookeandJamesMcDonald,"AFormalMethodologyforAcquiringandRepresentingExpertKnowledge,"ProceedingsoftheIEEE74(1986): 142230andCarolMcGuinness,"ProblemRepresentation:TheEffectsofSpatialArrays,"MemoryandCognition14(1986):27080,investigateformsofexpert knowledge. 17.SchankandAbelsonofferthisplanasa"planboxfornegotiatingagoal,"p.90.Ihavedeleted"begorplead"fromtheirlistsinceIbelievebeggingundermines tryingmoreforcefulstrategies. 18.SeeFlower,Hayes,andSwarts,"RevisingFunctionalDocuments:TheScenarioPrinciple,"forsuggestionsondealingspecificallywithtechnicaldocumentation. 19.See,forexample,ThomasHuckin,"ACognitiveApproachtoReadability,"inNewEssaysinTechnicalandScientificCommunication:Research,Theory, Practice,ed.PaulAnderson,R.JohnBrockman,andCarolynMiller(Farmingdale:Baywood,1983),90108andLindaFlowerandJohnHayes,"Images,Plans andProse:TheRepresentationofMeaninginWriting,"WrittenCommunication1(1984):195235.
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Index
A Abstracts.SeeSummaries Abstractwords,99100 Accommodationtheory,16466 Actsequence,16263,209 Actionorientedtexts,11718 Activeprose,47,64 Activesentences,44,4647,57,6465,72 relationshiptopassivesentences,4647,57,6465 Additivejuncture,1067 Adjuvant,54 Advancedorganizers,35,37 Adverbials,96 Adverbs,95,105 Adversativejunctive,1067 Advertisingandpropaganda,58,89,147,151,154,16668 Afterthedraftoutline,137 Agencyproblem,5765,187 Agent,52,5571,186 deleted,5758,6061 Alternativegrammar.SeeGrammar Altman,Lawrence,122 Analogies,3637,117,173 Analoguesandmetaphors,3637 learning/LTM,20,23 Anaphora,100,109 Andrelation,106 Antecedents,96,101. SeealsoPronounsProforms Appropriatenessconditions,14346,153,155,2068 Arbitrariness,7,14 Aspectvs.objectorganization,33 Assertives,141 "AtomicBombingofNagasakiasToldbyFlightMember,"5960 Audience,32,34,11419,13536,139,15455,171 incognitiveaspectsoftextdesign,32,34 needs,117,131,135,15455,16162,16466,172,178 paricipants,139,15455 andpragmatics,154 Austin,John,16,140,155. SeealsoPragmaticsSpeechActTheory
Page246
"Autonomy,"79 Auxiliaryverbs,44,46 B Babywithbaboonheart,120 Barnes,Hazel,66 Baseintransformationalgrammar,4142,45 Being&Nothingness,66 Beings:animate,5254 inanimate,5456 Benefactor,54,56 Bottomuptextdesign,2426 "Boutique,The,"83 "By,"108,185 C Carson,Rachel,112 Casegrammar,40,5173,186 limitationsof,7172. SeealsoRolerelationgrammar Cataphora,100,10910 Cause,71 Chernin,Kim,83 Chomsky,Noam,14,3942,45,139 andstructurallinguistics,14.SeeTransformationalgrammar Christensen,Francis,76,81 rhetoric,76,8189,91,18994 Chronologicaljunctive,106,108 Chunking,28,3132,3637 Circumstances,143,206 Clause:participle,65 independentanddependent,4748 Cognitiveissuesin:informationprocessing,1718 textdesign,3337 Coherence,71,7581,84,8689,91,9596,105,107,109,135,18995 problemsin,80,84,86 Cohesion,75,95112 defined,95 effectsonprocessing,9697,111 elementsof,9596 typesof,97108 Cohesivedevices,75,95112,19496 Commissives,142 Communication,14 animalvs.human,1,4 Communicationcircuit,12 Communicativecompetence,143,160 Comparatives(comparators),16668 Competence,linguistic,40 Complexsentences,4748 Compoundsentences,47,76 Conceptuallydrivenprocessing,2425,2930,32,3537,18384 vs.datadriven,24,26,29,36 Conclusions,2930 Concretizationsvs.analogies,3637 Conditionaljunctives,1068 Conjunction,9596,105 Construction,119,12829,131,2023,2056,225 Contentwords,10 Context,11517 Contrastivejunctive,1067 Conventionality,4,13 CooperationPrinciple,14954,2068,228 defined,149 maximsof,14950,154 floutingofmaxims,15054 Coordinatingsentences,47,81,8486,8890 Creativity,7,14,40 D Datadrivenprocessing,24,26,29,18384 Datalimitation,24,2829 Deception,60,14849 Declaratives,142 Deepstructureintransformationalgrammar,4142 Deletion,11828,13034,19699,2036,225 increatingsummariesandabstracts,11821,12634 Demonstrativepronouns,100101 Derivationsintransformationalgrammar,42,45 Determiner,43 Diachronicvs.synchroniclinguistics,12 Dickens,Charles,82 Didion,Joan,10910 Directives,142
Page247
Discontinuitiesincoherence,80. SeealsoGapsincoherence Discreteness,7 Distancing,pronounsfor,101 "Do,"103,189 "DoctorsSayBabywithBaboonHeartisDoingRemarkablyWell,"120,12225,200201 Duality,7 E Editing,5860,66,7791,108 Eiseley,Loren,110 Elaborativerehearsal,2022,24,3435,37,185 forLTMstorage,2022,24,34 andlearning,2022,24,3435 Elementsoflanguage.SeeLanguage,elementsof Ellipsis,96,1035,110,19495 Emphatics,166,168 Ends,16263,209 English,historyof,810 Evaluators(evaluatives),16668,212 Expectationsinprocessing,24,3031 Experiencer,53,68,70 Expertknowledge,3033,36,70,173,216 processing,elementsinfluencing,3032 vs.novice,3133,36,154 Expressives,142 F Face,16465 Fillmore,Charles,40,51. SeealsoCaseGrammar Footing,16466,175 Force,54,60 Foreignspeakers,pragmaticdifficultiesfor,144 Forgetting,19 Form,2 Fulbright,J.W.,147 Functionwords,910,23,105 inparallelism,105 Functionsoflanguage.SeeLanguage,functions G Gapsincoherence,80,86,136,194 ellipsis,1035 Generalizations,99100 increatingsummariesandabstracts,119,128,13133,2046,225 Generativetransformationalgrammar.SeeTransformationalgrammar Genre,30,11419,153,155,16263,177,210 German,8 Gist,11314,137 Given,implicit,78,80 Giveninformation,7780 Givennewcontract,7680,87,91,19394,221 Globalcoherence,7778,80,91,11314,13438,193194 breachesof,13435 Goals(Ends),56,16263,172,17476 Goalsandtasksintextdesign,35 Grammar,37,10,14,143,15960,163,165 alternative,3940,51 Case(rolerelation)14,5174 traditional,5,14,49,51 Transformational3949,51 Grice,Paul,149,228 H Headingsandtitles,29,3233,35,80,172,17678,185 Hedging,168 Heuristics,3132 Hierarchicalordering,35 Hockett,C.F.SeeLanguage,qualities Hymes,Dell,161 I Icon,12 Illocutionaryact,14041 Illocutionaryforce,14041 Imperatives,63 Implicitinformation,78,80 Independentclauses,4748 Index,12 Indirection,14748 Indirectspeechacts,14546
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IndoEuropean,8,11 Inflection.SeeEnglish,historyof Instructionalmanuals,2425 Instrument,55,57,59,62,65 Instrumentalities,16263,16566,210,229 Intensifiers,16668,212 Intent,72,143,149,154,16466 Interference,proactive,2930 Interpersonalcommunicationsituation.SeeSocialandinterpersonalaspectsofcommunication Introductions,2930,34 "It,"6162. SeealsoPronounsPronomialforms J Jargon,116,150,154 Junctives,1058,11011,195 choosingthecorrect,1068 misusesof,1068 K Kernelsentence,43,46 Key,16263,16566 Keyconcepts,170,194 Keyitems/terms,102,104,109,229 L Ladderofgenerality,99100,103,109 Language:communities,12,15,144,16061 competence,1415,40,160 conventions,143,14546,154 elements,46,14 functions,1516.SeealsoGrammar nature,4 qualities,68 rules socialfactorsinlanguage,2,4,1516,16164 symbolic,1213 users,16061,218 Languevs.parole,12 Learning,4,2126,2830,3437 andLTMprocessing,2026,29,32,36 andinformationrecall,2026,2830 Levelsofgenerality,82,8487,89,18991,194 Lewis,Eugene,87 Lexicalcohesion,97100,109,195 Lexicalentry.SeeWord Linearcoherence,7778. SeealsoLocalcoherence Linguisticsign,1214 Linguistics,historyof,2,1017 Localcoherence,8081 Location,5457,6769 Locutionaryact,14041 Longtermmemory.SeeLTM LTM,1924,26,36 M Macrorules,11819,225 Macrostatements,113,137 Macrostructures,11338,225 Maintenancerehearsal,2022 Malefactor,54 Matchingininformationprocessing,21 Maxims,Grice's.SeeCooperationPrinciple Meaningfulunitsindepthprocessing,21,23,28. SeealsoChunking Medium,24 Memory,1924,26,28 Metalanguage,8 Modalverbs,44,166 Modifiers,dangling,65 Morphology,5 N Negatives,166 Negotiatingagoal,17476 Newinformation,processingof,2124,26,2829 "New"ingivennewcontract,7778 Nominalizations,63,185 Normsofinterpretation,16263,210 Noundeclension,89 Nounphrases,4247,52,5556,66,7072,178 Novice.SeeExpertknowledge O Object,53,5558,6162,6465,69,71 Objectvs.aspectorganization,3334
Page249
OldEnglish,910 "One,"61,102 Onomatopoeia,14 Opponent,54 Organization,3037,118,13637 incognitiveaspectsoftextdesign,2526,31,3337 Overviews,3034,173,184 P Paragraphdevelopment,8182,84,86,8890,22324 Parallelstructureandparallelism,1045 Parolevs.langue,12 Partialrepetition,98,109 Participants,139,143,145,16163,206,2089 Passiveprose.SeePassivevoice Passivesentences,4647,5758,61,6365.72 optionaltransformationalrule,4647 Passivevoice,6164,185 Path,56 Patient,5253,5658,64,66,6870,186 Patternrecognition,21,26 Personalpronouns,100 Philology,10 Phoneticrules,218 Phonology,67,10 Phrasestructurerules,4244 Place,5557 Plans,32,17477,21011 Possessor,5455,6768,70 Pragmaticaspectoftext,115 Pragmatics,23,1517,13949,15455. SeealsoSocialandinterpersonalaspectsofcommunication Preliminaryconceptualization,28 Prepositionalphrases,4344 Prevarication,7 Primacy,2930,36 Primerstyle,62 Priorknowledge,21,3031,34,37,135,169 Procedures,144,206,208 Processing:depthof,2126,29 givennew,7780,87 indirectspeechacts,148 learning,2126,2829,36 LTM,1926,28,36 schemas,3132,36,17374,178 typesof,2024,26,2829,31 Productivity,7,14 Proforms,96,100,1023 Programmedlearningtexts,21 Pronomialforms,6163 Pronouns,61,95,1003,10910,19394,196 Propaganda,5860,89,147,168 Protocol,154 Proverb,103 Purpose,11519,131,13637,171 Q Qualifiersandqualifyingphrases,16768 Qualitiesoflanguage.SeeLanguage,qualities Quality,71 R Radicals,freeandbound,5 Readers'needs.SeeAudienceneeds Reading,23,30,215 "RealmsoftheSoil,"112 Receiver,14 Recency,2930 Recoding,28 chunking,28,31 Redundancy,96,12930. SeealsoRepetition Reference,1002,110,194 Referent,100. SeealsoSignified Reflexiveness,8 Rehearsal,typesof,2022 Reorganization,118,12829,199202,2056,225 Repetition,21,26,9698,10910,16667,185,194 facilitatingprocessing,21,26 forcohesion,9798,104,109 ingivennew,78 Result,71
Page250
Retentionandrecall,2124,26,2830 Retrieval,2024,26,2830 ''ReviewsfromaFeministPerspective."112 Revision,13637,226 Rhetoric,2 Christensen'srhetoric,76,8189,91 Rolerelationgrammar,40,5173 Roles,5271 assigning,5257,220 multiple,56,6671 negation,6768,70 Romancelanguages,8 S Sartre,JeanPaul,66 Saussure,Ferdinandde,1114,139. SeealsoLinguistics,HistoryofStructurallinguistics Scenario,17173,178 Schema,25,3132,36,169,171,17374,177,216 Scientificprose,58,6064,71,17172 Scripts,16974 Searle,John,16,140. SeealsoPragmaticsSpeechActTheory Semanticinformation,51 Sender,14 Sentencetypes,4348,52,5758,6165,72,8190,96,185 Setting,16,140,145,16061,16970. SeealsoSituation Shadowing,23 Shallowprocessing,19,2122,24 Shorttermmemory.SeeSTM Signified.SeeLinguisticsign Signifier.SeeLinguisticsign Signs,12 Situation,23,16,139,14445,15455,16162,16971,209 "SlouchingTowardBethlehem,"109 Socialandinterpersonalaspectsofcommunication,34,15,144,155,15961 Sociolinguistics,23,1517,155,15965 "SomeUsesandAbusesofEconomicMultipliers,"87 Source,56 Speakers,13940,144 SPEAKING,16164,20910 Speakingvs.writing,3 Speechact,14049,153,226 theory,14041,155 typesof,14042,14547,226 Speechcommunities,16061 "TheStarThrower,"110 Storage,1924,26,2829,31 LTM,1924,26,2829,31 STM,1922,215 Storage,permanentLTM,1924,26,2829,31 andlearning,2124,2829 Structurallinguistics,1114 Structuresofexpectation,169,17678 Style,16263,229 testimonial,167 Stylesofaccommodation,16466 Stylistictransformation,46 Subordination,48,81,8390 Subsequentreference,98 Substitution,1023,110,194 Summariesandabstracts,29,3233 proceduresforcreating,11420,133,135 Superordination,2930,81 Surfacestructure,4142 Suspense,100 Symbol,1214 Symbolicnatureoflanguage,1214 Synchronicvs.diachroniclinguistics,12 Synonymity.SeeSynonyms Synonyms,9899,109,110 Syntax,5,10,51,96,105,165 T TaleofTwoCities,82 Temporaljunctive,106,108,110 Text,defined,2,17 Textdesign:bottomupvs.topdown,2426,29 cognitiveaspectsoftextdesign,3337 facilitatingcognitiveprocessingthrough,2426,2930,3237,183 Textlinguistics,1718 Textureinparagraphs,81
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Thesis,137. SeealsoGist Thomas,Lewis,79 "ThreeMileIsland,"59 Titlesandheadings,29,3233,35,80 Toneinspeaking,20910 Topdowntextdesign,2426 Topicsentences,81,172 Transformationalgrammar,14,3949,185,21628 Transformationalrules:obligatory,44,21718 optional,44,46,49,218 Transitionsentences,87 Transitions,87 V VanDijk,119 Verb4144,47,52,55,58,61,6365,7172 conjugation,8 phrasesintransformationalgrammar,4247,185 tense,16667,211 W Weisman,John,152 WhatisaGeyser?84 "WhyAmericaisSoVulnerabletoForeignPropaganda,"152 "With,"108 Word:classes,9 concepts,4043 function,41 itemclassification,99100 meaning,41 Wordorder,10,41. SeealsoSyntax Workingmemory,1920,215 Writingvs.speaking,3,1718 Y Yorkin,Peg,112