Annual Transactions of IESL, pp.

21-29, 2007 The Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka

Design, Fabrication and Erection of Steel Buildings in Sri Lanka

N Abeysuriya
Abstract : Steel has been used as the main construction material in the construction of ware houses , large span auditoriums, stadiums etc during the last decade in Sri Lanka due to its unique properties. The structural forms such as portal frames, roof trusses, steel decks, bridge beams and communication and transmission towers were widely used in Sri Lanka due to the following benefits compared to the other major construction material such as reinforced concrete and timber. Steel can be used efficiently as the member shapes can be changed . The construction time can be reduced with pre fabrication and erection method. Higher quality can be maintained. Future adaptability with easy connection systems , minimum waste, long life, ability to be recycled, reduced disruption at sited , suitability for confined sites are some benefits of using steel as the main construction material. With the increasing demand for using efficient , adaptable and higher quality buildings, people have looked at aspects of the construction process that can improve quality and encourage innovation. Traditional craft and trade construction techniques used in Sri Lanka have changed little in the past decade. These trades are normally performed on a construction site in all type of weather, consequently, the quality and accuracy of this type of construction is quite variable. To minimize variation and increase quality many consultants and contractors are looking to construction techniques that have various degree of prefabrication. These techniques shift some activities to a factory floor where the process is not weather dependent, working conditions and safety is improved and the quality of the assembly is greater than could be achieved outdoors. High rise and middle rise steel prefabricated buildings were not very common for Sri Lanka until recently. Few buildings from three storied to ten storied have been constructed in Colombo during last five years and there is a trend to go for steel buildings due to the advantages discussed. So it is the right time to discuss about design considerations used in the steel design to comply with standards, preparation of shop drawings for fabrication, considerations of available steel profiles, construction tolerances , erection methods, time savings, and the cost benefits.

1.0

Introduction

Structural steel sections such as I beams, H sections , angle iron, circular and square hollow sections etc have been used widely in the global construction industry. High rise buildings, tall towers, large span bridges, large span ware houses with no internal columns, pavilions with cantilevered roofs are some of the examples. The use of steel structures in Sri Lanka was limited for the construction of industrial buildings, bridges, towers and small structures until the last decade. The steel is manufactured under factory conditions and fabrication also will be done in steel yards or in factories. Hence the quality of materials and the accuracy of fabrication are very high. Speedy erection and less work at the construction site are the advantages of using steel against reinforced concrete. 21

The use of steel is becoming more popular in the present construction industry, specially in the construction of medium and high rise buildings. The Structural Engineers, who are involved in the design of steel buildings have developed some construction details and methods to suit local conditions such as environmental conditions, site conditions, cladding materials used for walls, cost factors, time factors, equipments available etc. The above development should be further improved by practicing Engineers in order to get more benefits of using structural steel.

Eng. Nandana Abeysuriya, BScEng.(Hons), CEng., MIE(SL) MEng.(Structural Engineering Design), Presently Managing Director, NCD Consultants

The purpose of this article is to discuss some experience and details developed in the construction of multi story buildings.

2.0

Design considerations

The common structural form of a multi story building consists of steel H sections as columns, wide flange sections or I sections as beams, and concrete floors. Structural decking sheets are some times used as permanent formworks for the floor slabs. This will help to reduce reinforcement fixing time and the props use to support the floor slabs. The secondary beams are also used to reduce the panel size and hence the slab thickness. The section of steel beams shall be economized by considering the composite action of steel and concrete. The shear studs which bond the steel beams with the concrete floor, are very important to achieve composite action. The load calculations, analysis and design of steel frame should be done according to BS 5950 1: 2000. The guidance given in BS 59502:2001 should be followed for fabrication and erection. The composite beams with normal floor slabs should be designed in accordance with BS 5950- Part 3 , section 3.1 : 1990. The composite slabs with profiled steel sheets should be designed as discussed in BS 5950 Part 4 : 1994. The partial safety factors and load combinations are discussed in Table 2 of BS 5950 1:2000. It is very important to consider the assumptions made in the design when detailing the connections. For example the top flange of a beam should not be welded to the end plate at the column beam joint , if the beam is designed as a simply supported beam. 2.1 Planning of the structural frame 2.2

b) Available length of steel sections :The standard lengths available in the market are 6.0 m and 12.0 m. Wastage could be minimized by selecting 3.0 m , 4.5 m, 6.0m, 9.0m and 12.0m long members. The possibility of transporting to site and handling with a crane for erection also should be considered when selecting long members. It should be noted that the actual length of members may be about 50 mm shorter than the ordered size. Hence this factor also should be considered. c) The structural frame should be planned with horizontal ties in two directions at each floor level and at roof level, to provide lateral stability. These ties may be steel beams including those also used for other purpose, steel bar reinforcements that is anchored to the steel frame and embedded in concrete or steel mesh reinforcements in composite slabs with profiled sheets. Frame analysis design and member

The three dimensional frame analysis using structural design software is quite common in structural Engineering practice. The analysis could be done for all possible loads such as wind load, dead load, live load, earthquake loads etc and obtain the envelope for maximum bending moment, shear forces and axial forces. It is necessary to use approximate member sizes for accurate results. The results obtained from the analysis could be used to design steel columns. It can also be used to check the deflections of beams. The composite action in beams is mobilized once the concrete is hardened. So the capacity of steel beam should be sufficient to take the weight of wet concrete, operating load and the self weight of the beam. The overall design procedure for steel structures incorporating composite construction shall be in accordance with BS 5950 : Part 1 except as modified and supplemented by the recommendations of Part 3. The moment capacity of the composite section should be used for simply supported beams

The planning of column positions and beam layouts should be done considering the following factors a) purpose of the building :- if parking is required at the ground level, large span beams are required. If the height restrictions are applied, the beam height could be reduced by introducing columns at closer intervals. 22

where the top flange which is anchored to concrete slab is under compression. The moment capacity of cantilevers should be based on the steel section together with any effectively anchored tension reinforcements within the effective breath of the concrete floor. The positive moment capacity of a continuous beam should be determined as for a simply supported beam and the negative moment capacity should be determined as for a cantilever.

3.0

Preparation of detailed shop drawings

The accuracy in steel erection is very important compared to normal reinforced concrete construction. So the shop drawings including column layouts, beam layouts, column beam details, connection details at joints and member connections etc should also be prepared with due accuracies . The steel columns shall be fixed to the foundations with anchor bolts. The fixing details should be done for pin joints or fixed joints based on the assumptions made in the design. The anchor bolts could be positioned on the concrete stub column with a template. The position should be re-checked just after the completion of concrete. If further tolerances are required, the anchor bolts could be embedded in concrete with a steel sleeve. The space in the sleeve can be filled with non shrink cement grout after completion of the erection. The Figures 01 and 02 show the column anchoring details for pin and fix joints. Figure 01: Pin joint detail for fixing of a column

Figure 02: Fix joint detail for fixing of a Column

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The column members have to be connected with same or different member sizes. The Figures 03 and 04 show some column jointing details. If the columns are kept exposed, the appearance at the joint also should be considered. The column to column joints should be avoided at column to beam joints.

the column. The bolt grade 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9 are available in the market. The number of bolts can be reduced at the joint by selecting higher grade bolts.

Figure 05: A pin joint detail Figure 03: Connecting same size of column

Figure 06: Fix joint Figure 04: Connecting different size of column The column beam joint shall be detailed based on the fixing conditions assumed in the design. The end plate of the beam shall not be connected at the top flange for simply supported joints. The Figures 05 and 06 show fixed and pin joint details. It is important to consider erection procedures when deciding connection details. The Figure 07 shows an improved detail at a column/ beam joint which makes the erection of beams very easy. The designer should pay attention to select a column section whose width is more than the width of the flange of the beam connecting to 24

Figure 07: A Column beam fixing detail

The connection between concrete floor and steel beams, specially at the perimeter should be detailed considering the exposure conditions. The hollow cement blocks are commonly used as the cladding material. There is a possibility of rain water seeping in to the building through wall / column joint and wall / beam joints if proper care is not done in detailing. The Figures 08 and 09 shows some improved details for such interfaces.

4.0

Tolerances

Tolerances of steel construction will be discussed in three general areas, mill tolerances, fabrication tolerances and field or erection tolerances. 4.1 Mill tolerance

Mill tolerance usually only affects the mill producing the steel and the steel fabricator placing the order. Fabricators often use details that reduce the impact of most mill tolerances. 4.2 Fabrication tolerance

Section 7 of BS 5950-2:2001 specifies the limits for cross section, straightness and curvature, length and squareness of ends and flatness for full contact bearing. For built up I or H sections with an overall depth less than 1.0 m, the tolerance on cross section shall conform to those specified for rolled I or H sections in BS EN 10034. Table 4 of Bs 5950 2:2001 specified for beams with an overall depth more than 1.0 m. Those tolerances are well illustrated in Table 04 of BS 5950-2; 2001. The deviation of a built up member from a straight line drawn between adjacent points of subsequent effective lateral restraints shall not exceed 3 mm or l/100 whichever is the greater, where l is the distance between restraints in mm. The length of a member measured on center line of the section or on the corner of an angle should be within the specified length + or 3 mm. The tolerance for squareness of ends to the longitudinal axis should be + or depth/300 and + or depth/1000 for members not finished for full contact bearing and finished for full contact bearing respectively. 4.3 Erection tolerances

Figure 08: Block work to protect the column

Figure 09: Wall slab connection detail

Erection of members, specially beam members on fixed columns will be very difficult if the specified tolerances are not maintained. The column position at the base level should not deviate from the specified position by 5 mm along either of the principle setting out axes.

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The deviation of column at any level shall not exceed the greater of 5 mm or 1/600 of the story height over the actual positions of the column at the level immediately below. Members other than columns shall not deviate more than 5 mm from the specified position. The level of the top of the beam shall be within + or 10 mm of the specified level. It is advisable for the fabricators not to reach even the limits specified above, as some times the erection will be very difficult even if the fabrications are done for the above limits.

5.0

Erection of steel frame

The erection is the most important activity in multi story construction. Hence the Engineer should inspect fabricated members and make sure that the fabrications have been done within the tolerable limits. Figure 10 shows a steel frame during erection and Figure 11 shows a building after completion. It is also important to check the precautions taken for corrosion resistance. Application of primers should be done before erection. Any detail which encourages dust and moisture collection, should be avoided. Fabricator should avoid any grooves and spaces where primer application is not possible. All sharp edges where primer application is not possible, should be avoided. The welding joints also should be visually inspected. It may be necessary to do non destructive testing as specified in Table A.1 and A.2 of BS 5950-2:2001. Shear studs also should be inspected and tested if necessary in accordance with BS 5400-6. The contractor should prepare an erection sequence considering space availability to manoeuvre cranes etc., the reaching height and length of the crane, lifting capacity at the maximum reach, safety during erection etc. The full lateral stability of the structure may be only after completion of the frame. So it may be necessary to provide temporary bracings during erection.

The erection of few floors and complete with flooring before moving to the next stage of erection of floors is a better option.

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Table 04 - bs 5950 - 2; 2001

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STRUCTURAL SAFETY Just like handling other building materials, the safety in steel buildings also should be addressed. The main issues in steel are the corrosion and fire resistance. Compared to timber and reinforced concrete, the fire resistance in steel should be discussed more seriously. 5.1 Fire safety

structural fire design could be referred for more information. 5.2 Corrosion resistance

Structural steel loses strength and stiffness at high temperature levels, like any other building materials. Although steel is a non-combustible material, it has a high heat conducting value, which adversely affects the structural performance during fire exposure. The structural strength of steel decreases by as much as half at temperature of 600 degrees Celsius. That is why it is important to address an effective steel building fire design. The designer must consider the following matters in the structural fire design. The fire development scenario and spread of a fire in the building. Possible building occupants and their safe evacuation under a fire threat. Fire warning systems and evacuation procedure Ventilation conditions in the building under fire Structural response of building materials against fire effect Related fire code requirements on the building design.

Corrosion occurs in steel members only in the presence of oxygen and water. The rate of corrosion varies on the environmental factors. The dust deposits on steel members in an environment with high moisture content, leads to more corrosion . Hence the corrosion could be prevented by Good detailing practice Application of protective coatings and Modifying the composition of steel

The designer should orient the members in his detailing in such a way that the chances of dust, salt etc has less room to deposit on it. It is a good practice to avoid water collecting on members by orientation of section or making holes for water to escape. When connecting two different metals specially steel with, stainless steel or copper, the steel becomes an anode and tends to corrode. Such contacts should be avoided by providing an insulating material between two metal surfaces. Basically the steel could be protected by applying primer intermediate coat and finishing coats. Zinc rich primer and epoxy primer are commonly used as primer. Some paints which has a tendency for catching fire should not be used. It is not possible to apply any paints on sharp edges. Hence it is a good practice to shamfer the sharp edges before applying any paints over it. The lipped channel used as purlin and roofing sheet have been better protected with metallic coatings such as zinc, aluminium, or zinc / aluminium mixture. Hot dip Galvanizing is a durable protection system used for structural elements. All fabrication works including welding connecting plates drill or punch for bolt connections etc should be done prior to galvanizing. The maximum dimensions of members should be limited to the facilities available for galvanizing in Sri Lanka. Members up to 6.0 m can be galvanized by inserting two ends separately.

There are two type of fire resistance systems used. Active fire resistance :- water sprinkler systems, water filled structural member systems are some of the examples active fire resistance systems. Passive fire resistance :- insulating boards, sprayed coatings, intumescent coatings, suspended ceilings, concrete cover and composite members are some of the passive fire resistance systems. The designer may use thicker steel sections instead of thinner sections in order to reduce the effects on fire resistance. The recommendations given in BS 5950 : part 8 for fire protection , the EN 1993-1-2 Eurocode 3 design of steel structures structural fire design or EN 1994-1-2 Design of composite structures

6.0

Conclusions

The purpose of this article was to discuss important matters related to the construction of 28

steel buildings and give more confidence to practicing Engineers. The advantages and the areas where more attention should be paid were also discussed. The construction cost of steel buildings and standard reinforced buildings is almost same if the duty free facilities are available. Otherwise the steel buildings are about 15 % more expensive than the standard buildings. This 15 % will be further reduced if fast construction could save some money. Any way the steel is recyclable material. The resources are limited for some construction material such as fine and course aggregates, cements etc and therefore steel is a good option. It is necessary to discuss about the response for earthquake. The recent major earthquakes has given engineers confidence in steel as a reliable material for earthquake resistant design. During these earthquakes, there were typically fewer problems observed in steel structures as compared with concrete and masonry buildings of similar size and scale. Steel connection details could be easily modified to resist the earthquakes.

Figure 10: A building during erection

References
(1) BS 5950-1:2000 Structural use of steelwork in building- Part 1 : Code of practice for design Rolled and welded sections

(2)

BS 5950-2:2001 Structural use of steelwork in building- Part 1 Specification for materials, fabrication and erection- Rolled and welded sections BS 5950-: Part 3: Section 3.1: 1990 Structural use of steelwork in building- Section3.1 : Code of practice for design of simple and continuous composite beams BS 5950 : Part 4: 1994 Structural use of steelwork in building- Part 4 : Code of practice for design of composite slabs with profiled steel sheeting

(3)

(4)

Figure 11: A completed steel building

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