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Book 9

Module 7A

CATEGORY B1 BRAZING WELDING BONDING

Licence By Post

For best examination results always use latest issue number.

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B1 EASA 66 7.15(b) ISSUE 03 0512

Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission from Licence By Post. Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.

AUTHORITY It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training purposes only. When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment manufacturers handbook. You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording, report writing, documentation etc. For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety authorities and national governments.

CONTENTS Page Metal joining Brazing Brazing materials Joint preparation Brazing methods Braze welding Flux removal Aluminium & its alloys Nickel alloys Stainless steel Safety precautions Joint inspection Welding Oxy-acetylene Arc TIG Atomic hydrogen arc Carbon arc MIG Spot Seam Butt Flash Laser beam Electron beam Adhesive bonding 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 8 10 10 10 11 12 13 22 28 33 34 34 35 43 45 44 48 49 49

HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK This book deals with subjects not often come across in aircraft maintenance engineering. The processes of brazing and welding are almost never seen although some pipe fittings are brazed. However, they are in the EASA Part 66 syllabus so you are required to know them. Bonding is increasingly used in aircraft construction, particularly where composites are concerned. This book deals with these subjects in a comprehensive manner and it is possible that we have gone too deep, but the CAA do ask questions on them so you should have at least some knowledge of how they are carried out. We recommend that you read through the book so as to gain a general knowledge of the processes described. Although the level in the syllabus is level 2 the CAA do not tend to ask too many questions in this area. The book is written for the category B1 engineer and there is no requirement for it to be studied by the A line mechanic or B2 engineer. If you can observe any of these precesses being carried out and/or look at the equipment used then you should take the opportunity to do so. Remember, particularly with welding and brazing, there are significant safety issues, so observe all workshop safety rules and notices. All these processes require considerable skill to perform correctly. Welding, in particular, is difficult to do and made doubly so when used on aluminium alloy. Welders must be approved (or work for a company with the appropriate approval) to carry out arc-fusion welding (manual metal arc MMA, metal inert gas MIG and tungsten inert gas TIG) on aircraft. To verify a welders competency test sample welds must be submitted at least every 12 months to the CAA for testing. Welding is carried out to drawings specified by the CAA and approval is granted to cover one or a specified group of metals. An approved welder cannot clear a CRS unless he/she is a type rated licensed aircraft engineer or has approval as a licensed aircraft engineer. The welder will normally sign work cards for the welding and report to the licensed engineer.

continued

To verify a person for hand torch brazing of important parts a test sample should be submitted every 6 months. The test piece should be submitted for examination to a laboratory approved for the examination of welded joints and should show satisfactory penetration into the joint of the filler with no defects. If an operator fails a test he/she should undergo further practice and/or training before resubmitting another test piece. An additional competency test should be submitted whenever there is a marked change in the material or types of joints being brazed Note 1. Drawings from CAP562 may not be found in that publication due to amendment action by the CAA. The term Dissimilar metal fusion has occurred recently in a CAA question. Dissimilar metal fusion is the fusion during welding of two different metals base metal and filler for example. If the term was used in the context of corrosion then it would apply to this interface layer.

Note 2.

METAL JOINING Metals can be joined using: * * * * * * Soldering. Brazing. Welding. Adhesive bonding. Riveting. Special fasteners, bolts etc.

Soldering employs a low melting point solder melted between the parts to be joined and once solidified produces a reasonably strong joint but not strong enough for structural purposes. Used for electrical connections, plumbing etc. In general, uses a solder, soldering iron and flux. Some skill is required. See the book on electrical cables in this series for more details. Brazing is similar to soldering but uses brass in place of solder. The melting temperature is higher and the joint stronger. Used where a stronger joint is required than will be obtained with soldering. In general, uses a blow torch, brass rod (spelter) and flux. More skill is required. Welding is a process where the two metals to be joined are clamped together and are themselves melted locally, and while being held still the melted area (weld pool) is allowed to cool, solidify and become, effectively, one piece of metal. Correctly carried out produces the strongest joint possible. Used on structural steel parts. Is also used on structural aluminium alloy parts but the process is difficult. In general, uses a blow torch and filler rod. Considerable skill is required. Bonding is a process whereby chemicals are used as a glue to chemically bond metal parts (and non metals) together. Uses chemicals, vacuum bags, clamps, heat (sometimes) and a reasonable amount of skill. Riveting is mainly used for sheet metal joining but is used on non metals, by the insertion of headed dowels (rivets) into holes in the metal and the free end (tail) of the rivet peened, or otherwise formed into a head. The process uses rivets and riveting tools, and the skills required varies depending on the type of rivet being formed. Rivets, fasteners, nuts, bolts etc are covered in other books in the LBP series modules 6 and 7.

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BRAZING The process is similar to soldering (see other book in the module 7 LBP series) except that the temperatures are higher and brazing spelters are used instead of solder. Usually applied to ferrous metals (listed in BS1782) and produces a stronger joint than soldering. The equipment required includes: * * * * Oxy-acetylene, gas/air torch, ovens etc. Brazing paste or flux to help remove oxides and improve flowability of molten joining material. Brazing spelter or filter rod brass or similar. Safety goggles, safety gloves and safety apron.

The general method involves: 1. 2. 3. 4. Clean the parts to be joined and apply flux. Clamp parts in position and pre-heat. Dip spelter into flux and melt into (small) gap between the parts. Allow parts to cool, clean and inspect the joint.

Fig. 1 TYPICAL BRAZED JOINTS

After brazing the joint should be inspected to ensure that it is clean and all traces of flux removed and check that the spelter has melted and flowed completely through the joint (X-ray if necessary). Brazed joints can be dismantled by applying heat in a similar way to soldered joints except a blowlamp, oxy-acetylene torch or an oven is used.

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Brazing means the joining of materials by a process in which a molten filler alloy is drawn by capillary attraction into the space between the adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined. The parts to be joined are known as the basic, or parent metals. Low temperature brazing, also known as silver soldering, silver brazing or hard soldering, is a process which uses filler alloys based on silver, copper and zinc with a melting temperature in the range 600C to 850C. The strength of a joint brazed with silver brazing alloy is often equal to the strength of the materials being joined. When brazing is carried out with filler alloys of high melting temperature with spelters made from a copper zinc alloy (brass typically containing 50% of each) grain growth and softening of the parent metal may occur, this necessitates further heat treatment to restore the required parent metal properties. Bronze Welding is a term used to describe brazing using a brass or bronze spelter with a joint temperature of about 800-900C. The strength of the joint depends on the area between the parent metals and the completeness of penetration of the molten spelter between the joint, and, to a lesser extent, on the thickness of the film, a thin film producing the strongest joint. Overheating during brazing can have an adverse effect on the strength of a joint. Care is necessary, when using a hand torch, to ensure that the flame is suitable for the work in hand, otherwise grain growth, burning, distortion or even melting of the parent metal may result. Care is necessary when using an oxy-acetylene torch, which has a flame temperature in excess of 3000C. The strength of the joint at high working temperatures depends mostly on the type of filler alloy used and in general terms the silver brazing alloys having the lowest melting temperature are suitable for continuous working temperatures up to about 250C. When dissimilar metals are joined (having different rates of thermal expansion), the possibility of stresses resulting from differential contraction during cooling is reduced by the use of low temperature filler alloys. Flux should be removed after brazing by washing in hot water. With dissimilar metals or with sudden changes in section, washing should not be carried out until the parts are cool otherwise stress cracking could occur.

BRAZING MATERIALS The filler alloys (spelters) and fluxes for aircraft parts must conform to BS1845 or to DTD 900 specifications.

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Brazing Spelters Filler alloys are available in rod, wire and strip form, and in some instances in granular form. Whilst the majority of hand torch operations require the filler alloy to be fed by hand from a rod, wire or strip, better results can sometimes be obtained by placing the brazing alloy in a predetermined position in the joint, and heating the assembly by means of a fixed torch or electrical oven. Filler alloy inserts for this purpose usually take the form of wire rings, foil, washers or pressings of special shapes. A silver brazing alloy in the form of a paste or paint is also available and consists of finely divided filler alloy, flux and a volatile liquid medium.

Fluxes The function of a flux is to dissolve oxides and reduce the surface tension of the molten filler alloy to allow it to flow better between the joint. The flux used should be specified by the supplier of the filler alloy, since a flux suitable for one filler alloy may not be suitable for another. An example of this is borax, which has a higher melting temperature than some of the filler alloys and, in this case, its use may result in flux entrapment. Fluxes are normally supplied in powder form and are made up in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.

Brazing Jigs Parts should be positioned and supported so that they are held during the brazing process with allowance being made to permit expansion and contraction to take place due to heating and cooling. In some cases (with delicate, complex, or large component parts) a locating jig is used.

JOINT PREPARATION Immediately before brazing mechanically remove any scale, grease, dirt, paint and moisture. Blasting for some metals using crushed steel shot is not suitable, so a stainless steel wire brush is used. Degrease the area with trichloroethylene or a similar solvent, then clean as described below. Steels. If a pickling process is required, a heated acid solution used. Nickel Based Metals. If pickling is necessary, check on the applicability of the process as it may result in intercrystalline attack.

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Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. Mechanically clean by abrasive blasting with alumina grit or by brushing with a nylon bristle brush. If an etching process is required the part should be immersed in an acid solution for 30 minutes, and washed in water and dried. Copper and Copper-Based Alloys. The surface may be cleaned by mechanical means such as alumina abrasive blasting or using abrasive cloths finally cleaning with a solvent. The parts may also be etched by immersion for two minutes in an acid solution.

BRAZING METHODS Capillary attraction is the major factor in making a brazed joint and although, in theory, there is no limit to the extent of penetration by capillary attraction, in practice this is dependent on the dimensions of the joint. The best results are obtained where a joint gap of 0.05mm to 0.1mm (0.002 to 0.004) is used.

Heating May be classified into four categories, ie torch, induction, resistance and furnace. Torch Brazing. Requires a skilled operator, is inexpensive and widely used. For the flame oxygen may be combined with acetylene, hydrogen, propane or coal gas; air with propane, butane or methane. Of these the most commonly used is oxygen/acetylene. Induction Brazing. The parts to be brazed are placed in a high frequency ac coil. Since the heating effect is influenced by the thermal conductivity and electrical resistance of the component, copper and similar materials will take longer to heat up than materials such as iron or nickel. This method is suitable for high speed brazing of ferrous materials in production line quantities. Induction machines may use 15kVA at frequencies ranging from 100kHz to 3MHz and are usually fitted with timing mechanisms to control heating time. The coils are usually made from copper tube through which water is passed for cooling purposes but solid copper coils may also be used. Paste flux and pre-placed filler alloy are often used, but in some instances, eg when brazing titanium pipe fittings, brazing may be carried out in an argon atmosphere where no flux required. Resistance Brazing. Used where precise localised heating is required to prevent loss of mechanical properties throughout the parent metal.

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A high current of low voltage is passed through a resistive circuit so that the heat developed in the circuit raises the temperature in the joint area to the brazing temperature. There are two main methods in use, carbon resistance heating and interface heating. In carbon resistance heating the electrodes are made from carbon, which have high resistivity and heats up quickly. The electrodes are in direct contact with the area to be brazed and heat is conducted into the workpiece. In interface resistance heating the electrodes are made from, or faced with, a material of relatively low resistivity. Most of the heat is developed through the resistance to the passage of current at the electrode/work interface and some is also developed in the work itself. The amount of heat in the workpiece is higher than in the carbon electrode method. Furnace Brazing. The advantage of this system is that high output rates can be achieved. An inert or reducing atmosphere is used to prevent oxidation. Steel or nickel alloys can be furnace brazed using a copper or bronze filler alloy. Brazing is usually carried out in a controlled atmosphere of cracked ammonia, or hydrogen. Flux is not normally required although it may be used. Furnace brazing of aluminium and aluminium alloys is common. Brazed joints may be made either by the use of inserts of aluminium brazing alloy, or by using sheets with an integral coating of brazing alloy. The use of a suitable flux is essential. Since the difference in melting temperature between the filler and the metal is small, close control of the furnace temperature is important.

THE BRAZING PROCESS After cleaning the flux should be applied in the form of an aqueous paste, both to the joint area of the assembly and to the filler alloy (the filler rod is continuously dipped into the flux paste during the brazing process). If the overlap of a joint exceeds 4.75mm (3/16 inch) the surfaces should be coated with flux prior to assembly. Heat the joint quickly but do not overheat. When an oxy-acetylene flame is used, a larger flame should be employed than when used for welding. The envelope of the flame should be kept on the move over as large a portion of the joint as possible, since a static flame is likely to cause local overheating. Heating should be started with the torch held a few inches from the work so that the flame spreads over a large area. Where parts of unequal thickness are brazed, the flame should be concentrated on the heavier part. As heat is applied, the flux first bubbles then settles down to a thin clear liquid. When this stage is reached, the work is approaching the correct temperature for application of the brazing alloy. -6-

The brazing filler strip or rod should then be placed in contact with the joint, but if the filler does not melt on contact with the work, it should be removed and the heating continued until the correct temperature is reached. When the brazing alloy melts in contact with the joint, it should be melted into the joint. When this stage is reached and the molten filler has had time to penetrate the joint fully, heating should be discontinued. Unless there are specific instructions to the contrary it is usual to quench the joint in water after the filler has set.

Oxy-acetylene Flame A neutral flame (equal amounts of oxygen and acetylene) should be used, except when copper-zinc, copper-zinc-silicon or copper-zinc-nickel-silicon filler alloys are employed, when an oxidising flame (more oxygen) is necessary.

Torches Brazing torches vary in design. When oxy-acetylene is employed, a welding torch, together with the normal welding equipment, is used, the flame being adjusted to suit the brazing work in hand. There are several types of torches available. A typical hand held torch has: * * Controls for the gas and air supplies. A built-in economiser that cuts off the gas and air supply when the operators grip is relaxed and restores the flame when the torch is again held. A pilot flame adjustable to suit different gas pressures. Interchangeable flame units to provide various flame characteristics to suit a range of work and gas combinations.

* *

Air is supplied by an electric blower; a foot operated bellows; a compressed air bottle, or the normal workshop supply suitably regulated to the required pressure.

BRAZE WELDING Also known as Bronze Welding, it is suitable with high melting point metals in which the main strength of the joint is obtained by building up a fillet of filler alloy. No fusion of the joining metals takes place but some penetration of the filler alloy into the joint gaps may occur through capillary action. Filler rods for braze welding are specified in BS 1724 and are basically a copper/zinc alloy, but may contain quantities of nickel, manganese, silicon or tin, depending on the metals being joined. Proprietary types of fluxes are used, usually recommended by the braze welding rod manufacturer. -7-

FLUX REMOVAL Flux residue is likely to cause corrosion and if the residue cannot be neutralised it should be removed after the completion of brazing by either chemical or mechanical means.

Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys 1. 2. 3. 4. Wash in boiling water for 10 to 60 minutes. Rinse in clean hot water. Wash in a solution of nitric acid in water at a temperature of 65C for 20 minutes. Rinse in clean water and inspect visually for signs of flux residue.

If flux residue is still present repeat the above except another bath is used with sodium dichromate added and the soak time is 30 minutes. With other materials, where no harmful effects can occur, flux removal is assisted by quenching/washing the work in water. The parts should be thoroughly dried to avoid corrosion. Fluoride Fluxes. Wash in hot or boiling water, followed by brushing with a wire brush. In difficult cases, soak in a cold solution of sulphuric acid in water, followed by washing in water and subsequent brushing. Borax Fluxes. These fluxes are only slowly soluble in water. They may be removed by the methods specified above but mechanical methods such as blasting maybe necessary. Sometimes removed by being dissolved in a hot caustic soda solution.

ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS It is much more difficult to braze Al alloy as the filler metal is aluminiumsilicon with a melting point only slightly lower than that of the parent metals. Consequently there is a small margin between the melting point of the filler and the melting point (and collapse) of the parent metals. Accurate control of temperature (and a qualified welder) is therefore important. BS 1845 gives a list of the filler materials which are suitable. Many types of proprietary fluxes are available and these are generally of the alkali halide type and the recommendations of the manufacturer of the filler material should be observed. A standard aluminium brazing flux containing chlorides of sodium, potassium and lithium gives satisfactory results when used with aluminium which has been chemically cleaned.

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Most fluxes for Al alloys absorb moisture quickly and their efficiency is reduced accordingly. It is essential, therefore, that fluxes should be stored only in aluminium or glass airtight containers. The three main methods of brazing aluminium and aluminium alloys are: torch or flame brazing, furnace brazing and flux dip brazing.

Torch Brazing Needs more skill than other forms of brazing. A standard welding torch is suitable for most aluminium brazing. The flame should be a neutral or a slightly reducing flame.

Furnace Brazing The temperature required is strictly controlled within the range of 540C to 650C, according to the material being brazed. The general requirements for brazing aluminium are, a rapid rise in temperature, a short period at the brazing temperature and rapid cooling to solidify the brazing alloy. In general, soaking times are (from when the brazing temperature is reached to when the gap is completely filled) - sheet 2 to 6 minutes plus 4 to 15 minutes for complete furnace treatment. Heavier sections may take up to half-an-hour. Heat-treatable alloys must be re-heated treated and quenched at the appropriate temperature to restore their properties. Quenching also helps remove some of the residual flux.

Flux Dip Brazing Flux dip brazing is used largely in the production of assemblies having a large area of jointing in relation to their size, for example, heat exchangers or radiators and is useful for the brazing of parts in an inaccessible position which cannot be brazed by other methods. This process is suitable for any Al alloy that is suitable for furnace brazing. The parts are cleaned, assembled with pre-placed filler material and heated in a furnace to a temperature just below the melting point of the filler alloy. They are then transferred to a bath containing molten flux at a temperature high enough to melt the filler, but not the parent metal. They are removed as soon as the filler has flowed through the joints.

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Properties of Brazed Aluminium Joints As the brazing temperature is higher than the recrystallisation temperature of Al and Al alloys, annealing takes place during brazing. Brazed assemblies made of non heat-treatable alloy have their design strength based on the strength of the annealed material. Suitable assemblies made of heat-treated alloy of the aluminium-magnesiumsilicon type may be strengthened after brazing by quenching, followed by natural or artificial ageing according to the requirements of the specification. Alternatively, assemblies may be re-heat-treated to restore the full strength of the metal.

NICKEL ALLOYS Most of the high nickel content alloys can be joined by silver brazing, but may be subject to intercrystalline penetration by the filler alloy if brazed in a state of stress. When high melting point filler alloys are used all stresses are relieved during the brazing process but, if low melting point filler alloys are used on heavily worked components, stress cracking may result if the components are not stress-relieved prior to brazing. Nickel alloys should normally be brazed in the annealed condition.

STAINLESS STEEL Stainless steel (SS) parts can be joined by brazing. When SS is heated, the formation of chromium carbide within the metal reduces the amount of chromium available and may decrease its resistance to corrosion. This is known as weld decay and has been largely overcome by the use of stabilised steels containing titanium or niobium. If it is necessary to braze unstabilised SS the effects of carbide precipitation may be minimised by keeping the brazing temperature and heating time to a minimum. Joints in nickel-free stainless steel often suffer from crevice corrosion. Silver brazing alloys are generally employed where this type of corrosion is likely. Fluoride fluxes are normally used when brazing with silver brazing alloys, but special fluxes may be specified because of the formation, during brazing, of a thin film of residue which is insoluble in normal flux.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS All brazing operations involve the use of flame or heat, hot metals and fluxes, which may be toxic under certain conditions. All working areas must have adequate ventilation. - 10 -

Wear heat proof gloves and eye protection, and if parts are very hot handle with tongs. If burnt irrigate area with copious amounts of cold water and seek medical attention. If contact is made with flux wash immediately with copious amounts of water. Torches should always be pointed away from the operator when being lit and should be lit from the side or from below. If possible, hand torches should be fitted with a switch hook, in which a pilot jet and hook are connected to a valve in the gas supply. When the torch is hung from a hook, its weight cuts off the main gas supply but when it is picked up the flame relights. Furnaces and ovens are hot and some use open flame so be careful. With induction brazing any metal parts on the body (watches, rings etc) can get hot if near the induction coil so take them off or keep away. Do not touch the coil when on. Brazing should always be carried out in a location away from flammable materials, behind refractory brick or heat resistant walls/curtains and with plenty of fresh air. If salt baths are used for heat treatment purposes any molten salts splashed onto the body will cause severe burns. Wear protective clothing, including overalls, gloves and goggles. Components must be completely clean and dry before being immersed in the bath as any contamination will cause violent eruptions. Always wash hands thoroughly after handling salts and if splashed treat as a severe burn and seek medical advice.

JOINT INSPECTION At intervals on a production run a completed joint should be selected and subjected to strength tests and sectioning (destructive testing). For all joints the following points should be checked: 1. 2. 3. The joint should be free from pitting, corrosion, scale, flux residue and other evidence of poor workmanship. The filler alloy must have penetrated through the joint with no obstruction of internal bores on pipework. Fillets of filler alloy should be smooth and continuous.

For a more detailed examination X-ray, ultrasonic or eddy current inspections may be used.

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WELDING Generally needs more skill than brazing and produces a strong pressure tight joint the strength of which is equal to or greater than the parent metals. The principle employed is the local melting of the two parent metals into one. The joint cannot be dismantled unless it is re-melted (damaged). Categories are: * * Plastic welding which requires heat and pressure. Fusion welding which requires heat only.

Types Oxy-Acetylene Welding Uses a oxy-acetylene welding torch, a filler rod and a flux. The torch is supplied with oxygen from an oxygen cylinder (Black) and acetylene from an acetylene cylinder (Maroon). Resistance Welding eg spot and seam welding. Uses a high current low voltage supply (eg 30,000 amps). When current is passed through the metals the resistance causes the temperature to rise and the metals to welded together. The electrodes act as the conductors, are water-cooled and exert pressure on the metals to be joined. Arc Welding A fusion process where the heat required is obtained by striking an electric arc between the electrode and the parts to be welded. The arc will produce heat up to 3500C using 50 to 100Vac at 10 to 300 amps or dc at 50V. The electrode is used as the filler rod and is consumed. Argon Arc Welding Similar to arc welding but a stream of argon gas is caused to flow over the weld area. This reduces oxide formation making a cleaner and stronger joint. This allows some metals to be welded which would otherwise be difficult, eg Al alloys; nickel alloys; non corrodible and heat resisting steels. The electrode may be consumed similar to ordinary arc welding or the electrode may remain intact and a filler rod used. Supply is up to 100V @ 300 amps ac. (TIG Welding = Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. MIG Welding = Metal Arc Inert Gas Welding). If the electrode is consumed it is usually fed automatically as a wire electrode to the welding gun. Laser Beam Welding Using localised heat produced by a concentrated laser beam.

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Welding Materials/Equipment - General Filler Rods. Usually made of the same material as the metals being welded but must comply with BS1453. Fluxes. Reduces the effect of oxidation and helps float oxides and impurities to the surface of the weld pool. The type of flux to be used is specified by the filler rod manufacturer. Flux Removal. If it is of the corrosive type it is removed using boiling water. For Al alloy a weak solution of nitric acid in boiling water is used. Electrodes. Various electrodes are used including tungsten for arc welding/TIG welding. Electrode wire for arc welding (MIG/TIG). Some are water cooled others are round for seam welding. Power Supplies. For spot, seam and arc welding including transformer/rectifier units. Spot & Seam Welding Machines. For spot and seam welding. Oxygen Cylinders, acetylene cylinders and torch. For oxy-acetylene welding. Protective Clothing.

OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING In this process, oxygen and acetylene gases are fed through a welding torch, the pressures and quantities of each being separately controlled. The stream of mixed gas is ignited and produces a flame with a temperature about 3100C (5600F). This is used to melt the parent metals. Filler rods are normally used for materials of 0.9mm (20 swg) and thicker, and a flux is generally used to remove oxides and to ensure a sound weld. Different materials use different filler rods and/or fluxes. This process should not normally be used for welding magnesium or highnickel alloys and is not recommended for SS; inert gas or plasma arc welding are more suitable for these materials. Always follow the approved drawing which should specify: * * * * Type of weld process to be carried out and type of joint. Specification of the parent metals. Specification of filler rod and type of flux. Details of joint preparation, cleaning procedure, welding instructions (eg tack weld, clamp, starting position) etc.

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* *

Heat treatments (if any) and flux removal methods. Inspection and any related tests.

WELDING EQUIPMENT Gas Cylinders The oxygen cylinders are painted black, have a round bottom, have a righthand threaded valve with black hoses with right hand threads. Acetylene cylinders are maroon, have a left-hand threaded valve, have a flat bottom and use red hoses fitted with left hand threads. Grease or oil (including greasy, or dirty hands) in any form should not be allowed to come into contact with oxygen cylinders, valves, welding equipment, etc since these will ignite spontaneously when in contact with oxygen under pressure. Acetylene can form explosive compounds when in contact with certain metals and alloys (eg copper and silver), it is, therefore, important that all fittings through which acetylene is to flow have been designed for that purpose.

Gas Generators Where acetylene gas generators are used, a daily check for gas purity is necessary. Blotting paper soaked in a 10% aqueous solution of silver nitrate should show no darkening when placed in the gas stream.

Gas Supply Pipework Oxygen vigorously supports combustion and has no smell so is difficult to detect. Conversely, acetylene has an unmistakable smell and will ignite and burn instantly from a spark or even a piece of heated metal. A dangerous condition could arise as a result of leakage in equipment, particularly in confined spaces and the feed system should be checked periodically to ensure there are no leaks. Pressure gauges should be checked periodically against a master gauge to ensure accuracy and records kept.

Torches Various size torch nozzles are available for different kinds of work and depend on the nature of the work, thickness and type of material and the skill of the welder. Check with instructions issued by the equipment manufacturer.

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Before lighting the torch the regulators must be set to the correct pressures and the light must be applied only when a full flow of gas is established, otherwise a flashback may occur. The use of a spark lighter is recommended. Follow the manufacturers instructions as regards the procedure for lighting and operating the equipment, and the safety precautions to be taken in the event of a cylinder becoming heated due to a flash-back or other incident. Failure to comply with these may cause the cylinder to heat up and burst. If the flame goes out, it may be caused by the regulator pressure and/or the gas flow being incorrect, obstruction of the nozzle, the nozzle being held too close to the work or to overheating of the nozzle. When this occurs both torch valves should be closed, the condition rectified and the torch re-lit.

Fig. 2 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING SET

MATERIALS Because of the wide choice of available materials it is not possible within the scope of this book to give a list of all weldable metals. It is essential to ensure that the material to be welded and the welding procedure used are those as specified in the drawing. - 15 -

Filler Rods In general, these are made of the same material as the parent metals but there are exceptions. Unless otherwise stated filler rods should comply with BS 1453 entitled Filler Materials for Gas Welding. Filler rods should be stored in a warm, dry atmosphere, to prevent the pick-up of moisture which can cause porosity in welds.

Fluxes With most metals, except steel, the melting temperature of the metal is below the melting point of the oxides formed by heating and therefore the oxides remain as solid particles. Flux reduces the effects of oxidation, floats oxides and other impurities to the surface of the weld pool where they do no harm, and produces a stronger weld. Fluxes are not used for the welding of carbon steels because the oxides of the various elements unite and form a slag at a temperature lower than that of the molten metal and the slag floats to the surface of the weld pool. Unless otherwise specified use the flux as recommended by the filler rod manufacturer. Most welding fluxes absorb moisture readily (reduces efficiency) which will cause porosity in the weld. Fluxes are kept in airtight containers made of aluminium or glass, but steel or brass should not be used as these materials cause contamination of the flux.

JOINT PREPARATION Most joints are so designed so the parts to be joined are of the same, or similar, thickness. The edges to be joined are shaped or machined as per the drawing and cleaned mechanically and chemically. They are clamped in a jig or tack welded to prevent movement during the welding process. Tack welding is the process of welding a small area every so often along the seam to be welded. Fillet Welds. The edges are chamfered for materials of 1.6mm (16 swg) and thicker. For materials in the thickness range of 1.6 to 2.5 mm (16 to 12 swg) a single chamfer is used where welding from both sides is not possible, but for materials thicker than 2.5mm (12 swg) a double chamfer is used. Materials thinner than 1.6mm (16 swg) should be welded from one side only to avoid burning and weakening the metal. Fillet welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys is not normally recommended because of the danger of flux entrapment which could led to corrosion. However, if fillet welding is required then the joint should be completely sealed. - 16 -

Butt Welds in Metals other than Al Alloys. Prepared edges are not usually required for materials thinner than 1.6mm (16 swg) but to ensure weld penetration in thicknesses up to 3.2mm (10 swg) it is usual to chamfer the two adjacent edges thus forming a V with an included angle of about 120. Butt Welds in Aluminium Alloys. For metals thinner than 2.0mm (14 swg) no edge preparation is necessary but it is usual to leave a gap equal to the thickness of the material between the edges of the two sheets. For thicker metals the edges are usually prepared as above, except that the angle is smaller (say 60 to 70) and a gap not exceeding one-third the thickness of the material should be left between the sheets. Welds in Tubular Sections. The preparation of tube ends will depend on the gauge of the material and the design of the joint. Where tubes intersect, special instructions will be given on the drawings regarding the fit of the tubes. Where a tube or a tubular structure is sealed a hole should be drilled in a specified position to allow the expanded hot air to escape. When welding has been completed and the work has cooled down, the hole should be plugged (eg by welding) to avoid ingress of moisture. Note. Some tubular structures, such as engine bearers, are protected by the introduction of a corrosion inhibiting fluid into the tube after welding.

Surface Cleaning All scale, grease, dirt, paint etc should be mechanically removed for a minimum distance of 25 mm (1 inch) each side of the edges to be welded. Any pickling process used must be in accordance with the drawing. Aluminium and its Alloys. Vacuum blast edges or brush with a SS bristle brush. The use of brushes with copper alloy bristles should be avoided because of the corrosion hazard which could result from prices of bristle becoming embedded in the surface. Chemically clean using the process described under brazing. Steels. Low carbon and alloy steels are sand, shot or alumina blasted or by brushing with a wire brush. Corrosion-resisting or heat-resisting austenitic steels are cleaned as described for brazing.

WELDING JIGS The accurate assembly of welded parts may necessitate the use of special jigs which will be unaffected by changes in temperature. The jigs should permit free access to the area to be welded and be rigid, but allow for the expansion and contraction of the parent metals.

- 17 -

STRESS & DISTORTION During welding operations the parts are in varying conditions of expansion and contraction caused by the local very high temperatures involved. Reduction of localised heat can be achieved by welding in short lengths, either with each length ending where the previous one began, or with each length as far apart from the previous one as possible. When butt welding sheets, particularly when jigs are not available, distortion can be reduced if the joint is tack welded at suitable intervals prior to commencing the finishing weld.

WELDING AL ALLOYS The oxy-acetylene welding process is used mainly for aluminium alloy sheet, which is less than about 2.0mm (14 swg) thick; sheets of greater thickness are normally welded by the inert gas arc welding process. The melting point of aluminium is low and heat is conducted through the material is quick. There is very little physical indication or colour change that the metal is approaching the melting point and when it does it collapses suddenly. The metal is weak at temperatures near the melting point and adequate support should be provided.

Application of Flux The flux may be prepared for application by mixing it with methylated spirit to a free-flowing consistency and then applying it with a brush or dipping the filler rod into the mixture. The methylated spirit will dry off rapidly and will have no adverse effect. When it is necessary to apply dry flux to the filler rod, the end of the rod should be heated and dipped into the powder. The deposit of powder adhering to the rod should be melted and allowed to run over the rod surface for about 150mm (6 in) of its length. When welding alloys containing magnesium, it is recommended that, in addition to applying flux to the rod, a layer of flux paste should be applied to the edges of the work before welding is commenced.

The Welding Process A slightly carbonising low velocity flame should be used since an excess of oxygen will cause rapid formation of aluminium oxide.

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Sheet material should be pre-heated to reduce the possibility of cracking due to thermal expansion. When starting to weld, the two joint edges should begin to melt before the filler rod is added. The work must be watched carefully for signs of melting, experience determining the proper time for adding the filler metal. The filler rod should be held in a direct line with the weld, with the flame near the material being welded. Both edges of the weld should receive an equal amount of heat and the metal from the filler rod should fuse with the parent metals. The torch should be held close to the joint at about 30 to the plane of the weld, the angle being decreased as the end of the weld is approached.

Fig. 3 PREPARED JOINTS FOR WELDING

Any tendency to partial collapse or excessive penetration should be rectified by instantly lifting the flame clear of the material. One of the main differences between aluminium welding and steel welding is in the speed of working. With aluminium welding, as the weld progresses and the metal becomes hotter, the rate of welding should be increased, but in any case the welding speed should be as fast as possible. Where practicable it is better to complete the weld in one operation.

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WELDING PLAIN CARBON & LOW ALLOY STEELS A neutral flame should be used and the inner cone should be held close to the material being welded. The torch and welding rod should be held at angles of about 60 and 30 respectively, to the plane of the weld. Good fusion should be obtained evenly on each side of the weld, the rod should be fed into the molten metal and not melted off by the flame itself, otherwise too much material may be run into the weld pool and this will result in a reduction of temperature in the weld with consequent unsatisfactory fusion.

Fig. 4 LEFTWARD & RIGHTWARD WELDING

WELDING CORROSION-RESISTING & HEAT-RESISTING STEELS The heat conductivity of corrosion-resisting steel is about 50% less than that of mild steel, whilst its coefficient of expansion is about 50% greater. Therefore, correspondingly greater allowance should be made during welding to prevent distortion. A welding flame showing a faint haze of excess acetylene around the cone should be used to ensure non-oxidising conditions. As the rate of heat conduction through the material is less than that of mild steel, the heat is localised and, to minimise the possibility of burning the material, the flame should be played over a larger area than usual.

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The welding rod should be kept in the flame throughout the welding operation and on completion of the weld the flame should be withdrawn slowly to avoid cracking of the material and unless the flux is non-corrosive, it is essential that all traces be removed.

Ferrous Metals Where size permits, flux can be removed from ferrous parts by immersing them in boiling water for a period of not less than 30 minutes, the water being changed frequently. Where immersion is not practical, the parts should be washed until all traces of flux are removed. If the flux residue is brittle it may be removed by lightly tapping it with a hammer.

Aluminium Alloys The fluxes used in welding Al alloys are highly corrosive and are removed using a similar process as that described under brazing. The efficiency of the final washing operation can be checked by adding a small quantity of silver nitrate test solution to a sample of the water in which the joint was washed. If a white precipitate appears it indicates that flux residues are still present and that further cleaning is necessary.

HEAT TREATMENTS In general, steels having a carbon content in excess of 0.26% are liable to crack after welding unless pre-welding and post-welding heat treatment procedures are employed. It is essential that when such steels are welded the heat treatment prescribed in the relevant specification or drawing is followed. Parts made from low carbon and low alloy steels, which can be used in the as welded condition, are sometimes normalised.

INSPECTION Checks after welding include visual inspections, pressure tests, radiography (sub-surface defects), fluorescent or dye penetrant testing (surface defects), or magnetic flaw detection (sub-surface defects). The types of inspection or tests to be carried out should be stated on the appropriate drawings or manufacturers instructions.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The same safety precautions should be observed as when brazing. - 21 -

ARC WELDING Heat for the weld is obtained from the striking of an electric arc. The arc is obtained from a low voltage high current supply between the welding rod (electrode) and the part being welded (earthed back to the power supply unit). Carbon arc and atomic hydrogen arc welding are only described briefly since they are not used much on aircraft. Inert gas arc welding is used mainly for larger gauge metals and its use is limited on aircraft. When arc welding is carried out the drawing will state the following: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) The welding process to be used. Details of any pre-cleaning treatments. Details of any pre-welding heat treatment required, including temperature and method of application. Details of current, electrodes and, where applicable, gas flow rates. Details of joint preparation, location and dimensions of weld. Cleaning process for the removal of flux residue. Details of any post-welding heat treatments. Details of any additional treatment such as hammering the weld during cooling, or grinding off the finished weld. Details of any tests/examinations.

Metallic Arc Welding. Heat is supplied by an arc struck between the workpiece and a consumable flux-coated electrode, the workpiece and electrode are connected in series between the output terminals of an electrical supply. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Arc Welding. The arc, which is shrouded in an inert gas (usually argon this helps reduce the formation of oxides), is struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the parts to be welded. A filler rod may be used. Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding. The arc is struck between two non-consumable electrodes in a flow of hydrogen. A filler rod may be used. Carbon Arc Welding. The arc is struck between a carbon electrode and the workpiece. A filler rod may be used. Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Arc Welding. This differs from TIG welding in that a consumable electrode, usually similar in composition to the parent metals, is used instead of the non-consumable tungsten electrode.

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Distortion Due to the high rate of heat generation obtained with electric arc welding where the welding arc temperatures are in the region of 6000C (compare 3000 to 3500C for oxy-acetylene welding), it is possible to confine the heat to a small area, thus reducing the possibility of distortion.

Weldable Materials A wide range of materials may be joined by one or other of the arc welding processes. Below is a table listing just some of these (BS and DTD). There should be no need to commit the details to memory. Materials thinner than 1.6mm (16 swg) should not be welded by this process.

Material
Low carbon Low alloy steels Aluminium alloys Corrosion and heat resisting steels

Bars
S14, S21, S91 S92 L34 S125, S126, S127

Tubes
T45, T53, T62 T63, T64 L54, L56 T65, T66, T67

Sheets
S510, S511, S514 L16, L17, L19 S524, S525, S526

TABLE 1 MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR ARC WELDING Low Alloy Steel. The carbon content of low alloy steel is such that hardening is more easily effected than in straight carbon steel and although easily weldable, it will, in many cases, need heat treatment after welding. Medium Carbon Steels. Have a carbon content of 0.3 to 0.6%. The weldability at the lower end of the range is good, but heat treatment is necessary after welding. Nickel and Nickel Alloys. Nickel alloys should be annealed (makes them malleable) prior to welding in order to avoid buckling. These materials are readily weldable and the procedures used for welding low carbon steel are generally suitable. Some nickel alloys do not require heat treatment but other do so reference must be made to the drawings/manufacturers instructions. Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys. The arc welding of aluminium and its alloys presents no particular difficulty, but the pre-weld and post-weld heat treatment, as well as the equipment used and the method, need special attention and care.

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Corrosion and Heat Resisting Steels. Steels which contain between 16 and 30% chromium are normally welded by the TIG process. Austenitic stainless steel filler wires are often used. Austenitic steels (corrosion resisting) containing 18% chromium and 8% nickel are easily welded but greater allowance must be made for distortion than with low carbon steel.

Surface Preparation The surfaces should be prepared as described earlier. The parts should be degreased (trichloroethylene, acetone or similar solvents), washed and dried, otherwise vapours may be produced by the arc on any residual degreasing agents, and these may be toxic as well as being a likely cause of gas porosity in the weld. The surface oxide films on aluminium and magnesium alloys are best removed by brushing with a stainless steel wire brush or, for magnesium alloys, treatment to DTD 911 requirements. A number of proprietary brands of pickling solutions are also suitable for cleaning and removing surface films, but when such solutions are used, it is essential, to prevent corrosion, to ensure that all traces of the solution are subsequently removed by thorough washing.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS The operator, and any one near, should wear a helmet, or face shield, with protective highly tinted glasses and gauntlets and flameproof protective clothing. Both ultra-violet and infrared rays are emitted during electric arc welding, the effects being greater with the higher currents. These can be dangerous if viewed by the naked eye and can cause severe head-aches (arc-eye). As the process of solvent degreasing can produce toxic fumes (which become highly toxic if affected by an arc) all degreasing, washing and drying operations should be conducted outside the workshop in a well ventilated area. With all electrical welding units, the manufacturers instructions regarding precautions to be taken should be carefully observed. When the normal opencircuit voltage is likely to be dangerous, an automatic safety device, which reduces the voltage at the electrode holder to a safe value when the welding arc is broken, should be fitted. The operator should only hold the insulated handle of the torch and should stand on a rubber mat or dry wooden platform when carrying out the welding process.

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Fig. 5 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Hydrogen Gas Hydrogen gas can be produced when welding with the atomic hydrogen process, this can be explosive so plenty of ventilation is required.

ELECTRODES The electrodes are supplied as flux coated proprietary items. As the flux melts under the heat of the arc it produces a slag covering for the molten weld and an envelope of non-oxidising gas, which together protect the molten metal from the oxidising effects of the air. Only electrodes specified on the drawing should be used, they should be stored in clean dry conditions and should be heated for a period prior to use. In the case of low hydrogen electrodes, it is essential that they are stored in specially heated ovens to keep the moisture content low. The flux on the electrodes may also be used to introduce alloy additions into the weld deposit.

- 25 -

THE WELDING PROCESS To strike an arc between the electrode and the work, the electrode, which is fixed in a special insulated holder, is applied to the work and immediately withdrawn a short distance, thus initiating an arc of intense heat. The tip of the electrode melts and vaporises and the molten metal is transferred across the arc from the electrode to the joint. Simultaneously, the heat generated melts the workpiece at the joint, and fusion with the electrode material is effected; the arc is maintained by feeding the electrode, at a uniform rate, towards the workpiece. During welding there must be a balance between arc length (gap between electrode and workpiece), current and welding speed and this requires skill on the part of the operator.

Positional Welding This term defines the position of the workpiece in relation to the operator. For downhand butt welds, the best angle for the electrode is between 20 and 30 from the vertical to minimise the risk of slag entrapment. However, other angles are used for other welding methods.

Fig. 6 METALLIC ARC WELDING

Fillet Welds For fillet welds, where the thickness of the parts to be joined is the same, a 45 electrode position, bisecting the fillet, is used. Where parts of dissimilar thickness are to be joined, the electrode should be positioned so that the arc tends to play more on the thicker of the two materials.

- 26 -

Arc Blow When direct current (dc) is used, the arc may tend to wander and become uncontrollable. This is known as arc blow and is caused by the magnetic field of the arc stream creating a magnetic field in the material being welded, with a resulting interaction between the fields. Working away from the earth tends to help or using an ac current, but ac tends to produce an unstable arc.

Design of Joints For butt welds on materials less than 3.2mm (0.125 in) thick, bevelling of the edges is not necessary; the plates can be set as an open square butt with a gap equal to half the thickness of the metal. For thicker materials the edges should be bevelled to form a V butt joint with an included angle of 120. Current and Voltage The details of the current range are usually recommended by the manufacturers of the electrodes. It should be noted that the value of the current used will depend on the nature of the work. In general, the higher the current the deeper the penetration and the faster the rate of deposit. If a general purpose steel electrode is used as the positive or negative electrode (according to the drawing) the voltage varies from 20V to 25V, according to electrode size. Alternating current is usually supplied from a simple step-down transformer, which reduces the mains voltage to that required. Direct current is obtained either from a mains supply through a suitable rectifier or from a generator driven by external means. Currents can vary from 80A for 2.4mm electrodes to 230A for 6mm electrodes. Alternating current machines often have a high frequency current superimposed on to the welding current to initiate and stabilise the arc when welding certain materials.

FLUX REMOVAL Unless a flux is specifically approved as being non-corrosive, it is essential that all traces of flux residue should be removed. For ferrous parts flux is removed in the same way as for oxy-acetylene welding and for nickel alloy parts it is removed by wire brushing. Any heat treatments are similar to those carried out after oxy-acetylene welding.

- 27 -

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) WELDING May be called Gas Tungsten Ark Welding (GTAW). The heat required for welding is supplied by an arc struck between a tungsten electrode and the material to be welded. The weld area and the arc are surrounded by an inert gas (usually argon), which prevents contamination of the weld pool by atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. Welding may be carried out in a welding chamber containing the gas or in the open with gas supplied through a shield around the electrode. In the latter case an inert gas or flux may need to be needed on the underside of the work. This process produces a good weld, quickly with little distortion. There is no flux residue (no cleaning required), welds are smooth and no dressing or grinding is needed.

Fig. 7 TIG ARC WELDING

All the materials weldable by the oxy-acetylene process are suitable for welding by this process plus others that, up to the introduction of TIG were considered as not appropriate for welding, eg Al alloys and Nimonic alloys.

Material Thickness Due to the deep penetrative qualities of TIG, a wide range of metal thickness can be welded; for example, non-corrodible steel sheet of 0.25mm (0.01) thickness and al alloy plate 12.5mm (0.5) thick can be welded by hand torch.

Equipment The equipment required consists of a welding torch (air or water cooled) and a current regulator, together with a source of current and a supply of inert gas (usually argon). The filler rods to be used for all types of welding are specified in BS 2901. - 28 -

Argon Supply Argon is present in the atmosphere in concentrations of approximately 0.94% by volume. It is extracted by fractional distillation and is stored in cylinders at a pressure of about 132 atmospheres (about 1900psi [13MPa]). It is chemically inert, odourless and non-toxic. Cylinders are painted blue in accordance with BS 349. It is important that argon lines should be checked periodically for leaks, since serious contamination by oxygen and nitrogen can be caused. Argon cylinders should not be used at pressures less than 140kPa (20psi) as the reduction in argon flow beyond this limit will increase the danger of contamination of the weld by air and the subsequent purging of an empty cylinder is a problem for the manufacturer.

Current The tungsten inert gas arc process is used with both dc and ac current, the choice of being determined by the material to be welded. Metals with refractory surface oxide films, eg magnesium alloys and aluminium and its alloys, are generally welded with ac, while dc is used for carbon, low alloy, non-corrodible and heat-resisting steels, nickel alloys, Nimonic alloys and copper. The use of ac with a tungsten electrode combines the advantages of reasonable penetration with only moderate heating of the electrode and adequate dispersal of the oxide film from the weld surface. The reversal of current in the ac cycle, however, raises a particular difficulty in conjunction with the difference in arc characteristics in the respective half cycles. Twice in each cycle, as the arc current changes in direction, it passes through zero and at these times the arc is extinguished and must be re-ignited for welding to continue. Re-ignition, however, is opposed by the arc gap and, when the polarity of the work is negative, the resistance during the change of direction may become sufficient to prevent arc re-ignition. This is overcome by the insertion of a series of high-voltage, high-frequency oscillatory sparks across the arc gap at the instants of zero arc current to prevent the arc gap becoming non-conducting, or by means of a surge injector which provides a surge when the arc voltage is at zero. The ac equipment consists of the welding transformer, dc suppressor, HF unit with or without surge injection and a power-factor correction condenser. A pedal operated control switch for the HF unit must be incorporated, otherwise unsatisfactory welds may result. The switch may be one which controls the HF unit alone, or may be of a type which incorporates a toe-action switch for switching on the current and a heel-action switch for controlling the HF unit.

- 29 -

With TIG welding using dc, the choice of polarity depends only on the type of material being welded, since a tungsten electrode is used throughout and is virtually non-consumable. In a dc arc, approximately two-thirds of the heat is concentrated on the positive end of the arc and one-third on the negative end. If the tungsten electrode is made positive and the workpiece negative the relatively smaller mass of the tungsten electrode is subjected to the larger proportion of arc heat and the relatively larger mass of the joint assembly absorbs the lesser proportion of heat. If, therefore, the tungsten electrode is connected to the negative pole of the generator and the work to the positive pole, the electrode remains comparatively cool, thus negative pole dc is widely used for all TIG welding of steels and high nickel alloys. Currents can range from 45A for parent metal thickness of 0.9mm to 150A for 3.2mm, though it is not recommended to weld Al alloys less than 1.6mm thick. Arc Initiation Arc initiation and stability can be improved by superimposing a highfrequency current at low power on the welding current; this also helps to maintain electrode shape and reduce tungsten inclusion in the weld deposit.

Torches Torches ranging from 50 to 600A with straight and angled heads are available. For welding currents up to 150A, air-cooled torches are normally used, but for higher currents water-cooling is used. In either case the argon gas is supplied through a combined power cable and gas hose and emerges from the refractory (ceramic) shield designed to direct an even flow of argon around the electrode and weld area.

Welding Technique For the butt-welding of high nickel alloys, Al and Al alloys, less joint preparation is required than with gas welding. No special joint preparation is required for any material up to 3.2 mm (0.125 in) thick, and in the case of Al alloys, parts up to 6 mm (0.25 in) thick can be welded without bevelling. When the joint edges are not bevelled (square) a gap of half the thickness of the plate should be left between the edges. In general, however, for materials thicker than 3.2 mm (0.125 in), the edges to be welded should be bevelled, so that when the plates are joined a 70 V is formed leaving a thickness of about 0.8 mm (0.03 in) at the bottom of the plates. Backing bars should be used whenever possible. Argon has no fluxing action and the joint to be welded must, therefore, be absolutely clean. Care should be taken to ensure that the edges to be joined, as well as their top and bottom surfaces, are clean.

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Materials oxidised during previous heat treatment should be pickled, and all materials should be cleaned by mechanical means (such as wire brushing) and degreased before welding; any filler rod must be treated in the same way. If more than one pass is used, the previous weld must be cleaned before the next run.

Butt Welding The angles of the torch and the filler rod should be about 90 and 20 respectively, from the surface of the horizontal plate (figure 8). The arc length (defined as the distance between the tip of the electrode and the surface of the weld crater) varies between 3mm (0.125in) and 6mm (0.25in) depending on the type of material and the current used. a) The filler rod is fed into the edge of the molten pool and not directly into the arc; it should be fed in with a slightly transverse motion, with the tip of the filler rod making contact with the weld metal. The hot end of the filler rod should always be kept within the influence of the argon gas to prevent oxidation. Butt welds in thin gauge materials are best made with a progressive forward motion. To avoid contact between the electrode and the filler rod when welding heavier section plate, it is essential that a filler rod of the correct diameter for the thickness of material being welded is used. The weld area is melted under the arc, the torch is withdrawn backwards for a short distance from 6 to 12mm (0.25 to 0.5in) along the line of the seam and the filler rod is inserted in the molten pool. The torch is moved forward and the filler rod is withdrawn from the pool simultaneously. This movement of both torch and filler rod, backwards and forwards in a progressive forward motion, melts down filler rod and plate without the filler rod entering the core of the arc.

b)

c)

d)

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 8 ARGON ARC (TIG) WELDING - 31 -

Fillet Welding The axis of the electrode should bisect the angle between the fillets whilst the electrode should be at 90 to the work surface. Positional Welding The downhand technique should be used where possible, since other techniques reduce the welding speed without decreasing heat input and may induce distortion.

Completing the Weld The weld current is reduced gradually at the end of the weld or extension tabs may be left on the component, on which the weld can be run out and the tab later removed.

Jigs and Fixtures Jigs and fixtures may be used as also may tack welding for work location.

Backing Bars Backing bars are widely used with automatic TIG welding and serve to minimise distortion and to control penetration. They usually form part of a fixture which also serves to ensure accurate alignment of the welded joint. Good contact between the backing bars and the sheet material is necessary.

Magnetic Holders Magnetic devices for holding components together are widely used. Permanent magnets are available to give pulls of up to 225N (50 lbf) and electro-magnets can be obtained with considerably greater strength.

Flux Removal Any flux residues should be removed as soon as possible after welding. Steel and nickel parts should be treated as described earlier, and aluminium and magnesium parts should be treated as described below. Aluminium. Flux should be removed by washing the parts in boiling water or in a weak solution of nitric acid in water at 60C for 15 minutes. Rinsed water and dried. - 32 -

The efficiency of the final washing operation, whether or not acid treatment Has been used, can be checked by adding a small portion of silver nitrate test solution to a sample of the water in which the joint was washed. If a white precipitate appears, it indicates that the flux residues are still present and further cleaning is necessary. Note. The fluxes used in welding aluminium alloys are highly corrosive and the products of the corrosion are also actively corrosive. Magnesium. Flux should be removed by vacuum blasting or washing in boiling water. This cleaning should be carried out in conjunction with the preparations for the application of the chromate treatment to DTD 911.

Heat Treatment Some form of heat treatment may be required on many parts and precise details will be specified on the relevant drawing. Stress relieving heat treatment may be prescribed prior to the welding of some SS or chromium-nickel alloys to relieve residual stresses and after welding of complex structures in non-heat-treatable alloys. Heat treatable alloys may require a full heat treatment to restore their properties after welding. The times and temperatures of the heat treatment will vary according to the type of alloy and some compromise may have been made when joining parts made from different alloys. There may also be a restriction on the number of heat treatments given to a particular alloy (for example, magnesium alloys should not be heat treated more than three times).

ATOMIC HYDROGEN ARC WELDING Heat is produced by an arc struck between two inclined tungsten electrodes. A stream of hydrogen passed through the arc is dissociated (temporarily broken down into atoms) with a corresponding increase in energy content, the extra energy being released as heat when the atoms re-combine to form molecular hydrogen at the relatively cool surface of the weld joint. The process is used mainly for the welding of steels and is particularly applicable to automatic production welding techniques. Filler rods should be those recommended for gas welding. This method is not now widely employed and has been mainly superseded for aircraft work by the TIG process.

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CARBON ARC WELDING In this process, which has been largely superseded by TIG welding, the principle is that an arc is drawn between the parts to be welded using dc current and the carbon electrode is manipulated by the welder. The filler wire (or rod) and the flux are the same as used in oxy-acetylene welding and welding is usually done by the leftward procedure. The process is not normally used for welding materials thinner than 1.2mm (18 swg) and is usually restricted to straight butt joints.

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) ARC WELDING In this process a consumable electrode in the form of a filler wire is fed automatically into the arc at a controlled rate, the wire and weld area being shrouded with an inert gas. Used on heavier gauge materials and is not usually used in the aircraft industry. The equipment comprises a gun or torch to which the filler wire and current are fed, a carriage unit which houses the reel of filler wire and the control circuits, a dc power unit (which may be a standard dc welding generator) and an inert gas supply with a suitable regulator.

Final Inspection After cleaning, the completed weld should be examined for: a) b) Satisfactory fusion between the weld and the parent metal. No undercutting where the weld metal joins the base metal and the welded parts should not be reduced in thickness by the welding operation. Good penetration should be apparent and an underbead should show throughout the length of the weld. Correct build-up of the weld (a concave surface on the face of the weld indicates lack of weld metal with consequent weakness). A regular weld surface free from porosity, scale, slag or burn marks. No spatter around the weld area. Correct dimensions of the weld, especially the leg lengths and throat dept in fillet welds. Weld cracks, with care being taken with magnesium alloys.

c) d) e) f) g) h)

Any NDT method called for has been carried out.

- 34 -

All welds, except those which are required by the drawing to be hammered during cooling, must be examined in the as welded condition. If, after inspection, the weld is dressed by filing, grinding or machining, it is to be inspected again. Light tapping with a hammer to break off flux residue resulting from the use of flux-covered electrodes is necessary as an aid to inspection and should not be regarded as a dressing operation. Welds in certain alloys are improved by hammering during cooling. This treatment is only done when required by the drawing. There is a danger that cracks may develop in magnesium alloys which are hammered cold; it is a general practice to hammer such welds within a temperature range of 300 to 400C and in no circumstances should hammering take place below 250C. ARC SPOT WELDING Used where only one side of the workpiece is accessible. The process is suitable for the joining of non-corrodible steels, some alloy steels and titanium, but should not be used with aluminium or magnesium alloys. The thickness of the top sheet of the weld may be between 0.037 and 1.6 mm (28 and 16 swg) and it can be welded to an under sheet of similar thickness or greater, but for sheets in excess of 1.6 mm (16 swg) the penetration of the weld becomes progressively shallower. The weld is made by the TIG process and is effected by holding the torch firmly against the exposed face of the joint and pressing the torch switch. The welding process is then automatically controlled by the welding machine. The current provides the arc for a pre-set period of up to a few seconds, resulting in the melting of the area of the top sheet, which is under the torch head. The molten metal crosses the interface of the joint, becomes common to both parent metals and solidifies into a solid U or V shaped nugget. The welding current must not be cut-off abruptly after the welding operation otherwise a crater will form in the top surface of the weld. The usual method of cut-off is to reduce the current to zero in stages. This is known as current decay.

Joint Preparation Prior to welding, the surface of the joint should be prepared as described earlier.

- 35 -

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 9 SPOT WELDING MACHINE

Inspection should include checking: a) b) The position and pitch of the welds and the underside of the weld is free from excessive penetration. Both sides of the weld are free from excessive concavity, craters, cracks or holes. A satisfactory weld usually has a convex top surface with a small pip resulting from the current decay. If the drawing stipulates light hammering, the blows are to be applied to the centre of the weld surface. After hammering, the weld should again be examined for freedom from defects.

c)

Test samples should be tested to destruction and if possible X-ray examinations carried out.

RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING Used to provide a joint between two or more metal sheets, but not used for load-bearing situations. It is a pressure welding process in which a slug of welded metal is produced at the interfaces of the sheets; a heavy localised electric current is passed through the parts to be welded by two opposed water-cooled, copper-alloy electrodes subjected to mechanical pressure. The requirements for a spot weld are ability to resist shear stress, freedom from internal cracks and cavities, correct penetration (ie the relationship of the thickness of the slug, to the total thickness joined), freedom from excessive surface indentation or burning, freedom from flash or spits either on the surface or between sheets and consistency of properties between one weld and others made under the same conditions.

- 36 -

Accurate repeatability of the electrical and mechanical operating cycles usually necessitates the use of fully automatic control with electronic timing of the current flow, especially when welding stainless steels and heat-resisting alloys. Factors, which influence the strength of spot welded joints, include adequate preparation of the surfaces to be welded, the method of presentation of the work to the machine and the spacing of the spot welds. Surface preparation is of particular importance with aluminium alloys, since the presence of an oxide film on the surfaces of these materials creates a high resistance in comparison to the resistance of the parent metal which, apart from causing the generation of excessive heat at the electrode tips, results in welds of varying strength. As the only certain method of testing the strength of spot welded joints would result in the destruction of the workpiece, acceptance of the joints must, therefore, depend on adequate inspection supervision of the process, backed up by a system of test samples.

The Process Figure 9 illustrates the general arrangement of a typical air-operated spot welding machine. Air-operated machines are usually manufactured in capacities up to 400kVA. During the welding operation, the top electrode is brought down into contact with the workpiece by the depression of a foot switch. When pressure has built up on the workpiece, an electrical contactor closes, completing the circuit to the primary winding of the welding transformer and causing a secondary current of predetermined amperage to flow through the secondary circuit and through the workpiece. The pressure on the workpiece of the water-cooled electrodes is maintained automatically for a predetermined period, during which the material is heated by the current flow through the resistance of the workpiece. At the conclusion of the pre-set period of current flow, the contactor opens and de-energies the welding transformer, but the electrode pressure is maintained for a further set period to permit the consolidation of the weld. At the end of this latter period, the top electrode pivots up and the workpiece is freed for movement to the next welding position.

Strength of Spot Welds The tensile strength of a spot weld is lower than its shear strength; therefore, spot welding is not normally used for applications where loads acting out of the plane of the joint occur. A minimum edge distance of 1.5D and a minimum overlap or flange width of 3D (D being the weld diameter) is generally recommended.

- 37 -

Fig. 10 THE SPOT WELD

Pitch of Spot Welds If welds are spaced too close the strength is reduced due to current shunting (ie the passage of part of the welding current through the previously made spot weld). If the spacing is excessive it would result in a weak joint.

Material Thickness The total thickness of material which can be joined will depend on the capacity of the machine and the nature of the material, but joint thickness of up to about 10mm (0.4in) in Al alloys and up to about 4mm (0.16in) in SS are rarely exceeded. Up to three sheets can be spot welded.

Surface Indentation The surface indentation on any sheet should normally not exceed 10% of the sheet thickness. Where indentation has to be avoided on one face of the workpiece, the tip diameter of the corresponding electrode can be increased.

Positioning of Surfaces It is important that the surfaces to be joined should be the best possible fit so that the electrode pressure is not required to overcome any stiffness of the sheets or sections. Ideally the parent metals should be clamped.

Some weldable materials: Aluminium & Aluminium Alloys. These do not require heat treatment after welding, as the speed of welding is so great that mechanical properties are not impaired.

- 38 -

Magnesium & Magnesium Alloys. The resistance welding of these materials must be controlled with special care. Nickel Base Alloys. Nickel base precipitation-hardening alloys will require heat treatment after welding. Plain Carbon & Low Alloy Steels. Normally require no heat treatment after welding. As they are magnetic, they should be welded on single-phase machines with constant current control or three-phase frequency conversion equipment. Titanium Alloys. Require no heat treatment after welding.

Surface Preparation The area to be welded must be thoroughly cleaned and after surface treatment, the parts should be washed and dried. DEF STAN 03/2 gives further details. Surface preparation methods already described apply. Aluminium Alloys. The presence of a thin, tough, oxide surface film of high electrical resistance is characteristic of the Al alloys and its removal prior to welding is essential. The cleaning of aluminium alloys of the type which are solution heat treated and naturally aged, should not be commenced until 24 hours after solution treatment. Care should be taken to ensure the complete removal of all cleaning and pickling solutions, by washing and drying. Magnesium Alloys. These should first be degreased and then cleaned mechanically. They should finally be air-blasted to ensure the removal of any particles left by the cleaning process. Corrosion-Resisting Steels. The surfaces should be degreased and cleaned with a SS bristle brush. Pickling is not necessary for these materials unless vapourblasting or abrasive paper cleaning is employed, in which case contamination should be removed by pickling or swabbing in a 20% (by volume) nitric acid solution. Nickel Alloys. The surfaces should be degreased and then immersed in either a nitric acid or hydrofluoric acid solution for a period of time. Plain Carbon Steels. After degreasing, plain carbon steels should be pickled in a weak solution of sulphuric acid in water.

- 39 -

SPOT WELDING AL ALLOYS Al alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivity. The amount of heat produced by electrical resistance welding depends on the resistance offered to the welding current by the parent metals, thus, despite the low fusion temperature of Al alloys (compared with low carbon steel) a considerably greater rate of energy input is required. This means the use of high currents and short welding times. The temperature range between the liquid and solid states is small and because of this close control must be exercised over the energy input, since small variations in energy may produce relatively large variations in weld size. The high thermal conductivity of the Al alloys (which results in rapid dissipation of heat) causes the welds to solidify quickly, increasing the tendency to form shrinkage cracks and porosity. In practice, this factor is overcome by various machine refinements, eg by rapid electrode follow-up, by the application of a relatively high pressure after welding (which serves to close up pores and eliminate the tendency to form shrinkage cracks) and by decreasing the rate of cooling during the solidification of the weld by passing a relatively small but long duration post-heating current after the main welding current has been switched off. The tendency for Al alloys to alloy with copper or copper-based electrodes is known as electrode pick-up.

Types of Equipment Fully automatic machines are universally used for welding of Al alloys, so that the predetermined welding cycle can be reproduced indefinitely, independent of the operator. Compressed air is generally used as a means of applying the load to the electrodes. Stored energy single impulse, uni-directional machines are generally used. These machines can be sub-divided into two groups, ie the induction storage and the condenser storage types. With the induction storage type, energy is stored in the electro-magnetic field of a large iron-cored inductor, whilst with the condenser type; energy is stored in the electrostatic charge of a large condenser. These machines are, however, gradually being replaced by threephase frequency conversion machines. Portable and semi-portable machines, known as gun or pinch welders, are also used. Such machines are not normally used for Al alloys.

- 40 -

The Electrodes Special alloy electrode materials are available (such as chromium-copper) which have good electrical conductivity coupled with high resistance to wear and to softening at elevated temperatures.

SPOT WELDING MAGNESIUM ALLOYS Although magnesium alloys can be spot welded, the process is not recommended for stressed applications. The equipment used for spot welding Al alloys is suitable for magnesium alloys. Magnesium alloys have a lower electrical conductivity and consequently lower current values will be required.

SPOT WELDING PLAIN CARBON & LOW ALLOY STEELS This is relatively simple compared to Al alloys because of the readily weldable nature of the materials and the absence of an interfering oxide film. For cadmium plated surfaces the plating should be removed. In general the conditions as stated above apply as regards electrodes, machine settings etc.

SPOT WELDING SS Austenitic stainless steels have an electrical resistance approximately 6 times that of plain carbon steel, with a lower heat conductivity and melting range; therefore, less heat input is required for spot welding these materials. The welding of SS is made more difficult because of weld decay, which causes precipitation of chromium carbide near the weld. The corrosion resistance of these materials is dependent on the retention of chromium in solid solution; therefore, the corrosion resistance is reduced if precipitation of chromium carbide occurs. Austenitic steels are available which contain small additions of titanium or niobium in amounts sufficient to combine with all the carbon present so that no chromium can be precipitated.

SPOT WELDING TITAIUM ALLOYS The welding of titanium is essentially similar to that of SS.

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TESTING WELDS As with the testing and inspection of other welding processes, the weld itself must be inspected for any visible defects. Sample welds can be carried out from time to time on test pieces which are subsequently tested to destruction to verify their strength properties; and on production runs samples of the produced items can be selected for destructive testing. X-rays and other NDT methods may be used to inspect welds. Some of the destructive tests used are: Peel or Chisel Test. The test sample is prepared and the two strips of metal are torn apart or separated with a blunt chisel, working from each side of the weld. The first spot weld (which should be marked) should be ignored and the remaining spots examined. Shear Test. The test sample should be made up, the spots marked in the order of welding and the spot removed by drilling. The test sample should be held at one end and a load applied to the other, so that a pull force is applied to the second and third welds in shear, no twisting action being exerted on the welds. Load should be applied at a controlled rate using a machine and the load at failure noted. If a test sample fails at a load below the specified load, two further test samples should be made. If one or both of these additional samples fails the test, the material welded since the last satisfactory test should be subjected to closer examination and the entire welding process should be examined to identify the cause. Microscopic Examination. The samples for microscopic examination should be prepared to the dimensions given, the spots being marked in order of welding. After sectioning and polishing, the sample is examined microscopically, in both the unetched and etched conditions, first at low magnification (x 10) and then at higher magnification (x 100). At low magnification the welds should show freedom from cavitation and from excessive porosity. The first weld should be ignored and the second and third welds should be carefully sectioned through the centreline and polished. When examined through a lens of low magnification the welds should be well shaped and show freedom from overheating and from cavitation and porosity. Slight cracks in the nugget may be permissible, but not if they extend into the parent metal. Penetration should be adequate but not excessive and electrode indentation should not exceed 10% of the thickness of the individual sheets.

- 42 -

COMMON FAULTS Fault Poor Strength Welds Probable Causes Insufficient current, weld pressure too high or misalignment of the electrodes. Electrode tip misalignment. Incorrect surface preparation. Incorrect surface preparation where the material has too high a contact resistance. Badly cleaned electrodes (eg electrodes from which pick-up has not been removed). Sharp electrode contour or high energy input. High electrode pressure. Insufficient weld time. Insufficient current. Excessive electrode pressure. Insufficient forging time. Insufficient electrode pressure. Excessive current. Insufficient overlap. Excessive welding current. Insufficient forging time or pressure too low. Inadequate surface preparation leading to excessive heating and rapid cooling.

Irregular Shaped Welds

Surface Burning

Heavy Indentation

Concave Shaped Weld

Cracks in Weld

Surface Cracking

Maintenance of Welding Equipment Daily inspections include checking electrodes to ensure that they are clean, distorted free, securely attached and if water cooled the water flow rate is adequate. All electrical connections should be inspected for deterioration. Weekly the bearings should be lubricated and the airline water traps drained. Monthly maintenance should include a thorough clean and a check: a) b) c) d) e) f) On all instruments and gauges. On the water-cooling system. That all indictor lights on the control panel function correctly. The equipment is in good condition, and working correctly. To ensure that the air pressure system and valves are free from leaks and functioning correctly. To ensure the correct operation of the control panel.

- 43 -

SEAM WELDING This method produces a continuous load-carrying and/or pressure-tight joint between two sheets of metal. The seam is produced by feeding the parts between two rotating copper alloy electrode wheels and passing a high intensity pulsating current through the parts whilst the electrode wheels are rotated (electrically) and applying a steady pressure to the wheels sufficient to forge the local areas heated by the welding current into a series of overlapping spot welds effectively a continuous weld. Usually employed on light gauge (up to 1.5mm) material where the current ON /OFF times do not exceed 7 or 8 cycles per second. Roller spot welding is the term usually employed to describe the process in which the electrode wheels are halted at the commencement of each current pulse and rotate only during the OFF period between welds. Each weld is therefore completed with the electrodes stationary, allowing each weld to be forged, ie to cool from welding temperature whilst under pressure. Roller spot welding is normally employed on thick materials and on heat-resisting alloys where the current ON time for each welding pulse exceeds 6 cycles per second. The quality of the weld is controlled by the same factors (plus the speed of rotation of the wheels) as with spot welding. The current for the electrodes is usually produced by a single phase water cooled transformer inside the machine and connected to two phases of the incoming three phase mains supply by a special thyristor power switch. This enables the transformer to be switched ON and OFF rapidly and accurately over timing intervals ranging from 1 to 99 cycles a second. It transforms the incoming supply (nominally 400/440 V) down to a low voltage (typically 5 to 10 V) to produce 2,000 to 25,000 amperes or more, depending on the machine. The secondary windings are connected to the upper and lower electrode wheels via rotatable current-carrying bearings with flexible links to permit vertical movement of the upper sliding head assembly. The pressure applied by the electrode wheels to the work-piece is usually produced by compressed air applied to a double-acting pneumatic actuator to control the movement of the upper welding head. On some machines both top and bottom electrode wheels are controlled by pneumatic controlled actuators.

Voltage Compensation Seam welding machines are commonly equipped with special controls to minimise the variation of welding current, which normally accompanies any fluctuation in the supply voltage. These controls continuously compare the incoming supply voltage with a non-varying reference source and automatically adjust the internal phase shift to maintain the secondary voltage constant. - 44 -

Constant Current Seam welding machines may be provided with an additional control facility called Constant Current Control. This system monitors the current flowing in the transformer primary or through the electrode wheels and compares the current to a reference current. Any variation due parent metals, or mains voltage supply variations can be detected and automatically corrected.

The Welding Operation The metal sheets to be welded are placed between the rollers with a predetermined overlap, the rollers then clamp the joint. A current is applied through the rollers, which cleats the joint sufficiently to form a weld with the aid of the pressure imparted by the rollers. At the same time they rotate and the work is passed steadily between them at a controlled speed. Each weld spot is completed in a fraction of a second and the OFF period occurs before the pulse of current makes the next weld; as this cycle is continued, a seam weld is produced. After testing of samples machine settings may have to be adjusted. In general the same conditions apply to seam welding as to spot welding as does the inspections and testing techniques.

RESISTANCE BUTT & FLASH WELDING Butt Welding The principle of butt welding is to pass a large current low voltage supply through the butting weld faces for a period of time. The faces are clamped together. When welding heat is attained, the welding current is stopped but the forging (clamping) pressure is still maintained until the joint has cooled to some extent. In the case of round bar, the finished butt weld is in the form of an even circular swelling around the welded joint. Flash Welding The flash welding process differs from butt welding in that the current is applied before the weld faces are brought into contact with each other and a light pressure moves the movable platen with the clamping electrode towards the other electrode, thus causing flashing between the two faces of the work. The heat generated by the flash burns away the weld faces uniformly and, if at the same time the flash is maintained by the light pressure, which causes the weld, faces to creep together, a welding temperature is rapidly attained.

- 45 -

DRAWING FROM CAP 562

Fig. 11 BUTT WELDING

When this welding heat is attained, the parts are forged together by a sudden surge of high pressure known as the upset stroke and after a predetermined time of a few cycles the current is switched off. When the sudden impulse of high pressure or upset stroke is applied, the molten metal is forced to the outside of the joint and at the same time the plastic metal is forged into a weld. The extruded molten metal forms a fin or flash over the edge of the weld, which can be removed either by turning, grinding or other mechanical process if a flush finish is required. Flash welding can be used for both thin and heavy sections, providing the parts are of identical area at the weld face, but butt welding is restricted to small compact sections and is not suitable for welding thin sheets. Both processes are suitable for welding the following metals: All Plain Carbon Steels and Low Alloy Steels. Can be used by both processes. SS and Heat Resisting Steels. Butt welding not to be used. Nickel and Nickel Alloys. Flash welding only. Al and Al Alloys. Flash welding only. Titanium and Titanium Alloys. Flash welding only but with difficulty.

- 46 -

Butt Welding Machines All butt welding machines have transformers to convert the current to low voltage, high amperage, each side of the transformer secondary being connected to its respective electrode. Usually, the right hand electrode is mounted on a movable platen which is fed towards the left hand fixed platen; thus producing the forging action at the joint faces. The mechanical devices used for forging the parts together are either manually operated by a wheel or lever or they can be electrically, hydraulically or pneumatically actuated. The predetermined load can be preset. Joint preparation is similar to that described for other welding techniques.

Flash Welding Machines These are similar to those used for butt welding, but (apart from handoperated machines) there is accurate automatic control of the two main variables, ie heat and pressure, and this extends the use of this type of welding to a wider range of materials as well as weld sizes. A simple form of flash welding machine, consists of two welding platens on which are mounted the clamps, one platen is fixed (usually the left one) and the other movable. The right hand platen is mounted on a slide which gives a direct approach to the fixed head and is actuated by a suitable mechanism. Each platen incorporates clamps or electrodes in which the parts to be welded are held and, as both clamps are connected to the transformer secondary, the work, when clamped in the machine, completes the secondary circuit. The upset stroke and creep may be applied by a hand operated lever or wheel in the simpler form of machine, but the larger machines employ hydraulic, pneumatic or electrical methods of pressure application. Various methods are employed to control the weld cycle which is regulated by the total movement of stroke, consisting of creep or flash and forging or upset.

Flash Welding of Al and Al Alloys Machines of specialised design are required and non-heat-treatable alloys only can be welded. Very high currents are needed, usually above 100,000 amps per sq inch of section and accelerated upsetting pressures are essential. Special steel clamps are required to support these relatively soft materials.

Inspection and Quality Control This is not too unlike the methods already described.

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LAZER BEAM WELDING (LBW) The term LASER is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". It is defined as "any device that emits highly amplified coherent radiation of one or more discrete frequencies". The laser beam for welding can be continuous or pulsed with many systems using the pulsed beam. A Nd:Yag (Neodymium-Doped Yttrium-Aluminium-Garnet) rod is stimulated by a flash lamp. The rod emits light in the ultraviolet range with a wavelength of 1.06 microns. This light is then focused and delivered to the work-piece, where the high energy density (about 1MW/cm2) beam is used to produce sufficient heat to locally melt the metals and produce a weld. The laser beam can be delivered to the work-piece in two ways. One involves the use of "hard optics," and the second involves the use of a fibre optic cable. Hard optics uses mirrors and lenses to deflect and focus the laser beam. This method limits the distance between work-piece and laser source and the welding head must be kept stationary at the correct distance and angle relative to the work-piece. The second method uses fibre optic cable. The laser energy is focused into one end of the cable and emerges at the other end (up to several metres away), with only a small loss of energy. The beam can then be collimated and refocused onto the work-piece. Up to the point that the laser beam contacts the work-piece, all the components that direct it are either transparent, refractive or reflective, absorbing little energy from the ultraviolet light. The laser beam can be pulsed, is accurate and repeatable. When the pulse of laser energy is focused onto a small spot (adjustable from approximately 0.1 to 2.0mm diameter) on the work-piece, the energy density (energy per unit area) becomes high. The energy is absorbed into the metal work-piece, causing a "keyhole" effect as the focused beam "drills" into, vaporizes and melts some of the metal. As the pulse ends, the liquefied metal around the "keyhole" flows back in, solidifying and creating a small spot weld. The process takes a couple of milliseconds and the system has the ability to fire many pulses per second. Moving the work-piece or the laser head allows anything from separate spot welds to a series of overlapping spot welds to create a seam weld. The process is a fusion welding process and performed under an inert gas stream cover. A filler rod is rarely used.

- 48 -

Metals that can be laser welded include: * * * * * * Some stainless steels Titanium Kovar** Copper Some aluminium alloys Some dissimilar metals

** Kovar is a trade name and has a low coefficient of linier expansion (similar to Invar). Used in the electronics industry where there is a requirement to attach metal to glass.

ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW) EBW is a fusion welding process where a beam of high-velocity electrons is directed to the metals being joined. The work-pieces melt locally as the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat energy on impact with the metal. Should a filler rod/filler metal be used this is melted also. The process is usually performed in a vacuum to prevent dissipation of the electron beam. The free electrons in the vacuum are accelerated and their orbits controlled by electric and magnetic fields to form a narrow high speed beam of electrons with high kinetic energy. This is converted to heat energy when the electrons collide with atoms in solids. A strong electric field can accelerate electrons to a very high speed, with subsequent very high power, equal to the product of beam current and accelerating voltage. Using magnetic lenses the beam can be shaped into a narrow angled cone and focused to a small diameter with high power density (in the region of 104 W/mm2) as the beam leaves the tungsten electrode. The work-pieces must form part of an electrical circuit.

ADHESIVE BONDING Most materials can be joined by adhesive bonding wood, paper, glass, metal, rubber, and plastic. Many theories exist as to why adhesives work. Why does the adhesive stick to the adherent? Possibly by a combination of chemical reactions; intermolecular forces (absorption) or by intermolecular electrical forces the textbooks differ on the subject.

- 49 -

Advantages of adhesive bonding: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. No holes to weaken the metal. No high temperatures (unlike welding). Smooth exterior surfaces. The adherends are sealed no gas or liquid leaks. No stress concentration, unlike riveting or bolting, as all the faying surface is bonded. Vibration damping is possible. Most adhesives are inherently less rigid than metals. Thus vibration is damped out rather than transmitted across bond lines. The excellent vibration-fatigue resistance of adhesively assembled helicopter rotor blades is an example. With a few exceptions adhesives are good at joining dissimilar materials. Glass-to-rubber bonds are probably more easily achieved with adhesives than with any other assembly technique. Adhesives may be used to electrically insulate joined materials from one another. Adhesives often result in weight savings. Ease of assembly.

7.

8. 9. 10.

Disadvantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. There is no one universal adhesive. Different adhesives have to be used for different jobs/different materials. Long curing times (up to several hours) may be involved. Careful joint preparation is required with strict control of cleanliness. Some materials are toxic and/or a fire risk, so are dangerous to handle. On the selection of an adhesive there is a trade-off between strength and toughness. Most adhesives are not good at both. 48 Difficult to check the joint because a poorly made joint looks just the same as a well made joint. It is usual to construct a test piece at the same time and with the same materials as the real joint and then test the test piece to destruction. Joints do not like high temperatures. Many of the materials have a shelf life so strict inventory control of stock is required.

7. 8.

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Fig. 12 THE ADHERENDS

Safety When using adhesives the following safety precautions should be observed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Know the chemicals you are working with. Keep all areas, benches and tools clean. Adequate ventilation is required. Use barrier cream and protective clothing. If splashed wash affected parts with soap and water immediately. Observe all fire precautions.

Classification of Adhesives Adhesives may be classified according to their function, chemical structure or method of application or on the basis of the adherends joined. Functional categories include structural, holding and sealing adhesives. Structural adhesives are those which, by design, endure mechanical loading. Holding adhesives are those which bear little structural load but do form unstressed joints between parts. Household appliance trim and many types of labels typically use holding adhesives. Sealing adhesives are those used to exclude gases or liquids from a joint. In many applications an adhesive may perform two or even all three of the structural, holding and sealing functions. The chemical structure of an adhesive resin is often used as a basis for classification. Thermosetting adhesives are those which cure to form an insoluble, infusible film. This process is known as crosslinking. A thermosetting adhesive will not soften on re-heating. Thermoplastic adhesives are those whose molecules remain chemically separate, ie they do not form chemical bonds between the molecules. These adhesives are generally heat-softenable and soluble in the proper solvent. A more specific type of chemical structure classification is based on the repetitive structure of the adhesive polymer. Thus we have epoxies, polyamides, polyurethanes and polyacrylates to name but a few.

- 51 -

The method of application or cure may also be used to classify adhesives. Solvent cements are those adhesives in which the resin is applied in solution and allowed to dry to a tacky state before the bond is formed. Hot melts are applied in their molten state. They form a bond by cooling to a temperature below their softening point. Two-part adhesives have two separate components which must be mixed prior to use; one-part systems are just that they are used as supplied. Room-temperature-curing adhesives do not require heating, while hot-curing systems do. Tape and film adhesives are supplied in sheet form and are simply laid in place between the adherends. Pressure-sensitive adhesives are supplied as tapes or sheets and form bonds immediately upon contact with the adherends. Still another method of classifying adhesives is based on the nature or properties of the adherends. Thus we have metal-to-metal, metal-to-plastic, plastic-to-glass, and similar adhesive types. Similarly, adhesives may be described as heat stable or as rigid, flexible or elastomeric. Often the classification systems just described are combined. This leads to adhesive categories such as structural two-part, flexible plastic-to-plastic, or elastomeric pressure-sensitive. Some categories are as follows: Inorganic Adhesives. Such as those that are sodium silicate based. Not used for metal bonding. Natural Adhesives. Rubber based and includes shellac, cellulose, etc. Used mainly for paper and wood.

Fig. 13 ADHESIVES

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Thermoplastic Adhesives. Made from thermoplastic resins. Are softened by heating which can be repeated. Used where great strength is not important though hot melt thermoplastics are very strong (18MPa). Elastomeric Adhesives. Based on synthetic rubber they produce an instant stick when brought together. They set by the evaporation of the solvents. For structural work thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are added. Thermosetting Adhesives. Includes epoxide and urea resins. Provides a strong joint and the process of making the joint usually involves a curing agent. When the resin and agent are brought together curing takes place which involves a chemical reaction. Used in structural bonding.

Bonding - The General Method 1. Surface Preparation The surface must be thoroughly cleaned and in most cases chemically cleaned. Some metals must have additional treatments such as anodising for Al alloys to provide a key for the adhesives. Adhesive preparation Film adhesives stored at -20C require little preparation prior to use. Epoxide type adhesives will require mixing and must be used within the time (pot life) specified by the manufacturer. Absolute cleanliness is required throughout the preparation. Applying the Adhesive It is applied in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Making the Joint The adherends are brought together using some or all of the following: (a) A heater blanket to speed up the curing process. Thermisters might be placed close to the joint to control the temperature. Clamp using either vacuum/pressure clamping or mechanical clamps. Many processes use a vacuum bag which allows atmospheric air pressure to exert a force on the joint.

2.

3.

4.

(b)

5. 6.

Allow Curing Time. Joint Inspection Inspect the edges of the joint as far as possible to check on the colour of the adhesive and whether it has penetrated to all the joint edges.

- 53 -

7.

Check Test Piece A test piece can be manufactured in several ways: (a) (b) (c) By making up a separate test piece using the same metals (adherends) and the same adhesives, temperatures, etc. By making a part that is longer than required cutting the extra piece off and sending it away for testing. In some cases the test piece can come from the middle of a component, eg when making up an aircraft skin the window aperture can be cut out after fabrication and sent for test.

Table 2 shows the forms in which the various adhesives may be supplied. There is not need to commit the details to memory.
Film Epoxies Nitrile-phenolic Urea-formaldehyde Epoxy-phenolic Polyester Silicone Polyvinyl acetate Polyamide Polyurethane Polyethylene Polyacrylate Polysulfide Neoprene X X X X Hot Melt Liquid X Paste X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Solid

TABLE 2 ADHESIVES FORMS OF SUPPLY

Bonding General 1. Some adhesives contain chemicals which may affect some people physically. Good ventilation and minimum skin contact is essential. One-part adhesives are preferred over two-part adhesives. Mixing, metering and dispensing operations allow operator and equipment errors to occur. Tape and film adhesives are preferred over liquid and paste systems because mixing, handling, outgassing and shrinkage problems are reduced. Differences in thermal expansion properties of the adherends can produce stresses to the bond line when the joint undergoes temperature changes leading to eventual failure.

2.

3.

4.

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5.

Most adhesives will not combine high tensile strength and high peel strength and most will not combine high strength with toughness. The most common cause of poor joint performance is failure to properly clean the surface.

6.

Table 3 gives a list of some adhesive used to bond various adherends. Table 4 gives typical cure conditions and descriptive comment about some of the adhesives listed in Table 3 (there should be no need to commit the details to memory). Adhesive suppliers should be consulted for additional information about specific products or bonding techniques.

Joint Design Adhesive bonds undergo a variety of stresses. These are usually a combination of shear, tension, compression, cleavage or peel. Of these, shear, tension and compression are the most easy to cope with. This is because the entire adhesive-bond area can aid in withstanding the stress. Cleavage and peel forces are less desirable because the load is concentrated at the end of the bond and the adhesive fails gradually from that point. The origin of the stress is usually mechanical but it may also be thermal. When bonded materials of different thermal expansion coefficients undergo a temperature change, the more rapidly expanding (or contracting) material tries to slide over the other material and shear stress is generated.

Fig. 14 JOINT DESIGN

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MATERIALS USED ON Aluminium and its alloys

ADHESIVE
Epoxy Epoxy-phenolic Nylon-epoxies Polyurethane rubber Polyesters Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamides Polyvinyl-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Acrylics Epoxy Cellulose esters Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Polyvinyl butyral Acrylics Polyesters Epoxy Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamide Polyvinyl-phenolic Polyhydroxyether Acrylics Polyesters Epoxy Polyamide Polyvinyl-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Nylon-epoxy Acrylics Epoxy Neoprene Polyhydroxyether Epoxy Flexible adhesives Epoxy Polyesters Polyvinyl butyral Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamides Polyvinyl-phenolic Nitrile-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Nylon-epoxy Acrylics Animal glue Polyvinyl acetate Ethylene-vinyl acetate Urea-, melamine-, resorcinol-, and Phenol-formaldehyde

TYPE (REF TABLE 4)


E D F G A C H I B R E J K L R A E C H I M R A E H I B F R E G M E H E A L C H I B B D R E O N P

Ceramics

Copper and its alloys

Magnesium

Nickel

Natural rubber

Steel

Wood

TABLE 3 ADHESIVES FOR BONDING VARIOUS MATERIALS (REF TO TABLE 4 FOR ADHESIVE TYPES)

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Adhesive Type
Polyesters and their variations.

Type Ref
A

Comments
Used primarily for repairing fibre-glass-reinforced polyester resins and ABS. Generally unsaturated esters are polymerised with a catalyst such as MEK peroxide and an accelerator. Bonds are strong. Sometimes combines with polyisocyanates to control shrinkage stresses and reduce brittleness. Unreacted monomer, if present, keeps viscosity low, provides good wetting, and enhances crosslinking. Occasionally used on metals. These are a blend of flexible nitrile or neoprene rubber with phenolic novolac resin. They combine the impact resistance of the rubber with the strength of the crosslinked phenolic. They are inexpensive and produce strong, durable bonds which resist water. They are used extensively in the adhesive-tape industry although they do require high-pressure, relatively long high-temperature cures. They are used for metals, airframe components and some plastics. These low-viscosity liquids polymerise or cure rapidly in the presence of moisture or many metal oxides. Thus most surfaces can be bonded. The bonds fairly strong but brittle. Used widely for the assembly of electronic components. A combination of epoxy resin with a resol phenolic. Noted for strength retention at 300-500F (150250C), strong bonds and good moisture resistance. Normally stored refrigerated. Used for some metals, glass and phenolic resins. Noted for high tensile but low peel strengths. Also have good high-temperature strength, resistance to moisture and little tendency to react with acids or solvents. Other important features of epoxies are their low shrinkage on curing, their compatibility with a variety of fillers and their long life. These resins are widely used to bond metal, ceramics and rigid plastics. Tensile shear strengths above 6000psi (41.4MPa) and peel strength above 100lb/in (18kg/cm) are possible when epoxy resins are modified with special lowmelting point nylons. These adhesives are flexible with a low load-bearing ability. They have excellent impact and moisture resistance. They are easily tackified and are used as pressure-sensitive tapes or as contact cements. The urethanes are two-part products which require mixing before use. Silicones cure in the presence of atmospheric moisture.

Typical Cure Conditions


Minutes to hours at room temperature.

Nitrile-phenolic, neoprene phenolic

Up to 12 hours at 250-300F (120-150C).

Alphacyanoacrylate

Up to 5 minutes at room temperature.

Epoxy-phenolic

1 hour at 350F (175C).

Epoxy, amine, amide and anhydride-cured

Varies depending on process used.

Nylon-epoxy

1 hour, 300-350F (150-175C). Pressure-sensitive tape or solvent cements. Lowtemperature bake for urethane. Ambient cure for silicones.

Flexible adhesives: Natural rubber, Butadieneacrylonitrile, Neoprene, Polyurethane, Polyacrylates, Silicones Polyamides

Polyvinylphenolic

These adhesives, which are chemically similar to nylon resins, have good strength at ambient temperatures and are fairly tough. Often applied as hot melts, they have good adhesion to a variety of surfaces. These resins, which combine a resol phenolic resin with polyvinyl formal or polyvinyl butyral, were the first important synthetic structural adhesives. A considerable range of compositions is available with hot strength and tensile properties increasing at the expense of impact and peel strength as the phenolic content rises.

Hot melt cures by cooling.

1 hour, 300F (150C).

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Polyamides

Polyvinylphenolic

Vinyl chloridevinyl acetate

Polyvinyl butyral

Polyhydroxyether

Polyvinyl acetate

Animal glue

Ureaformaldehyde Melamineformaldehyde, Resorcinolformaldehyde, Phenolformaldehyde

Ethylene-vinyl acetate

Acrylics

These adhesives, which are chemically similar to nylon resins, have good strength at ambient temperatures and are fairly tough. Often applied as hot melts, they have good adhesion to a variety of surfaces. These resins, which combine a resol phenolic resin with polyvinyl formal or polyvinyl butyral, were the first important synthetic structural adhesives. A considerable range of compositions is available with hot strength and tensile properties increasing at the expense of impact and peel strength as the phenolic content rises. They may be used as hot melts or as solution adhesives. Since thin films of vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate are somewhat flexible, they are often used for bonding metal foil, paper and leather. A tough, transparent resin, which is used as a hotmelt or heat-cured solution adhesive. It has good adhesion to glass, wood, metal and textiles. It is flexible and can be modified with other resins or additives to give a range of properties. Not generally used as a structural adhesive. These are resins based on hydroxylated polyethylene oxide polymers. Generally used as hot melts, they have only moderate strength but are flexible and have fairly good adhesion. This adhesive is generally supplied as a water emulsion (white glue) or used as a hot melt. It dries quickly and forms a strong bond. It is flexible and has low resistance to heat and moisture. Chemically, animal glues are proteins; they are water-soluble polymers with a high affinity for paper, wood and leather surfaces. They form strong bonds but have poor resistance to moisture. They are being replaced in many areas by synthetic resin adhesives but their low cost is an advantage. They are usually applied as liquids. These thermosetting resins are widely used for wood bonding. Urea-formaldehyde is inexpensive but has low moisture resistance. It can be cured at room temperature if a catalyst is used. Melamineformaldehyde resins have better moisture resistance but must be heat-cured. Phenol-formaldehyde adhesives form strong, waterproof wood-to-wood bonds. The resorcinol-formaldehyde resin will cure at room temperature while phenol-formaldehyde requires heat. This copolymer is widely used as a hot-melt adhesive because it is inexpensive, adheres to most surfaces and is available in a range of melting points. It is widely used for bookbinding and packaging. Acrylics are versatile structural adhesives. They cure at room temperature and are applied as a conventional two-part system or by coating one substrate with the resin and the other with the catalyst. Impact resistance is controllable since acrylics may vary from rigid to flexible. Floor ventilation is often recommended because they may release heavier-than-air monomer vapours, which are odorous.

Hot melt cures by cooling.

1 hour, 300F (150C).

Cooling (hot melt) or solvent loss.

Cooling (hot melt), heating under pressure.

Hot melt. Cures by cooling.

Hot melt cure by cooling; emulsion air dry. Air dry under pressure.

Up to 300F (149C) and 200psi (1.28 MPa).

Hot melt cures by cooling.

Room temperature or up to 130F (54C); 10-20 minutes with only fixturing pressure.

TABLE 4 ADHESIVE TYPES

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It is also possible for tensile loads to generate peel forces. This requires that the bonded members deform. The result is the appearance of peel forces as the bond ends. In order for a joint to be properly designed, especially a load-bearing one, the magnitude and direction of the stresses, which the joint will experience, must be known. Often a welded or mechanically fastened joint will be completely unsuitable for adhesive bonding and must be redesigned. Simple butt joints, for example, are rarely suitable for bonding. A number of commonly used joint designs are shown in figure 14. Some are less practical than others because of machining requirements or because they may allow excessive cleavage or peel forces. Another approach to overcoming peel and cleavage stresses is to combine adhesive bonding with more traditional fastening methods. Rivets may be used at the ends of a lap joint, for example. The adhesive greatly increases the fatigue life of the joint compared with that for rivets alone. The rivets help secure the ends of the bond against cleavage or peel failure and may replace clamps and fixtures while the adhesive cures. Weld bonding uses welds to hold metal parts together while a previously applied adhesive is cured. The technique protects bond edges against cleavage and peel failure and can often eliminate clamps and fixtures during the curing process. In addition to joint geometry, the designer may have some control over adherend width, thickness or overlap. The practical significance of these relationships is simply that stronger lap bond results when width, overlap or adherend thickness is increased. With thin or low-modulus adherends, it is easily possible for the bond strength to exceed the yield strength of the material. Joints having such strength are undesirable since thy use more adhesive than is necessary.

Surface Preparation A clean, dry surface, which resists physical disintegration, is essential for high-quality bonding operations. Most surfaces are far from smooth on an atomic or molecular level. Their hills and valleys are usually contaminated with water, metal oxides, adsorbed gases, processing lubricants and perhaps loosely held products of a reaction between the surface and its surroundings. These materials must be removed or at least reduced in quantity if strong, durable bonds are to be achieved.

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Surface cleanliness is difficult to measure with certainty. The water break-free test is often employed because it is rapid and easy to interpret. In this test a small quantity of water is poured over the surface and observed to see if it breaks up into droplets. If individual droplets form it is usually because oil or grease contamination is present. The test will not detect salt or metal oxide contamination and some surfaces such as polyolefins and Teflon break up the water layer even when they are clean. Surface preparation methods, listed below, are typical surface treatments for common metals and plastics. Other methods may be used. Adhesive suppliers and texts on surface treatment should be consulted for additional information.

Surface Preparation Methods The following gives the recommended surface preparation for metals prior to carrying out any bonding process. Aluminium and its Alloys Blast or solvent wipe. Immerse for 10 minutes at 150-160F (66-71C) in a solution of with sulphuric acid and sodium dichromate. Vapour degrease, abrade and degrease. Immerse for 2 minutes at 77F (25C) in a solution of aqueous ferric chloride and nitric acid in water. Rinse in cold water and dry. Degrease or sandblast or both; then immerse in 150F (66C) solution of sodium dichromate and sulphuric acid. Rinse well with water and dry. CAUTION: Add the acid slowly while stirring to the sodium dichromate solution. Pickle in a solution of sulphuric acid, nitric acid and water. Rinse with water, then dip for 45 seconds in a solution of hydrochloric acid, hydrogen peroxide and water. Hot-water-rinse and dry. Zinc (and galvanised steel) Degrease, abrade, degrease again. Follow with a 3-minute dip at 77F (35C) hydrochloric acid in water solution. Rinse with clean water. Ovendry at 150F (66C). Degrease with methyl alcohol, abrade and degrease again.

Copper and its Alloys

Stainless Steel

Acrylic. Polycorbonate Polystyrene

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Polyethylene Polypropylene

Etch times are polyethylene, 1 minute at 160F (71C); acetals, 10 seconds at 77F (25C) and chlorinated polyethers, 5 mins at 160F (71C). Degrease with methyl alcohol, etch with sulphuric (5 to 15 mins). Rinse with water and neutralise with 0.2% caustic for about 10 mins. Rinse with water and dry. Solvent-wipe with acetone or MEK, abrade and repeat solvent wipe.

Rubber, natural and synthetic but not silicone materials

Nylon, epoxies, Fibre-glass composites

Applying Adhesives The best application method for a particular job depends primarily on the size and shape of the parts and the nature of the adhesive. Commonly used methods may be classified as manual, machine or spray. Manual application methods for liquid adhesives are the simplest. Nearly all types of adhesives can be applied manually if provision is made for proper handling of toxic or flammable products. Brushes, spatulas or flow guns may be used. They depend on operator skill for control of adhesive thickness. They are ideal for low production rates with large or complex parts and can often be made portable for use in various on-site locations. Film and tape adhesives may be applied by hand or with hand-held dispensers. These methods are often used when one of the adherends is supplied with a pressure-sensitive adhesive backing. Machine application methods are generally used in production involving flat surfaces. The machines may be bench or floor-mounted. Rollers may be used. They employ one or more rollers to transport a liquid adhesive from a reservoir to the surface being coated. Film thickness is controlled by roller spacing, blades and substrate feed rates. Most low and medium-viscosity adhesives can be applied to flexible or rigid materials up to several feet in width. Viscosity control is important to control film thickness. Curtain coaters work by moving the surface to be coated through a falling sheet of liquid adhesive. Film thickness is controlled by the rate of adhesive flow and substrate feed. Excess adhesive flowing over the edges of the substrate is collected in a drain pan and returned to the feed reservoir. Spray application of adhesives is often the best method for use on large, complex rigid parts. Spray techniques are suitable for intermittent operation but they generally waste more material than do manual or machine methods.

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Also, greater operator skill is required, more ventilation is needed and general housekeeping requirements are more stringent. Extrusion equipment pumps adhesive through one or more nozzles in the form of a liquid bead. Typically the nozzle moves over the substrate, although in some cases, the surface to be bonded can be moved beneath the nozzle. Extrusion nozzles are normally guided by some combinations of gears, belts, cams etc. In recent years, a number of extrusion heads have been fitted to robots, which allows them to be moved in a variety of pre-programmed paths. Adhesives may be applied via air or airless spray of heated or ambienttemperature material with automatic or manual guns. Air spray uses compressed air to atomise the adhesive and propel it towards the desired surface. Airless or hydraulic spray uses pressure in excess of 6.894MPa (1,000 psi) applied directly to the adhesive. Atomisation occurs as a result of the pressure release when the adhesive enters the atmosphere at the gun tip. Automatic stationary or movable spray guns are ideal for high production rates and simple shapes. Manual guns are better for complex shapes and intermittent operation. Adhesives are sometimes heated to over 50C (122F) for spray application. These heated materials can be sprayed at a higher-percent solids content and with a lower energy requirement, per unit weight, especially for airless (hydraulic) spray systems, than is possible at ambient temperatures.

Curing Adhesives Cure means the process by which an adhesive is converted from its applied condition to its final solid state. Adhesives may cure at ambient or elevated temperatures. The process may involve simple solvent evaporation, as with a contact cement, or a complex chemical reaction between two or more components, as with epoxies and urethanes. Heat and pressure are often used to obtain rapid curing. Heating speeds the cure while the pressure controls bond-line thickness and immobilises the parts while the adhesive solidifies. There is an optimum curing pressure for most adhesives. If too much pressure is used, the adhesive will be squeezed out of the bond line and a starved joint will result. Too little pressure permits an excessively thick bond line which increases the probability that a major flaw within the solid adhesive will lead to failure by cracking. Higher temperatures invariably mean shorter cure times. Temperatures must be selected, however, with a view to the thermal stability of the adherends.

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Pressure-applying equipment may range from simple weights and clamps to sophisticated springs, fixtures and autoclaves. Often the exact pressure applied is less important than maintaining a constant pressure during cure. Adhesive bonds are usually heated in gas or steam hot-air ovens. Occasionally infra-ed, dielectric or induction heating may be employed. Autoclaves, mentioned earlier, can simultaneously apply heat and pressure. Heated-platen presses can also be used to apply heat and pressure if the shape of the adherend permits contact with the platen. A newer concept, which seems to be gaining acceptance, is that of weldbonding. In this process metal is spot-welded through an adhesive layer to immobilise the parts. The adhesive is then cured in a subsequent processing stage, perhaps in a paint bake oven. An obvious advantage is that clamps or other pressure devices need not be used.

Testing of Test Specimens Various tests can be carried out using in some cases fairly simple machines. The part is tested to destruction. In general the thinner the bonding agent the stronger the joint. Tap testing can be used though this is not as satisfactory as destructive testing. It is used to check for de-lamination or lack of bonding and involves tapping the surface of the joint with a coin to check the change in tone as the coin passes from a good section of the join to a poor section. X-rays may be used though the definition might be poor. Ultrasonics can be used on monolithic structures though the resulting picture can suffer from noise (unwanted signal) when testing composites. Some destructive tests are shown below. Adhesives must be tested to ensure that the adhesive material or the bonding process meets the desired standards. Testing is also done to qualify a new product or process for production use. Test procedures are frequently those developed by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Such tests should be used without modification whenever possible because they represent standards agreed on by adhesive suppliers and consumers. If they are modified in any way, they may not be valid. Routine tests on incoming adhesive materials often include tests for percent solids. Viscosity, density, colour, flow, tack, pot life, elongation and bond strength. Tests to destruction of actual bonded assemblies are often carried out to ensure that the proper production procedures have been followed, or to ascertain the effectiveness of a particular joint design.

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The direct tensile strength of a bond is often determined according to ASTM D897. In this test, cylindrical specimens of 1 sq in for metals or 0.5sq in for wood are subjected to direct tension until the adhesive or adherend fails.

Fig. 15 THE TENSILE TEST

The tensile lap-shear test (ASTM-1002-72) is probably the most common adhesive bond test. This test uses a flat overlap of 0.5in for parallel specimens 1in wide and 0.064in thick. The specimen is stressed to failure in tension.

Fig. 16 THE SHEAR TEST

Peel test of bonds involving one or two flexible adherends are typified by the 180 peel test (ASTM D903) and the T-peel test (ASTM D-1876). These tests subject the bond to peeling stresses. Failing loads are reported in force per unit of bond width for peeling at a given rate.

Fig. 17 THE PEEL TEST

Cleavage tests involve pulling a bond specimen apart with tensile force applied at one edge. The failing load is reported as force per unit of bond width. Cleavage strengths are often a fraction of tensile or lap-shear values, especially for structural adhesives.

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Fig. 18 THE CLEAVAGE TEST

Creep testing of adhesive bonds is carried out to determine their service behaviour under load. Creep-testing methods such as ASTM D-2293 and D2294 use spring-loaded devices to stress lap joints, in compression or tension. A fine line is scribed across the edge of the glue line and examined with a measuring microscope after various test times. Creep is expressed by the amount of movement between the scribed lines. This creep distance is compared with the bond line thickness in the case of compression testing. Environmental and age testing of bonds is performed by holding the specimen under the desired conditions for various times and then using the appropriate test method to determine the effect of the environment-age combination. Temperature and chemical exposure tests are particularly common. Unfortunately many tests are carried out using unstressed specimens, ie specimens which are placed in the desired environment but not cyclicly loaded and unloaded to simulate service conditions. This omission may be serious and should be avoided if possible. Non-destructive testing of bonded assemblies frequently employs ultrasonic techniques. An ultrasonic vibration is passed through one adherend and is reflected by the glue line and the other adherend. The reflected vibrations are detected and monitored for consistency. When a debond or no-bond area is encountered, the reflected wave will differ significantly from the expected and the part can then be removed for repair.

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