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ANCIENT INDIA MATERIAL

CONTENT
TOPICS

PAGE NO

1. PRE HISTORICAL PERIODS

2. INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

3. VEDIC AGE RIG AND LATER VEDIC AGE

10

4. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

24,32

5. MAURYAN EMPIRE

36

6. SUNGAS AND KANVAS

43

7. OTHER REGIONAL KINGDOMS

43

8. FOREIGN INVASION- INDO GREEKS, SAKAS, KUSHANAS

47

9. THE GUPTAN AGE

50

10. POST GUPTAN AGE- HARSHA, CHALUKYAS,PALLAVAS

56

11. THE EARLY MEDIEVAL AGE 750 TO 1200 A.D

59

BY
P.SARAVANAMOORTHY
T.I.M.E

ANCIENT INDIA
PRE-HISTORICAL PERIOD
1.Paleolithic Age (500,000 8000 BC) or Old Stone Age:
The Paleolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period.
Paleolithic sites were spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial plains of
Indus and Ganga.
Paleolithic men in India also called the Quartzite Men as their tools were mode of
quartzite.
Believed to have belonged to the Negrito Race. They lived on hunting, gathering and
fishing.
They had no knowledge of agriculture, could not make potteries, could not make houses
and were ignore of metals.Invention and use of fire.
The period divided into three phases in India on the basis of nature of change in climate
and stone tools used:
Lower Paleolithic period (500,000 100,000 BC):
Characteristic features use of hand axe, cleaves and choppers.
Imp. Sites solan valley (Punjab, now in Pakistan) (Belan valley in Mirzapur
district, Narmada Valley, Deedwana desert (Raj).
Middle Paleolithic Period (100,000 40,000 BC):
Imp. Tools blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.
Imp. Sites Malaprabha and Ghatprabha basin of Northern Karnataka, Bankura and
Parulia in West Bengal.Neanderthal Man is said to have dominated this stage of
human evolution.
Upper Paleolithic period (40,000 8,000 BC):

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Last phase of Ice Age.Home sapiens first appeared in the end of this phases.

Blade and burins principal tools.Imp. Sites found in . Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Chotanagpur Plateau.
2. Mesolithic Age (8,000 4,000 BC).or late stone age:
Beginning of plant cultivation.Domestication of animals, Adamgarh in M. P. and Bagor
in Rajasthan have the earliest evidence of domestication of Animals.
Tools of this Age called Microliths which were more pointed and sharp first discovered
by Caryle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock Shelters.
Mesolithic sites in Birbhanpur in west Bengal. Tirunelvely in Tamilnadu, Langhanj in
Gujarat, Sarai Nahar Rai in UP.
Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal famous for their cave painting. Bhimbetka has 500 painted
Rock shelters.
3.Neolithic Age (4,000 1,000 BC) or New Stone Age:
Marked by the use of polished stone tools, also known as blades .Earliest farming
people: they grew cereals like ragi and horse gram (Kullthi).
People knew art of boat making, spinning and weaving (cotton and wool).Pottery first
appeared, pottery used was black burnished ware, grey ware and mat impressed ware
Lined in circular or rectangular house made of mud .
Megalithic tombs characteristic features of this period.They knew only about one metal,
gold.
Important sites -Mehrgarh (7,000 BC, oldest Neolithic site),Burzahoam (J & K, famous
for coarse grey pottery), Takkalakota, Maski and Brahmgiri (Karnataka), Piyampati (TN),
Utnur (AP), Chirand (bihar, bone implements) etc., belong to this age.
At Mehrgarh, people cultivated wheat and cotton.At Barzahom, domestic dogs were
buried along with their masters.At piklihal (Karnataka) settlers were cattle herders.

4. Chalcolithic Age (Stone phase 1,800 1,000 BC):

Black and red pottery and Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP). Not acquainted with burnt
bricks.
It was village economy. People lived in thatched houses. The Chalcolithic communities
founded the first large village in peninsular India.They used objects made of stone and
copper.
Knew weaving and spinning; expert copper smiths. Manufactured beads of semi
precious stone carnelian, steatite and quartz. Lacking knowledge of bronze and making
art of writing.
They practiced slash and burn or jhum cultivation. Cultivated wheat, barley and lentil in
western India and ragi in southern and eastern India.
The dead in Maharashtra were buried in North South position, but in South India in east
west position.
Important sites Ahar and Gilund (Rajasthan); Jorwe, Dhaimabad, Inamgaon, Nasik
(Maharashtra), Chirand (Bihar), Eran (MP). Jorwe culture continued till 700 BC.
Tools, weapons and bangles made of copper found at Ahar. Prehistoric bone implements
found at Burzahom and Chirand.
Venerated mother goddess. In Malwa and Rajasthan bull was a symbol of Religious cult.
Social inequalities prevalent in society.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION (2350 1750 BC)

First discovered in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni at Harappa in western Punjab (Pakistan). (It
was first noticed in 1825 by Charles Mason).
The Harappan Civilisation extended from Manda in North (Jammu) to Narmada valley in
south and from sutkagendour in west (Pakistan Iran border) to Alamgirpur (Meerut) in
east.
Nearly 1500 Harappan sites have been discovered, of which 1400 sites are catalogued.
Out of these: 971 are in India. 400 in Pakistan, 2 in Afghanistan (Mundigak and
Shortughai). Some sites associated with the pre-Harappan phase (kot Diji, Kalibangan,
Banawali). Some to the mature phase (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, Kalibangan,
Banawali, Surkotda and Sutkagendar) and some to the late Harappan phase Rangpur).
The Harappan age is called the Bronze age:
Important sites of the Harappan civilization:
Harappan In Montgomery district in Pakistan, on the bank of Ravi.
The city followed grid planning.Only place with evidence of coffin burial
Bronze rod related to measuring scale found here.First place to use silver in world
The great granary is the largest and most remarkable structure.A red sandstone
male torso has been found Which shows traces of Jainism.
Mohenjo-Daro in Larkana District in Sindh on the bank of Indus.
Mohenjo-Daro means Mound of the dead in sindhi.
Great Bath the most imp. Public place. Remarkable brickwork. Bitumen coating
and gypsum in mortar made it water proof served ritual purpose.
Great granary the largest building. Also found a multi pillared assembly hall.

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Steatite statuette of bearded man, a bronzed dancing girl, steatite of a priest and a
seal bearing pashupati have been found here. Most of the house built of kiln fired
brick.
Evidence of Indian ships (figured on a seal) and a piece of woolen cloth has been
discovered from here. Measuring scale made of shell.
Excavation reveals that the city was flooded more than 7 times. Discovery of a
pair of skeletons, suggesting sati.
Chanhudaro situated in sindh it is the only Indus city without a citadel.
Existence of pre-Harappan as well as Harappan culture. A small pot, probably an
inkpot, discovered here
People were expert craftmen, archaeologists have discovered metal workers;
shell ornament makers and bead makers shops.
Kalibangan in Rajasthan at the bank of Ghaghar river, in Ganganagar
district.One of the two Indus cities which have both proto Harappan and
Harappan cultural phase
Evidence of the earliest ploughed field, mud brick fortification.Discovery of fire
altars (also at lothal).
Remains of camels found here.Pot burial found (ashes found in pots).Every house
had its own well.
Citadels and power towns both were fortified.Measuring scale made of terracotta
found.
Lothal in Gujarat at the head of the gulf of cambay on Bhogavo River .
Only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. A terracotta model of ship is
found.
Practice of fire cult 3 twin burials were found.Evidence of chess .Has
evidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (also at Rangpur).

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Famous for bead making. Measuring scale made of ivory found here. A
doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here.

Dholavira: situated in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat.

Only Indus city to have a middle town.The latest and one of the two largest
Harappan settlements in India the other being Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
Very large flock of letters written on the main entrance of the city.Evidence of
reservoir for water and polished pillars. The only town which is divided into
three parts- upper, middle and lower
Surkotda in Kutch district in Gujarat.
Remains of the horse have been reported from here.
The citadel as well as the lower town fortified.
Banawali in Hissar district in Haryana. Excavated by R. S. Bisht.
Like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji and Harappan, Banawali also saw two cultural
phases pre Harappan and Harappan.
Human and animal figures clay bangles and status of mother goddess found here.
Also terracotta plough. Here we find a large quantity of Barley, sesamum and
mustard.
Kot Diji opposite Mohenjo-Daro on the left bank of river Indus in Sindh.
Pre Harappan and Harappan phases found.
Wheel made painted pottery, traces of a defensive wall aligned street,
knowledge of metallurgy, artistic toys etc.
Five figurines of mother goddess discovered.They City was probably destroyed
by fire
Order of discovery of Harappan sites:

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Harappa

1921

Dayaram Sahni

Mohenjo-Daro

1922

R. D. Banerjee

Sutkagendor

1927

R. L. Staine in Baluchistan on Dast river

Chanhudaro

1931

N. G. Majumdar

Kalibangan

1953

A. Ghose

Lothal

1957

S. R. Rao

Surkotda (1972), Banawali (1973), Amir (1975), Dholavira (1985).

The latest Indus site to be discovered is Balathal near Udaipur (1994 1995).
The Oldest known village or agricultural settlement in the India subcontinent is
Mehrgarth in Baluchistan.
Biggest Town: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappan, Rakhigarhi, Ganweriwala, Dholawira (in that
order).
All the three phase of Paleolithic age followed by Mesolithic age and then by Neolithic
age have been found in Narmada valley.
Town Planning: systematic town planning the most unique features of Indus
civilization.
Upper town fortified, placed in east; lower town not fortified, placed in west.
Based on grid system streets and lanes cutting across one another at almost
right angles.
Largest scale uses of standardized burnt bricks (in the ratio of 1:2:4), total
absence of stone buildings.
Houses generally had side entrances. No window facing the main streets.Cities
were fortified, esp. the citadel areas.Mohenjo-Daro had evidence of dry toilets.
Harappan People: Mostly of Mediterranean and proto-Australoid races.
An urban society having highly developed civic life.Social stratification, division
of labour based on specialization of work.

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Probably ruled by a class of merchants and not priests (absence of temples,
unlike mesopotamia).Wore dresses made of cotton and wool.
Ornament made of gold and silver, ivory, copper, shell, jade, lapis lazuli and
agate.
Religious practices: no structured religion but image worship was in vogue.
Large number of terracotta figurines of mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth as
fertility goddess) found.
Chief male deity Pashupati (Proto Shiva). He is surrounded by four animals
(elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo) and two deer at his felt.
Phallus and yoni worship also in practice.Worshipped trees like papal and animals
(humped bull) and birds (dove).
Harappan script: not deciphered so far, probably pictographic, found on seals.
The writing was boustrophedon, i.e. from right to left and then from left to right.
Harappan seals: made of steatite (soft stone) square shaped.
The greatest artistic creation of the Harappans.
Over 2000 seals found. Its primary purpose was to make the ownership of
property. Each seal has a different emblem and a name of brief description.
They depict mostly animals (unicorn and humped bull).Seal were used as a mark
of ownership and also as use of bronze.
Art and Craft: well acquainted with manufacture and use of bronze.
Copper, bronze, silver, gold and lead water known to the Harappans but not iron.
Silver was more common than gold.
Terracotta figurines of animals as well as of human was a popular art.Great
experts in the use of potters wheel. Harappan pots were decorated with design of
trees and circles.
Poor in stone architecture as compared to Egypt and Mesopotamia.

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Harappan Economy: Mainly agrarian but supported by trade and commerce.
Wheat and barley two main crops.Wheat and barley seems to have diffused from
west asia.
Rice was grown only at Rangpur and Lothal, Jowar, Bajra (Gujarat). Seasame
(Harappan): Mustard (Chanhudaro), gram (Kalibangan); peas (Harappa,
chanhudaro).
Harappans were the first to produce cotton in the world. Fields were not ploughed
but dug with the light tools instruments.
Trade was probably carried on the barter system. Trade was undertaken by both
land and sea routes. Main imports consisted of precious metal and exports of
several agricultural products such as cotton goods, pottery, ivory products etc.
Trade links extended to river Nile and Africa. Euphrates and Tigris in Central
Asia to river Hwang Ho in China.
Two trading stations between Mesopotamia and Meluha (Indus Valley) were
Dilmum (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran).
Inter Regional trade with Rajasthan Saurashtra, Maharashtra, S. India, UP and
Bihar.
Harappan used to import:

Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan ;

Turquoise Persia

Jade Central Asia;

Amethyst Maharashtra

Carnelian Saurashtra;

Tin Bihar

Gold Afghanistan, Karnataka;

Silver Afghanistan, Persia

Main export were cotton good, agricultural products pottery, ivory goods to
Mesopotamia, Central Afghanistan and Bahrain.
NOTE:

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o Harappan civilization 3600 1600 BC Black on Red potter.
o Rig Vedic period 1500 1000 BC Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP).
o Later Vedic period 1000 600 BC Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
o Buddhas Age 6000 200 BC Northern Black Ware Pottery (NBWP).
Decline of Harappan civilization various theories existing.
Aryan Invasion theory supported by Vedic literature as well as discovery of
human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjo-Daro.
Natural calamities Recurring floods, deforestation and occasional earthquakes.
Decline of trade. Both internal and external trade.
No unanimity about the causes. But the Indus civilization did not come to a
sudden end but faded away gradually.
Of all nations that we have known, it is India which has the largest population. Herodotus
called the father of History.

THE VEDIC AGE (1500 600 BC)

Advent of the Aryans
Originally, the Aryans lived probably in Eurasia. From this region, they moved to
Asia and Europe. On their way to India, the Aryans first went to Iran (Persia) and
a little alter (1500 DC) in India. This is indicated by the culture shared by Avesta
(Zoroastrian religion holy book) and Rig Veda.
However, there is no consensus about the original home of the Aryans.

Germany plain Prof. Penka.

Tibet Dayanand Saraswathi.

Arctic Region Bal Gangadhar Tilak (The Arctic Home of

Vedas).

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Central Asia Max Mueller.

Sapta Sindhu Dr. A. C. Das.

Austo Hungary Region Prof. MacDonnel.

The term Aryan means people speaking a group of languages.

Rig Veda is the earliest literature mentioning the Aryan. According to it the early
Aryans first settled in India in a Region called Saptisindhu (Land of seven seas)
covered by the ares of eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and Fringes of Western UP.
Ancient literature refers to five fold division of India: Madhyadesa from River
saraswati to Rajmahal hills. Uttarapatha or Adichya North West India.
Dakshinapatha Deccan. Purvadesa or Prachya Prasii of Alexanders historians.
The Western part of Madhyadesa was referred to as Brahmarshi desa.Some
Rivers like Kubha and Indus its five tributaries as well as Ganga, Yamuna,
Saraswati and Sarayu are mentioned in the Rig Veda.
River and their Ancient Names:

Jhelum

Vitasta, (Alexander and porus fought at its banks).

Chenab

Askini

Ravi

Parushni, ( Battle of Ten Kings, Fought at its banks).

Beas

vipasa

Sutlej

Saturdi

Gomal

Gomati

Ghaghar

Saraswati

Kurram

Krumi

Kabul

Kubha

Swat

Suvastu

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Rig Vedic Age (1500 1000 BC).
Rig Veda is the main source of information about this age. It is also the earliest
specimen of Indo European language.
The Aryan Invaded the conquered the Pre-Aryans. They succeeded everywhere
because they possessed Chariots driven by horse.
In Rig Veda their chief god Indra is called Purandara which means Destroyer of
Forts. They came into conflict with the local inhabitants called Dasas and
Dasyus.
The Battle of Ten Kings was fought between the Barata clan of the one hand
and a group of ten Kings on the other. The battle won by the former, was fought
for the division of Ravi water.
Rig Vedic Policy: The form of Government was monarchical. The king was the tribal
chief called Rajan. His post was hereditary.
The king was the protector of the tribe called Jana He fought for cows and not
for territories.
He had limited powers and was assisted by important assemblies like:

Sabha council of Elders (exercised executive power)

Samiti General Assembly (to elect king)

Vidatha Probably the oldest (exercised judicial. Religious and

redistributive powers)

The king received voluntary offerings from people known as Bali.

Important officials:

Purohita priest.

Senani provincial governor.

Kshattri Chamberlain.

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Sthapati Commander in Chief.

Spasa spices to watch over the unsocial activities.

Vajrapati in charge of pasture lands.

Gramani head of village.

Rig Vedic Economy: A semi nomadic people with mixed pastoral and agricultural
economy. Mainly subsistence agriculture Possessed better knowledge of ploughshare and
were acquainted with Sowing, harvesting threshing.
Their staple crop was Yava (barley).Cattle rearing (mainly of cow) was an
important occupation.
No private ownership of land. No clear evidence of trade.Knew metal work and
the only metal mentioned is ayas copper .
Rig Veda mentions many artisans like carpenter, weaver, chariot maker, leather
worker, potter, etc. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) found at Bhagwanpur (Haryana).
Rig Vedic society: the basic unit of society was a patriarchal joint family.
Family (Kula) was the basis of both social and potential organization.Head of the
family was Kulapa or Kulapati.
Status of women equal to men; they could study the Vedas; could attend
assemblies(sabha and Samiti) and could make sacrifices along with their
husbands.
Evidence of widow remarriage and practice of Niyoga system a childless widow
could cohabit with her brother in law till the birth of a son.
Institution of marriage well established. Also evidence of polygamy and
polyandry. Interdining and inter marriage among castes prevalent.
Society divided into 3 groups warriors, priest and people. The fourth class were
treated as slaves.Slaves (particularly woman slaves) were gifted to priests.

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Lack of knowledge of the art of reading and writing.The term shudra appeared
towards the end of this period in the 10th book of Rig Veda (the latest addition).
Rig Vedic Religion designated as henotheism or katheotheism belief in single god.
The Rig Vedic people worshipped the gods through the recitation of prayers and
offering of sacrifices. They did not worship the God for spiritual upliftment but
for food wealth and health there was a predominance of male deities. Female
deities occupied a lower position.
Male deities.

Indra most important god. Proverbial Rain God. Also known as

purandara Destroyer of forts.

Agni 2nd most imp. Acted as the intermediary between god and men.

Varuna ethically the highest. Lord of ocean and floods. Supposed to be

the upholder of the cosmic order Rta.

Soma god of plants. Also called king of Gods.

Yama Lord of the Dead.

Rudra Guardian of healing herb. Associated with storms. Resembled the

Greek god. Apollo.

Maruts Personifying the storms.

Aswin Personified morning and evening stars.

Pushan Lord of Jungle path.

Female deities:

Usha Goddess of dawn.

Aditi Mother of Gods, Goddess of eternity.

Prithvi Earth goddness.

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Saraswati River deity.

Aranyani Goddess of Forest.

Two important priest were

Vasishtha conservative.

Vishwamitra Liberal, composed Gayatri Mantra in III mandalam of

rig veda

Later Vedic Age (1000 600 BC).

This age is also called the painted Grey Ware phase.
The history of this phase is based on the later Vedic texts which include Sama
Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharvana Veda, the Brahmanas. Aryanakas and the
upanishads.
During this phase the Aryans had thoroughly subdued the North Indian fertile
plain and had also crossed the vindhyas,
POLITY:

The popular Vedic assemblies lost their important at the cost of royal
power.Polity now dominated by chiefs and rich nobles.

Kingship made hereditary and the post generally went to the oldest son.Even now
the king did not possess a regular army. But now wars were fought not for cows
but for territorial ambitions.
Rituals like Rajsuya (royal, consecration, conferment of Supreme power to the
King), Vajpeya drink of Strength, Chariot race) and Aswamedha (horse sacrifice)
performed by kings.
Eastern kings were called samara, western kings Svarat, Northern kings Virat,
Southern kings Bhoja Kings of middle country Raja.

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The term Rashtra meaning territory first appeared in this period.A rudimentary
taxation system with Bhagaduga as the collector of taxes and Samgrahitri as the
Treasurer.
ECONOMY:
With the discovery of iron agriculture became the main source of livelihood.Rice
(vrihi) and wheat became their main.
Faint beginning of towns nagara towards the end of the later Vedic period.
Hastinapur and Kaustambi (near Allahabad) earliest example.
Iron was found around 1000 BC, at Gandhar, Dharwad District (Karanataka).
Baluchistan, Eastern Punjab, Western UP and Rajasthan. Iron was called Shyam
or Krishna Ayas.
Rise of diverse arts and crafts. Four types of pottery: Painted Grey Ware most
distinctive, Red ware most popular, Black and Red ware, Black slipped ware.
Later Vedic period mentions money Arabian sea and Indian ocean.Satpatha
Brahmana mention money lending and ploughing Rituals. Units of exchange were
Niska, Satamana and Krishanala.Organization of Merchants into guilds.
SOCIETY: the later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas.
Family continued to remain the basis of society but the power of the patriarch
increased (who could now disinherit his son).
Position of women declined. They could not attend sabha or samiti.Institution of
gotra appeared (first mentioned in the Atharvana Veda).
Caste system became Rigid. Outside the Regular castes, 2 important Bodies of
men:

Viratyas Aryans outside the pale of Brahmanism, spoke prakrit,

did not follow brahminical rules.

Nishadas non Aryas, identified with modern Bhils.

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The four Ashrams or four stages of life (mentioned in the Jabala upanished).viz.

Brahmchari (student),

Grihasstha (house holder),

Vanaprastha (hermit),

Sanyasi (ascetic).

Types of Marriages.

Anuloma marriage marriage of a man of a higher varna to a

woman of lower varma sanctioned the sacred texts.

Pratiloma marriage marriage of a man of a lower varna to a

woman of higher varna. Not sanctioned by the sacred texts.

A total of 8 type of marriage are mentioned in Gautama Dharma sutra

Brahma marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same

varna with Vedic rites and rituals.

Daiva father giving his daughter to the priest as dakshina.

Asura a token bride price of a cow and bull is given.

Prajapati marriage without dowry and bride price

Gandharva marriage by the consent of two parties of ten

clandestine. A special form of it is swayamvara

Asura marriage by purchase

Paisacha seduction of a girl while asleep mentally deranged or

drunk

Rakshasa marriage by capture

Of these, first four were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmins.

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These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.
RELIGION the two important gods Indra and Agni lost their important.

Prajapati (the creator god),

Vishnu (preserver and protector of people),

Rudra (the destroyer god) became all important.

The simple ceremony of worship gave way to elaborate cult of sacrifices

involving killing of animals on large scale.Sign of idolatry first appeared. People
now worshipped god for fulfillment of material desire.
Towards the end of later Vedic period the Upanishads led a strong reaction
against this ritualistic and sacrificial religion.The karma theory deeds of one life
affected the next life took shape.
Towards the end of the 6th CBC a large no. of non-Vedic sects (62 sects)
appeared. 2 important of these sects were

Ajivikas by Gosala Mas kariputra in Shravasti. The belived in fate.

Lokayatas Materialism propounded by Charvaka

Ajita Kesakambalin a contemporary of Buddha was an important teacher of

complete materialism.
Tattvo paplavasimha a text on materialist philosophy, written by Jayarasi.
The real cause of rise of new Religions introduction of a new agricultural
economy in North East India.
Vedic Literature
The four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aryanakas and Upanishads are called Shruti (Heard)
which are distinct from Smritis (Remembrance)

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Rig Veda Hyms to Vedic Gods, Contains 1028 hyms eulogizing and
imploring the Vedic gods for worldly advantages like longevity.
Wealth and progeny. Priest called Hotri.

Sam veda is Rig Veda arranged for liturgical purpose. Priest called
udgatri. Origin of India music traced to it.

Yajur veda consisting o various mantras and rules to be observed at

the time of sacrifice divided into i) Shyama Yajur Veda, which is
older, and ii) Shulka Yajur Veda, priest called Adhvaryu. Origin of
India rituals traced to it.

Atharvana Veda contains magical Charmas and spells to ward off

evils and diseases. Origin of India rituals traced to it. medicine it
throws light on the practices of non Aryans.

There are four upavedas one each for the Vedas, dealing with secular subjects.

Rig Veda Ayur Veda (medicine)

Sama Veda Gandharva Veda (Music)

Yajur Veda Dhanurveda (military)

Atharvana Veda Shilpaveda (sculpture)

Knowledge of upavedas important for ones well being the rig veda, sama veda
and yajur veda are collectively known as the trayi.
Rig veda has 10 Mandalas. Mandalas 2 and 7 are the earliest while 1 to 10 are the
latest. Mandalas 2 to 8 dedicated to one rishi each. Mandala 9 is dedicated to
Sama Deva alone, Mandalas 1 and 1 and dedicated to different gods, rishis and
rituals.
The purushsukta in the 10th Mandala mentions the four varna for the first time
(Jati first appears in the Manusmriti). Sudras are first mentioned in 10 th Mandala
of Raj Veda.Gayatri Mantra is taken from Rig Veda. The concept of Gotra first
appears in the Atharvana Veda (8 gortras).

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Rig Veda refers to the non Aryans as Panis. The Rig Veda mention the only
metal ayas (copper) . The Rig Vedic people did not possess any knowledge iron.
The Brahmanas are explanatory notes in prose meant for the guidance of Priests.
Brahmanas explain the meaning sacrifices and also the methods of performing
them. Origin of Indian Mathematics is traced to the Brahmanas.

Satapatha Brahmana is the first brahmana literature. It is most

important Brahaman literature. It is said to have been written by
yanjnavalakya. It is the largest brahmana literature and is important
from the point of view of history and philosophy. It states that a person
becomes a Brahmin by Inana and not by birth.

Reference of money lending is first refered in the Satpatha

Brahamana which describe it as Kusidin.

Aitareya Brahamana has the earliest mention of Kinship. It also

mentions for the first time Rajsuya Yajna and the division of work
among the four varnas.

Gopatha Brahmans is the last Brahmana Literature.

The Aranyaka form the concluding portions of Brahmanas. They are

concerned with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifices and not with their
performance. Aranyakas mark the transition from ritualistic to philosophical
thought.
The Upanishads are philosophical treatises. They contain all the main idea
behind the later system of Hindu philosophy. They represent the intellectual side
of religious as opposed to the ceremonial side as represented by the Brahmanas.

Vedas

Their Brahamanas

Their Upanishads

Rig Veda

Aitareya, Kaushitaki

Aitareya, Kaushitaki

Sam Veda

Tandya, Jaiminiya

Chandogya, kena

Yajur Veda

Taittriya, Satapatha

Taittiriya,

Katha,

Isa,

22
Svetasvatara, Brihadaranyaka
Atharvana Veda

Gopatha

Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya

Upanishads deep speculation of philosophical character, revolve around the two

concepts of Brahman and Atman 108 Upanishads. Compiled between 800 500 BC.

Chandogya Upanishad, The central theme of the metaphysics is Tat

Twam Asi, found in the Chandogya Upanishad,it mentions Krishna for
the first time.

Aitareya Uapnishad Propounds the karma theory.

Kaushitaki Upanishad deals with the transmigration of soul.

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Asham Brahmasmi is taken from the

Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

Mundaka Upanishad ,Satyamev Jayate is taken from the Mundaka

Upanishad. It also emphasizes on Karma and criticizes the rituals,
particularly yajnas.

Mandukya Upanishad is the smallest Upanishad .It contain only 12

mantras, Origin of Maya which is explained in detail in non-dualism and
Vedanta Philosophy.

Jabalapanishad , The first mention of four ashrams is in Jabalapanishad.

Kathopanishad , Heaven and hell are conceptualized in Kathopanishad.

Dharmashastras are also smirtis. They explain the legal code of conduct.

Manu smirti commentary written on it are Balakrida (by visvarupa).

Mitakshara (by vijnaneswar) and one by Sprarka, a king of silabara
dynasty.

Parasara smriti commentary by Madhava

Katyayana Smriti specially deals with streedhana

23
Jimutvahana wrote Dayabhage followed in Bengal and Orissa and was the basis of
Gaud school of thought.
Other legal digests; Krityakalpataru, written by Laxmidhar (1200 AD) chatur varga
chintamani, written by Himadri.
Vedangas literature which help us in understanding the Vedas. There are Six
vedangas,they are

kalpa ritualsi,

siksha phonetics,

vyakarna grammar,

chanda rituals,

Nirukta etymology,

jyotisha astrology.

(Nirukta and Nighantu (lexicon) written by Yaksha (700 BC) are the earliest
(linguistic) literature available)
Ramayana consists of 7 books and 24000 couplets. It originally contained 6000 couplets.
It composition started in the 5th C. BC and since then it passed through five stages till as
late as 12th C. AD.
The Mahabharata or Satshri Samhita. Originally called Jay Samhita having 24,000 verses,
is divided into 18 books (parvas) and 100,000 verses. Its compilation started in 10 th C.
BC and finished in 14th C. AD
There is a supplement called Harivamsa. The Bhagwat Gita belongs to the
Bhismaparva.Mahabharata contain the logicodidatic poetry while Ramayana contain
ornate poetry.
Ritual literature:
Sutras

24

Srouta Sutras dealing with large public sacrifices provide for several
pompous royal coronation ceremony.

Grihya sutras deals with domestics rituals connected with birth, naming,
marriage etc.,

Sulva sutras prescribes various kinds of measurements for the

construction of sacrificial altars. The oldest book on Indian geometry.

Puranas:18 puranas, written during the Gupta period.Termed as the real histories
of ancient India because they contain the most systematic record of India
historical tradition.18 in number and equal number of upapuranas. Vayu purana is
the oldest.5 puranas Vishnu, vayu, Brahma, Matsya and Bhagwata are of much
historical importance.The planet Mars has been called Prithvi putra in the
Brahmavaivarta Purana
Baudhayana and Apsatamba were two brahmanical lawgivers.
Translations:
Gargi detabed with yajyavalkya the famous law giver Manusmriti translated
into English by N. B. Halhed in 1776.
Charles wilkins translated Bhagwat Gita in 1785 and Hitopadesha in 1787
Sir William Jones translated Shakuntalam, Gitagovinda and legal texts like Al
sirajiyah and Manavadharmashastra.
Sir William Jones founded Asiatic society of Bengal in 1784.

The society published a Journal Asiatic research

Bombay Asiatic society est. in 1804

Asiatic society of great Britain in 1823

H. H. Wilson was the first professor of Sanskrit in Oxford.

25

ANCIENT INDIAN RELIGION

BUDDHISM
Guatama Buddha:
Born 563 BC in a sal grave of Lumbini Gardens in Kapilavastu, Mother: Mahamaya, a
kosala princes, father: Sudhodhana of the sakyas. Named Siddhartha, gotra Gautama. Mother
died in 7 days after his birth and he was brought up by his aunt Mahaprajapati Gotami (krsa
Gotami). Devadutta was his cousin and was envious of him; married his own cousin Bhaddaka
chchana/ yasodhara, daughter of Sakyan suppabdha and sister of Devadutt. Son Rahul, charioteer
channa, favourite horse kanthaka.
He saw first an aged man, then a very sick man, then a corpse and then a wandering
religious beggar. Left home to become an ascetic at age of 29 years. Mahabhniskramana: great
going forth. He first became a discipline of Aradakalama at Vaishali. Buddhacharita states that
Alara Kalama espoused the Sankhya school of philosophy. Here he realized the 7 th stage of
meditation akin chanyayatna sphere of desirelessness or nothingness.
He left kalama to join Rudraka Rama putras hermitage near rajagraha, where king
Bimbisara tried to dissuade him from giving up his princely life. Rigorous fasts along with 5
Brahman ascetics nearly led to death. On taking food his 5 companions deserted him. He left for
uruvela (modern Bodh Gaya) on the bank of Niranjana river (modern phalgu) where under a
peepal tree he attained nirvana at the age of 35.

26
Sujata a milkmaid gave him milk thinking him to be tree spirit (vrikshaka). For seven
weeks, he remained in blissful contemplation. Mara, the demon had tried to break his meditation.
He gave his first sermon a Rishipattana or Isipatana (the deer park at Sarnath) to his 5
Brahman companions who were converted. First sermon called the Dhammachakkaparvattana
sulta or turning of the wheel of law.
In Banaras he converted Yasa, a rich setthis son. He averted a war between sakyas and
koliyas and converted the bandit Angulimala. He died at 80 in 406 BC. The last vassa was spent
near Vaishali. At pava, chanda, the smith who was a lay disciple fed him pork
(Sukkaramaddhava the Sweetness of pigs and could also mean truffles) where he was attacked
by dysentery and died. His death (parinirvana final blowing out) in the night under a sal tree in
the outskirts of Kusinagara, the capital of Mallas. Ananda his devotee, regretted that his master
did not die in the 6 big towns: Campa, Rajgriha, saketa (modern Ayodhya), Kaushambi, kasi
(Banaras) and Shravasti (mod. Sahet Mahet). His ashes and relies were divided among
lichcharis of vaisali, sakyas a kapilavastu, bulis of Allakappa, koliyas of Rama gama, Brahmanas
of Vethadipa, Mallas of Kusinara, sona Brahmana, Moriyas of Pipphalivana and Ajatasatru, king
of Magadha.
Titles:
Buddha (The Enlightened one), Tatagatha (he who has thus attained), Sakyamuni (the
guru of the Sakyas).
Buddhism:
Dhammachakkapavattana turning of the wheel of law first sermon. He preached 4
noble truths and the eight fold path or middle path 4 Aryasatyas (Noble truths). 1) World is full
of Misery (dukkha) 2) Desire thirst, attachment are the cause of existence (Samuaya) and misery
3) Worldly existence can be ended (Nirodha) by destriction of desire 4) The Path (marga) is the 8
fold path: (a) right speech (b) right action (c) right means of livelihood (d) right extension (e)
right point of view (f) right mindenedness (g) right meditation (h) right resolution. The first 3
leads to sila (physical control). The next 3 lead to chitta (mental control). The last 2 lead to
Prajna.
BUDDHIST COUNCILS

27
First Buddhist Council:
In Rajgir, 483 BC immediately after Buddhas death, under auspices of king Ajatasatru,
Mahakasapa presided, Upal; recited the vinaya pitaka (rules of order). Ananda recited the sutta
pitaka (collection of Buddhas semons on doctrines and ethics).
Second Buddhist Council:
4th BC in the reign of Kalasoka or Kakkvarnin of the sisunag dynasty, at Vaishali. The rift
between eastermers called Vajjikaputtaka (from Vaishali and Avanti) and westerners
(Hausambhi, Pathayya and Avanti) on rules led to the Sthaviravadin (in Pali Theravada
Believers in the teachings of elders orthodox western group) and the Mahasangikha sect
(members of the great community Achariyavada easterners). Tibetan tradition holds that
Mahakachchayana founded Theravada sect and Mahasanghika by Mahakassapa. Both were
Hinayanists. Sarvastivadin: (they who say All is): most important Theravada branch founded
by Rahulbhadra. Centred in Mathura, Kashmir, Gandhara, and central Asia. It held the
permanent existence of elements. It was later called vaibhashika since they attached more
importance to Vibashas (commentaries), then sutras (original sayings). Sanskrit used for writing.
Sautrantikas: another Hinayana sect held that knowledge of the world was only feasible by
inference. Sammitiyas (Vatsiputriyas): Hinayana: rejected the doctrine of Soulessness,
Mahasanghika

branches:

Purasilas,

Aparasailas,

Uttarasalas,

Chatyakas,

Vaitulyakas

(Vetullavada).
Third Buddhist Council:
4th BC Ashokha, in Pataliputra, presided by Mogaliputta Tissa. Heretics were expelled
and Theravada was established at the orthodox school. The last section was added to the Pali
scriptures: Kathavatthu of the Abhidhamma pitaka, dealing with psychology and metaphysics.
Theravada Vibhajjavada.
Fourth Buddhist Council:
1st C AD by Kanishka, in Kashmir, according to Chinese traditions. Hieun Tsang:
Vasumitra was elected Chairman. Paramartha: Katyayaniputra the author Jnanaprasthana Sutra
was Chairman. The Sarvastavadin doctrines were condified in the Mahavibhasa. The Hinayana

28
and Mahayana sect were formed. Mahayana (the greater vehicle) flourished in India, while the
Hinayana flourished in Ceylon.
Nalanda became the main monastery. Nagarjuna was its head in the 1st C. AD. Silbhadra
was head during Hieun Tsangs visit. Destroyed by Bhaktiyar Khalji. From here
Padmasambhava went to Tibet in the 8 th C. and introduced Buddhism. Vikramasila University
was the main centre of Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism). Mihirako, 6th C. Huna king destroyed
several monasteries. Sasankaran, 9th C. revived Hindusim which led to Buddhisms demise.
BHDDHIST SECTS
1.Hinayana:
It means Lesser Vehicle.Main schools: Sthaviravadin, Sarvastavadin, Sautantrika,
Sammitys. Canon of Sthaviravadins committed to writing in Ceylon in the reign of Vattagamini
(1st C BC) after a Sinhalese council meet. Written in Sinhalese Prakrit. Buddhaghosa in the 5 th C.
AD translated them into Pali: the 3 pitakas (Baskets), Pali pitakasa are of the Sthaviravadins.
a) Vinaya Pitaka conduct of the order (b) Sutta pitaka Largest book on sermons (c)
Abhidhamma pitaka on metaphysics.
Vinaya pitaka Texts:
1) Patinokka gives best of rules and discipline.
2) Sutta vibhanga explains the suttas of the patimoksha and contains a) Mahavibhanga
deals with transgressions of discipline (b) Bhikkuni Bibhanga: Commentary on codes
of nuns
3) Khandakas (sections) comprising of Mahavagga and Chullavagga which supplement
the sutta vibhanga.
Sutta Pitaka:
It divided into 5 Nikayas (groups): 1) Digha Nikaya (long) 2) Majhima Nikaya (medium)
3) Samyutta Nikaya (connected) 4) Anguttra Nikaya (graduate) 5) Khudaka Nikaya (minor).
Khudaka Nikaya contains (a) Dhammapada verses on virtue b) Theragatha and Therigatha
hymns of elder monks and nuns c) Jataks a collections of over 500 poems briefly outing folk

29
tales and stories, attributed to Buddhagosha d) Khuddakapatha lessons for neophytes 3) udana
thus spake Buddha f) Sutta, Nipata Section on discourse.

Abhidhamma Pitaka:
It contains the Satta Pakarana (the 7 books): Dhamusangani, Vibhanga, Dhatukatha,
Puggelapannaths Yamaka, Patthana and the Katthavattu. Katthavattu called vijnanapada was
written by Moggliputta Tissa, present of the 3rd council.
Milinda Panho:
Questions of Menander, is a dialogue between the Greco Bactrian king Menander and
Nagasena (a monk). Dipavamsa (Island chronicle) 4th C. AD, Ceylonese book Mahavamsa (Great
chronicle) 5th C. AD., Ceylonese Chulavamsa (Lessor chronicle) till 19th C. fall of the kingdom
of Kandy. Netti Pakarna: by Mahakachchana, is a treatise on textual and exegetical
methodology? Petakopadesa: by Mahakachchana, Instructions to students of Pitaka.
Hinayana Doctrine:
Dukkha Sorrow, suffering, dissatisfaction, is inherent in life. It can be eliminated by
giving up Tanha (thirst / carving) which includes ambition, desire, longing etc. Tanha is caused
by a mistaken conviction of individuality.
The fundamental teaching of Buddha is the Dhamma chakkapavattana Sutta, (Sermon of
turning of the wheel of law taught to his first disciples in Varanasi), which contains the four
Aryasatyas (Noble Truths) and the 8 fold path. 4 Aryasathas: 1) Worldly existence of full of
Dukkha (misery) 2) sorrow arises from thirst (Tanha) which cause rebirth 3) World existence can
be ended by ending 4) This is done by following thirst Astangika Marga (8 fold path). Paticca
Samuppada: (chain of dependent organization) out of ignorance emerges Imagination, then self
consciousness, then 6 senses (6th being thought), then emotion, craving, attachment, becoming
and then Rebirth.

30
The fundamental nature of the universe has 3 characteristics a) it is full of sorrow
(Dukkha) b) it is transient (Anicca) c) it is transient (Anatta).
The universe is transient. Man is a compound of 5 psychomatic elements. Body, feelings,
perceptions, states of mind, awareness man is not the same as man was a moment ago. The
universe is in continuous flux. All ideas of permanence are part of the basic ignorance out of
which sorrow emerges. Hence there is no immortal soul and the universe is soulless. In
transmigration nothing passes from one life to another, only new life arises. Even the gods are
soulless and the word soul is an illusion. The only stable entity in Sthaviravadin Buddhism was
Nirvan, the state of bliss reached by Buddha by Arhants (perfected beings).
Buddha disapproved of speculation on the origin and end of the world. In Buddhist
cosmology, the universe is cyclic. In a Mahakalpa (enormous periods Asankyeya) a) period of
degeneration of man, destruction of everthing except the highest heaven good and bad going to
heaven and hell b) period of quiescence c) period of evolution, where the good karma of the
inhabitants of the highest heaven fails and Brahma and is born in the world of form. Men begin
as fairies, then degenerate and fall to earth as men. D) Lesser periods of advance and decline. We
live in a Buddha cycle, where 4 Buddhas have taught i) krakucchanda ii) kanakamuni iii)
kasyapa iv) Sakhamuni, the historical Buddha v) Maitreya. The 5th Buddha will come.
2.Mahayana:
It means The great vehicle. According to Hinayana theory, the chain of Buddhas
existence was broken on death and ceased to affect the universe in any way. After his, death, the
Sangha evolved the Tri Ratna (3 jewels): i) I go for refuge to the Buddha: ii) I go for refuge to
the doctrine (Dhamma). iii) I go for refuge to the sangha (order).
The sthaviravadin school of Hinayana counted 25 Buddhas and many Pratyeka
Buddhas (those who found truth themselves, without guidelines, but didnt reach). Symbols were
first worshipped (eg. Sanchi and Bharut). North west in Vasions led to introduction of the
Zorastrian concept of Saosyant (savior). Buddhists introduced the future Buddha maitreya and
other unnamed ones.
Jatakas had already introduced Bodhisattavas (Buddhas earlier forms) who were
incarnated as men and animals and fivine beings in heaven. A new theology was developed on

31
them resulting in Mahayanism. The Hinyana Bodhisattava worked to become a Buddha. The
Mahayana Bodhisattva was a being of immeasurable charity and compasison and was one who
strove to be Buddha after even the smallest insect attained Nirvana. They answered people
prayers. Instead of the Hinayana ideal of striving to become an Arhant (worthy) who achieved
Nirvana, men should strive to become Bodhisattava and to assit all living beings by the
transference of spiritual merit achieved. The Bodhisattava was a suffering savior (possible
borrowed from Christianity) who suffered for the sake of others.
Bodhisattavas:
i)

Avalokitesvara (the lord who looks down) also called Padmapani (the lotus bearer).
The most important since he helps others.

ii)

Manjushri stimulator of understanding holds a sowrd to eradicate error and a book

describing 10 paramitasi (spiritual perfection)

iii)

Vajrapani: like Indra, he holds a thunder bolt; foe of sin and evil

iv)

Maitreya: the future Buddha

v)

Ksitigarbha: guardian of purgatories

The world is full of sorrows, but it contains both good and evil. All beings will attain

Nirvana and become Buddha and hence even the humblest worm is in a sense a Bodhisattava.
Gautam Buddha was the earthly expression of a mighty spiritual being which has 3 bodies:
a) Dharmakaya: The Body of essence; the ultimate Buddha of which the other two are
emanations; it permeates the universe. Also called Adi Buddha (primeval Buddha), sunya
(vid) Tathagathagarbha (the womb of those who attain the goal), Bodhi (wisdom), tattva
(the true). It is Nirvana.
b) Sambogkaya: Body of Bliss exists in the heavens; presides over sukhavat (Happy land)
the most important Mahayana heaven, where the blessed are reborn in buds of lotuses. He
is called Amitabha (Immeasurable Glory) or Amitayus (Immeasurable ago). Avici
deepest hall
c) Nirmankaya (created body) the historical Buddha seen on Earth, the final state was the
mystical union with the absolute (Dharmakaya) 10 paramitas: 1) dana charity 2) Sila

32
good conduct 3) Ksanti for bearance 4) Virya courage 5) Dhyana Meditation 6)
Prajnal insight 7) Upakausalya skill in expedients 8) Paramidhana resolution 9)
Bala power 10) Jnaja knwoeldge.

Canonical Literature:
1.Vaipulya Sutras: Expanded Sermons; sermons of Buddha, used by sir Edwin Arnold
for his the light of Asia 2.Saddharma Pundarika: a long series of dialogues 3.Vajracchedika:
Diamond Cutter; Metaphysics Sukhavalivyuha: Panegyrics to Amitabha Prajnaparamitas: the
oldest being Asthasahasrika Paramuta; which describes the Bodhisattavas. 4.Karandavyuha:
glorifies Avalokiteswara 2 main philosophical school of Mahayana: Hinayanism could not
philosophise much due to Suddhas injections against unnecessary speculation: a) Madhyamika:
(Intermediate) between Stark realism of Sthaviravadin and idealism of Yogachara. 5. Nagarjuna,
contemporary of Kanishka wrote Madhyamikakrika, the basic text.
Vajrayana: (Vehicle of the Thunder bolt)
Feminine divinities were worshipped. Eg. Prajnaparamita (the perfection of Insight).
Buddha and Bodhisattavas were given wives who were their sakthi (active aspect, potency).
Only they were active, hence gods were approached through goddesses. Sexual symbolism and
intercourse become rituals. Help of Bodhisattavas and Buddhas could be attained by gaining
magical power (vajra thunder / diamond), canons were codified and given sanctity by the palas
of Bihar and Bengal. Taras: (saviouress) spouse of Buddha and Bodhisattavas was the chief
divinity, Matanganies (out caste women), pisacis (demonesses), yoginis (sorceresses), Dakinis
(she ghosls) were mknor divinities.
These deities were to be compelled by Sadhanas (means) called Tantras based on Mantra
(Right pronunciation of formulae) and yantra (magical syllables) are om Mani Padme Hum (Ah
the jewel is indeed in the lotus) which mystically repeats the divine intercourse between the
divine Buddha and Prajnaparamita and between Avalokitesvara and his Tara. The primary
purpose was to attain supernatural power.
Symbols:

33
To earlier Buddhists, he was a teacher, not God. Hence, represented as i) Bodhi tree with
the vajrasana below ii) Garlanded wheel (Dharmachakra) iii) Chankrama representation of his
walk iv) The Mahayanist represented him in human form.

Sangha:
i)

Ordination: no restriction of caste, but slaves, debtor, soldiers and persons with
obligation and tutelage could not enter without permission of his superior. Pravrajya
lower ordination, makes the person into a sramana (novice) who observes the 10
paramotis: at age of 20, he is given upasampada (higher ordination) and becomes a
bhikku. Property: 3 chirava (yellow) robes, begging bowl for food, allowed to keep
medicines. Uposatha: fortnightly assemblies on evening of full and half moons.
Vassavasa: 3 months rainy season retreat, pavarna: end of Vassavasa, the confession
of monks. Constitution: Monks lining in a defined boundary elected their sanghatteral
sanghaparinayaka (chief). Bhikkugatia monk, upasaka lay worshipper.
Bhikkugatia householder who sometimes lives in a monastery. Metta love, the
chief virtue, patimokkha monastic roles. Brahmavihara 4 sublime moods a
spiritual exercise that fills the mind with 4 cardinal virtues: love, pity, joy, serenity.

Decline:
In 12th C. BC Buddhism practically became extinct. Decline of trade destroyed their
support base: traders who provided for them. Brahmanism was reformed: stressed preservation
of cattle: women and sudras assured of heaven: appropriated forms of Buddhism. Buddhism
became victim of the evils of Brahminis: gave up Pali and took Sanskrit; idol worship; rich
monas terries introduced corruption; vajrayana, Turkish invaders looted the wealth of
monasteries. Kings were replaced by Turks, hence patronage ended.

JAINISM
1st Tirthankara (ford maker) Rishaba (symbol bull) also called Adhinatha and the early
Bhagvatas called him an avatar of Vishnu. 2 nd Adinatha (symbol elephant), 22nd Neminatha
(symbol conchshell), 23rd parsava (symbol snake), 24th Mahavira (symbol lion). Parsava son
of Asvasen, king of Benaras. His doctrine: Samyama (self control) results in Anhaga (cessation

34
of karma) and penance lead to its annihiliation. 4 deals of the Nirgrantha (free form bonds) sect:
i) Ashimsa ii) Satya (no lies) iii) Asteya (nonstealing) iv) Asprigraha (non attachment or
possession). He allowed use of 3 white garments which led to the later schism in Jainism.
Mahavira: (540 468 BC)
Born as Vardhamana at Kundagrama (mod. Basukunda) near Vaishali. Father
Siddhartha. Chief of Jnatrika clan (nata in Pali also called Naya), mother Trisala the sister of
Chetaka, the Lichchari Prince. Married Yasodha, had daughter Anojja priyadarsana who married
Jamali (his nephew). Nandivardhana elder brother. Left house at age 30, for 12 years joined the
Nirgranthas and joined Gosala Maskasiputra but both quarreled and then 13 th year (age 42)
became a Jina (conqueror) and Arhnat (worthy) by gaining Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) under a
sala tree, near village Trimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rijupalika: Died at age 72 at
Mayjhima pava (mod. Pavapuri) in the house of ruler Hatthivala / Haspipala by self starvation
(sallekana).
Mahaviras epithets:
Nirgrantha jnataputta, Nayaputta, Kasava (gotra), vesaliya (after place of birth) and
vedehadina (after his native country).
Mahavira added the 5th ideal of Brahmacharya (celibacy) and forbade wearing of
clothes. Chandragupta Maurya abdicated and joined the Jains and died at Shravanabelagola. At
the end of Chandraguptas reign, a severe famine led to migration of some jains under
Bhadrabhahu to the Deccan. Sthulbhadra remained in the north who allowed the wearing of
white garments. Bhadrabahu maintained nudity leading to the schism between Digambaras (sky
class of naked) and svetambaras (white clad).
Bhadrabahu was last to know the oral tradition perfectly, on whose death Sthalbahu
called the 1st council at Pataliputra. Canon of 12 Angas replaced the 14 purvas (former texts)
accepted only by the Svetambaras which was finally codified in the second council held at
vallabhi council (5th C. AD) by which one anga was lost and 12 upanagas were added.
Kharavela of Orissa patronized Jainism. Ashokas grandson Samprati was converted. In
Gujarat and Rajasthan, svetambaras prevailed. In Mysore, the Digambaras. Gujarat king
Kumarapala (Chalukya, 12th C) instituted a jain reformation under guidance of Hemchandra.

35
Two Jain councils were held simultaneously at Mathura and Vallabhi committed the canons into
writing.
Kalakacharya was Jain Saint. Mallinatha wrote a commentary on Kalidasa.
Nyayachandra Suri, a monk wrote Hammira Mahakavya. Jains preached in Prakrit. Canon
written in Ardhamagadhi from Prakrit arose regional languages, especially sauraseni from which
grew Marathi. They contributed to growth of Kannada. Wrote the first Apabharamsa grammar,
copying of even secular manuscripts led to religious merit which caused preservation of rare
manuscripts.
Doctrine:
Parsavas 4 ideals: Ahimsa, Asteya, non-stealing and non-attachment / possession.
Mahavira added Brahmacharya and ended use of clothing. Gods existence is not denied but the
world is fundamentally aestheistic, with gods having no important part in the universes scheme.
Gods did not create, preserve or destroy it since it functions according to a universal law.
The eternal universe consists of infinite cycles each having an utsarpini (period of
improvement) and Avsarpini (period of decline). Each period is like the last, having 63
salakapuruse (great man) containing 24 Tirthankaras and 12 Chakravarthins (Universal
emperors).
The universe functions by action of Jivas (souls) on 5 Ajivas (non-living entities): i)
Akasa, ether ii) Dharma, secondary space which permits movement iii) Adharma, tertiary space
which permits rest iv) Kala, time v) Pudgala, matter. Animal, plants stones running water have
souls which are naturally bright, all knowing and blissful. It becomes clouded by adherence of
Karma: the immaterial entity of other systems interpreted materialistically leading to distinction
between souls. The soul first becomes a spiritual and then material body, karma adheres to soul
due to activity. Cruel deeds induce durable karma. Karma leads to acquisition of more Karma
and the cycle of transmigration (samsara) continues. Nirjara (annihilation of karma) is achieved
by penance and Samvara (Prevention of Asrava influx) and the Bandha (fixation of karma)
leads to escape from transmigration into Nirvana.
Salvation is not possible for laymen (unlike Buddhism and Hinduism). Monastic life is
essential for it. Monks are initiated by pulling out the hair by the roots. 5 vows of monks the 5

36
ideals: Ahimsa, Asteya, nostealing, celibacy, non possession. Even inspect life was protected,
hence agriculture was not preferred. The Jains took trade, lighting a fire was for bidden since it
killed lives of fuel and fire. Putting off a fire was forbidden death by starvation.
Jainism survived since it took better care of layfold who were part of the order who
periodically retrated to monasteries. Early jains maintained a cult of stupas. Chief gods of
Hinduism were introduced. They were lower than the Jina. Varna is not condemned because it is
due to deeds of previous birth. Tri ratna correct knowledte and action leads to liberation.
Acharanga sutra: discusses the doctrine of non-violence.
Basadis:
Founded by Gosala Maskariputra, friend of Mahavira before he attained Kaivalya, he
died year before Buddha after quarrelling with Mahavira. Lived in Sravasti. His followers
combined his teachings with purna Kasyapa and Pakhuda Katyayana to form the Ajivika sect.
Bindusana patronized them. One predicted Ashokas birth. Asoka and Dasrath gave them caves.
Survived in East Mysore till the 14th C.
The whole universe was determined by Niyati (destiny) the impersonal cosmic principle.
The course of transmigration cannot be altered. None have power, strength or virtue. There are
8,400,000 Mahakappas (aeons) through which everybody has to pass. Samasara cannot be
influenced. Monks were monks because destiny forced them. Dravidian Ajivikas made Gosala a
deity and held the worlds movement and change being illusory since the world was in reality at
rest.

37

MAURYAN PERIOD
The Buddhist texts describes the Mauryas as peacock hunters. Mauryas also attribute
them to Kshatriya clan. The Brahmanical texts say Chandragupta was born of Maurya, a
Sudra woman, in the court of the Nandas.
Literary Sources:

Kautilyas Arthasashtra Most authentic source. Deals with state craft.

Megasthenes Indica.

Parshistha Parvana a Jaina work by Hemachandra.

Vayu Purana & Matsya Purana give the chronology and list of Maurya
rulers.

Buddhist literature Jatakas, Diga Nikaya, Vamsatha pakasini (a

commentary on Mahavamsa).

Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa and Maha vamsa.

Mudrarakshsha by visakadatta and Kaumudi Mahotsava by Kisorika.

Chandragupta Maurya (322 300 BC)

Ascended to the throne by dethroning the last Nanda ruler, Dhanananda, with the
help of chanakya, also known as Kautilya or vishnugupta.
Chandragupta fought seleucus, a general of Alexander in 305 BC and captured a
large part of Kabul, Heart, Gandhar and Baluchistan from Later.
Seleucus also sent an ambassador Megasthanese to Mauryas court.
Chandragupta embraced Jainism in his last days is mentioned in the Jaina text
Parishishra Parvana. He went to Shravanabelagola near Mysore where he died.

38
Bindusara (300 273 BC):
Also known as Amitraghata (or Amitrochates in Greek) means slayers of Foes.
Bindusara embraced the Ajivika. The Ajivika fortune teller Pingalvasta was at
his court. He followed Ajvika sect.
Had friendly relations with Antiochos I, the king of Syria, who sent Deimachos as
ambassador. Bindusara asked Antiochus for some sweet wine, dried figs and a
sophist. Antiochus sent wine and figs but replied that Greek philosophers are not
for sale.
Asoka (273 232 BC):
Ashoka served as Bindusaras viceroy to Taxila and Ujjain in succession before
becoming the king.
According to Buddhist texts, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99
brothers but spared Tissa, the youngest one Radhagupta, a minister, helped him.
His coronation took place in 269 BC.
Ashoka fought the famous Kalinga war in 260 BC which proved to be a turning
point in his career.
Ptolemy II of Egypt sent Dionysus as his representative to Pataliputra. His other
contemporaries were Antiochus II of Syria, Antigonus of Macedonia, Magas of
Cyrene and Alexander of Epirus.
Ashoka set a very high ideal for himself and this was the ideal of paternal
kingship
After his death, Mauryan empire was divided into Eastern part (Ruled by
Dasaratha) Western part (Ruled by Kunala).
Ashoka and his grandson, Dasaratha, donated the two famous Barabara caves
(Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves) in Bihar and one cave in Nagarjuni hills to
Ajivika sect.

39
Ashokas Dhamma cannot be regarded as sectarian faith. Its broad objective was
to preserve the social order on the basis of tolerance.
Ashokas rock edicts (14 in numbers) He was the first Indian ruler to talk
directy to people through his inscription. These inscriptions were royal orders.
They have been found at more than 45 palces, generally on the highways.
These epigraphs were deciphered by James Princep in 1837
They were composed in Prakrit and written in Brahmi script throughout the
greater part of the empire. In the North Western part Kharosthi as well as Aramaic
script. In Afghanisthan both Aramaic and Greek script and Language.
14-major rock edicts:

I, II Gave account of Ashokas concern for the comforts for the

men and beasts.

III official transfers, to popularize moral code

IV Ashokas progress in Ahimsa

V Duties of Dharmamahamatras

VI Ashokas intent in the welfare of the people

VII, VIII Emphasise self discipline, pilgrimage to Bodhgaya

IX Seeks about futility of ceremonies

X, XI talk about Dharma

XII a classic in religious tolerance

XIII largest rock edict, conquest of Kalinga, Ashokas remorse

after the war, mentions Buddhist missionaries sent to other
countries, etc. also mentions cholas, cheras, and tamraparnis (Sri
Lanka)

XIV is a post script to 13 rock edicts.

40
The Rock edicts XIII and II tells about Sangam Kingdoms
The Bhabru edict expresses Ashokas faith in the Triratnas of Buddhism. He
refers to himself as the King of Magadha it also indicates that Ashoka was
converted into Buddhism by Mugliputta Tissa (or) Upagupta during 3 rd Buddhist
council.
In Maski edict (discovered in 1915) the name Ashoka appears. The name Ashoka
(written as Piyyanam Dassi Ashoka) also appears in 3 other inscriptions Gujjara
(Datiya district in MP) and Nillur and Udegolam (both in Karanataka). Rest rock
edicts leave out the word Ashoka
Tivara only son of Ashoka mentioned in Allahabad pillar inscription.
The Greek king Antiochus is in the Major Rock Edicts II & XIII.
Places where Major Rock Edicts were found are Mansera(PAK). Shahbazgarhi
(North West,now in PAK), Junagarh (Guj), Sopara (MH), Yeragudi (South India).
Both major and Minor Rock Edicts found here, Dhauli and Jaugada (Kalinga,
etc.,)
Kautilya calls the king as Dharmapravartakas. Because of his theory of powers of
the king, kautilya is compared with the Greek philosopher Machiavelli, who has
written The Prince
Mauryas said to have conducted census. It is mentioned in Arthashastra. The
Mauryan administration was highly centralized, for the sake of administrative
convenience, the empire was divided into four provinces.
1) Uttarapatha Taxila

3) Kalinga Tosali

2) Avanti Ujjain

4) Dakshinapath Suvarnagiri

41
Governors of Provinces were called Kumaras
Districts

Head

Pradeika

Gopa

Head

Sathavika

Village

Head

Gramin

According to Megasthenese, the administration of Pataliputra was carried by 6

committees having 5 members each

Head of city administration nagarika

Police who looked after peoples security Rakshi

Officers who looked after irrigation & roads Agronomi

War administration was looked after by 6 committees of 5 members each, which

looked after infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants, navy and supplies
There are two assemblies

Paura representing the capital

Janapada representing villages

Officers in the Mauryan administration

Mahamatyas Prime Minister

Amatyas Administrative and Judicial officials

Sitadhyaksha Supervised agriculture

Panyadhyaksha Superintendent of Commerce

Navadhyaksha Superintendent of Ships

Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of Mining

Samaharta Chief Revenue Collector

42

Sannidhata Chief Treasury Officer

Rajukas Looked after the administration of Justice

Espionage system Women body guards were appointed by the king

Mauryan society
Megasthenese refers to 7 castes Philosophers, farmers, soldiers, headman,
artisan, magistrates, and councilors
Sudras were provided land in the newly colonized areas for the first time.
Taxes 1/4th to 1/6th of produces was collected as tax.

Bhaga Land tax, the chief source of revenue

Pindakara assessed on group of villages

Kara taxes levied on food and flower gardens

Hiranya Paid in cash, on special class of crops

Mauryan Art and Architecture:

Stone culture emerged as the principal medium of Indian Arts Eg: Ashokas
monolithic pillars.
Stone pillars made of two types of stone red and white sandstone from
Mathura and buff coloured hard sandstone from Chunar (Near Benaras).
Most important pillar at Sarnath (4 lions standing together and stately figures of 4
animals lion, elephant, horse and bull).
Ashoka pillar at Rampurva has the Bull capital. Four lion capital at Sarnath and
Sanchi.
The two terai pillar inscriptions explain Ashokas pilgrimage to the sacred spots
of the Buddhist holy land.

43
Two pillars of Ashoka was brought from Meerut and topra (Ambala, the largest
pillar edict) to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
Stupas Ashoka built more than 84,000 stupas all over India and Afghanisthan.
Its main purpose was to enshrine some relics of Buddha or Bodhisattavas.
Caves: Earliest evidence of cave architecture in India comes from Mauryan
period. Barabar caves (3 in no.) to his grandson Dasaratha.
Pottery: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) was widely used.
Coins: Punch marked silver coins carrying the symbols of peacock hill, crescent
(but no cow) formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.
The popular art of Mauryan is represented by Chauri bearing Yakshini from
Didarganj near Patna
Fahien the Chinese traveler (during Chandragupta, Vikramadityas time)
mentions the beauty of Ashokas place.
Sudharshana

lake

constructed

by

Pushyagupta

(brother-in-law

of

Chandragupta). It was repaired by Rudradaman I, the Saka ruler.

Rajatarangini this book mentions that Jalauk, the son of Ashoka, was the follower
of Shaiva sect.

44

POST MAURYAN PERIOD

SUNGAS AND KANVAS
Pushyamitra sunga killed Brihadratha, the last Maurya ruler, thus ended the
Maurya dynasty & established the Sunga dynasty. He performed two
Aswamedhas (mentioned in Ayodhya inscription).The invasion of Demetrius
facilitated the rebellion of Pusyamitra.
Pushyamitra was defeated by Kharvela (the ruler of Kalinga) who took back the
statue of the first Jaina thirthankara Rishabadev to Kalinga. Succeeded by agni
mitra (the hero of Malavikagnimitran of Kalidasa)
Patanjali lived in Pusyamitras court. He wrote Mahabhasya, a commentary on
Paninis Asthadhyayi and also evolved a new school of philosophy Yoga
During the ruler of Bhaga (Bhagavata) of Sunga dynasty. Garuda monolith was
erected at Besnagar (Vidisha) by Heliodorus.Antialcidas Indo Greek ruler
sent Heliodories, to the court of Bhagabhadra. During this period, the Bhagwat
Gita was written
The last ruler of Sunga dynasty, Devabhuti, who was murdered by his Brahmin
minister, Vasudeva kanava. The Kanavas (last king Suserman) were ousted by the
Satvahanas.

OTHER REGIONAL KINGDOMS

CHEDI DYNASTY:
Founder: Mahamegha Varman.
Capital: Udayagiri near Cuttack.
Most important king Kharvela described in Hathigumpha inscription near
Bhubaneshwar. He patronized Jainism and called himself the King of
peace.He built caves for Jaina moks Hanigumpha cave at Udayagiri.

45

PANDYA:
In the areas of Southern Tamilnadu.
Capital: Madurai, at the bank of river vaigai,Cheif Port : Korkai .
Emblem : Fish.
First mentioned by Megasthenese who said that their kingdom is famous for
pearls and pearl fishing.Trade links with the Roman Empire. Sent emissaries
to Roman emperor Augustus.
CHOLA:
In the areas of Northern Tamilnadu and Southern AP. Situated north of
Pandya Kingdom between Pennar and Vellar rivers.
Capital: Uraiyur (later Tanjore),Chief Port: Puhar (or) Kaveripatnam.
Emblem : Tiger.
Karikala Chola (1st AD) most important King. He founded Puhar &
constructed the flood banks of the kaveri near Trichy. He Conquered Sri
Lanka. Established supremacy over the Pandyas and Cheras.In Sanskrit, his
name means Death of Kali or Death to Enemy Elephants. Maintained an
efficient army.
Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth, gems and pearls and spices.
Uraiyur famous for pearls and muslin..
CHERA:
In the areas of modern Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Capital: Vanji Chief Port: Muzris and Tondi.
Emblem: Bow and arrow.

46
Senguttuvan (or) Red Chera the greatest king. He constructed the temple for
pathini devi or Kannagi the goddess of chastity. His brother Ilango wrote
silapadigaram.
Pliny mentions the Andhra territory in the Eastern Deccan including 30
walled towns. He wrote Natural Historia (77 AD)
Naturalis Historia, Ptolemys geography of India (144 AD), The Periplus of
Enthrean Sea (Read sea) are three important sources of History. They also till
about the flourishing trade between India and Rome
Important exports: were spices, textile
Imports: Gold, silver, wine, copper and slave girls
Important ports: Arikamedu, where the maximum number of Roman coins
and antiquities have been found. Broach and Brigu kacche, Muzris or Musiri
(modern Craganore), Poduka (modern Pondicherry) & Tamralipti (Modern
Tamluk) in Midnapore District.

THE SANGAM AGE

The Sangam age corresponds to the post Maurya and Pre-Gupta period of Ancient
India.Sangam Assembly of scholars. The Pandyas were the patrons and in their capital and
sangams were held.
There were 3 assemblies
i)

Madurai Presided by Sage Agastya father of Tamil literature

ii)

Kapatapuram / Alvai Presided by Sage Agastya & Tolkappiyar

Tolkappiyar wrote Tolkappiyam, work on Tamil grammar

iii)

Maudrai Presided by Nakkirar

A large number of scholars assembled and wrote which was compiled in 8

volumes known as Ettu togai (1st 3rd C AD)

47
The sangam literature talks about the chera, chola and Pandya dynasty. These
kingdoms are also mentioned in Ashokas inscriptions Number II & XIII as
frontier friendly kings.
Tirukkural is called fifth veda
Silappadikaram The jeweled anklet by Ilango is an epic
Manimekhala by Sathanar Odyssy of Tamil Poetry A sequel of
Silapadikaram
Most important scholar Nilkanta
The Romans trading with the Sangam kingdoms built a temple of Augustus at
Muziris
The sangam age is also called the golden age on the Augustan age in Tamil
literature.

SATAVAHANAS
Also known as Andhras occupied deltas of Krishna and Kaveri.Aitrareya
Brahmana mentions them as degenerate son of Viswamitra.They are also
mentoned in Major Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka .
First ruler Simuka. Capital Srikakulam.
Sri Satkarni I performed some Vedic sacrifices including Aswamedha and
Rajasurya.
17th King Halas reign marks the period of great prosperity.Hala wrote
Gathasaptasathi, an anthology of 700 erotic verses in Maharashtri or
Palishache Prakrit.
The Satvahana power was eclipsed for some time with the saka conquest of
Malwa & Maharashtra. Revived by Gautamiputra, who overthrew the Saka
king Nahapana.

48
Gautamiputra Satkarni the great Satavahana mentioned in Nasik Prashasti as
Eka Brahman. He Was succeeded by Vashishthiputra Pulyami. He shifted
capital from Srikakulam to Paithan or Prathisthan in Aurangabad district.
Yajnashri Satakarni last great ruler. His power extended beyond land,
because his coins bear the figure of ships.
The satavahanas shows traces of matrilineal structure.They were the first
rulers to make land grants to the Brahmins and Buddhist monks
Ports of them: Barukkacha, Kalyan and Sopara.
The satavahanas issued lead coins and potis, copper, and bronze money
In Satavahana kingdom, districts were called Ahara, officers were
Amatyas and Mahamatras. Provincial governors were called Senapati
Administration in rural areas was in hand of gaulamika, head of military
regiment.
Official lang: Prakrit.
The chaityas at Karle belong to Satavahanas.
FOREIGN INVASIONS
516 BC King Darius of Iran
326 BC Alexander of Macedonia
190 BC Indo Greeks of Bactrians
90 B C- Sakes (or) Scythians
45 AD Kushanas or Yueh-chis

INDO GREEKS:
Also called Bactrians. They were the first to cross Hindukush and invade
India.

49
Demetrius, ruler of Bactria, invaded India and left his lieutenant Meander to
continue his task.
Meander of Milinda (165 145 BC) the greatest king.

Meanders capital: Sakala (or) Sialkot.

He issued Bronze coins with a wheel.

He was converted to Buddhism by a Buddhist monk Nagasena. His

converstion with Meander is recorded as Milinda panho.

The first to issued to gold coins in India, known as Dinarius / Aurieus. Also
first to issue coins attributed to kings.
The Greek rule introduced features of Hellinistic art Gandhara art in the
NW frontier of India.Ideas of astronomy & horoscope was inherited from
them.Art of drama was learnt from them.
SAKAS:
Also called Scythians.Replaced the Indo Greeks.
Azes I Saka ruler said to have founded the vikram Era (58 BC)
Rudradaman (130 150 AD) the greatest Saka ruler is mentioned in the
Girnar inscription in Sanskrit. He ruled over Sindh, Gujarat, Konkan and
Kathiawar and Narmada valley. He repaired the Sudharshana lake built by
Mauryas.
PARTHIANS:
Lived in Iran from where they moved to India. Replaced Sakas in NW India.
Gondophenes Most famous King.St. Thomas came to India during his time
for propagation of Christianity in around 30 AD, he died here and is buried in
Chennai.
KUSHANAS

50
Replaced the Parthians in NW India.
Founded by Kujula Kadphises I.
Kanishka the famous king started Saka era (78 AD). His empire extended
from river oxus in the west to Varanasi in the east capital: Peshawar (or)
Purushpura and Mathura.

He styled himself Devputra.

He conquered 3 provinces of China Kashgar, Yarkhand and

Khotan.

He embraced Mahayana Buddhism. Patronized Vasumitra.

The last Kushana ruler, Vasudeva I, was a patron of Hindusim.The Kushana

King issued numerous gold coins with higher degree of metallic purity.
Vema Khadphises II issued gold coins with figures Shiva & Bull.Huvishka
issued coins with figures of Shiva, Uma and Skanda.
Kanishka & Huviska issued coins with figures of Greek god Helios.They
controlled the famous silk route a great source of income from them. Trade
with Romans was through this route. Roman gold coins were found in large
number at Arikamedu near Pondicherry.
They introduced satrap system of Government.
Hippalus discovered the monsoon route to India from West Asia (46 AD).The
period between 200 BC and 300 AD also called Mercantile Age of India.
Exports: Spices and Textiles. Imports: Gold, silver, copper, wine, slave girls
and sugar.

51

THE AGE OF GUPTANS

Founder: Srigupta. Succeeded by Ghatokacha Main sources of information
about Gupta Empire.
Allahabad pillar inscription and Eran prasasti.Writings of fa-hien and I-tsing.
A Sanskrit drama kamudimohotsava written by kisorika in Vajika.
The Mehrauli inscription (near Delhi).Stupas of Gupta age found at Sarnath,
Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khan (Sindh).
Srigupta the founder succeeded by Ghatokacha.
Chandragupta 1 (319 335 AD)
Took the title of Maharajadhiraja
Founded the Gupta Era in 319/320 AD.Married a Licchhaviprinces
Kumaradevi.He struck coins in the joint names of himself Kumaradevi and the
Lichchhavis.
Samudragupta (335 380 AD)
Referred as the Napolean of Indian by some historians.
Information about him is given in the Ashokan pillar of Allahabad. His
achievements

are

mentioned

by

his

court

poet

Harisena

inscription.Performed an asvamedha adopted title parakramanka.

in

the

52
Pillar of his victory at Kaushambi. King Meghavarman of Sri Lanka sent an
embassy to Samudragupta for granting permission to build a monastery in
Bodh Gaya. He wrote many poems and earned the title Kaviraja.

He was a vaishnava and a patron of the great Buddhist scholar

vashubandhu.On some of his coins, he is portrayed played the Veena and on
others like an archer. So he was famously called as Parivadhani

Chandra Gupta II (380 412 AD)

Adopted the titles Narendrachandra, Simhachandra Vikramaditya and Sakari
(after defeating the Sakas).The book which mentions his conquest over the
sakes Devichandra guptan written by Vishkhadatta.
The inscription engraved on the Iron pillar at Mehraulli (near Delhi) given
account of his conquest.
Married kubernaga, a naga princes.Married his daughter to Rudrasena II, the
vakataka King. He made Ujjain his second capital.
First gupta ruler to have issued silver coins.Had direct contacts with Europe
and Egypt.
The Famous poets Kalidas, Amarsimha, vishakhadatta and the physician
Dhanvantari adored his court
Fa-hien visited India during his time (399 414 AD). He came by land and
went by sea from the Tam ralipti port (Eastern Coast).
Kumaragupta (418 455 AD)
Adopted the title of Mahendraditya.Ruled for more than 40 years.Performed
an asvamedha, like Samudragupta.Introduced the concept of worshipping
god Kartikeya.

53
The Hunas started attacking towards the end of his region (mentioned in the
Bhitari inscription near Gorakhpur).
Founded the Nalanda University. Mandasur(MP) edict is related to him.
Skanda Gupta (455 467 AD):
Last great Gupta Ruler. Assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
The Bhitari inscription record the career of Skandagupta. The Junagarh
inscription mention the restoration of the embankment of the Sudarshan lake.
He erected a pillar of victory surrounted by the statute of the God Vishnu.
Successfully resisted Huna invasion.Issued Lion type coin.Puragupta
ascended to the throne after Skandagupta. Vishnugupta was the last king.
Narsimha Gupta defeated Mihirkula.Mihirkula the Huna invader ruled
from Sagala, Eathydemia. Persectued the Buddhists.Oxus valley was the
home of the Hunas
Gupta Administration:
Gupta Empire was divided into

Provinces (Desha or Bhikti) Mahamatras provincial viceroys

Uparika governors of provinces

Districts (Pradesha or Vishaya) under Ayukta or Vishayapati

Towns governed by Purapala.

Villages headman called Gramayeka. The basic unit.

Efficient administration system. monarchy was the provincial system, but

special attention was paid to the welfare of people.
Traditional laws; Dharmashastras were conceived supreme.The king was
assisted by a Mantriparishad / Mantrimandalam

54
Land tax increased in number, Bhagakara and udranga principal sources of
Revenue, varied from 1/4th to 1/6th of Produce.
Land was classified into cultivable (kshetra), wasteland (Khila), forest
(apaharta), habitable land (vasti) and pasture (Gapatha sarah).
Paharpur inscription tells us that the state was the exclusive owner of land.
I-tsing (672 675 AD) the Chineses traveler, refers to be the donation of
some villages to Chineses Buddhist at Nalanda Monastery by the first Gupta
Grigupta.

Gupta Society:
High material prosperity.Remarkable impact of ahimsa and vegetarianism on
society.
Existence of a number of charitable institutions, free hospital etc., land grants
to religious priests in lieu of their services. This strengthened the positions of
the Brahmins and the term dvija came to be restricted normally to them.
Increase in the worship of mother goddess and family cults. The position of
the Sudras improved and they became trader, artisans and agriculturists.
However, untouchability existed in society. They use to keep records of lands.
Fa-Hien gives account of class called chandalas leadings a segregated
life.Slavery system existed during Gupta Empire.
Inter caste and inter racial marriage was common among the people.Rise
of a new caste Kayastha (mentioned in yajnavalkya smriti).
Women were subordinate to men. Polygamy was widely prevalent their
education was discouraged. However, women if higher class participated in
administration.Sati system was in existence and window marriage was
becoming unpopular.

55
Religion:
Vaishnavism / Bhagwatism became important and the most important aspect
of it was Bhakti (which was open for all) important god vasudeva
KrishnaShaivism too was important. Many of shoots of Shaivism like

Lingaya / Maheswar founded by Ramaiya

Basava developed another sect called lingayat in Karanataka

In Kashmir, Shaivism was influenced by Tantrikism.

Surya worship became important, surya temple found at Multan (in Paksitan),
Modhera (Guj), Martand temple (Kashmir, built by Lalitaditya, Konark
temple (Orissa, built by Narasimha Varman).Durga, Ganesha and Kartikeya
were also worshipped.
Trade and Commerce:
Both internal and external trade reached its peak.During this period, north
India traded with south east .Asia from the ports of Ghanasshala, Kadara
and Tamralipti.

Main articles of import gold, silver, copper, tin, silk, camphor

etc.,

Export pearls, precious stones, clothes, perfumes, spices.

Important trade centre Mathura cotton, varanas silk, Salt from salt
range in Punjab. Guild system continued to play very important role in trade
and commerce.The goddess Lakshmi is represented invariably on the Gupta
coins.The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which were called
Dinars. But the gold contents of these coins are not as those of the Kushanas.
Gupta art and Architecture:
The Gupta age witnessed an unprecedented artistic activity, all over India. The
Gupta age is sometimes referred to as the Golden age of Ancient India.

56
The Greek influence resulting into Gandhara art and later influencing Mathura
and sarnath schools of art was fully Indianised.
Dravida and Nagara styles of architecture evolved.

Dravida style a second storey (Vimana) characteristic feature

in South India.

Nagara style Shikhara main feature in the North India.

Vesara style mixed north and south Indian style.

The immortal Ajanta murals were the most imp. Achievement of this period.
A large of viharas, chaityas and stupas were constructed during this period.
The frescoes of Ellora caves, the Bagh caves, the sittanvasal temple in Tamil
Nadu and Rock cult chambers at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka are example of Gupta
paintings.
The period also produced magnificent Brahminical temnples.Some of temple
of Devgarh (Jhansi), Vishnu temple of Tigawa (Jabalpur), shiva temple at
Bhumarah and Khoh and the two Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodh
Gaya.The Bhitargaon temple is made entirely of brick. The Shikhars made
their appearance from here.
Growth of Literature:
High prosperity in the different fields of educations. Such as Mathematics,
astronomy, astrology, medical sciences etc.,
Aryabhatta wrote Aryabahattiyam and surya siddhanta, which deals with
epicyclic Revolution of earth, nature of eclipse, reckoning of time
etc.,Aryabhatta also invented zero, decimal system, value of pie etc.
Varahamihiras Brihat Samhita is an encyclopedia of astronomy, physical
geography, botany and natural history. His other works are panchasiddhantika,
Brihat Jataka etc.,

57
Brahmgupta physician and Mathematician wrote Brahasputa Siddhanta
and Khanda Khadyaka. Susruta physicaian wrote susruta Samhita.
Palakpiya wrote Hastayurveda,Siddhasena Diwakara led the foundation of
logic was written by Vasubandhu, Paninis Astadhyayi and patanjalis
Mahabhasya were written during this time.
The legal text books based on work of Manu were written by yajnavalkya,
Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayansa. Vajika wrote Kaumudima Hotsava,
Somadeva wrote Kathasarit sagar, Bhasa wrote swapan vasavadatta.
Sanskrit became the official language. The great epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata got their final touches in this period.The puranas were
compiled during the Gupta age.
Jayadeva wrote Gita Govinda (adopted by Chatitanya). Kamandakas Nirtisara
is

considered

to

be

Guptan

equivalent

of

Mauryan

Arthasastra.Mrichchhakatika by Shudraka is a social play.

POST GUPTAN PERIOD

HARSHAVARDHANA
Prahbhakarvardhana first important king of pusyabuti dynasty, capital at
Thanesar.
Harsha (606 647 AD), Assumed the title of Siladitya after defeating the
shaivite king sasanka of Gauda.
He shifted his capital to Kannauj. His southward march was stopped on
Narmada river by the charlukyan king of Badami Pulakeshin II.
He was a shaiva in the beginning but embraced Buddhism Gradually.He held
two grand assemblies one in the city of Kannauj and the other in prayag,
known as the Mahamoksha parishad.

58
Harsha maintained diplomatic relations with china. His contemporary the
Tasand emperor. Taj Tsung sent Hieun Tsang to his kingdom (643 and again
in 647 AD).
Harsha wrote Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika.
Bana was his court poet. He wrote Harsacharita, Kadambari, parvati parinay.
Both Bana and Hieun Tsand talk about Varnasamkaras.
Other scholars of his time were matanga, divakar, Jayasena and Bhartihari.
Harshas administration became more feudal and decentralized. Jajmani system
self sufficient village economy. Grant of land to the officers in lieu of salary
was probably begun by Harsha
The position of women seems to have further declined during Harshas period.
Remarriage of windows were not permitted. The system of dowry, according to
Bana, was quite common.
YASHOVARMAN (730 773 AD)
Nalanda inscription describes him as Guardian of the world.
He authored a drama Ramabhyudaya and patronized Bhavbhuti.
Bana mentions different types of Textiles.

Kshauma linen

Chtrapatta figure textile

Jatipattika woven silk

Pulakbanda gaily colored

Puspapatta Flowered silk

CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (543 755 AD)

The chalukyas claimed their descent from Brahma, Manu or Moon.

59
Pulakeshin I founder, capital at Badami (Vatapi) in Bijapur district
(Karnataka).Pulakeshin II Most important ruler, his court poet was Ravikirti.
Aihole inscription tells us about him.He Sent an ambassy to the Persian king
khusrau II.
Hiuen Tsang (also called yuan chwang) visit this court.Defeated Harsha at
Narmada (and assumed the title of parmeshwara) and the pallava king
Mahendravarman.

Was

defeated

and

killed

by

the

pallave

Ruler

Narasimhavarman I.
Kubja vishnuvardhana the brother of pulakeshin II founded the kingdom of
chalukya of Vengi.Vijayaditya II the longest and the most prosperous and
peaceful reign.
Built the papanatha temple and virupaksha temple
Kirtivarman II last chalukyan ruler. Defeated by Dantidurga who founded the
Rastrakuta dynasty.
The chalukyan developed the Deccan or vasara style in the building of structural
temples. They perfected the art of stone building i.e. stones finely joined without
mortar.

PALLAVAS (590 903 AD)

Simhavishnu founder, capital at Kanchi.His court poet was Bharavi, who wrote
Kiratarjunya. Sanskrit was the official language of the pallavas
Mahendravarman

wrote

Mathavilasaprahasan.

Also

known

as

vichitrachitta.Assumed the title chitrakarapuli (tiger among painters).

Rock cut temple of Bhairavkond (North Arcot) and Ananteshavara temple built
by him. Hiuen Tsang visited his court.

60
Narasimhavarman the greatest pallava ruler.Took the title of vatapikonda after
he occupied the chalukyan capital of Vatapi.Also defeated the cholas. Cheras and
pandyas.Sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon
Founded the city of Mamallapuram. Ratha or monolithic temples at
Mamallapuram built by him.
Narasimhavarman II also known as Rajsimha. His rule marked with peace and
posperity. Literary activity and construction of large and beautiful temples.
His court poet was Dandin, who wrote Dasakumarcharita.Shore temple, Isyara
temple and Mukunda temple at Mahabalipuram and Kalishnatha temple at Kanchi
built by him .Maritime trade flourished during him. Also sent an embassy to
China.
Nandivarman II was appointed as pallava king by a college of priestsHe built
templs of mukkesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchi.
The last pallava king was defeated by Aditya chola by the end of 9th century.

EARLY MEDIEVAL AGE (750-1200 A.D)

PALA DYANASTY:
Gopala the founder founded the adantpuri vihara.
Dharmapala founded the Somapura vihara.Founded the vikramshila university
and revived the Nalanda University .Struggle for control over Kannauj started in
his Reign.
Devapala permitted the Sailendra Ruler of Sri vijaya (Indonesia), Balaputradeva
to construct a vihara at Nalanda. Shifted capital to Monghyr.
Mahipala I, revived the pala power.During his reign, Rajendra chola attacked
eastern Bengal. He was overthrown by vijayasena.

61
In the court of king Rampala, the famous poet Sandhyakar Nadhi lived, who
wrote Rampata charita.
Atisha Divankar noted scholar of Tantric Buddhism existed in the time of the pala
kings. He translated many book of Tantric Buddhism in Tibetan language.
PRATHIHARAS (Gujarat and Southern Rajasthan)
Nagabhatta I founder (725 AD). Capital Kannuaj.
Bhoja or Mihir Bhoja real founder and the greatest Ruler.Arab Merchant,
Suleiman, visited his empire. Adopted the title of Adivaraha (Gwalior inscription)
Mahendrapala I extended his empire over Magadha and North Bengal.His court
poet Rajashekhara, who wrote Kavyamimansa, karpuramanijari (a drama in
prakrit). Harvilas prabandhakosha. Al Masudi a native of Baghdad, visited his
kingdom
Mahipala during his Reign Rastrakuta Indira III attacked. Kannauj and
devastated it.

RASHTRAKUTAS:
Dantidurga founded the kingdom by overthworing the last chalukya ruler of
Badami, Kirtivarman II.Built the Dasavatara caves at ellora.
Krishna I conquered the ganges of Mysore and Eastern chalukyas of
Vengi.Built the Kailash temple at Ellora.
Amonghvarsha

transferred

the

capital

from

ellora

to

Manyakheta

(Malkhed).Wrote kavirajamarga and ratnamalika (a work on Jainism).

Harisena, Jinasena and Gunabhadra lived at his court.He offered his finger to
goddess sara samagraha.Indra III the Arab traveler Al Masudi visited his court.

62
Krishna III defeated the chola parantaka I in the battle of Takkolam.Built the
Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram and erected a pillar there.
Karka last ruler overthrown by Taila, who founded the kingdom of later (or
western) chalukya at Kalyani.
CHAUHANS southern Rajasthan
Chauharis eastern Rajasthan ruled over Ajmer and Delhi .
Ajayraja II founded the city of Ajaymeru (Ajmer).Rudra Mahakal temple at
Siddhapura.

Muhammad Ghori attacked during the reign of Prithviraj III. Battle of

Tarain I
in 1191 and Tarain II at 1192 A.D. Two books- 1. Prithviraja Raso
by Chandbardai and Prithviraja Vijayam by Jeyanaga.

Karnadeva, last Hindu ruler of Gujarat, defeated by Alauddin Khilji

PARAMARAS in the Malwa Region with capital at Dhar.
Founder was Upendra
Bhojadeva most famous king. Defeated the Turks. Wrote samrangana sutradhar
(on art and architecture), yuktikalpataru a commentary on patanjalis yogasutra
and Shrinagar Prakash (erotics).
Built Saraswati temple at Dhara.Vagdevi, the insignia of Jnanpith Award, is
associated with him.
Last king was Mahlakdeva lost his kingdom to Abuddin Khilji
CHANDELAS of Bundelkhand
Capital at Khajuraho
Yasovarman built chaturbhuja (vishnu) temple at Khajuraho.Dhanga built the
temple of viswanatha, Jinanatha and Dinanatha at Khajuraho.Temple of
Khajuraho pertains to Jainism and Shaivism.

63
GAHADAWALAS of Kannauj
Govindchandra greatest King. He defeated the chandelas and the Kalachuris.
His minister Laxmidhara was the author of several legal work including
Krityakalpataru and kalpadruma.
Vigraharaja III (Bisaldeo) captured Delhi from Tomars also authorized a
famous play Harikeli Nataka.
Prithviraja III the greatest Chauhan ruler.Conquered chandelas, chalukyas and
Gahadvalas.Defeated Mohammad Gauri in the 1st Battle of Tarain (1191) but was
defeated in the 2nd Battle of Tarain (1192) .
Prithviraja vijaya-written by jayanka.
SOLANKIS known as chalukyas of Gujarat
Founded by Mularaja I
Centered in the Region of Kathiawar, with Anahilapataka (modern Pathan city) as
their capital
Bhima I during his Reign Mahmud of Gazni plundered the Somnath temple
(1025)
His general vimala built the Jaina temple vimal vasahi and Adinath at Mk. Abu
Two officers of Viradhavala vaghela, namely vastupala and Tejpala (grandsons of
Vimala), built shrines at Girnar, Satrunjaya and Mt.Abu
Jaya simha siddharaja, the greatest king
Defeated the parmaras, chauhans, chandelas and the chalukyas of Kalyani
The famous Rudra Mahakal temple at Siddhapura was built his time
Kumarapala famous patron of Jainism. Hemachandra his preceptor
Hemchandra wrote siddha Hemchandra

64
Jayachandra patronzed Srihara, who wrote Nishadacharita was defeated by
Muhammad Ghouri in the battle of chandawar 1193
TOMARAS OF DELHI:
Controlled Haryana region
Anangpal Tomar founded the capital city of Dhilika (later Delhi)
He was defeated by Vigraharaja III of Chauhan dynasty
GANGAS:
Anantvarman choda Ganga founded the dynasty
Built the Jagannatha temple at Puri, 11th C. AD
Narasimhavarman I built sun temple at Konark, 1250 AD
During the Reign of Rajamalla IV, the image of Gomateshwara at
Shravanabelagola was erected. Chamunda Rai, a minister of the king, built the
56.5 meter high Gomateshwara statue.
IMPERIAL CHOLAS:
Parantaka Founder, a feudatory of the pallavas; was called the Maduraikonda
Defeated by the Rastrakuta, Krishna III at Takkolam 949 A.D
Uttaramerur inscription belongs to him. It gives the details regarding the village
administration during the cholas.
Rajraja I (985 1014 AD) revived the Cholas power
Great Conqueror, destroyed the chera navy at Kadular salai Annexation of
Maldives.Permitted the Sri vijaya ruler (Sri Mara vijayottunga) to construct of
famous chudamani vihara at Nagapattinam. Constructed the Rajarajeshwara or
Brihadeeswarar temple at Tanjore
Rajendra I completion of conquest of Ceylon

65
Successful naval expedition to Sri Vijaya.Organized a military expedition to the
North India and assumed the title of Gangaikondan.
Built a new capital gangaikonda cholapuram. Built a large reservoir and mixed
ganga water in it cholaganga. He sent two embassies to china for political and
commercial purposes
Kulottunga I united the Vengi kingdom with the chola empire he got the land surveyed
Sent his ambassador to China along with 72 merchants.Kamban adorned his
court. He wrote the Tamil Ramayana.
Rajaraja III last chola ruler, replaced by Pandya dynasty Sundara Pandya.
CHOLAS ADMINISTRATION:
The basic feature of Chola administration was the arrangement of local self
government.The chola empire was divided into Mandalas or provinces and these
in turn were divided into valanadus nadus (districts) and Kurrams (villages)
3 type of general assemblies

Ur-tax paying residents of an ordinary village

Sabha exclusively in the village gifted to Brahmins

Nagaram found in trade centers such as towns and cities

Local assemblies were called nadu assembly.Agrahara village village granted

to Brahmins.Devadana villages granted to god revenues of these village
donated to temples
TRADE AND COMMERCE:
Flourishing trade. Trade relations with Arabia, China and Ceylon.
The cholas were the first to maintain good navy for protection of the empire and
commercial transactions.Assocaiton of merchants were known by the names of

Ainnuruvar 500 swamis of Aiholes

66

Manigraman

Anjurnam association of coastal traders

ART AND ARCHITECTURE:

Dravida or South Indian style of architecture reached the pinnacle of glory
construction of temple as tribute to dead kings a special feature of Chola period.
Main features of Chola temple Vimanaor the store, which was later eclipsed by
richly ornamented gopuram and also mandapam or pavilions.
Best example of Shiva temple Rajrajeswara or Brihadeeswarar temple at
Tanjore the tallest of all medieval temple.
Chidambaram temple at Chennai, where shiva has performed his best dance
The bronze statue of Nataraja belonged to the Cholas.
LATER OR WESTERN CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI:
Taila II founder, over thre Rastrakata Karka II. Someswara I shifted the capital
from Malkhed to Kalyani.Someswara II known as vikramaditya someswara
Started the chalukyah vikrama era 1076 AD.
Vikramaditya IV greatest king.Bilhana (Vikramacharita) and vijnaneswara
(Mitakshara) enjoyed his patronism.Someswara III author of an encyclopedia
called Manasollasa.
EASTERN CHALUKYAS OF VENGI:
Founder Vishnuvardhana. Vijyaditya III defeated the Rastrakutas and
declared himself the Lord of the entire Dakshinapatha
Bhima I devotee of Shiva, built temple of Bhimavaram Drakshamam in East
Godavari district.Merger of Chola Chalukya dynasties took place under the
chola ruler Kulottunga
YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI:

67
Bhilama V founded to Yadava Empire by overthrowing the Kalyani chalukya
supremacy.Simhana most powerful ruler.
Sangeetaratnakara of Sarangdeva written in his court
Ramachandra during his Reign Alauddin Khilji attacked. Then

Malik Kafur

attacked and annexed the Kingdom.

KAKATIYAS OF WARANGAL:
Beta I earliest known ruler. Capital at Hanumankonda
Rudradeva built 1000 temples at Hanumankonda.Founded a new city
orugallu (Warangal).Ganapatideva completed the city of Warangal and built
two forts.Shifted his capital to Warangal
His daughter Rudrammadevi was described as a very capable ruler by Marco
Polo (the venetian traveler, who went to China by the silk route and returned to
Venice By the route, making a stop over at India)
Pratapruda deva II last ruler wrote Nitisara.Faced repeated Muslim invasions
by the Khiljis and the Tughlaqs.
KADAMBAS OF BANAVASI:
Founded by Mayurasarman. Another ruler Ravivarman shifted the capital to
Halsi
HOYSALAS OF DWARASAMUDRA:
Ballala I capital at Belur. Alternative capital at Dwarsamudra (Halebid)
Bittiga or Vishnavardhana real maker of the Hoyasala Kingdom
He was a Jaina but later embraced Vaishnavism.Built the Hoyasales vara temple
at Halebid. Veera Ballala III defeated Malik Kafur.