Detail Design of Wings

Wing Structure
Internal Structure
Ribs Spars Stringers

External Structure
Skin : carry shear stress, transfer the aerodynamic loads to the internal structures

Wing
Aerodynamic Forces:
- Lift Distribution - Drag - Bending Moment - Pitching Moment (Torsional Moment)

Wing Structures

Wing structure should have a sufficient strength, stiffness, and light weight structure with a minimum of manufacturing problems.

Spars
Wing spars are long members which run from the root to the tip of the wing. Typically a wing has two spars, a front spar and a back spar. Multi-spar designs are used on larger wings and on military aircraft
Reliability(fail-safe design) and tolerance to battle damage

Spars primarily carry the aerodynamic loads developed by the wing.

Spar Design
Because of the bending loads on wings, spars are designed for stiffness in bending.
Spar cap (flange) : carry normal stress due to bending, same idea as an I-beam design Spar web : carry shear stress

Since the first failure mode is often buckling of the web, web stiffeners are often added. A crack stopping joint is often added for safety.

Spar designs - Illustrated

Max. normal stress due to shear & bending @ top/bottom of the spar => Cap (Flange) Max. shear stress due to shear & bending @ middle of spar => Web

Spar designs - Illustrated

Spar Cap Type : * Simplicity of construction, mostly used on general aviation aircraft * Skin will buckle at at very low load In high speed A/C, wing structure is usually made of multiple spars

Torsional moment is primarily resisted by the skin, front/rear spars => form portion of the wing torque box

Spar Types : Shear Web or Truss

Shear web type is widely used to design the modern wing spar

Spar Design : Fail-Safe Design

* Stiffner is located about 1/3 of the distance above the lower surface. * A fatigue crack would start as usual at the lower wing cover. * If the first 1/3 should be broken, the remaining 2/3 of the shear web would be able to sustain considerable load

Ribs
Ribs are used to define and produce the airfoil shape Support skin, prevent wing skin buckling They transfer primary loads from the control surfaces and undercarriage, such as external stores, to the spars and the skin.

Stringers
Z,J,Top Hat shape stringers Attached to the wing skin : stiffen the wing skin, prevent buckling
Riveting, or Bonding

Stringers
Machined skin combining with machined stringers (integral stiffened panel) are the most efficient structures Light weight, high strength construction Advantages : skins can be tapered spanwise, thickened around holes and to produce rib lands

Wing Skin
Gives the wing its shape Carries loads
Bending and shear loads Torsional loads caused by control surfaces and other features attached to the wing Portion of the wing torque box

Creates walls for the wing mounted fuel tanks

The wing Torque Box

Front and rear spars together with the skin forms a torque box, stiffened by the ribs, which resists wing bending

The wing Torque Box

The volume between the ribs can be fitted with fuel tanks Details of torsion box design and analysis AET 417

Pylons (hardpoints)
Aircraft wings often carry accessory equipment, weapons, engines, and sometimes landing gear is attached near to root of the wing. The attachment points are called pylons.
Text refers to landing gear assembly as undercarriage Additional internal wing structure needed around the pylons. Wet pylon - contains provisions for externally mounted fuel tank. Weapons pylons - electronic connections for weapons systems are necessary. ....

Flaps and Slats

Lift enhancement devices for low speeds Inefficient at cruise speeds, but needed at takeoff and landing Flaps are airfoil extensions mounted at the rear of the airfoil section. Slats(Leading Edge Flap) are similar extensions mounted to the front of the wing. Increase in lift by changing airfoil camber

Flaps and Slats

Flaps and Slats

Boeing 767 Flap design

Flaps and Slats

Boeing 747 Slat Design - Kruger type flap

Gap between slat and LE of airfoil :

- To avoid leading separation by allowing air to flow through

Spoilers
Usually located directly in front of the flaps, and have a similar span. Text differentiates between spoilers, which may be deployed in flight, and lift dumpers, which are only deployed on the ground. This distinction is often not made.
Inboard spoilers are the lift dumpers, also called ground spoilers, and cant be deployed in flight because of possible buffeting on the tail section Outboard spoilers, when deployed in flight, are sometimes called speed brakes.

Spoilers
Functions of spoilers:
Reduce lift at landing Reduce aircraft speed Aid in slowing the aircraft after landing by:
Increasing the normal force on the wheels Preventing aircraft bouncing back into the air Providing additional drag

Ailerons
Attached to the outer portion of the wing to provide roll control
On larger aircraft, both inboard and outboard ailerons are in place
Low speed - outboard ailerons used High speed - inboard ailerons used

On some military aircraft, roll control is provided on the tail unit, called a taileron

Deployment of ailerons

Deployment of ailerons
-L Less Drag Yaw

+L More Drag

Frise Aileron is designed to eliminate adverse yaw

Aileron Effectiveness
Control Reversal

Aileron Effectiveness
Control Reversal

On larger aircraft, both inboard and outboard ailerons are in place

Low speed - outboard ailerons used High speed - inboard ailerons used

Summary of wing design

Competing yet coupled factors in wing design
Structural considerations
Weight Strength Stiffness

Aerodynamic considerations
Cruise Takeoff and Landing Maneuverability requirements

System configuration (fuel storage, weapons, etc.)

Semi-monocoque design meets these requirements very well