PROJECT REPORT ON

Planning and Designing Rain Water Harvesting System Premnagar dehradun

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING JB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DEHRADUN, UTTRAKHAND (248007) [2013-2014]

Submitted By:
ABHIRAJ KUMAR PATHAK Aditya Painyuli Balkrishana Tamta Himanshu Negi Amit Purohit Deepak Singh Sonali Rawat

Guided By:
Mr. Subhash Chamoli
1

On Planning and Designing Rain Water Harvesting System Premnagar dehradun

In partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology In CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO: Prof. Sanjeev Gill (H.O.D) Civil Engineering Department. JBIT,Dehradun

SUBMITTED BY: Abhiraj Kumar Pathak Aditya Painyuli Amit Purohit Balkrishana Tamta Deepak Singh Himanshu Negi Sonali Rawat

DECLARATION
WE HEREBY CERTIFY THAT THE REPORT ENTITLED PLANNING & DESIGNING RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM PREMNAGAR DEHRADUN IS SUBMITTED , IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING , TO JB INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (UNDER TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY),D EHRADUN COMPRISES ONLY ORIGINAL WORK .

UTTARAKHAND

THE

MATTER EMBEDDED IN THIS REPORT IS ORIGINAL AND HAS NOT BEEN SUBMITTED EARLIER FOR THE AWARD OF ANY

OTHER DEGREE OF THIS OR ANY UNIVERSITY.

ABHIRAJ KUMAR PATHAK ADITYA PAINYULI AMIT PUROHIT BALKRISHANA TAMTA HIMANSHU NEGI DEEPAK SINGH SONALI RAWAT

(61530107002) (10530107005) (10530107008) (61530107004) (10530102015) (10530107013) (61530107012)

CERTIFICATE
3

This is to certify that the project work entitled PLANNING & DESIGNING RAIN WATER HARVESTING SYSTEM PREMNAGAR DEHRADUN is a bonafide work carried out by ABHIRAJ KUMAR PATHAK candidates of the B.Tech Civil Engineering from JB Institute of Technology , Dehradun, affiliated to Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun, under my guidance and supervision.

Mr. Subhash Chamoli

{ Assistant Professor}

Prof. Sanjeev Gill

{HOD Civil Engineering}

ExternalExaminer

(Signature)

Abstract
4

Along the path of water flowing in a river basin are many water-related human interventions that modify the natural systems. Rainwater harvesting is one such intervention that involves harnessing of water in the upstream catchment. Increased water usage at upstream level is an issue of concern for downstream water availability to sustain ecosystem services. . To address this problem a technique was developed for small scale farmers with the objective of harnessing rainwater for crop production. However, the hydrological impact of a wider adoption of this technique by farmers has not been well quantified. In this regard, the SWAT hydrological model was used to simulate the hydrological impact of such practices. The scenarios studied were: (1) Baseline scenario, based on the actual land use of 2000, which is dominated by pasture (combination of natural and some improved grass lands) (PAST); (2) Partial conversion of Land use 2000 (PAST) to conventional agriculture (Agri-CON); and (3) Partial conversion of Land use 2000 (PAST) to in-field rainwater harvesting which was aimed at improving the precipitation use efficiency (Agri-IRWH).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible, whose constant guidance, encouragement and support fructified my effort with success.

I consider it my privilege to express my gratitude and respect to all those who guided me in the completion of my seminar report.

I would like to thank Prof.Sanjeev Gill, Head of Department, Civil Engineering for providing me this valuable opportunity of presenting the seminar on Assessment of Planning and Designing Rain Water Harvesting System, which has not only enhanced my knowledge about the subject but also increased my confidence level.

I am indebted to my mentor Mr. Subhash Chamoli for guiding me throughout the preparation of my seminar. Last but not the least I would like to thank God, my parents and colleagues for helping me directly or indirectly in the successful completion of the project.
Abhiraj Kumar pathak Amit Purohit Deepak Singh Sonali Rawat Aditya Painyuli Balkrishana Tamta Himanshu Negi

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Rainwater Harvesting 1.1.2 Why Rain Water Harvesting? 1.2. Rainwater Harvesting Feasibility Criteria 1.2.1 Plumbing Code 1.2.2 Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing (Mep 1.2.3 Water Use 1.2.4 Available Space 1.2.5 Site Topography 1.2.6 Available Hydraulic Head 1.2.7 Water Table 1.2.8 Soils 1.2.9 Proximity Of Underground Utilities 1.2.10 Contributing Drainage Area 1.2.11 Contributing Drainage Area Material 1.2.12 Water Quality Of Rainwater 1.2.13 Hotspot Land Uses 1.2.14 Setbacks From Buildings 1.2.15 Vehicle Loading 1.2.16 Discharge To Combine Sewer System 1.3. Rainwater Harvesting Conveyance Criteria 1.3.1 Collection And Conveyance 1.3.2 Overflow 1.4. Rainwater Harvesting Pretreatment Criteria 1.4.1 First Flush Diverters 1.4.2 Leaf Screens 1.4.3 Roof Washers 1.4.4 Vortex Filters 1.5 Criteria For Selection Of Rainwater Harvesting Technologies 1.6 Components Of A Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting System 1.6.1 A Collection Or Catchment System 1.6.2 A Conveyance System Is Required To Transfer The Rainwater From The Roof 1.7 The Design Criteria Of A Sorage Tank 1.7.1 Available Space 1.7.2 Site Topography 1.7.3 Available Hydraulic Head 1.7.4 Water Table 1.7.5 Soil 1.7.6 Proximity Of Underground Utilities
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1.7.7 Contributing Drainage Area 1.7.8 Water Quality Of Rainwater 1.7.9 Hotspot Land Uses 1.7.10 Contributing Drainage Area Material 1.8 Rainwater Harvesting In Lpu Complex 1.9 Design Capacity Of Storage Tank 2.1 Rainwater Harvesting Pretreatment Criteria 2.2 Filtration Systems And Settling Tanks 2.3 Primary Treatment Of Rain Water 2.4 Secondary Treatment 2.4.1 Lab Testing On Rain Water Harvesting In prem nagar 2.5 Experiment-2 2.6 Tertiary Treatment Disinfection Technologies Storage Tank Or Cistern To Store Harvested Rainwater 2.6.3 Delivery System 2.6.3 Storage Tanks Or Reservoirs 2.7 Storage Reservoirs For Domestic Rainwater Harvesting Are Classified In Two Categories 3.1 Rain Water Harvesting Techniques 3.2 Urbanization Effects On Groundwater Hydrology 3.2.1 Methods Of Artificial Recharge In Urban Areas 3.2.2 Computation Of Artificial Recharge From Roof Top Rainwater Collection 3.2.3 Benefits Of Artificial Recharge In Urban Areas 3.3 How It Works Roof Catchments Section Through Typical Gutter 3.4 Harvesting Rainwater Harnessing Life 3.5 Attributes Of Groundwater 3.5.1 Recharge Shafts 3.5.2 Lateral Shafts With Bore Wells 3.5.3 Spreading Techniques 3.5.4 First Flush And Filter Screens 3.5.5 Rainwater Harvesting Efficiency 3.6 Some Useful Data 3.6.1 Climatological Data 3.6.2 Irrigation 3.6.3 Ground Water Potential (As On 31.03.2004) 4.1 Geomorphology And Soils 4.2 Hydrometeorology 4.3 Hydrology And Surface Water Utilisation 4.4 Agriculture 4.5 Hydrogeology 4.6 Water Level Behavior 4.7 Ground Water Flow 4.8 Drinking Water Supply 4.9 Tube Well Irrigation
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5.1 Designing A Rainwater Harvesting System 5.2 Typical Domestic Rwh Systems 5.2.1storage Tanks And Cisterns 5.2.2 Domestic Storage Tanks 5.2.3 Ferro Cement Tanks 5.2.4 Rock Catchments 5.2.5 Cultural Acceptability 5.6 Maintenance 5.6.1 Regulations And Technical Standards 5.6.2 Types Of Rainwater Use 5.7 Advantage Of Rainwater Harvesting 5.8 Disadvantages 5.9 Effectiveness Of Technology Reference

Name of figure. Page No. Vortex Filters Components of a rooftop rainwater harvesting system Rainwater harvesting in prem nagar dehradun Block 55 Block 56 Water supply by pipe Sand filter PH meter Turbidity meter Storage reservoirs for domestic rainwater harvesting Rock catchments Graphical methode of determine the required storage volume for a rain water

1.1 Introduction:
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1.1.1 Rainwater Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting systems store and release rainfall for future use. Rainwater that falls on a rooftop or other impervious surface is collected and conveyed into an above- or belowground storage tank (also referred to as a cistern or rain tank), where it can be used for nonpotable water uses and on-site storm water disposal/infiltration. Non-potable uses may include landscape irrigation, exterior washing (e.g. car washes, building facades, sidewalks, street sweepers, fire trucks), flushing of toilets and urinals, fire suppression (sprinkler systems), supply for cooling towers, evaporative coolers, fluid coolers and chillers, supplemental water for closed loop systems, steam boilers, replenishment of water features and water fountains, distribution to a green wall or living wall system, laundry, and delayed discharge to the combined sewer system. In many instances, rainwater harvesting can be combined with a secondary (down-gradient) storm water practice to enhance storm water retention and/or provide treatment of overflow from the rainwater harvesting system. Some candidate secondary practices include: Disconnection to a pervious or conservation area Overflow to bio retention practices Overflow to infiltration practices Overflow to grass channels or dry swales By providing a reliable and renewable source of water to end users, rainwater harvesting systems can also have environmental and economic benefits beyond storm water management (e.g. increased water conservation, water supply during drought and mandatory municipal water supply restrictions, decreased demand on municipal or groundwater supply, decreased water costs for the end-user, potential for increased groundwater recharge). Seven primary components of a rainwater harvesting system include: (1) Drainage area (2) Collection and conveyance system (i.e. gutter and downspouts) (3) Pre-screening and first flush diverter (4) Storage tank (5) Water quality treatment (as required by TRAM) (6 )Distribution system (7) Overflow, filter path or secondary storm water retention practice
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1.2.4 Available Space: - Adequate space is needed to house the storage tank and any overflow. Space limitations are rarely a concern with rainwater harvesting systems if they are considered during the initial building design and site layout of a residential or commercial development. Storage tanks can be placed underground, indoors, on rooftops that are structurally designed to support the added weight, and adjacent to buildings. Designers can work with architects and landscape architects to creatively site the tanks. Underground utilities or other obstructions should always be identified prior to final determination of the tank location.

1.2.5 Site Topography: - Site topography and storage tank location should be considered as they relate to all of the inlet and outlet invert elevations in the rainwater harvesting system. The final invert of the outlet pipe from the storage tank must match the invert of the receiving mechanism (e.g. natural channel, storm drain system) that receives this overflow. The elevation drops associated with the various components of a rainwater harvesting system and the resulting invert elevations should be considered early in the design, in order to ensure that the rainwater harvesting system is feasible for the particular site. Site topography and storage tank location will also affect pumping requirements. Locating storage tanks in low areas will make it easier to get water into the cisterns; however, it will increase the amount of pumping needed to distribute the harvested rainwater back into the building or to irrigated areas situated on higher ground. Conversely, placing storage tanks at higher elevations may require larger diameter pipes with smaller slopes but will generally reduce the amount of pumping needed for distribution. It is often best to locate a cistern close to the building or drainage area, to limit the amount of pipe needed.

1.2.6 Available Hydraulic Head: - The required hydraulic head depends on the intended use of the water. For residential landscaping uses, the cistern should be sited upgradient of the landscaping areas or on a raised stand. Pumps are commonly used to convey stored rainwater to the end use in order to provide the required head. When the water is being routed from the cistern to the inside of a building for non-potable use, often a pump is used to feed a much smaller pressure tank inside the building, which then serves the internal water demands. Cisterns can also use gravity to accomplish indoor residential uses (e.g. laundry)
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that do not require high water pressure.

1.2.7 Water Table:- Underground storage tanks are most appropriate in areas where the tank can be buried above the water table. The tank should be located in a manner that is not subject it to flooding. In areas where the tank is to be buried partially below the water table, special design features must be employed, such as sufficiently securing the tank (to keep it from floating), and Conducting buoyancy calculations when the tank is empty, the tank may need to be secured appropriately with fasteners or weighted to avoid uplift buoyancy. The tank must also be installed according to the tank manufacturers specifications.

1.2.8 Soils: - Storage tanks should only be placed on native soils or on fill in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. The bearing capacity of the soil upon which the cistern will be placed must be considered, as full cisterns can be very heavy. This is particularly important for above-ground cisterns, as significant settling could cause the cistern to lean or in some cases to potentially topple. A sufficient aggregate, or concrete base, may be appropriate depending on the soils. The pH of the soil should also be considered in relation to its interaction with the cistern material.

1.2.9 Proximity of Underground Utilities: - All underground utilities must be taken into consideration during the design of underground rainwater harvesting systems, treating all of the rainwater harvesting system components and storm drains as typical storm water facilities and pipes. The underground utilities must be marked and avoided during the installation of underground tanks and piping associated with the system.

1.2.10 Contributing Drainage Area:- The contributing drainage area (CDA) to the cistern is the impervious area draining to the tank. Rooftop surfaces are what typically make up the CDA, but paved areas and landscaped areas can be used with appropriate treatment (oil/water separators and/or debris excluders). Areas of any size, including portions of roofs, can be used based on the sizing guidelines in this design specification. Runoff should be
12

routed directly from the drainage area to rainwater harvesting systems in closed roof drain systems or storm drain pipes, avoiding surface drainage, which could allow for increased contamination of the water.

1.2.11 Contributing Drainage Area Material: - The quality of the harvested rainwater will vary according to the roof material or drainage area over which it flows. Water harvested from certain types of rooftops and CDAs, such as asphalt sealcoats, tar and gravel, painted roofs, galvanized metal roofs, sheet metal, or any material that may contain asbestos may leach trace metals and other toxic compounds. In general, harvesting rainwater from such surfaces should be avoided. If a sealant or paint roof surface is desired, it is recommended to use one that has been certified for such purposes by the National Sanitation Foundation (ANSI/NSF standard).

1.2.12 Water Quality of Rainwater: - Designers should also note that the pH of rainfall in the District tends to be acidic (ranging from 4.5 to 5.0), which may result in leaching of metals from roof surfaces, tank lining or water laterals, to interior connections. Once rainfall leaves rooftop surfaces, pH levels tend to be slightly higher, ranging from 5.5 to 6.0. Limestone or other materials may be added in the tank to buffer acidity, if desired.

1.2.13 Hotspot Land Uses: - Harvesting rainwater can be an effective method to prevent contamination of rooftop runoff that would result from mixing it with ground-level runoff from a storm water hotspot operation. In some cases, however, industrial roof surfaces may also be designated as storm water hotspots.

1.2.14 Setbacks from Buildings: - Storage tank overflow devices should be designed to avoid causing ponding or soil saturation within 10 feet of building foundations. Tanks must be designed to be watertight to prevent water damage when placed near building foundations.

1.2.15 Vehicle Loading: - Whenever possible, underground rainwater harvesting systems should be placed in areas without vehicle traffic or be designed to support live loads
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from heavy trucks, a requirement that may significantly increase construction costs.

1.2.16 Discharge to Combine Sewer System: - Discharge of harvested rainwater to the combined sewer system is considered an acceptable drawdown method to achieve retention value. However, the drawdown must be limited to a rate which releases the SWRv over at least 72 hours.

1.3. Rainwater Harvesting Conveyance Criteria 1.3.1 Collection and Conveyance: - The collection and conveyance system consists of the gutters, downspouts, and pipes that channel rainfall into storage tanks. Gutters and downspouts should be designed as they would for a building without a rainwater harvesting system. Aluminum, round-bottom gutters and round downspouts are generally recommended for rainwater harvesting. Minimum slopes of gutters should be specified. Typically, gutters should be hung at a minimum of 0.5% for 2/3 of the length and at 1% for the remaining 1/3 of the length in order to adequately convey the design storm (e.g. Storm water Retention Volume (SWRv)). If the system will be used for management of the 2-yr and 15-yr storms, the gutters should be designed to convey the appropriate 2-yr and 15-yr storm intensities. Pipes, which connect downspouts to the cistern tank, should be at a minimum slope of 1.5% and sized/designed to convey the intended design storm, as specified above. In some cases, a steeper slope and larger sizes may be recommended and/or necessary to convey the required runoff, depending on the design objective and design storm intensity. Gutters and downspouts should be kept clean and free of debris and rust.

1.3.2 Overflow: - An overflow mechanism should be included in the rainwater harvesting system design in order to handle an individual storm event or multiple storms in succession that exceed the capacity of the tank. Overflow pipe(s) should have a capacity equal to or greater than the inflow pipe(s) and have a diameter and slope sufficient to drain the cistern while maintaining an adequate freeboard height. The overflow pipe(s) should be screened to prevent access to the tank by rodents and birds.

1.4. Rainwater Harvesting Pretreatment Criteria

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Pre-filtration is required to keep sediment, leaves, contaminants, and other debris from the system. Leaf screens and gutter guards meet the minimal requirement for pre-filtration of small systems, although direct water filtration is preferred. All pre-filtration devices should be low-maintenance or maintenance-free. The purpose of pre-filtration is to significantly cut down on maintenance by preventing organic buildup in the tank, thereby decreasing microbial food sources. For larger tank systems, the initial first flush must be diverted from the system before rainwater enters the storage tank. Designers should note that the term first flush in rainwater harvesting design does not have the same meaning as has been applied historically in the design of storm water treatment practices. In this specification, the term first flush diversion is used to distinguish it from the traditional storm water management term first flush. The amount can range between the first 0.02 to 0.06 inches and typically applies to rooftop runoff. The diverted flows (i.e. first flush diversion and overflow from the filter) must be directed to an acceptable flow path that will not cause erosion during a 2-yr storm or to an appropriate BMP on the property. Various first flush diverters are described below. In addition to the initial first flush diversion, filters have an associated efficiency curve that estimates the percentage of rooftop runoff that will be conveyed through the filter to the storage tank. If filters are not sized properly, a large portion of the rooftop runoff may be diverted and not conveyed to the tank at all. A design intensity of 1 inch/hour (for design storm = SWRv) should be used for the purposes of sizing pre-tank conveyance and filter components. This design intensity captures a significant portion of the total rainfall during a large majority of rainfall events (NOAA, 2004). If the system will be used for channel and flood protection, the 2-yr and 15-yr storm intensities should be used for the design of the conveyance and pre-treatment portion of the system. For the SWRv, a minimum of 95% filter efficiency is required. This efficiency includes the first flush diversion. The Cistern Design Spreadsheet, discussed more in Section 1.2 assumes a filter efficiency rate of 95% for the SWRv design storm. To meet the requirements to manage the 2-year and 15-year storms, a minimum filter efficiency of 90% should be met.

1.4.1 First Flush Diverters: - First flush diverters direct the initial pulse of rainfall
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away from the storage tank. While leaf screens effectively remove larger debris such as leaves, twigs, and blooms from harvested rainwater, first flush diverters can be used to remove smaller contaminants such as dust, pollen, and bird and rodent feces. Simple first flush diverters require active management, by draining the first flush water volume to a pervious area following each rainstorm. First flush diverters may be the preferred pretreatment method if the water is to be used for indoor purposes. A vortex filter (see Figures 3.2.2) may serve as an effective pre-tank filtration device and first flush diverter.

1.4.2 Leaf Screens: - Leaf screens are mesh screens installed over either the gutter or downspout to separate leaves and other large debris from rooftop runoff. Leaf screens must

be regularly cleaned to be effective; if not maintained, they can become clogged and prevent rainwater from flowing into the storage tanks. Built-up debris can also harbor bacterial growth within gutters or downspouts (TWDB, 2005).

1.4.3 Roof Washers: - Roof washers are placed just ahead of storage tanks and are used to filter small debris from harvested rainwater (see Figure 3.2.3). Roof washers consist of a tank, usually between 25 and 50 gallons in size, with leaf strainers and a filter with openings as small as 30-microns. The filter functions to remove very small particulate matter from harvested rainwater. All roof washers must be cleaned on a regular basis.

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1.4.4 Vortex Filters: - For large scale applications, vortex filters can provide filtering of CDA rainwater from larger CDAs.

Rooftop rainwater harvesting at the household level is most commonly used for domestic purposes. It is popular as a household option as the water source is close to people and thus requires a minimum of energy to collect it. An added advantage is that users own maintain and control their system without the need to rely on other community members.

1.5 Criteria for selection of rainwater harvesting technologies Several factors should be considered when selecting rainwater harvesting systems for domestic use: Type and size of catchment area Local Family size Length of the drought period Alternative water sources Cost of the rainwater harvesting system. When rainwater harvesting is mainly considered for irrigation, several factors should be taken into consideration. These include: rainfall amounts, intensities, and evaporate-transpiration rates
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rainfall

data

and

weather

pattern

soil infiltration rate, water holding capacity, fertility and depth of soil crop characteristics such as water requirement and length of growing period hydrogeology of the site Socio-economic factors such as population density, labour, costs of materials and regulations governing water resources use.

1.6 Components of a rooftop rainwater harvesting system Although rainwater can be harvested from many surfaces, rooftop harvesting systems are most commonly used as the quality of harvested rainwater is usually clean following proper installation and maintenance. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof largely influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality.

Rainwater harvesting systems generally consist of four basic elements:

1. A collection (catchment) area 2. A conveyance system consisting of pipes and gutters 3. A storage facility,
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4. A delivery system consisting of a tap or pump.

1.6.1 A collection or catchment system: - is generally a simple structure such as roofs and/or gutters that direct rainwater into the storage facility. Roofs are ideal as catchment areas as they easily collect large volumes of rainwater. The amount and quality of rainwater collected from a catchment area depends upon the rain intensity, roof surface area, type of roofing material and the surrounding environment. Roofs should be constructed of chemically inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass. Roofing materials that are well suited include slates, clay tiles and concrete tiles. Galvanized corrugated iron and thatched roofs made from palm leaves are also suitable. Generally, unpainted and uncoated surface areas are most suitable. If paint is used, it should be non-toxic (no leadbased paints).

1.6.2 A conveyance system is required to transfer the rainwater from the roof: - catchment area to the storage system by connecting roof drains (drain pipes) and piping from the roof top to one or more downspouts that transport the rainwater through a filter system to the storage tanks. Materials suitable for the pipe work Include polyethylene (PE) polypropylene (PP) or stainless steel. Before water is stored in a storage tank or cistern, and prior to use, it should be Filtered to remove particles and debris. The choice of the filtering system depends on The conditions. Low-maintenance filters with a good filter output and high Water flow should be preferred. First flush systems which filter out the first rain and diverts it away from the storage tank should be also installed. This will remove the Contaminants in rainwater which are highest in the first rain shower.

1.7 THE DESIGN CRITERIA OF A SORAGE TANK 1.7.1 Available Space: - Adequate space is needed to house the storage tank and any overflow. Space limitations are rarely a concern with rainwater harvesting systems if they are considered during the initial building design and site layout of a residential or commercial development. Storage tanks can be placed underground, indoors, on rooftops that are structurally designed to support the added weight, and adjacent to buildings. Designers can work with architects and landscape architects to creatively site the tanks. Underground
19

utilities or other obstructions should always be identified prior to final determination of the tank location.

1.7.2 Site Topography: - Site topography and storage tank location should be considered as they relate to all of the inlet and outlet invert elevations in the rainwater harvesting system. The final invert of the outlet pipe from the storage tank must match the invert of the receiving mechanism (e.g. natural channel, storm drain system) that receives this overflow. The elevation drops associated with the various components of a rainwater harvesting system and the resulting invert elevations should be considered early in the design, in order to ensure that the rainwater harvesting system is feasible for the particular site. Site topography and storage tank location will also affect pumping requirements. Locating storage tanks in low areas will make it easier to get water into the cisterns; however, it will increase the amount of pumping needed to distribute the harvested rainwater back into the building or to irrigated areas situated on higher ground. Conversely, placing storage tanks at higher elevations may require larger diameter pipes with smaller slopes but will generally reduce the amount of pumping needed for distribution. It is often best to locate a cistern close to the building or drainage area, to limit the amount of pipe needed.

1.7.3 Available Hydraulic Head: - The required hydraulic head depends on the intended use of the water. For residential landscaping uses, the cistern should be sited upgradient of the landscaping areas or on a raised stand. Pumps are commonly used to convey stored rainwater to the end use in order to provide the required head. When the water is being routed from the cistern to the inside of a building for non-potable use, often a pump is used to feed a much msmaller pressure tank inside the building, which then serves the internal water demands. Cisterns can also use gravity to accomplish indoor residential uses (e.g. laundry) that do not require high water pressure.

1.7.4 Water Table: - Underground storage tanks are most appropriate in areas where the tank can be buried above the water table. The tank should be located in a manner that is not subject it to flooding. In areas where the tank is to be buried partially below the water table,

20

special design features must be employed, such as sufficiently securing the tank (to keep it from floating), and conducting buoyancy calculations when the tank is empty. The tank may need to be secured appropriately with fasteners or weighted to avoid uplift buoyancy. The tank must also be installed according to the tank manufacturers specifications.

1.7.5 Soil: - Storage tanks should only be placed on native soils or on fill in accordance with the manufacturer's guidelines. The bearing capacity of the soil upon which the cistern will be placed must be considered, as full cisterns can be very heavy. This is particularly important for above-ground cisterns, as significant settling could cause the cistern to lean or in some cases to potentially topple. A sufficient aggregate, or concrete base, may be appropriate depending on the soils. The pH of the soil should also be considered in relation to its interaction with the cistern material.

1.7.6 Proximity of Underground Utilities: - All underground utilities must be taken into consideration during the design of underground rainwater harvesting systems, treating all of the rainwater harvesting system components and storm drains as typical storm water facilities and pipes. The underground utilities must be marked and avoided during the installation of underground tanks and piping associated with the system.

1.7.7 Contributing Drainage Area: - The contributing drainage area (CDA) to the cistern is the impervious area draining to the tank. Rooftop surfaces are what typically make up the CDA, but paved areas and landscaped areas can be used with appropriate treatment (oil/water separators and/or debris excluders). Areas of any size, including portions of roofs, can be used based on the sizing guidelines in this design specification. Runoff should be routed directly from the drainage area to rainwater harvesting systems in closed roof drain systems or storm drain pipes, avoiding surface drainage, which could allow for increased contamination of the water.

1.7.8 Water Quality of Rainwater: - Designers should also note that the pH of rainfall in the District tends to be acidic (ranging from 4.5 to 5.0), which may result in leaching of metals from roof surfaces, tank lining or water laterals, to interior connections.
21

Once rainfall leaves rooftop surfaces, pH levels tend to be slightly higher, ranging from 5.5 to 6.0. Limestone or other materials may be added in the tank to buffer acidity, if desired.

1.7.9 Hotspot Land Uses: - Harvesting rainwater can be an effective method to prevent contamination of rooftop runoff that would result from mixing it with ground-level runoff from a storm water hotspot operation. In some cases, however, industrial roof surfaces may also be designated as storm water hotspots. 1.7.10 Contributing Drainage Area Material: - The quality of the harvested rainwater will vary according to the roof material or drainage area over which it flows. Water harvested from certain types of rooftops and CDAs, such as asphalt sealcoats, tar and gravel, painted roofs, galvanized metal roofs, sheet metal, or any material that may contain asbestos may leach trace metals and other toxic compounds. In general, harvesting rainwater from such surfaces should be avoided. If a sealant or paint roof surface is desired, it is recommended to use one that has been certified for such purposes by the National Sanitation Foundation (ANSI/NSF standard).

1.8 Rainwater harvesting in Prem nagar Location- block number 55, 56, 57 These three blocks are situated behind the prem nagar.

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Block 55

Block 56

General data about rainfall in prem nagar

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Area of one block = 1800m^2 Number of Block=03 Now total area =1800*3 =5400 m^2 Annual rainfall depth =.700m Total number of peoples = 8000(approx)

1.9 Design capacity of storage tank Total water collection= area *rain fall depth =5400*0.7= 3780 m^3 Now total amount of water =3780000 liter There will be 60% of rainfall used for rainwater harvesting= (3780000*60)/100=>2268000 lit So loss of rain water => 3780000-2268000=1512000 liter Total number of peoples= 8000 Per capita water demand =15 liter/person/day Total water demand for drinking => 8000*15= 120000 liter/day Total water demand for gardening and cleaning purpose =>2268000-120000= 2148000 liter So total storage tank capacity =3780000 liter Now we will install the tank in each block = (2268000/3) = 756000 liter

2.1 Rainwater Harvesting Pretreatment Criteria Pre-filtration is required to keep sediment, leaves, contaminants, and other debris from the system. Leaf screens and gutter guards meet the minimal requirement for pre-filtration of small systems, although direct water filtration is preferred. All pre-filtration devices should be low-maintenance or maintenance-free. The purpose of pre-filtration is to significantly cut down on maintenance by preventing organic buildup in the tank, thereby decreasing microbial food.

2.2 Filtration systems and settling tanks There are a wide variety of systems available for treating water before, during and after storage .The level of sophistication also varies, from extremely high-tech to very
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rudimentary. A German company, WISY, have developed an ingenious filter which fits into a vertical downpipe and acts as both filter and first-flush system. The filter, s cleverly takes in water through a very fine (~0.20mm) mesh while allowing silt and debris to continue down the pipe. The efficiency of the filter is over 90%. This filter is commonly used in European systems The simple trash rack has been used in some systems but this type of filter has a number of associated problems: firstly it only removes large debris; and secondly the rack can become clogged easily and requires regular cleaning. The sand-charcoal-stone filter is often used for filtering rainwater entering a tank. This type of filter is only suitable, however, where the inflow is slow to moderate, and will soon overflow if the inflow exceeds the rate at which the water can percolate through the sand. Settling tanks and partitions can be used to remove silt and other suspended solids from the water. These are usually effective where used, but add significant additional cost if elaborate techniques are used. Many systems found in the field real simply on a piece of cloth or fine mosquito mesh to act as the filter (and to prevent mosquitoes entering the tank). Post storage filtration include such systems as the up flow sand filter or the twin compartment candle filters commonly found in LDCs .Many other systems exist and can be found in the appropriate water literature.

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Water supply by pipe Rainwater harvesting is one of the most promising alternatives for supplying water in the face of increasing water scarcity and escalating demand. The pressure on water supplies, increased environmental impact from large projects and deteriorating water quality, constrain the ability to meet the demand for freshwater from traditional sources. Rainwater harvesting presents an opportunity for the augmentation of water supplies allowing t the same time for self-reliance and sustainability.

2.3 Primary Treatment of Rain Water Sand Filters A sand bed filter is a kind of depth filter. Broadly, there are two types of filter for separating particulate solids from fluids: Surface filters, where particulates are captured on a permeable surface Depth filters, where particulates are captured within a porous body of material In addition, there are passive and active devices for causing solid-liquid separation such as settling tanks, self-cleaning screen filters, hydro cyclones and centrifuges.
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There are several kinds of depth filter, some employing fibrous material and others employing granular materials. Sand bed filters are an example of a granular loose media depth filter. They are usually used to separate small amounts (<10 parts per million or <10 g per cubic meter) of fine solids (<100 micrometers) from aqueous solutions. In addition, they are usually used to purify the fluid rather than capture the solids as a valuable material. Therefore they find most of their uses in liquid effluent (wastewater) treatment.

2.4 Secondary Treatment 2.4.1 Lab testing on rain water harvesting in prem nagar

Object: To determine pH value & alkalinity (Hydroxyl ion concentration) of water sample.

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Requirements: Buffer solutions pH 4 & 7, Digital pH Meter, Beakers, Conical Flask, Glass Stirrer, Burette 50 ml, Standard Hydrochloric acid solution 0.001 M, Methyl orange indicator.

Principle: The original definition of the PH = -log [H] is not exact, & cannot be determined exactly by electrometric methods. The activity rather than the concentration of an ion determines the e.m.f of a galvanic cell of the type commonly used to measure PH, hence PH may be defined as PH = -log OH+ Where OH+ is the activity of the hydrogen ion, but even this quantity, as defined, is not capable of precise measurement, since any cell of the type H2, Pt | H+ (unknown) || salt bridge || reference electrode

Used for the measurement inevitably involves a liquid junction potential of more or less uncertain magnitude. Measurement of PH by the e.m.f. method gives values corresponding more closely to the activity than the concentration of hydrogen ion. It can be shown that the PH value is nearly equal to log 1.1 OH+, hence PH = PCH + 0.04 The modern definition of PH is an operational one and is based on the work of standardization and the recommendation of USNBs. In UPAC definition the difference in PH between two solutions a std and an unknown at the same temperature with the same reference electrode and with hydrogen electrodes at the same hydrogen pressure is PH (X) - PH (S) = EX - ES /2.3026RT/F Where EX is the emf of the cell H2, Pt | solution S || 3.5M KCL | reference electrode & ES is the emf of the cell Two H electrode may be replaced by a single glass electrode which is transferred from one cell to the other. The PH difference thus determined is a pure number. The PH scale is defined by specifying the nature of the standard solution & assigning a PH value to it. The modern PH meter is an electronic digital voltmeter, sealed to read PH directly, & may
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range from a comparatively simple hand-hold instrument, suitable for use in the field to more elaborate bench models. A PH meter therefore, always includes a control so that with the electrode assembly placed

In a buffer solution of known PH, the scale reading of the instrument can be adjusted to the correct value. If the cell emf is measured over a range of PH, all measurements at the same temp. & if the readings are then repeated for a series of different temperatures, then on plotting the results as a series of isothermal curves, we find that at same PH value (PHi) the cell emf is independent of temp, PHi is called the isopotential PH.

Procedure Preparation of buffer solutions 1. Dissolve 1 buffer (pH 4 or 7) tab/cap in 50ml Double distilled water taken in a glass beaker. 2. Transfer the liquid into a 100ml volumetric flask.
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3. Wash twice the beaker with 20ml of double distilled water and add washings in volumetric flask. 4. Make up the volume of volumetric flask up to the mark with double distilled water.

Calibration of instrument 1. Switch on & adjust temperature knob at ambient temp and set Calibrate & Slop knob at mid position. Set instrument at pH mode. 2. Put pH 7 buffer solution below clean, activated & dry pH electrode attached with the instrument. 3. Adjust the Calibrate knob till reading displays 7.00 & then remove and wash the pH electrode and gently wipe with tissue paper. 4. Put the pH electrode in pH 4 buffer solution & adjust the slop know till reading displays 4.00. 5. Now the instrument is calibrated and no any knob is disturbed till end of experiment.

Calculation of pH value 1. Filter the water sample if there is any visible turbidity or precipitate. 2. Put the pH electrode in water sample taken in a beaker & note the reading of display. 3. Repeat the process for 3 times and Note down the average of all 3 values.

Calculation of alkalinity of water sample 1. Fill burette with standard hydrochloric acid (0.001M) 2. Take 100ml filtered water sample in a conical flask and add 1-2 drops of methyl orange indicator, the color of water becomes yellow. 3. Add drop wise standard HCl to the conical flask & view over white background till
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color changes from Yellow to Reddish 4. Note the reading & repeat the process for three times.

Observation Table

Calculations

Water sample = HCl Solution N1 x V1 = N2 x V2 N1 x 100 = 0.001 x 11.0 N1= (0.001 x 11)/100 N1= 0.00011

Result

The value of water sample was recorded 10.04 and the alkalinity (Hydroxyl Ion Concentration) of given water sample was found to be 0.00011 N.

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2.5 Experiment-2

Object To determine the turbidity of water sample using coagulant treatment.

Requirements Digital Nephlo Turbidity Meter, Beakers, Conical Flask, Glass Stirrer, 0.1M Potash Alum soln.

Procedure Addition of coagulant 1. Add 5.0ml of 0.1M Potash alum solution in 250ml of filtered water sample and stay for 5 minutes. 2. Shake well the precipitate if formed to make a turbid solute Calibration of instrument 1. Switch on & adjust NTU range button at 1000 NTU. 2. Put double distilled water in sample tube up to the mark for reference and set the NTU reading with ZERO calibrate button to 0.00. 3. Replace the blank with Standard 100 NTU Solution and set the NTU reading with NTU calibrate button to 100. 4. Again replace distilled water followed by standard turbid solution and set 0.00 & 100.0 receptively with corresponding knobs.

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Calculation of Turbidity 1. Fill the sample tube with coagulant treated water sample. 2. Note down the display reading. 3. Repeat the process for 3 times and Note down the average of all 3 values. Observation Table

Calculations Average NTU Value= (212+210+211)/3 = 211

Result The Turbidity of water sample was found to be 211 NTU

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2.6 Tertiary Treatment 2.6.1 Disinfection Technologies :- Although there are numerous disinfection technologies, some of them are more appropriate for home use than others. We recommend that you consider using a combination of ultraviolet light and chlorine for the following reasons. Ultraviolet light (UV) is extremely effective against Cryptosporidium, but high doses are required to inactivate some viral pathogens. In addition, UV systems do not maintain a Disinfectant residual in your plumbing system. Free chlorine is very effective against viruses but is virtually ineffective against Cryptosporidium. In addition, it is easy to maintain and measure free chlorine residual in your plumbing system. If you do not want to maintain a disinfectant residual in your plumbing system, you may want To consider using ozone as an alternative to UV, Like UV, ozone does not produce a longlasting residual and will not provide any protection against bacterial regrowth in your plumbing. However, it is effective against both parasites and viruses. The major reason that we are not recommending ozone is that there is no ANSI/NSF standard for evaluating the safety of ozone generators used for potable water applications. If you do decide to use ozone as your disinfectant, be sure to use an ozone contact vessel that is certified in accordance with ANSI/NSF Standard 61 requirements.

2.6.2 Storage tank or cistern to store harvested rainwater: - for use when needed. Depending on the space available these tanks can be constructed above grade, partly underground, or below grade. They may be constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the building. The storage tank should be also constructed of an inert material such as reinforced concrete, Ferro cement (reinforced steel and concrete), fiberglass, polyethylene, or stainless steel, or they could be made of wood, metal, or earth. The choice of material depends on local availability and affordability. Various types can be used including cylindrical Ferro cement tanks, mortar jars (large jar shaped vessels constructed from wire reinforced mortar) and single and battery
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(interconnected) tanks. Polyethylene tanks are the most common and easiest to clean and connect to the piping system. Storage tanks must be opaque to inhibit algal growth and should be located near to the supply and demand points to reduce the distance water is conveyed. Water flow into the storage tank or cistern is also decisive for the quality of the cistern water. Calm rainwater inlet will prevent the stirring up of the sediment. Upon leaving the cistern, the stored water is extracted from the cleanest part of the tank, just below the surface of the water, using a floating extraction filter. A sloping overflow trap is necessary to drain away any floating matter and to protect from sewer gases. Storage tanks should be also kept closed to prevent the entry of insects and other animals.

2.6.3 Delivery system: - which delivers rainwater and it usually includes a small pump, a Pressure tank and a tap, if delivery by means of simple gravity on site is not feasible. Disinfection of the harvested rainwater, which includes filtration and/or ozone or UV disinfection, is necessary if rainwater is to be used as a potable water source.

2.6.4 Storage tanks or reservoirs: - The storage reservoir is usually the most expensive part of the rainwater harvesting system such that a careful design and construction is needed. The reservoir must be constructed in such a way that it is durable and watertight and the collected water does not become contaminated. All rainwater tank designs should include as a minimum requirement: 1. A solid secure cover 2. A coarse inlet filter 3. An overflow pipe 4. A manhole, sump, and drain to facilitate cleaning 5. An extraction system that does not contaminate the water, e.g. a tap or pump.

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2.7 Storage reservoirs for domestic rainwater harvesting are classified in two categories: 1. Surface or above-ground tanks, most common for roof collection, 2. Sub-surface or underground tanks, common for ground catchment systems.

Materials and design for the walls of sub-surface tanks or cisterns must be able to resist the soil and soil water pressures from outside when the tank is empty. Tree roots can also damage the structure below ground. The size of the storage tank needed for a particular application is mainly determined by the amount of water available for storage (a function of roof size and local average rainfall), the amount of water likely to be used (a function of occupancy and use purpose) and the projected length of time without rain (drought period).

3.1 Rain water harvesting techniques

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There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings. (1) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use. (2) Recharge to ground water. (1) The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniques and structures used were underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to ground water is a new concept of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are: Pits: - Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer. These are constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back filled with boulders, gravels, coarse sand. Trenches: - These are constructed when the permeable stream is available at shallow depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m. Deep and 10 to 20 m. long depending up availability of water, these are back filled with filter materials. Dug wells: - Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure and water should pass through filter media before putting into dug well. Hand pumps: - The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass through filter media before diverting it into hand pumps. Recharge wells: - Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells.

3.2 Urbanization effects on Groundwater Hydrology: Increase in water demand More dependence on ground water use Over exploitation of ground water Increase in run-off, decline in well yields and fall in water levels Reduction in open soil surface area Reduction in infiltration and deterioration in water quality

3.2.1 Methods of artificial recharge in urban areas: Water spreading

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Recharge through pits, trenches, wells, shafts Rooftop collection of rainwater Road top collection of rainwater Induced recharge from surface water bodies. 3.2.2 Computation of artificial recharge from Roof top rainwater collection: Factors taken for computation.

Roof top area 100 sq .m. for individual house and 500 sq .m. for multi storied building. Average annual monsoon rainfall - 780 mm. Effective annual rainfall contributing to recharge 70% - 550 mm.

3.2.3 Benefits of Artificial Recharge in Urban Areas: Improvement in infiltration and reduction in run-off.

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Improvement in groundwater levels and yields. Reduces strain on Special Village Panchayats/ Municipal/Municipal Corporation water supply. Improvement in groundwater quality. Estimated quantity of additional recharge from 100 sq. m. roof top area is 55.000 liters.

3.3 How it works 3.3.1 Roof catchments: Rainwater can be collected from most forms of roof. Tiled roofs, or roofs sheeted with corrugated mild steel etc are preferable, since they are the easiest to use and give the cleanest water. Thatched or palm leafed surfaces are also feasible; although they are difficult to clean and can often taint the run-off. Asbestos sheeting or lead-painted surfaces should be avoided. The rainwater is collected in guttering placed around the eaves of the building. Low cost guttering can be made up from 22 gauge galvanized mild steel sheeting, bent to form a V and suspended by galvanized wire stitched through the thatch or sheeting.

3.3.2 Section through typical gutter: -

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The guttering drains to a down-pipe which discharges into a storage tank. The down-pipe should be made to swivel so that the collection of the first run-off can be run to waste (the first foul flush), thus preventing accumulated bird droppings, leaves, twigs and other vegetable matter, as well as dust and debris, from entering the storage tank. Sometimes a collecting box with a mesh strainer (and sometimes with additional filter media) is used to prevent the ingress of potential pollutants.

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Alternatively, a foul flush box, which can be drained separately, may be fitted between the down-pipe and the storage tank. The run-off from a roof is directly proportional to the quantity of rainfall and the plan area of the roof. For every one millimeter of rain a square meter of roof area will yield one litter of water, less evaporation, spillage losses and wind effects. The guttering and downpipes should be sized so as to be capable of carrying peak volume of run off; in the tropics this can occur during high intensity storms of short duration.

3.4 harvesting rainwater harnessing life: A noble goal a common responsibility: - Ground water exploitation is inevitable is Urban areas. But the groundwater potential is getting reduced due to urbanization resulting in over exploitation. Hence, a strategy to implement the groundwater recharge, in a major way need to be launched with concerted efforts by various Governmental and Non-Governmental Agencies and Public at large to build up the water table and make the groundwater resource, a reliable and sustainable source for supplementing water supply needs of the urban dwellers. 3.5 Attributes of groundwater: There is more ground water than surface water. Ground water is less expensive and economic resource. Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply. Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution.
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Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity. Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms. Ground water needs little treatment before use. Ground water has no turbidity and color . Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower sanitary quality surface water. Ground water is usually universally available. Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used. There are no conveyance losses in ground water based supplies. Ground water has low vulnerability to drought. Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions. Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.

3.5.1 Recharge Shafts: - For recharging the shallow aquifer which is located below clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are constructed and back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

3.5.2 Lateral shafts with bore wells: - For recharging the upper as well as deeper aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon availability of water with one or two bore wells is constructed. The lateral shafts are back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.

3.5.3 Spreading techniques: - When permeable strata start from top then this technique is used. Spread the water in streams/Nalas by making check dams, nala bunds, cement plugs, gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.

3.5.4 First flush and filter screens: -The first rain drains the dust, bird droppings, leaves, etc. which are found on the roof surface. To prevent these pollutants from entering the storage tank, the first rainwater containing the debris should be diverted or flushed. Automatic devices that prevent the first 20-25 liters of runoff from being collected in the storage tank are recommended. Screens to retain larger debris such as leaves can be installed
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in the down-pipe or at the tank inlet. The same applies to the collection of rain runoff from a hard ground surface. In this case, simple gravel-sand filters can be installed at the entrance of the storage tank to filter the first rain.

3.5.5 Rainwater harvesting efficiency :- The efficiency of rainwater harvesting depends on the materials used, design and construction, maintenance and the total amount of rainfall. A commonly used efficiency figure, runoff coefficient, which is the percentage of precipitation that appears as runoff, is 0.8. For comparison, if cement tiles are used as a roofing material, the year-round roof runoff coefficient is about 75%, whereas clay tiles collect usually less than 50% depending on the harvesting technology. Plastic and metal sheets are best with an efficiency of 80-90%. For effective operation of a rainwater harvesting system, a well-designed and carefully constructed gutter system is also crucial. 90% or more of the rainwater collected on the roof will be drained to the storage tank if the gutter and down-pipe system is properly fitted and maintained. Common materials for gutters and down-pipes are metal and plastic, but also cement-based products, bamboo and wood can be used.

3.6 Some useful data Geographical Area : 2662 Sq. km Blocks : 10 (prem nagar west)

Rural Population as % of Total Population: 52.52%

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Urban Population as % of Total Population: 47.48%

Prem nagar, the central most city of dehradun is located between 30o 59: 31o 37 north latitudes and 75o 04 : 75o 57 east longitudes. Total geographical area of the district is 2662 sq.km. Administratively, the district is controlled by dehradun division. . The total population of
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district was 19,53,508 as per 2001 Census, which constitutes 8.04 % of the total population of the prem nagar. dehradun district has observed a growth (1991-2001) rate of 18.40 %. Population density of district is 742 person/sq.km having a literacy rate of 77.91%

4.1 Geomorphology and soils The district forms a part of Beas Sub basin of Indus basin.The district is part of Bist Doab Tract, which is inter alluvial plain tons River. Physiographically, the district is characterised by two distinct features i.e. vast upland plain and Satluj flood plain. The width of the flood plain varies according to the amount of shift experienced by the river. It is widest in the dehradunr tehsil. The district is mainly drained by the river tons and dehradun has two types of soils viz-tropical arid brown and arid brown soils (solonized). Tropical brown soils are found In major parts of the district whereas arid brown soils are found in south western part of the district especially in dehradun . Type of soil is found.

4.2 Hydrometeorology Climate of the district can be classified as tropical and dry sub humid. The area receives normal annual rainfall is about 701 mm which is spread over 35 rainy days. 70% of rainfall occurs during south-west monsoon.

4.3 Hydrology and surface water utilization The Bist Doab Canal System is the major source of canal irrigation. The network of dehradun branch (irrigate northern and central parts) and Phillaur distributary of dehradun branch ((irrigate southern parts of the district). In all there are 41 canals having total length of 604.40 km. of which Best Doab canal is 43 km long. Out of 2,27,423 ha net irrigated area, 26,755 ha is irrigated by canal and rest by ground water. At present, two irrigation projects are in operation. One project is for Remodeling of Phillaur distributry system in prem nagar area and
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other project is for Construction of super passage over Nasrala choe near prem nagar. The main purpose of the irrigation project is to increase the capacity of the channel by 20% and to avoid the damages to the crops and adjoining abadies during flood season.

4.4 Agriculture Net area sown in the district is 2,27,994 ha which constitutes 86% of the total area. Area sown more than once is 1,85,285 ha bringing the total cropped area (Gross sown area) to

4,13,279 ha. Paddy constitutes main kharif crop whereas the wheat is the main Rabi crop. Perusal of historical data reveals that the paddy cultivation has increased about 85 times since 1950-51 against wheat cultivation, which has increased only 1.7 times. Average yield of paddy cultivation has increased from 806 kg/ha to 3588 kg/ha where as wheat crop average yield has increased from 958 kg/ha to 4925 kg/ha over the period of last 50 years. Thus, it has given further stress on ground water.

4.5 Hydrogeology The district is occupied by geological formations of Quaternary age comprising of Recent alluvial deposits belong to the vast Indus alluvial plains. Central Ground Water Board has drilled one exploratory borehole and 15 piezometers to delineate and determine potential aquifer zones, evaluation of aquifer characteristics etc. Ground water exploration undertaken by CGWB has revealed the presence of 4 sets of aquifer groups down to a depth of 312 m. These zones

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4.6 Water level behavior 43 Depth to water level in the area ranges from 6.0 to 29.0 m bgl during pre-monsoon period and is shallow in northern part and deeper in southern part. Deepest water levels are normally reported from parts of Shahkot block.
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In major part of the district water level varies between 10 and 15m. Long-term net change of water levels indicates a general decline (negative change) in the large part of the district and it is up to 8.18m. The maximum fall is observed in parts of Nakodar and Shahkot blocks.

4.7 Ground water flow Elevation of the water table in the district varies from 205m to 240m above msea level. Average gradient of the water table is of the order of 1.08 m/km. Overall flow of ground water is towards south- west direction.

4.8 Drinking water supply Entire drinking water supply to all the rural as well as urban sectors of the district is based on only ground water through deep tube wells drilled down to the depth of 150 m. These tube wells tap aquifer zones from a depth range of 55 m to 143m. On an average 35m thick aquifer is tapped for extracting Ground water.

4.9 Tube well irrigation There are 92,734 shallow tube wells ranging in depth from 25 to 60m and provide irrigation to 200349 ha area which constitutes about 88.09% of the total irrigated area. Discharge of these shallow tube wells ranged between 100 and 800 lpm with a drawdown of 1.0 to 3.5m. A large number of shallow tube wells generally exist in the blocks lying in southern parts and deep Tube wells exist only in Shahkot and Lohian blocks of the district. This is primarily due to occurrence of relatively finer grained sediments in these blocks.

5.1 Designing a rainwater harvesting system For the design of a rainwater harvesting system, rainfall data is required preferably for a period of at least 10 years. The more reliable and specific the data is for the location, the better the design will be. Data for a given area can be obtained at the meteorological departments, agricultural and hydrological research centers and airports. One simple method of determining the required storage volume, and consequently the size of the storage tank, is shown below:
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With an estimated water consumption of 20 L/C*d, which is the commonly accepted minimum, the water demand will be = 20 x n x 365 l/year, where n=number of people in the household. If there are five people in the household then the annual water demand is 36,500 liters or about 3,000 l/month. For a dry period of four months, the required minimum storage capacity would be about 12,000 litters. As rainwater supply depends on the annual rainfall, roof surface and the runoff coefficient, the amount of rainwater that can be collected = rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x runoff coefficient. As an example: a metal sheet roof of 80 m2 with 800 mm rainfall/year will yield = 80 x800x0.8= 51,200 l/year. Demonstrates the cumulative roof runoff (m3) over a one-year period and the cumulative water demand (m3). The greatest distance between these two lines gives the required storage volume (m3) to minimize the loss of rainwater.

5.2 Typical domestic RWH systems 5.2.1 Storage tanks and cisterns The water storage tank usually represents the biggest capital investment element of a domestic RWH system. It therefore usually requires careful design to provide optimal storage capacity while keeping the cost as low as possible. The catchment area is usually the existing rooftop or occasionally a cleaned area of ground , as seen in the courtyard Collection systems in China ,and guttering can often be obtained relatively cheaply, or can be manufactured locally. There are an almost unlimited number of options for storing water. Common vessels used for very small-scale water storage in developing countries in clued such examples as plastic Bowl sand buckets, jerry cans, clay or ceramic jars, cement jars, old oil drums, and empty food Containers, etc. For storing larger quantities of water the system will usually require a tank or a cistern. For the purpose of this document we will classify the tank as an aboveground storage vessel and the cistern as a below-ground storage vessel. These can vary in size from a cubic me tree or so (1000 liters) up to hundreds of cubic meters for large projects, but typically up to a maximum of 20 or 30 cubic meters for a domestic system. The choice of
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system will depend on a number of technical and economic considerations silted below. Space availability Options available locally Local traditions for water storage Cost of purchasing new tank Cost of materials and labor for construction Materials and skills available locally Ground conditions Style of RWH-: the system will provide total or partial water supply One of the main choices will be whether to use a tank or a cistern. Both tanks and cisterns have their advantages and disadvantages.

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5.2.3 Ferro cement tanks Above ground level, tanks are constructed with a plain or reinforced concrete base, cylindrical walls of Ferro cement and a roof of Ferro cement, or sometimes mild steel sheeting. The construction of Ferro cement walls is carried out by first assembling a cylindrical mesh of chicken wire and/or fence wire reinforcement, with or without the aid of formwork. On to this, a cement-rich mortar of 3:1 sand: cement is applied by trowel and built up in layers of about 15 millimeters to a finished thickness of between 30 to 100 millimeters, depending on wall height and tank diameter. Thicker walls may have two layers of mesh. The mesh helps to control local cracking and the higher walls may call for the provision of small diameter vertical steel reinforcing bars for bending resistance. Sometimes barbed fence wire is wound spirally up the wall to assist with resistance to ring tension and stress distribution. Effective curing of the mortar between the trowel ling of each layer is very important and affects the durability of the material and its resistance to cracking. Mortar should be still green when the next layer is placed. This means that the time gap between layers should be between 12 and 24hours. The finished material should then be cured continuously for up to 10 days under damp hessian, or other sheeting. A ferrocement tank is easy to repair and, if the mortar has been properly applied and cured, should provide long service as a water-retaining structure at a fraction of the cost of a reinforced concrete structure.

5.2.4 Rock catchments Just as the roofs of buildings can be exploited for the collection of rainwater, so can rock outcrops be used as collecting surfaces. Indeed, if access to the catchment area by animals, children etc, can be prevented, a protected catchment can collect water of high quality, as long as its surfaces are well flushed and cleaned before storage takes place. A significant proportion of Gibraltars water is obtained from sloping rock catchments on the Rock. At the foot of the slopes, collecting channels drain into pipes which lead to tanks excavated inside the rock. Some artificial collection surfaces have also been formed: cracks and voids in rock surfaces have been filled in and at large, soil covered, sloping area has been covered in corrugated mild steel sheeting supported on short piles driven into the subsoil. This is a huge example of what may be possible on a smaller domestic or village scale. Sometimes it proves difficult to prevent the collected water from being polluted. If so, it is sensible to use this
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water for purposes that do not require a potable water supply, such as house cleaning, laundry, horticulture etc, and reserve for drinking water, cooking and personal hygiene the better quality water which has been collected from a clean roof .Use can also be made of other forms of ground catchment where, although the collection coefficient can be as low as 30%, useful volumes of water can be collected and used for agriculture and animals.

5.2.5 Cultural acceptability Rainwater harvesting is an accepted freshwater augmentation technology in many parts of the world. While the bacteriological quality of rainwater collected from ground catchments is
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poor, rainwater from properly maintained rooftop catchment systems, which are equipped with tight storage tanks and taps, is generally suitable for drinking and often meets the WHO drinking water standards. This water is generally of higher quality than most traditional water sources found in the developing world. Rooftop catchment of rainwater can provide good quality water which is clean enough for drinking, as long as the rooftop is clean, impervious and made from non-toxic materials and located away from over-hanging trees.

5.6 Maintenance Maintenance is generally limited to the annual cleaning of the tank and regular inspection and cleaning of gutters and down-pipes. Maintenance typically consists of the removal of dirt, leaves and other accumulated material. Cleaning should take place annually before the start of the major rainfall season. Filters in the inlet should be inspected every about three months. Cracks in storage tanks can create major problems and should be repaired immediately.

5.6.1 Regulations and technical standards The most important aspect during the construction of a rainwater harvesting system is to completely separate the rainwater and drinking water networks. All rainwater pipe work and tapping points should be clearly designated and secured against unauthorized use. In Germany, the construction of a rainwater harvesting system does not require a building approval but it is advisable to report it to the local public health office as well as the local water supplier. Some regulations and standards should be taken into consideration during construction and maintenance of a rainwater harvesting system

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(Graphical methode of determine the required storage volume for a rain water) 5.6.2 Types of rainwater use Rainwater systems can be classified according to their reliability, yielding four types of user regimes: Occasional - water is stored for only a few days in a small container. This is suitable when there is a uniform rainfall pattern with very few days without rain and when a reliable alternative water source is available. Intermittent - in situations with one long rainy season when all water demands are met by rainwater. During the dry season, water is collected from other sources. Partial - rainwater is used throughout the year but the 'harvest' is not sufficient for all domestic demands. For example, rainwater is used for drinking and cooking, while for other domestic uses (e.g. bathing and laundry) water from other sources is used.

Full - for the whole year, all water for all domestic purposes comes from rainwater. In

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such cases, there is usually no alternative water source other than rainwater, and the available water should be well managed, with enough storage to bridge the dry period. Which of the user regimes to be followed depends on many variables including rainfall quantity and pattern, available surface area and storage capacity, daily consumption rate, number of users, cost and affordability, and the presence of alternative water sources.

5.7 Advantage of rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting in urban and rural areas offers several benefits including provision of supplemental water, increasing soil moisture levels for urban greenery, increasing the groundwater table via artificial recharge, mitigating urban flooding and improving the quality of groundwater. In homes and buildings, collected rainwater can be used for irrigation, toilet flushing and laundry. With proper filtration and treatment, harvested rainwater can also be used for showering, bathing, or drinking. The major benefits of rainwater harvesting are summarized below: Rainwater is a relatively clean and free source of water. Rainwater harvesting provides a source of water at the point where it is needed . It is owner-operated and managed. It is socially acceptable and environmentally responsible. It promotes self-sufficiency and conserves water resources. Rainwater is friendly to landscape plants and gardens. It reduces storm water runoff and non-point source pollution. It uses simple, flexible technologies that are easy to maintain. Offers potential cost savings especially with rising water costs. Provides safe water for human consumption after proper treatment. Low running costs. Construction, operation and maintenance are not labour -intensive.

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5.8 Disadvantages The main disadvantages of rainwater harvesting technologies are the limited supply and uncertainty of rainfall. Rainwater is not a reliable water source in times of dry periods or prolonged drought. Other disadvantages include: Low storage capacity which will limit rainwater harvesting, whereas, increasing the storage capacity will add to the construction and operating costs making the technology less economically feasible Possible contamination of the rainwater with animal wastes and organic matter which may result in health risks if rainwater is not treated prior to consumption as a drinking water source Leakage from cisterns can cause the deterioration of load-bearing slopes Cisterns and storage tanks can be unsafe for small children if proper access protection is not provided.

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5.9 Effectiveness of technology The feasibility of rainwater harvesting in a particular locality is highly dependent on the amount and intensity of rainfall. As rainfall is usually unevenly distributed throughout the year, rainwater harvesting can usually only serve as a supplementary source of household water. The viability of rainwater harvesting systems is also a function of the quantity and quality of water available from other sources, household size, per capita water requirements and available budget. Accounts of serious illness linked to rainwater supplies are few, suggesting that rainwater harvesting technologies are effective sources of water supply. It would appear that the potential for slight contamination of roof runoff from occasional bird droppings does not represent a major health risk. Nevertheless, placing taps at about 10 cm above the base of the rainwater storage tanks allows any debris entering the tank to settle on
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the bottom, where it will not affect the quality of the stored water, provided it remains undisturbed. Finally, effective water harvesting schemes require community participation which is Enhanced by: sensitivity to peoples needs indigenous knowledge and local expertise full participation and consideration of gender issues, Taking consideration of prevailing farming systems as well as national policies and community by low

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Conclusions

The cheap but invaluable natural resource of water in the way of floods have to be effectively stored, to ensure safety of the people besides more importantly its effective utility for alround development. Rainwater harvesting :

With the ever increasing concrete jungles besides metalling of ever increasing road metalling, Rainwater harvesting is the ultimate method of ensuring ground water table for the benefit of all living beings on this earth besides its flora and fauna.

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Bibliography: Nissen-Petersen E(2007) Water from roofs,Danida Gould G, Nissen-Petersen E(1999) Rainwater catchment systems,IT Publications, London Pacey A, Cullis A(1986) Rainwater harvesting: The collection of rainfall and run-off in rural areas, IT Publications, London https://www.rain water harvesting https://www.Rain water harvesting & overview,

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