Optoelectronics EE/OPE451,OPT444

Fall2009Section1:T/Th 9:30 10:55PM

JohnD.Williams,Ph.D. DepartmentofElectricalandComputerEngineering 406OpticsBuilding UAHuntsville,Huntsville,AL35899 Ph.(256)8242898email:williams@eng.uah.edu OfficeHours:Tues/Thurs23PM

1 JDW,ECEFall2009

CourseTextbookandTopicsCovered
Ch.1:WaveNatureofLight Ch.2:DielectricWaveguides Sections2.1and2.2only Ch.3:SemiconductorScienceandLight EmittingDiodes Ch.4:StimulatedEmissionDevices Sections4.9 4.14only Ch.5:Photodetectors Ch.7:PhotovoltaicDevices Ch.8:PolarizationandModulationofLight

PrenticeHallInc. 2001S.O.Kasap ISBN:0201610876 http://photonics.usask.ca/

2 JDW,ECEFall2009

AdditionalSupportiveMaterial
Thebreadthofthiscourseislargerthanasingletextbook Certainsectionswillhaveaddedmaterialpresentedinclassfromthefollowingtwo textbooks

FundamentalsofPhotonics ISBN13: 9780471358329 JohnWiley&Sons

Optoelectroncics:infraredVisibleUV DevicesandApplications2nded. ISBN: 9781420067804 CRCPress

Photonicsreadsmorelikeanencyclopediathanatextbookbuthassomenice applicationsanddiagrams Optoelectronicscoverscurrentdeviceconceptsbutlacksontheory StudentswillbetestedonmaterialfromKasap

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JDW,ECEFall2009

CourseProgrammatics
CoursewillbetaughtonslidespostedonAngelaftereachclass
Studentsareexpectedtotaketheirownnotesbasedonclasspresentation Figuresandkeypointswillbeprovidedafteronslides

AdditionalmaterialfromeachsubjecttopicwillbepostedonAngelasoptional readingforanyoneinterested Coursewillfocusonkeyconceptsandequationsthatdescribethem

FirstprinciplederivationswillNOTberequiredunlesstheyarecriticalforstudent development Mosthomeworkandtestassignmentswillcanbeansweredbyunderstandingthequestion andapplyingaformula

Classproject(25%ofthetotalgrade) Studentswillbeaskedtoworkinteamstoresearchaparticulartopicin optoelectronics Teamswillturninatermpapernolessthan10pages(1space) Teamswillpresentthetopicin8minpresentations HomeworkwillbedueatthebeginningofclasseveryTuesday(15%) Twoinclassexamsand1comprehensivefinal(60%)

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JDW,ECEFall2009

IntroductiontoOptoelectronics
DefinitionofOptoelectronics
Subfieldofphotonicsinwhich voltagedrivendevicesareused tocreate,detect,ormodulate opticalsignalsusingquantum mechanicaleffectsoflighton semiconductorsmaterials Examplesofoptoelectronic devices

www.udt.com

http://www.led.scale train.com/blue0603led.php

siliconphotmultiplier.com
JDW,ECEFall2009

Photodiode LED DFBLASER http://spie.org/x27589.xml?ArticleID=x27589 VSCEL SemiconductorPhotomultipliers IntegratedOpticalCircuit

240Opticalcomponentsonachip InfineraWavelengthMultiplexer2007

Opticis.com

5
http://www.fi.isc.cnr.it/users/giovanni.giacomelli/Semic/Samples/samples.html

WhatisPhotonics?
BroadertopicthanOptoelectronicsalone Studyofwave/particledualitydevicesin optics.
Studyofopticaldevicesthatutilizephotonsinstead oftheclassicalelectromagneticwavesolution. emision,detection,modulation,signalprocessing, transmissionandamplificationoflightbasedon QMandSolidStateprinciples

Stateoftheartisthedevelopmentoflight modulationthroughperiodicstructure

A.D.Dinsmore,UmassAmherst2009

J.Obrien,USCPhotonicsGroup2009 L.H.Gabrielli,NaturePhotonics3,461463(2009). JDW,ECEFall2009 6

Ch.1:WaveNatureofLight
1.1LightWavesinaHomogeneousMedium
A.PlaneElectromagneticWave B.Maxwell'sWaveEquationandDivergingWaves

1.2RefractiveIndex 1.3GroupVelocityandGroupIndex 1.4MagneticField,IrradianceandPoynting Vector 1.5Snell'sLawandTotalInternalReflection(TIR) 1.6Fresnel'sEquations

A.AmplitudeReflectionandTransmissionCoefficients B.Intensity,ReflectanceandTransmittance

1.7MultipleInterferenceandOpticalResonators 1.8GoosHnchen ShiftandOpticalTunneling 1.9TemporalandSpatialCoherence 1.10DiffractionPrinciples

A.Fraunhofer Diffraction B.Diffractiongrating

Chapter1HomeworkProblems:1,2,417

PrenticeHallInc. 2001S.O.Kasap ISBN:0201610876 http://photonics.usask.ca/

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JDW,ECEFall2009

WaveNatureofLight
PlaneElectromagneticWave
TreatedastimevaryingelectricEx andmagnetic,By,fields EandBarealwaysperpendiculartoeachother Propagatethroughspaceinthez direction Simplestrepresentationisasinusoidalwave(oraMonochromaticplanewave)

E x = Eo cos(t kz + o )

WhereEx =electricfieldatpositionzattimet, Eo =amplitudeoftheelectricfield k=wavenumber(k=2/) =wavelength =angularfrequency x o =phaseconstant (t kz + o ) = =phaseofthewave

y

Ex

Direction of Propagation

Aplanersurfaceoverwhichthephase ofthewaveisconstantiscalleda wavefront

JDW,ECEFall2009

By

An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation, z.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

WaveFronts
Aplanersurfaceoverwhichthephaseofthewaveisconstantiscalledawavefront

E x = Eo cos(t kz + o )
z
E B E and B have constant phase in this xy plane; a wavefront E k Propagation

Ex

Ex = Eo sin(tkz )

A plane EM wave travelling along z, has the same E x (or By) at any point in a given xy plane. All electric field vectors in a given xy plane are therefore in phase. The xy planes are of infinite extent in the x and y directions.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

9 JDW,ECEFall2009

OpticalField
UseofE fieldstodescribelight WeknowfromElectrodynamicsthatatimevaryingB field resultsintimevaryingE fieldsandviseversa ThusalloscillatingE fieldshaveamutuallyoscillating Bfield perpendiculartoboththe Efieldandthedirectionof propagation However,oneusestheE fieldratherthanthe Bfieldtodescribe thesystem
ItistheEfieldthatdisplaceselectronsinmoleculesandionsinthe crystalsatopticalfrequenciesandtherebygivesrisetothe polarizationofmatter Notethatthefieldsareindeedsymmetricallylinked,butitistheE fieldthatismostoftenusedtocharacterizethesystem

10 JDW,ECEFall2009

OptionalPlaneWaveRepresentations
1Dsolution
E x = E o cos( t kz + o ) E x = E ( z , t ) = E o cos( t kz + o )
Since

Generalsolution
E = E (r , t ) = Eo cos(t kz + o ) rr r jo j (t k r ) E (r , t ) = Re[ Eo e e ] rr r j (t k r ) E (r , t ) = Re[ Ec e ]

cos( ) = Re[ei ]

E ( z , t ) = Re[ E o e j o e j ( t kz ) ] E ( z , t ) = Re[ E c e j ( t kz ) ]

r r Where k r = k x x + k y y + k z z
y

k =wavevectorwhosemagnitudeis2/
Direction of propagation

E (r,t)

r z

A travelling plane EM wave along a direction k

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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JDW,ECEFall2009

PhaseVelocity
Foraplanewave,therelationshipbetweentimeandspaceforanygive phase,,isconstant (t kz + o ) = =constant Duringanytimeinterval,t,thisconstantphase(andhencemaximum valueofE)movesadistancer. Thephasevelocityofthewaveis
v =

r dr 2v = = = = v t dt k 2 /
2z

Thephasedifference, atanygiventimebetweentwopointsonawave thatareseparatedbyadistancezis

= kz =

Sincetisthesameforeachpoint

Thefieldsaresaidtobeinphaseifhephasedifferenceiszeroif=0or 2 multiplesofkzwithregardstotheinitialvalue. 12

JDW,ECEFall2009

MaxwellsWaveEqn.andDivergingWaves
2E 2E E = 2 = r o o 2 t t
2
Wave fronts (constant phase surfaces)

E=

A cos(t kr ) r
k Wave fronts

Wave fronts

E r

z A perfect plane wave (a) A perfect spherical wave (b) Examples of possible EM waves 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) A divergent beam (c)

Planewavesemanatefromsurfaceofrelativelyinfinitesize
Wavefrontsareplanes

AsphericalwaveemanatesfromaEMpointsourcewhoseamplitude decayswithdistance
Wavefrontsarespherescenteredatthepointsource

Adivergentbeamemanatesfromadefinedsurface
13

Theopticaldivergencereferstotheangularseparationofthewavevectorsonagiven wavefront JDW,ECEFall2009

BeamDivergence
ConsideraGaussianlaseremittingfromaslaboffiniteradius(orwaistradius)2wo Wedefinetheinitialwaistofthebeamaswo Asthebeammovesfarenoughfromthesurfacesuchthatsourcenolongerlookslike aninfiniteplane,thenthewavefrontsbegintodivergeataconstantangle Thehalfangleofthedivergenceis Thebeamdiameter,2w,atanydistancezfromtheoriginisdefinedsuchthatthe crosssectionalarea ofthebeam(w2)contains85%ofthetotalbeampower. Thebeamdivergenceistheangle2 whichiscalculatedfromthewaist radius y
Wave fronts

Beamdivergence

(b) x

4 2 = (2 wo )
Inradians!!!!!!

2w o O

z Beam axis Intensity

(a)

(c)

Gaussian

r 2w

(a) Wavefronts of a Gaussian light beam. (b) Light intensity across beam cross section. (c) Light irradiance (intensity) vs. radial distance r from beam axis ( z ).
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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JDW,ECEFall2009

Example1
ConsideraHeNelaserbeamat633nmwithaspotsizeof10 mm.AssumingaGaussianbeam,whatisthedivergenceof thebeam?
Beamdivergence
9 4 4 ( 633 10 m) 5 o 2 = = = 8 . 06 10 rad = 0 . 0046 (2 wo ) (10 10 3 m)

Atwhatdistanceisthespotsizeofthedivergedbeamequal to1m?
0.0046o z 0.5m

z = tan 1 (0.0046o )
JDW,ECEFall2009

1m 6227 m 2

15

RefractiveIndex
AssumeanEMwavetravelinginadielectricmediumwithpermittivity =ro EMpropagationisequaltothepropagationofthepolarizationinthemedium Duringpropagation,theinducedmoleculardipolesbecomecoupledandthe polarizationdecaysthepropagationoftheEMwave ieTHEWAVESLOWSDOWNandthevelocityofthewavedependsdirectlyonthe permittivityandpermeabilityofthematerialitistravelingthrough ForanEMwavetravelingthroughanonmagneticdielectric,thephasevelocityof thewaveis: v =

r o o

Fromthewaveeqn.

2 2 2 1 E E E 2 E = 2 2 = 2 = r o o 2 t t v t

Inavacuum,v=c=speedoflight=3x108 m/swherec= Therefractiveindex,n,istherelativeratioofc/v = r

oo
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JDW,ECEFall2009

OpticalConstantsinamedium
Indexofrefraction,n=c/v Wavevector,kmedium=nk Wavelength,medium=n Innoncrystallinematerialssuchasglassesandliquids,thematerialstructureis statisticallythesameinaldirections,andthusndoesnotdependondirection. Therefractiveindexisthensaidtobeisotropic Incrystalstheatomicarrangementsbetweenatomsoftendemonstratedifferent permittivitiesindifferentdirections.Suchmaterialsaresaidtobeanisotropic IngeneralthepropagationofanEMfieldinasolidwilldependonthepermittivity ofthesolidalongthekdirection. Anisotropicpermittivitiesthatintroducearelativephaseshiftalongthedirection ofpropagationhavecomplextermsintheoffdiagonalstermsofthepermittivity matrixandwillbethediscussionofvariousdeviceconceptsdescribedinCh.7

17 JDW,ECEFall2009

FrequencyDependentPermittivity
Materialsdonotoftendemonstrateasingledegreeofpolarizationalonganyonedirection acrosstheentirefrequencyrange. Infactthefrequencydependenceofpermittivityiswhatgivesrisetopropertiessuchas absorptionwithinasolidandallowsonetoseeobjectsincolor. Mostmaterialsofopticalinteresthaveabsorptionbandsinwhichthepermittivity,andthus therefractiveindex,changesdrastically.Shiftingoftheseconstantsbydopingthematerial, (oraddinglargemagneticfields)hasallowedforthedevelopmentofbandgap semiconductorswithspecificopticalpropertiesforopticalgenerationanddetection. Considerthesimplestexpressionusedtocalculatethepermittivity

r = 1 + N / o
WhereNisthenumberofpolarizablemoleculesperunitvolume,and isthe polarizabilitypermolecule. IfIcaninjectorremovetherelativeNvalueinasolid,thenonecanchangethepermittivity ofthatsolidandthereforeitselectronicandopticalproperties. IfthesolidisastackofsemiconductormaterialswithdifferentNvaluesthatrespond opticallywhenbiased,thenonecancreateanoptoelectronicdevice!!! Ifthepolarizability,,isfrequencydependent(anditis),thenouroptoelectronicdevicewill workoveraparticularfrequencyrangewhichcanbeengineeredforthespectralbandof 18 interest!!!!
JDW,ECEFall2009

GroupVelocity
Firstandforemost:THEREARENOPERFECT + MONOCHROMATICWAVESinpractice Therearealwaysbundlesofwaveswithslightly differentfrequenciesandwavevectors Assumethewavestravelwithslightlydifferent Emax k Emax frequencies, + and Thewavevectorsarethereforerepresentedby K+kandk k Thecombinedtransformgeneratesawave Wave packet packetoscillatingatameanbeatfrequency thatisamplitudemodulatedbyaslowlytime Two slightly different wavelength waves travelling in the same direction result in a wave packet that has an amplitude variation varyingfieldat which travels at the group velocity. Themaximumamplitudemoveswithawave 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) vectork Thevelocityofthepacketiscalledthegroup Forvideoofwavepackets velocity andisdefinedas

vg =

d d

withandwithoutv=vg:

Thegroupvelocitydefinesthespeedatwhich theenergyispropagatedsinceitdefinesthe speedoftheenvelopeoftheamplitude variation

http://newton.ex.ac.uk/tea ching/resources/au/phy11 06/animationpages/

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JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:GroupVelocity
+
Emax Emax

Wave packet

Two slightly different wavelength waves travelling in the same direction result in a wave packet that has an amplitude variation which travels at the group velocity.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Resultingwaveis:

E x ( z , t ) = Eo cos[( )t (k k )z ] + Eo cos[( + )t (k + k )z ]

UsingtheTrigidentity: Weget: Maximumfieldoccurswhen: Yieldsvelocity:

cos A + cos B = 2 cos[1 / 2( A B )]cos[1 / 2( A + B )]

E x ( z , t ) = 2 Eo cos[( )t (k )z ]cos[t kz ]

[( )t (k )z ] = 2m
dz d = = vg dt d
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JDW,ECEFall2009

GroupIndex
Supposevdependsonthe orK c 2 wheren=n() = vk = n Bydefinition,thegroupvelocityisthen
d c c vg = = = dn dk Ng n d WedefineNg asthegroupindexofthe medium. Wenowhaveawaytodeterminetheeffect ofthemediumonthegroupvelocityat differentwavelengths(frequency dependence!!!) Therefractiveindex,n,andgroupindex,Ng, dependonthepermittivityofthematerial,r Wedefineadispersivemediumisamedium inwhichboththegroupandphasevelocities dependonthewavelength. Allmaterialsaresaidtobedispersiveover particularfrequencyranges

Dispersivemediumexample:SiO2
1.49 1.48 1.47 1.46

Ng

n
1.45 1.44 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900

Wavelength (nm)

Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

JDW,ECEFall2009

Ng andnarefrequency(wavelength)dependent NoticetheminimaforNgat1300nm. Ng iswavelengthindependentnear1300 nm Lightat1300nmtravelsthroughSiO2 at thesamegroupvelocitywithout 21 dispersion

Example:EffectsofaDispersiveMedium
Consider1umwavelengthlightpropagatingthroughSiO2 Atthiswavelength,Ng andnarebothfrequencydependentwithno localminima Thusthemediumisdispersive Nowwemustaskthequestion,arethegroupandphasevelocitiesof thepropagatingwavepacketthesame? PhaseVelocity

v=

m dz c m = = 3 x10 8 / 1 . 450 = 2 . 069 x10 8 dt n s s

1.49 1.48 1.47 1.46

Ng

GroupVelocity

n
1.45 1.44 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900

vg =

d c m m = = 3 x10 8 / 1 . 463 = 2 . 051 x10 8 dk Ng s s

Answer:NO!!!! Thegroupvelocityis0.9%slowerthanthephasevelocity

Wavelength (nm)

Refractive index n and the group index Ng of pure SiO2 (silica) glass as a function of wavelength.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

22 JDW,ECEFall2009

EnergyFlowinEMWaves
LetusrecallthatthereisindeedaBfieldintheEMwave. Recallfromelectrostaticsthat c E x = vB y = B y n where
v= n=

r o o r

AstheEMwavepropagatesalongthedirectionk,thereisanenergyflowinthatdirection 1 Electrostaticenergydensity r o E x2 2 Whereboththesevaluesareequal 1 2 Magnetostatic energydensity By 2o TheEnergyflowperunittimeperunitarea,S,isdefinedasthePoynting Vector

2 ( ) = v( Avt )( r o Ex S= r

At r v v 2 S = v r o E B
JDW,ECEFall2009

2 2 E v r o Ex By = o x

23

Irradiance
MagnitudeofthePointingVectoriscalledtheirradiance Notethatbecausewearediscussingsinusoidalwaveforms,thattheinstantaneousirradiance oflightpropagatinginphaseistakenfromtheinstantaneousamplitudeofEandB respectively

S = v2 r o Ex By
Instantaneousirradiancecanonlybemeasuredifthepowermeterrespondsmorequickly thantheelectricfieldoscillations. Asonemightimagine,atopticalfrequencies,allpracticemeasurementsaremadeusingthe averageirradiance. Theaverageirradianceis

1 2 I = Savg = v r o Eo 2 1c 1 m r o Eo2 = cn o Eo2 = 1.33108 nEo2 = 2n 2 s

24 JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:ElectricandMagneticFieldsinLight
Theintensity(irradiance)oftheredlaserfromaHeNelaseratacertainlocationwas measuredtoabout1mW/cm2. Whatarethemagnitudesoftheelectricandmagneticfields?

2I 2(1103 104Wm2 ) V Eo = = = 87 cn o m 8 m 1.3310 (n = 1) s Bo = Eo / c = 0.29T

Whatarethemagnitudesifthisbeamisinaglassmediumwithrefractiveindex1.45?

V 2I 2(1103 104Wm2 ) Eo = = = 72 cn o m 8 m 1.3310 (1.45) s Note:therelativeamplitudeof Edecreased,andBincreased Bo = nEo / c = 0.35T

andthusthepolarizedwave becamemoreellipsoidal 25
JDW,ECEFall2009

SnellsLaw
Neglectabsorptionandemission Lightinterfacingwithasurfaceboundarywill reflectbackintothemediumandtransmit throughthesecondmedium Transmittedwaveiscalledrefractedlight Theanglesi,r,andt definethedirectionof thewavenormaltotheinterface. Thewavevectorsaredefinedaski,kr,andkt Atanyinterface,I =r SnellsLawStates
t
Refracted Light Bt y A At kt

t
z A B

n2 n1

i r
A B ki

i r

sin(i ) v1 n2 = = sin(t ) v2 n1

kr Ai Ar Br Bi Reflected Light

Incident Light

A light wave travelling in a medium with a greater refractive index n1 > n (2) suffers reflection and refraction at the boundary.
26 JDW,ECEFall2009
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

TotalInternalReflection
Ifn1 >n2 thentransmittedangle>incidenceangle. Whent =90o,thentheincidenceangleiscalledthecriticalangle n sin(c ) = 2 n1 Wheni >cthereis notransmittedwaveinmedium Totalinternalreflectionoccurs anevanescentwavepropagatesalongtheboundary(i.e.highlosselectricfield propagatingalongthesurface)
t
ki Incident light (a) Transmitted (refracted) light kt n2 n 1 > n2 kr Reflected light (b) (c) Evanescent wave

c c

i >c

TIR

Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. Depending on the incidence angle with respect to c, which is determined by the ratio of the refractive indices, the wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a) i < c (b) i = c (c) i > c and total internal reflection (TIR).
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

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JDW,ECEFall2009

FresnelsEquations(1)
AmplitudeReflectionandTransmissionCoefficients TransverseElectricField(TE)wavesifEi,Er,andEt TransverseMagneticField(TM)wavesifEi//,Er //,andEt // Incidentwave ReflectedWave TransmittedWave

Ei = Eioe Et = Etoe

r r j (t ki r ) r r j (t kr r )

Er = Eroe

r r j (t kt r )
y

E t,//
t
z

Transmitted wave kt

ki BoundaryConditions x into paper n1 > n 2 i r i r E i,// Ei,// E r, E r, E i, Etangential (1)=Etangential(2) Ei, kr Er,// E r,// Reflected Incident Reflected Btangential (1)=Btangential(2) Incident wave wave wave wave Applyingtheboundaryconditionstothe (a) i < c then some of the wave (b) i > c then the incident wave is transmitted into the less dense suffers total internal reflection. medium. Some of the wave is equationsaboveyieldsamplitudesof However, there is an evanescent reflected. wave at the surface of the medium. reflectedandtransmittedwaves.These Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense medium. The plane of incidence is the plane of the paper and is perpendicular to the flat interface between the equationswerefirstderivedbyFresnel

Et,

t=90

n2

E t, Evanescent wave

JDW,ECEFall2009

two media. The electric field is normal to the direction of propagation . It can be resolved 28 into perpendicular ( ) and parallel (//) components
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

FresnelsEquations(2)
Definen=n2/n1 astherelativerefractiveindexofthesystem RefectionandtransmissioncoefficientsforE are
2 2 Ero cosi n sin i r = = Eio cosi + n2 sin2 i

t =

Eto 2cosi = Eio cosi + n2 sin2 i

Theseequationsallowonetocalculate theamplitudeandphasesoflight propagatingthroughdifferentmedia

RefectionandtransmissioncoefficientsforEIIare

n2 sin2 i n2 cosi Ero r = = Eio n2 sin2 i + n2 cosi t =

Eto 2n cosi = Eio n2 sin2 i + n2 cosi

IfweletEio bereal,thenthephaseangles ofr andt correspondtothephase changesmeasuredwithrespecttothe incidentwave

Thesecoefficientsarerelatedbythefollowingtwoequations

r + nt = 1
JDW,ECEFall2009

r +1 = t
29

InternalReflection
Lighttravelingfromamoredensemedium intoalessdenseone(n2 <n1) Criticalangle 1 n sin(c ) = 2 = n1 1.44
Magnitude of reflection coefficients Phase changes in degrees 180 (a) 120 60 0 (b) TIR

c
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

p c

c = 44o
Forn2 <n1ati =0

| r |
p

60

//

n n2 r = r = 1 n1 + n 2

| r // |

1 20 1 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Thisvalueisalwayspositive,meaningthat thereflectivewaveundergoesnophase changepriortor// goingtozero BrewstersAngle=Polarizationangle=p istheangleatwhichr// becomeszeroand TE/TMpolarizationbeginstooccur

tan ( p ) = n2 1 = n1 1.44

Incidence angle, i

Incidence angle, i

Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is 44. (b) The corresponding phase changes // and vs. incidence angle.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

p = 35o
JDW,ECEFall2009

Reflectedwavesatanglesgreaterthanp arelinearlypolarized becausethey containfieldoscillationsthatare containedwithinawelldefinedplane perpendiculartotheplaneofincidence 30 ANDtheplaneofpropagation

PhaseChangeinTIR
Forp <i <c,Fresnelseqn.givesr// <0. Predictsaphaseshiftof180o Fori c,Fresnelseqn.givesr// and r =1 suchthatthereflectedwavehasthesame amplitudeastheincidentwaveandTIR occurs Fori >c wehaver =1,butthephase change, and // arederivedfrom
2 2 1 sin i n tan = cosi 2

TIR= TotalInternalReflection
Magnitude of reflection coefficients Phase changes in degrees 180 (a) 120 60 0 (b) TIR

c
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

p c

sin n 1 tan + = 2 i 2 n cosi 2

2

| r |
p

60

//

| r // |

1 20 1 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

PhasechangeinTIR Transmittedlightdoes NOT experienceaphaseshift

JDW,ECEFall2009

Incidence angle, i

Incidence angle, i

Internal reflection: (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.44 and n2 = 1.00. The critical angle is 44. (b) The corresponding phase changes // and vs. incidence angle. 31 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

EvanescentWaves
Wheni ctheremuststillbeanelectricfieldinmedium2ortheboundaryconditionswill notbesatisfied Thefieldinmedium2isanevanescentwave thattravelsalongtheboundaryedgeatthe samespeedastheincidentwaveanddissipatesintothe2nd medium

Et ( y, z , t ) = e 2 y e j (t kiz z ) kiz = ki sin i 2n2 n1 2 2 = i 1 sin n2

evanescentwavevector attenuationcoefficient

Thepenetrationdepthoftheelectricfieldintomedium2is

= 1 2

Et =e1

32 JDW,ECEFall2009

ExternalReflection
Lighttravelingfromalessdensemedium intoamoredenseone(n2 >n1) Atnormalincidence,bothFresnel coefficientsforr// andr arenegative ExternalreflectionforTMandTEat normalincidencegeneratesa180degree phaseshift.Thisphaseshiftisobserved atallanglesforTEwavesanduptopfor TMwaves Also,r// goesthroughzeroatthe Brewsterangle,p Atpthereflectedwaveispolarizedin theE componentonly.ThusLight incidentatporhigherinangledoesnot generateaphaseshiftinreflectionfor TMwaves.
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 0

External reflection

r//

r
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Incidence angle, i

The reflection coefficients r// and r vs. angle of incidence i for n1 = 1.00 and n2 = 1.44.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Transmittedlightinbothinternaland externalreflectiondoesNOT experience phaseshift JDW,ECEFalla 2009

33

Example:EvanescentWave
TIRfromaboundaryn1 >n2 generatesanevanescentwaveinmedium2neartheboundary Describetheevanescentwavecharacteristicsanditspenetrationintomedium2

Et = t Eio e

j ( t k t r )

kt r = ykt cos t + zkt sin t

ApplySnells Lawat c > i

2n2 n1 kt A2 = 2 = sin 2 i 1 n2

n sin t = 1 n sin i > 1 2 cos t = 1 sin 2 t = jA2

j (t zkt sin t + jyk t A2 )

= 1 2

Penetrationdepth

Additionally,TIRallowsustocalculatet
t = Eto = Eio 2 cos i n2 2 cos i + sin i n 1
2

Et = t Eio e

Et = t Eio e ykt A2 e j (t zkt sin t )

ForTIR

t = t o e j

kt sin t = ki sin i = k z
JDW,ECEFall2009

Complextransmissionvaluewith imaginaryphaseconstant

Et = t Eio e ykt A2 e j (t k z z )

34

Example:InternalReflection
Reflectionoflightfromalessdensemedium Waveistravelinginaglassofindexn1 =1.450 Wavebecomesincidentonalessdensemediumofindexn2 =1.430 WhatistheminimumincidenceangleforTIR?
sin(c ) = n2 1.430 = n1 1.450

c = 80.47o

Whatisthephasechangeinthereflectedwaveatanincidenceangleof85degrees?
1.43 sin 85 2 2 sin i n 1.45 = tan = = 1.61447 cosi cos 85o 2
2 o

( ) ( )

= 116.45o

sin2 i n2 1 || + tan = n2 cos = n2 tan 2 2 i

|| = 62.1o

Whatisthepenetrationdepthoftheevanescentwaveintomedium2whentheincidence 2 angleis85o? 2n2 n1 2 = sin 2 i 1 = 1.28 10 6 / m n2

JDW,ECEFall2009

= 1 = 7.8 10 7 m 2

35

Intensity,Reflectance,andTransmittance
Relative(%)intensityofthereflectedlighttravelingthroughthemedia Reflectance

R =

Ero Eio

2 2

= r

R|| =

Ero|| Eio||
2

2 2

= r||

n1 n2 R = R = R|| = n +n 1 2 Relative(%)intensityofthetransmittedlighttravelingthroughthemedia Transmittance

T = n2 Eto n1 Eio
2 2

n2 = t n 1

T|| =

n 2 E to || n1 E io ||

2 2

n2 = n 1

t||

T = T = T|| =

4n1n2 (n1 + n2 )2

Sumofthetransmittanceandreflectanceinanyconservedsystemmustequal1

R +T =1
36 JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:InternalandExternalReflection
Lightpropagatesatnormalincidencefromair,n=1,toglasswitharefractiveindexof1.5. Whatisthereflectioncoefficientandthereflectancew.r.t totheincidentbeam?

r = r =

n1 n 2 1 1 .5 = = 0 .2 n1 + n 2 1 + 1 .5

R|| = r|| = 0.04

or4%

Lightpropagatesatnormalincidencefromglass,n=1.5,toairwitharefractiveindexof1.0. Whatisthereflectioncoefficientandthereflectancew.r.t totheincidentbeam?

r = r =

n1 n 2 1 .5 1 = = 0 .2 n1 + n 2 1 .5 + 1

R|| = r|| = 0.04

or4%

Whatisthepolarizationangleoftheintheexternalreflectionfortheairtoglassinterface describedbythefirstquestionabove?Howwouldonemakeapolaroid device(devicethat polarizeslightbasedonthepolarizationangle)?

tan ( p ) = n2 = 1.5 n1
Atanincidenceangleof56.3o thereflectedlightwillbepolarizedwith anE totheplaneofincidence.Transmittedlightwillbepartially polarized.ByusingastackofNglassplates,onecanincreasethe polarizationofthetransmittedlightbyafactorofN
37

p = 56.3o
JDW,ECEFall2009

ReflectanceatDifferentAnglesofIncidence
Lightpropagatesat30o incidencefromair,n=1,toglasswitharefractiveindexof1.5.What isthereflectioncoefficientandthereflectancew.r.ttotheincidentbeam?

Snells Law

n1 sin i = sin t n2
t =19.5o

2 2 Ero cosi n sin i r = = Eio cosi + n2 sin2 i

replace

n1 = n1 cos i n2 = n2 cos t cos i = 0 .866 cos t = 0 .943

r = r =

2 n1 n2 0 .866 1 .414 = = 0 .24 R|| = r|| = 0.058 or5.8% n1 + n 2 0 .866 + 1 .414

38 JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:AntireflectionCoatingsonSolarCells
Whenlightisincidentonasemiconductoritbecomespartiallyreflected Thisisimportantbecauseitthetransmittedlighttravelingintothesolarcellisabsorbedand convertedtoelectricalenergy AssumetherefractiveindexofSiliconis3.5between700 800nm Calculatethereflectanceofthesiliconsurfaceinair 2 1 3.5 R= = 0.309 or30.9% 1 3 . 5 + Thismeansthereisa30.9%lossinefficiencyevenbeforethelightentersthesiliconsolarcell IfonecoatsthesolarcellwithathinlayerofelectricmaterialsuchasSi3N4 (siliconnitride) thathasanintermediaterefractiveindexof1.9,thenwecanreducetheloss
n1 A B
Surface Antireflection Semiconductor of photovoltaic device coating

d n2

n3

Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the reflected light intensity

JDW,ECEFall2009
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

39

Example:AntireflectionCoatingsonSolarCells
Notethatinorderforthisconcepttoworkthethicknessoftheantireflectivelayermustbe matchedtothewavelengthofthelighttransmitted Wearedealingwithexternalreflection,thusreflectedlightoffofallnormalinterfacesis 180o outofphasewithincidentlight Phasematchingmustbeaccomplishedbetweenthelightreflectingfromtheair/coating interfaceandthelightreflectedfromcoating/siliconinterface Thephasedifferenceinthesystemisequivalenttok2(2d)wherek2 =n2k=2n2/ Phasematchingoccurswhenk2(2d)=m

2n2 2d = m

d = m 4n 2

Thusthethicknessofthecoatingmustbemultiplesofthequarterwavelengthoflight propagatingthroughit. Also,toobtainagooddegreeofdestructiveinterference,theamplitudesoftheAandB wavesmustbecomparable.Thusweneed n 2 = n 1 n 3 Thisyieldsareflectioncoefficientbetweentheairandcoatingthatisequaltothat betweenthecoatingandthesemiconductor.Inourcasen2shouldequal1.87whichis closetothatofSi3N4 at1.9. 40

JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:AntireflectionCoatingsonSolarCells
Also,toobtainagooddegreeofdestructive interference,theamplitudesoftheAandBwaves mustbecomparable.Thusweneed

n2 =

n1 n 3
A B

n1

d n2

n3

Thisyieldsareflectioncoefficientbetweentheairand coatingthatisequaltothatbetweenthecoatingand thesemiconductor.Inourcasen2shouldequal1.87 whichisclosetothatofSi3N4 at1.9.

Surface

Antireflection Semiconductor of photovoltaic device coating

1 1.9 1.9 3.5 RA = = 0.096 RB = = 0.0877 1 1 . 9 1 . 9 3 . 5 + +

2 2

Illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the reflected light intensity

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Thusabout10%oflightisnowreflectedoffofthe coatingsurfaceandanother10%isreflectedfromthe silicon.Ofthesecond10%,about10%ofthatis reflectedbackfromtheair/nitrideinterfaceontothe siliconagain.Sothetotalgainopticalgainacquired throughuseoftheantireflectivecoatingisabout10%.

41 JDW,ECEFall2009

Example:DielectricMirrors
Dielectricmirror stackofdielectricswithalternatingrefractiveindices Thethicknessofeachlayerisaquarterwavelength:/(4ni)=i /4 Reflectedwavesfromtheinterfacesinterfereconstructivelytogenerateahighlyreflective coatingoveraopticalwavelengthrangecenteredato Thereflectioncoefficientforaparticularboundaryissimilartothatcalculatedpreviously

ni n j , j = i 1 Rij = n +n j i Thusthereflectioncoefficientsusingvaluesofi andjalternatethroughoutthemirror Afterseveralalternatingreflectances,thetransmissionbecomesexceedinglysmallandlight isreflectedbackfromthesurfaceatvaluesnearunity(1).

1/4
A B C 1 n1 2 n2 1 n1 2 n2
0 330

2/4

Reflectance 1

(nm)

550

770

Schematic illustration of the principle of the dielectric mirror with many low and high refractive index layers and its reflectance.
JDW,ECEFall2009
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

42

MultipleInterferenceandOpticalResonators
Opticalresonatorstoresenergyorfilterslightonlyatcertainfrequencies Builtbyaligningtwoflatmirrorsparalleltooneanotherwithfreespaceinbetweenthem ReflectionsbetweenmirrorsurfacesM1andM2leadtoconstructiveanddestructive interferencethecavity Thisleadstostationary(orstanding)EMwavesinthecavity
M1 A M2 Relative intensity m=1 1 m=2 B L
(a)

R ~ 0.8 R ~ 0.4

m
m=8
(b)

m - 1

m
(c)

m + 1

Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed in the cavity. (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance and lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
JDW,ECEFall2009 43

MultipleInterferenceandOpticalResonators
Sincetheelectricfieldatthemirrorsmustbezero,wecanonlyfitintegermultiplesof halfwavelengthsintothecavityoflengthL

=L

m = 1,2,3...

Eachcavitymodeisdefinedbythemvalue,orthenumberofthehalfwavelengthsthat constructivelyinterferingwithinthecavity. Resonantfrequenciesarethebeatoscillationfrequenciesresonantinthecavity

c vm = m = mv f 2L c vf = 2L
Freespectralrange

M1 A

M2

Relative intensity m=1 1 m=2

R ~ 0.8 R ~ 0.4

m
B L
(a)

m=8
(b)

m - 1

m
(c)

m + 1

vm = vm +1 vm = v f

Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot optical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed in the cavity. (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes. R is mirror reflectance and lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

44

JDW,ECEFall2009

FabryPerotOpticalResonator
Simpleopticalcavitythatstoresradiationenergyonlyatcertainfrequencies AssumeawaveAtravelswithinthecavityandisreflectedbackandforthaswaveB. Thefieldandintensityofthecavityare:
Ecavity = A + Ar 2 e 2 jkL + Ar 4 j 4 kL + Ar 6 e 6 kL + ...

Ecavity =
I max

I = Ecavity =

Io ( I R) + 4 R sin 2 (kL)
2

A 1 r 2 e jkL Io = ( I R) 2

Spectralwidthofthecavity:

vm =

vf F

F=

R
1 R

WhereFiscalledtheFinesseofthecavitywhichistheratioofmodeseparationtospectral width.Thusaslossesdecrease,finesseincreases.Alsolargerfinessesleadtosharper modepeaks

Partially reflecting plates Transmitted light

Input light

Output light

I trans = I incident

(1 R) 2 ( I R) 2 + 4 R sin 2 (kL)

m - 1

Fabry-Perot etalon

Transmitted light through a Fabry-Perot optical cavity.

45
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) JDW,ECE Fall 2009

ResonatorModeswithSpectralWidth
ConsideraFabryPerotopticalcavityofairlength=100micronswithmirrorsthathavea0.9 reflectance. Calculatethecavitymodenearestto900nm.
m= 2L

2 100 10 6 m = 222.22 900 10 9 m

( (

m =

2 L 2 100 10 6 m = = 900.90nm m 222

) )

Calculatetheseparationofthemodesandthespectralwidthofeachmode.
vm = v f = F= c 3 108 m / s = 1.5 1012 Hz = 6 2 L 2 100 10 m

= 29.8 1 R 1 0.9 v vm = f = 5.03 1010 Hz F

0.9

m =

c vm = m vm = 0.136nm 2 c vm

bandwidth of resonator output

46

JDW,ECEFall2009

OpticalTuning
B
y
Penetration depth, Virtual reflecting plane

n2
n2 n1

Reflected light

B = Low refractive index transparent film ( n 2) n1

Reflected

TIR

A
Incident light

i
z

n 1 > n2
(a)

i > c
A Incident light

n1 Transmitted

FTIR

i > c
A

Incident light

Reflected light

(b)

Glass prism

The reflected light beam in total internal reflection appears to have been laterally shifted by an amount z at the interface.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

(a) A light incident at the long face of a glass prism suffers TIR; the prism deflects the light. (b) Two prisms separated by a thin low refractive index film forming a beam-splitter cube. The incident beam is split into two beams by FTIR.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

y
C B A

n1 n2
d

i r

n1 > n2

Incident light

Reflected light

When medium B is thin (thickness d is small), the field penetrates to the BC interface and gives rise to an attenuated wave in medium C. The effect is the tunnelling of the incident beam in A through B to C.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

JDW,ECEFall2009

Useconceptofpenetrationdepth associatedwithevanescentwaves FrustratedTotalInternalReflection(FTIR) occurswhenthethicknessofthen2 mediumisthinnerthanthepenetration depthallowingthewavetopartially transmitthroughmedium YieldspartialtransmissionintoaTIR interface Transmittedbeamcontainssomeintensity, 47 thusRisreducedbelow1

TemporalandSpatialCoherence
Amplitude

P Time Amplitude t l = ct Q

Partialcoherenceisdefinedbytheability topredictthephaseofanyportionofthe wavefromanyotherportion Temporalcoherencemeasurestheextent atwhichtwopointsonthewaveare separatedintime l Coherencetime: t = c Spatialcoherencemeasurestheextentat whichtwopointsareseparatedonthe waveinspace Coherencelength: l = ct Spectralwidth:
v = l t

(a)

(b)
Time Field Space

= 1/ t

(c)
P

Q Time

Amplitude

(a) A sine wave is perfectly coherent and contains a well-defined frequency o. (b) A finite wave train lasts for a duration t and has a length l. Its frequency spectrum extends over = 1/ t. It has a coherence time t and a coherence length l. (c) White light exhibits practically no coherence.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Example:589nmlaserwithspectralwidth of5x1011Hz t = 2 10 12 s

l = 0.6mm
JDW,ECEFall2009

48

IntroductiontoDiffraction
Airyringsareadiffractionpatternclearlyvisiblewhenlightpassesthroughacircular aperture ThediffractedbeamdoesNOTcorrespondtotheshadowoftheaperture Insteadthelightimagedpassedtheapertureistheresultofbothlightpassing throughtheapertureandlightscatteredofftheedges.Thescatteredlight generatesaninterferencepatternintheimage Diffractedlightfromadistancegeneratestheimageinaplanerwavefront: Fraunhofer Diffraction Diffractedlightfromanearbyapertureimagesthesurfacewithsignificant wavefront curvature:FresnelDiffraction
Light intensity pattern Diffracted beam Incident light wave Circular aperture

A light beam incident on a small circular aperture becomes diffracted and its light intensity pattern after passing through the aperture is a diffraction pattern with circular bright rings (called Airy rings). If the screen is far away from the aperture, this would be a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

JDW,ECEFall2009

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

49

IntroductiontoDiffraction
Incident plane wave
A secondary wave source Another new wavefront (diffracted) New wavefront

(a)

(b)

(a) Huygens-Fresnel principles states that each point in the aperture becomes a source of _______________ secondary waves (spherical waves). The spherical wavefronts are separated by . The new wavefront is the envelope of the all these spherical wavefronts. (b) Another possible wavefront occurs at an angle to the z -direction which is a diffracted wave.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
50 JDW,ECEFall2009

IntroductiontoDiffraction
Lightemittedfromapointsource
E (y )e jk sin E ( ) = C
y =a y =0

(y )e jk sin

1 Ce jk sin a sin ka sin 2 E ( ) = 1 ka sin 2

Thesingleslitdiffractionequationyieldsan intensity 1
Ca sin ka sin 2 = I (0) sin c 1 ka sin I ( ) = 1 2 sin ka 2
2

Withzerointensitypointsat
sin = m a m = 1,2,...

sin = 1.22
JDW,ECEFall2009

where D is the diameter of the aperture

51

ImageResolution
y

S1 S2 A1 I Screen A2 S1 s S2 L

Consider2nearbycoherentsourcesare imagedthroughanapertureofdiameterD Thetwosourceshaveanangular separationof. Asthepointsgetclosertogether

angularseparationbecomesnarrower diffractionpatternsoverlapmore

Resolution of imaging systems is limited by diffraction effects. As points S1 and S2 get closer, eventually the Airy disks overlap so much that the resolution is lost.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

b a

AccordingtotheRayleighcriterion,thetwo spotsarejustobservablewhenthe principlemaximumofonediffraction patterncoincideswiththeminimumof another Thisminimumisobtainedbytheangular radiusoftheAirydisk

sin = 1.22

The rectangular aperture of dimensions a b on the left gives the diffraction pattern on the right.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

whereDisthediameteroftheaperture

52 JDW,ECEFall2009

DiffractionGratings
BraggDiffractionCondition
d sin = m m = 0,1,2,3,...
Incident light wave
First-order Zero-order

Incident light wave

m = 1 First-order m = 0 Zero-order m = -1 First-orde

First-order

Forlightincidentatanangle
d (sin m + sin i ) = m m = 0,1,2,3,...
y y Incident light wave
One possible diffracted beam Single slit diffraction envelope

(a) Transmission grating

(b) Reflection grating

(a) Ruled periodic parallel scratches on a glass serve as a transmission grating. (b) A reflection grating. An incident light beam results in various "diffracted" beams. The zero-order diffracted beam is the normal reflected beam with an angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

a m=2 m=1 m=0 m = -1 d

dsin

Second-order First-order Zero-order First-order Second-order

Normal to face First order

Normal to grating plane

m = -2

Diffraction grating Intensity (a) (b )

(a) A diffraction grating with N slits in an opaque scree. (b) The diffracted light pattern. There are distinct beams in certain directions (schematic)
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Blazed (echelette) grating.

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

53

JDW,ECEFall2009