Metabolismchapter 4

--please note: these are several links on this chapter to take you to interesting information, drawings, and articles. Click on anything highlighted in blue. I have also highlighted important terms in green or red. THESE !E "#T $I"%E& T# 'E( SITE.

Ready to learn about metabolism? Here we go! Metabolic processes include the sum total of ALL chemical reactions that occur in a body. There are two kinds !atabolism "breaking down of large molecules# and Anabolism "building up smaller molecules#. $asically e%ery time you eat something you digest it into small pieces that are they &recycled' into useable parts for your body. (teak is cow protein. )e can't use cow protein &as is'* but we need the amino acids contained in it. More about anabolism +this pro%ides all substances re,uired for cell growth and repair +a process called dehydration synthesis -oins together simple molecules to make more comple. molecules +it is called dehydration because a water molecule is remo%ed each time a monomer attaches to another monomer.

More about catabolism +this process is basically the opposite of anabolism +hydrolysis "the adding in of water# occurs when bonds between molecules break apart +did you notice the two way arrows in the abo%e chemical figure? That means the reaction is able to go both ways. /retty neat* huh? Control of metabolic reactions

0one of the processes in%ol%ed in digestion or anything else you do could happen without a special substance called an en1yme. 2n1ymes connect with specific substrates "basically you can think of this as food#* and help to lower the acti%ation energy "the energy necessary for a reaction to occur#. 3f we didn't ha%e these special modified proteins* the reactions would take so long you would star%e! That baked potato and steak dinner would -ust sit there in your stomach* and nothing much would happen. How do they work? +eny1mes combine with substrate to form an en1yme substrate comple. +this occurs at an acti%e site located on the en1yme that is specially designed to fit with only one substrate. +en1ymes are usually named for the substrate they connect with* then add ase to the end "lipase for e.ample* works on lipid# +en1ymes can work in catabolism or anabolism -ust as easily Co-enzymes and co-factors +an en1yme may be inacti%e until it combines with a special &helper' +if this is an ion of an element like copper or 1inc it is a cofactor +if this is a %itamin or other small organic molecule it is called a coen1yme +se%eral coen1ymes are %ery important in cellular respiration and include 0A4 "nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide#* 5A4 "fla%in adenine dinuceotide#* and !oA "coeny1me A# Cellular Respiration +This process occurs in 6 distinct phases 7. 8glycolysis+means splitting sugar "glucose#* and it occurs without o.ygen in the cytoplasm of the cell. This means it is anaerobic respiration since it doesn't need o.ygen. 2nergy from AT/ is

necessary in this step* but e.cess energy is used to produce AT/. 9ou end up with a 02T gain of : AT/. :. 5ollowing glycolysis o.ygen must be a%ailable before continuing on. The second step re,uires o.ygen and is aerobic. 3t also occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. This step is called the 8!itric Acid !ycle or the ;reb !ycle. <r "click here for a simpler %ersion#the final step occurs in the mitochondrial membrane and is called the 8electron transport system. 3t uses o.idati%e phosphorylation and o.idation=reduction to produce AT/. >sing all 6 steps you get 6? AT/ ": from anaerobic and the rest from aerobic# 8(ee your te.t diagrams for the steps "p. 7@?+77A#. A ! +each AT/ is made of 6 parts an adenine* a ribose* and 6 phosphates in a chain +almost half the energy released during cell respiration is used to generate AT/ from A4/ "this has only : phosphate molecules# +this is known as phosphorylation "ucleic Acid synthesis +40A "4eo.yribonucleic acid# and R0A "ribonucleic acid# are %ery important. +40A is the genetic code* that contains information that tells cells how to synthesi1e protein. +R0A takes the message out to the ribosome* where this construction of protein actually occurs. #"A +consists of a sugar=phosphate backbone "the sugar is deo.yribose# +also contains nucleotide bases "adenine* thymine* cytosine* and guanine or A* T* !* B# +these bases link up like this adenine to thymine* cytosine to guanine +this is called complementary base pairing* and a 40A model strand would look like this ATTT!!BBAATTBB!!AT+++one side of the double heli. TAAABB!!TTAA!!BBTA+++the complementary side

+40A is a double heli.* or has two sides and looks like a spiral staircase +the arrangement of the bases is what creates e%eryone's genetic code. +e%ery human has an indi%idual genetic code "e.cept identical twins# +researchers ha%e been working on &cracking' the genetic code and ha%e begun to make progress. Recent de%elopments ha%e begun to unra%el the &code'* but it will take years before sense is made of the pattern. !lick here for an article on the human genome pro-ect* or here. !R$ %&" '(" H%'&' ++There are :@ different amino acids that can be put together to form all the proteins that we can make. The arrangements are specified by the &code' "arrangements of the nucleotide bases# located on the 40A. Howe%er* proteins are made in the cytoplasm of the cell at the ribosomes* and 40A is located in the nucleus. How do the instructions get to the ribosomes? TA 4AC. R0A to the rescue! +R0A is similar in many ways to 40A* howe%er there are some important differences. +R0A has a sugar called ribose in the sugar=phosphate backbone +it also has the nucleotide bases* e.cept that thymine doesn't e.ist in R0A +thymine is replaced by uracil +also R0A has only one strand. +it is made by forming a complementary strand with 40A in a process called RA"'CR&! &$" ranscription )remember to click on the word to take you to a neat web site* +one strand of 40A "the sense strand# is used as a template to make a copy called R0A +6 different types of R0A molecules are made transfer R0A "tR0A# or the anticodonD messenger R0A "mR0A# or the codonD and ribosomal R0A "rR0A#

+this is what the R0A would look like if you paired it with a typical 40A. Remember there is no thymine in R0A. ATTAA!!BB!BATTAB! 40A template >AA>>BB!!B!>AA>!B R0A strand +once this code is transferred to the mR0A* it lea%es the nucleus and heads toward a ribosome to begin the process of translation RA"'+A &$"++once the mR0A has connected to the ribosome* a transfer R0A will bring in a particular amino acid and place it in the correct area of the messenger R0A strands &code' ++en1ymes in the ribosome will attach help attach the amino acids that are brought in into a growing peptide chain which will e%entually become a protein. Mutations, +2rrors in 40A replication can occur and fre,uently do "especially in bacteria and %iruses# +These errors can be in incorrect pairing of bases or adding or deleting a base +The resulting new strand of 40A will not ha%e the correct code* which can lead to faulty proteins. +Humans ha%e a built in repair mechanism that helps located and fi. these incorrect areas of the 40A strand. )e ha%e special repair en1ymes that clip out the mistake and replace it with the proper base. This is called the (<( response. Mutations may occur due to the presence of mutagens which are cancer causing substances. Another cause is sunlight! >E rays cause the formation of thymine 43M2R(* which causes a bond to form between ad-acent thymines causing them to be read as one thymine. This has been found to be one of the causes of cancer.

(ee the clinical application on phenylketonuria in your te.tbook. /;> is an inherited disease that is caused by the inability to process phenylalanine "an amino acid# due to a faulty en1yme.