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What is research?

Research starts with a question.

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 often defined as systematic inquiry about a subject (systematic - points to the need to examine topics methodically in a step-by-step procedure )

RESEARCH

the application of the scientific method a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing information (data)

 The systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem

HEALTH RESEARCH
The process of obtaining systematic knowledge and technology which can be used for the improvement of the health of individual groups (Davies 1991)
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What is research?
The generation of information and understanding as opposed to (perhaps) consisting of New concepts New models New theories

unsupported opinion

So we need

evidence

as opposed to anecdote

validity reliability

Determinants are

generalisability

Why is research important?

Searching for useful medical knowledge Determine magnitude of a health problem Factors associated with a health problem Determining appropriate intervention
EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE

Evaluating a health intervention Effectiveness of a treatment regimen

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CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH Systematic Objective Reproducible

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FREQUENTLY USED TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Descriptive research Analytical research Applied research Basic research Quantitative research Qualitative research Conceptual research

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Surveys & fact finding inquiries of different kinds Purpose is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. Researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.

SUBIVISIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Survey research The case study Job analysis Observational research Correlation study Comparative study Epidemiological research

ANALYTICAL RESEARCH
Involves in-depth study and evaluation of available information in an attempt to explain complex phenomenon. The researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

SUBDIVISIONS OF ANALYTICAL RESEARCH

Historical research Philosophical research Review Research synthesis ( meta analysis i.e. analysis the review that already published)

APPLIED / ACTION RESEARCH

Finding a solution an immediate problem Say a solution

SUBTYPES Marketing research Evaluation research

BASIC /PURE/ FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

generalization and with the formulation of theory Natural phenomenon and mathematics are the examples of basic research Finding information in broad base.

Quantitative Research
Burns & Grove (1987) ... a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilized to obtain information about the world" and "a research method which is used to describe and test relationships and to examine causeand-effect relationships".

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Based on measurement of quantity or amount Weighing, measuring are the examples of quantitative research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Phenomena relating quality or kind Character, personality and man kind are the examples of variable used to measure the qualitative research Word association test, Sentence completion test are the examples of qualitative research

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Not measurements, but WORDS!
Instead of asking how many times
someone purchased an item, you ask "WHY...?" Typically the samples are small, and not "random"

Uses of Qualitative Research

Understanding basic issues
why do people buy/use our product?

Pretesting ideas or questions

do people want a product that cleans their refrigerator?

Message testing
How do people like this ad?

Recommended to capture the basic feel of a problem prior to conducting a more analytical study

Strengths
Good for examining feelings and motivations Allows for complexity and depth of issues Provides insights

Weaknesses
Cant extrapolate to the whole population Volume of data Complexity of analysis Time-consuming nature of the clerical efforts require

Experimental Research
Experimental research is an attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.

CONCEPTUAL / EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Related to some abstract ideas / theory experiment Attempt to establish cause and effect relationship

Experimental Design
Experimental design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables.

Experimental Research Essentials

Manipulation of an independent variable. All variables except the dependent variable are held constant (control). Manipulation of the dependent variable by the independent variable is observed (observation).

UNSCIENTIFIC METHODS OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Tenacity Intuition Authority The Rationalistic method The Empirical method

TENACITY
Sometime cling to certain beliefs despite lack of supporting evidence Superstitions are good examples of this method called tenacity. Coaches and athletes wearing same dress Black cat brought bad luck

INTUITION
Intuitive knowledge is sometimes considered to be common sense or self evident Factual evidence Self evident truth sometime may found to be false

AUTHORITY
Reference to some authority has long been used as a source of knowledge. Galileos telescope Ptolemys explanation about world and heaven

THE RATIONALISTIC METHOD

Derive knowledge through reasoning

Basket ball players are tall. Tony is a basket ball player Therefore, tony is tall

THE EMPIRICAL METHOD Describes data or a study that is based on objective observation Gathering data is scientific method but here experience plays major role.

1. Identify the Research Problem and Objectives 2. Conduct a Review of Related Literature 3. Define the Actual Problem and Objectives in Clear Specific Terms 4. Formulate the Hypothesis and Define the Study Variables 5. Construct the Research Design 6. Design the Tools for Data Collection 7. Design the Plan for Data Analysis
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8. Collect the Data

9. Process the Data

10. Analyze the Data

11. Write the Research Report 12. Disseminate and Utilize the Result
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

A. Select topics for research

Criteria for selection

1. Researcher characteristics
personal interest and inclination training previous experience
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Criteria for selection

2. Nature of topic timeliness: internet, literature relevance duplication applicability/utilizability cost- effectiveness
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Criteria for selection

3. Feasibility availability of subjects availability of specific equipment necessity for special working conditions degree of sponsorship / administrative cooperation
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Criteria for selection

3. Feasibility (cont) hazards, handicaps to be encountered time requirements / duration availability of research fund

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Criteria for selection

3. Ethical considerations risks involved to investigator and subjects 4. Significance of the study

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Sources of research problems own experiences, communication with other people assessment of needs and practices patterns and trends somebody elses completed research investigators intellectual and scientific interests
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Sources of research problems (contn)

critical reading of literature intellectual curiosity, intuitive hunch serendipity

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Characteristics of a good research question F easible

I nteresting
N ovel

E thical
R elevant
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

F easible - # of subjects, technical expertise, resources, manageable

I nteresting N ovel - confirms and refutes previous findings, extends previous research, provides new findings

E thical
R elevant - to scientific knowledge, clinical and health policies, future research direction 45

Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

A question well-phrased is a question half-answered indicates the direction of the research

B. Formulate research objectives

- clearly reflects the question that the researcher wants to answer

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

can be expressed in the form of a statement or a question > To determine the relationship of smoking and Lung Cancer. > What is the relationship of smoking and Lung Cancer?
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

PROGRAM vs. RESEARCH Objective

> A Program objective reflects the purpose or desired output of the intervention being considered. > A Research objective reflects questions which need to be answered in order to know if the program objective was attained.
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

> To decrease the prevalence of severe malnutrition among preschoolers by 80% within a 2 year period
> To determine and compare the baseline level of the prevalence of severe malnutrition among preschoolers with the corresponding value 2 years after program implementation

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Formulating objectives
use action verbs specific enough to be measured to determine to compare to calculate to describe
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Formulating objectives
Dont use vague non-action verbs to appreciate to understand to explore

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

General objective identifies in general terms what is to be accomplished by the study

Specific objective identifies in specific details on how to accomplish the research by using measurable parameters
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

General Objective
To determine the effectiveness of a nutrition education program for schoolchildren

Specific Objectives
To determine and compare the prevalence of malnutrition among schoolchildren before and after the nutrition program To determine and compare the level of nutrition knowledge among schoolchildren before and after the nutrition program

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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Characteristic of Research Objectives

Phrased clearly, unambiguously and specifically Stated in measurable and operational terms S.M.A.R.T.
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Identify the Research Problem and Objectives

Examples of Objectives:
To study diarrhea

To determine the role of infant feeding in diarrhea To compare the incidence of diarrhea between bottle, breast and mixed-fed infants
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Conduct a Review of Related Literature

Not a patchwork Critical assessment What is known? What is not known? How strong is the evidence?

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Conduct a Review of Related Literature

Activities undertaken in review of lit 1. Research about previous studies done related to the topic of interest Who have conducted similar researches
Research designs utilized Study results Gaps in the knowledge Problems encountered
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Conduct a Review of Related Literature

Activities undertaken in review of lit 2. To establish theoretical or conceptual framework for the research based on results of previous studies
3. Integration / critique of previous researches done 4. Build bridges between related topics 5. Draw overall conclusions
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Conduct a Review of Related Literature

SOURCES of Review of Related Literature

Medical and public health journals Statistical reports (Phil Health Stat, Demographic Yearbook) Indexes (Index Medicus) Publications of Abstracts (Excerpta Medica) Databases (Medline, Ovid, Herdin)
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Define the Actual Problem and Objectives in Clear Specific Terms

Make them more specific or limit the scope!!

To determine the impact of continuing education for health workers To determine the effect of continuing education activities conducted by the DOH for its staff on their performance To determine the effect of the Master Trainers Course conducted by the DOH on the capabilities of the participants to plan, implement and evaluate training programs they conduct in the field

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Formulate the Hypothesis and Define the Study Variables

Hypothesis a proposition or statement about the relationship of variables being investigated

Variables independent,dependent,control
Independent variable - Presumed to cause, influence or stimulate the outcome
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Formulate the Hypothesis and Define the Study Variables

Dependent variable - the output, outcome or response variable Control Variable - produces changes which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variables being considered - controlled, held constant or randomized so the effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions 62 - also called confounders or covariates

Formulate the Hypothesis and Define the Study Variables

Conceptual Framework shows the relationships of the different variables being studied
Example: obesity age hypertension

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Construct the Research Design

Plan of attack Includes subject selection, sample size, control and manipulation of variables, outcome evaluation, instrumentation, plan of analysis Consider the objectives, feasibility, economy and efficiency, ethics Important to achieve internal and external validity
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Construct the Research Design

INTERNAL validity
- extent to which the investigator is able to control the different biases that may affect the study to be able to measure what he really intends to measure

EXTERNAL validity
- extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of the study
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Construct the Research Design

1. Non-intervention studies Exploratory study

Descriptive study
Analytical Study (cross-sectional,

case-control, cohort)

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Construct the Research Design

2. Intervention studies Experimental Quasi-experimental Before-After study

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Design the Data Collection Tools

Data-collection Tools

Data Collection Techniques

Using available information Observing

Checklist, data-compilation forms

/ abstraction form Eyes and other senses, pen and paper, watch, scales, microscopes , data colln form Interview schedule, checklist, questionnaire, tape recorder Questionnaire

Interviewing Administering written questionnaires

*Pre-testing of Questionnaire

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Design the Plan for Data Analysis

should be done before data collection construct dummy tables to help you conceptualize how data is going to be organized and presented after collection
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Collect the Data

Use of tools earlier developed Permission to collect data

Administrative concerns
Meeting with community leaders

Social preparation: proper orientation of population to the study prior to data collection Training of data collectors
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Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing 1. Editing of data collection forms for completeness

legibility of entries

consistency of responses
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Data Processing

Phases of Data Processing

2. Coding and encoding of responses

precoding of difficult information

coding the data in analyzable form encoding the data in the computer

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Analyze the Data

Involves quantification, description and determination of relationships of variables Statistics play an important role
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Analyze the Data

Two methods of statistical data analysis 1. Descriptive statistics Frequency distributions Mean, median, std deviation, range

graphical presentations

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Analyze the Data

2. Inferential statistics a. estimation of parameters b. hypothesis testing tests for means (t-test, ANOVA) tests for proportions (chi-square) tests for associations (Prevalence ratios, Odds Ratios, Relative Risks) Regression (linear, logistic, Cox survival, poisson)
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Write the Research Report

organized presentation of activities and findings make conclusions: answer the research question and objectives follow basic principles of technical report writing (form and style)
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Disseminate & Utilize the Results

Dissemination publication in scientific journals news releases presentation in scientific meetings Utilization basis for determining changes as a result of intervention information-based decision-making clinical trial therapeutic intervention
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Research and Cooking

Menu planning
Research planning

Marketing
Data Collection

Cooking
Data processing and analysis, conclusion

Table setting and eating

Report writing and utilization
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References
Balaccua, G.P. 2002. Lecture notes in research methods. Mendoza,O.M., et al. Foundations of Statistical Analysis for the Health Sciences. College of Public Health, U.P. Manila. 2000. Good, C.V., A.S. Barr and D.E. Scates. 1941. The methodology of educational research. D. Appleton-Century Company, New York. 890p. Lozano, J.P. 1999. Lecture notes in research methods. Rubbin, R. B. A.M. Rubin and L.J. Piele. 1986. Communication research: strategies and sources. Wadsworth, Inc. Belmont California.233p.
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