MOBILE COMPUTING UNIT I WIRELESS COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS Introduction Wireless transmission Frequencies for radio transmission Signals Antennas

nnas Signal Propagation Multiplexing Modulations Spread spectrum MAC SDMA FDMA TDMA CDMA Cellular Wireless Net or!s" INTRODUCTION Mobile computing means different things to different people. Ubiquitous, wireless and remote computing Wireless and mobile computing are not synonymous. Wireless is a transmission or information transport method that enables mobile computing. Aspects of mobility user mobility: users communicate (wireless) anytime, anywhere, with anyone de!ice portability: de!ices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the networ" Mobility Iss!es # # # # # #andwidth restrictions and !ariability $ocation%aware networ" operation o User may wa"e up in a new en!ironment o &ynamic replication of data 'uerying wireless data ( location%based responses #usty networ" acti!ity during connections ( handling disconnections &isconnection o )* and +ile *ystem ,ssues % allow for disconnected operation o &atabase *ystem ,ssues % when disconnected, based on local data

Po"t#bility Iss!es # #attery power restrictions # -is"s to data % .hysical damage, loss, theft % Unauthori/ed access % encrypt data stored on mobiles % #ac"up critical data to fi0ed (reliable) hosts # *mall user interface % *mall displays due to battery power and aspect ratio constraints % 1annot open too many windows % &ifficult to clic" on miniature icons % ,nput % 2raffiti, (&ictionary%based) 30pectation % 2esture or handwriting recognition with *tylus .en 4oice matching or !oice recognition

APPLICATIONS 4ehicles 3mergencies transmission of news, road condition, weather, music !ia &5# personal communication using 2*M position !ia 2.* local ad%hoc networ" with !ehicles close%by to pre!ent accidents, guidance system, redundancy !ehicle data (e.g., from busses, high%speed trains) can be transmitted in ad!ance for maintenance early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis -eplacement of a fi0ed infrastructure in case of earthqua"es, hurricanes, fire etc. crisis, war, ...

6ra!elling salesmen direct access to customer files stored in a central location consistent databases for all agents mobile office -eplacement of fi0ed networ"s remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth acti!ities fle0ibility for trade shows $57s in historic buildings 3ntertainment, education, outdoor ,nternet access intelligent tra!el guide with up%to%date location dependent information ad%hoc networ"s for multi user games Loc#tio$ %epe$%e$t se"&ices $ocation aware ser!ices what ser!ices, e.g., printer, fa0, phone, ser!er etc. e0ist in the local en!ironment +ollow%on ser!ices automatic call%forwarding, transmission of the actual wor"space to the current location ,nformation ser!ices 8push: e.g., current special offers in the supermar"et 8pull: e.g., where is the #lac" +orrest 1herry 1a"e9 *upport ser!ices caches, intermediate results, state information etc. 8follow the mobile de!ice through the fi0ed networ" .ri!acy who should gain "nowledge about the location Effects of %e&ice po"t#bility .ower consumption limited computing power, low quality displays, small dis"s due to limited battery capacity 1.U: power consumption : 14;f # 1: internal capacity, reduced by integration # 4: supply !oltage, can be reduced to a certain limit # f: cloc" frequency, can be reduced temporally $oss of data

higher probability, has to be included in ad!ance into the design (e.g., defects, theft)

$imited user interfaces compromise between si/e of fingers and portability integration of character<!oice recognition, abstract symbols $imited memory limited !alue of mass memories with mo!ing parts +lash%memory or9 as alternati!e Wi"eless $et'o"(s i$ comp#"iso$ to fi)e% $et'o"(s =igher loss%rates due to interference emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning -estricti!e regulations of frequencies frequencies ha!e to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied $ow transmission rates local some Mbit<s, regional currently, e.g., >.?"bit<s with 2*M .=igher delays, higher @itter connection setup time with 2*M in the second range, se!eral hundred milliseconds for other wireless systems

$ower security, simpler acti!e attac"ing radio interface accessible for e!eryone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones 5lways shared medium secure access mechanisms important E#"ly *isto"y of 'i"eless comm!$ic#tio$ Many people in history used light for communication heliographs, flags (8semaphore), ... ABC #1 smo"e signals for communicationD (.olybius, 2reece) AE>F, optical telegraph, 1laude 1happe

=ere electromagnetic wa!es are of special importance: AGHA +araday demonstrates electromagnetic induction I. Ma0well (AGHA%E>): theory of electromagnetic +ields, wa!e equations (AG?F) =. =ert/ (AGBE%>F): demonstrateswith an e0periment the wa!e character of electrical transmission through space(AGG?, in Jarlsruhe, 2ermany, at the location of todayKs Uni!ersity of Jarlsruhe)

wireless LAN

Wi"eless systems o&e"&ie' of t*e %e&elopme$t

(ell)lar p*o+es 1981: N#' .50 1986: N#' 900 1991: -3#A 1992: 4%# 199.: 3-% 1800 a+alo5 ,i5ital 2005": 6#'%/I#' 1 2000 198/: A# % satellites (or,less p*o+es 1980: -'0 198.: -'1 1987: -'12 1989: -' 2 1992: I+0arsat I+0arsat 1998: Iri,i)0 1991: 3E-' 1995/96/97: IEEE 802.11, HI E!LAN

1982: I+0arsat 1988: I+0arsat

199x: proprietary

1A

1-

1991: 3 1 A# %

2005": #$%, &A'#

199/: 3-

1$ 1#

A"e#s of "ese#"c* i$ mobile comm!$ic#tio$ Wireless 1ommunication transmission quality (bandwidth, error rate, delay) modulation, coding, interference media access, regulations Mobility .ortability power consumption limited computing power, si/es of display, ... usability location dependent ser!ices location transparency quality of ser!ice support (delay, @itter, security)

Simple "efe"e$ce mo%el !se% *e"e

Appli(atio+ 'ra+sport Networ7 3ata Li+7 *ysi(al !a,io Networ7 3ata Li+7 *ysi(al Networ7 3ata Li+7 *ysi(al #e,i)0

Appli(atio+ 'ra+sport Networ7 3ata Li+7 *ysi(al

I$fl!e$ce of mobile comm!$ic#tio$ to t*e LA+ER MODEL Applic#tio$ l#ye" ser!ice location new applications, multimedia adapti!e applications

T"#$spo"t l#ye" Net'o"( l#ye" D#t# li$( l#ye" authentication media access addressing, routing, de!ice location hand%o!er congestion and flow control quality of ser!ice

 P*ysic#l l#ye"

multiple0ing media access control

encryption modulation interference attenuation frequency WIRELESS TRANSMISSION , 8!E96EN-IE% 8:! !A3I: '!AN%#I%%I:N

F"e-!e$cies fo" comm!$ic#tio$

twiste, pair 1 #0 /00 H<

(oax (a;le

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6H8 @ 6ltra Hi5* 8reA)e+(y %H8 @ %)per Hi5* 8reA)e+(y EH8 @ Extra Hi5* 8reA)e+(y 6= @ 6ltra?iolet Li5*t

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8reA)e+(y a+, wa?e le+5t*: @ (/> wa?e le+5t* , spee, o> li5*t (

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F"e-!e$cies fo" mobile comm!$ic#tio$ # 4=+%<U=+%ranges for mobile radio # simple, small antenna for cars # deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections *=+ and higher for directed radio lin"s, satellite communication # small antenna, focusing # large bandwidth a!ailable Wireless $57s use frequencies in U=+ to *=+ spectrum # some systems planned up to 3=+ # limitations due to absorption by water and o0ygen molecules (resonance frequencies) # Weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by hea!y rainfall etc.

F"e-!e$cies #$% "e.!l#tio$s ,6U%- holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency bands worldwide (W-1, World -adio E)rope 6%A Bapa+ 1onferences)
#o;ile p*o+es N#' $%& ' $%(M)*+ $,& ' $,( M)*4%# ./0 ' /1% M)*+ /&% ' /,0 M)*1(10 ' 1(.% M)*+ 1.0% ' 1..0 M)* -'12 ..% ' ..( M)*+ /&0 ' /&2 M)*-'2 .,$ ' .,. M)* 3E-' 1..0 ' 1/00 M)* IEEE 802.11 2$00 ' 2$.& M)* HI E!LAN 1 %1 (, ' %2(0 M)* A# % + '3#A + -3#A .2$ ' .$/ M)*+ .,/ ' ./$ M)*'3#A + -3#A + 4%# 1.%0 ' 1/10 M)*+ 1/&0 ' 1//0 M)*A-% 1.%0 ' 1/10 M)*+ 1/&0 ' 1//0 M)* A-% 1 6$ 1/10 ' 1/&0 M)* 3.10 ' .2, M)*+ /$0 ' /%, M)*1$2/ ' 1$,% M)*+ 1$(( ' 1%1& M)* H% 1./% ' 1/1. M)* B-' 2%$ ' &.0 M)* IEEE 802.11 2$(1 ' 2$/( M)*

-or,less telep*o+es

&ireless LANs

IEEE 802.11 2$00 ' 2$.& M)*

SIGNALS

physical representation of data function of time and location signal parameters: parameters representing the !alue of data classification o o o o continuous time<discrete time continuous !alues<discrete !alues analog signal L continuous time and continuous !alues digital signal L discrete time and discrete !alues

signal parameters of periodic signals: period 6, frequency fLA<6, amplitude 5, phase shift @ sine wa!e as special periodic signal for a carrier: s(t) L 5t sin(; p ft t M @t)

Fo!"ie" "ep"ese$t#tio$ of pe"io%ic si.$#ls

g(t)

A c ;

a n sin( ; nft )
n A n A

b n cos( ; nft )

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Ideal

periodic

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3eal composition 4 6armonics 7

5ased on

Diffe"e$t "ep"ese$t#tio$s of si.$#ls amplitude (amplitude domain)

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frequency spectrum (frequency domain) phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase @ in polar coordinates)

1omposed signals transferred into frequency domain using +ourier transformation &igital signals need infinite frequencies for perfect transmission Modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog signalN) ANTENNAS Isot"opic "#%i#to" -adiation and reception of electromagnetic wa!es, coupling of wires to space for radio transmission ,sotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) % only a theoretical reference antenna -eal antennas always ha!e directi!e effects (!ertically and<or hori/ontally) -adiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna I%e#l isot"opic "#%i#to"

* 8 x

* x

Simple %ipoles -eal antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths l<F on car roofs or l<; as =ert/ian dipole, shape of antenna proportional to wa!elength

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E)#mple R#%i#tio$ p#tte"$ of # simple 2e"t3i#$ %ipole

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-eal antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles wit h lengths roofs or <; as =ert/ian dipole shape of antenna proportional to wa!elength

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30ample: -adiation pattern of a simple =ert/ian dipole

8 x si,e ?iew C xy 1 pla+eD 8 * *

x top ?iew C x< 1 pla+eD

Simple %ipole

si,e ?iew C

y< 1 pla+e 7

2ain: ma0imum power in the direction of the main lobe compared t the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same a!erage power)

Di"ecte% #$% Secto"i3e% )ften used for microwa!e connections or base stations for mobile phones (e.g., radio co!erage of a !alley)

8 x side :ie 4 x8'plane7

8 * side :ie 4 8*'plane7

Directed antenna
x top :ie 4 x*'plane7

Sectori*ed antenna

top :ie + & sector

top :ie + , sector

A$te$$#s %i&e"sity
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2rouping of ; or more antennas o multi%element antenna arrays 5ntenna di!ersity o switched di!ersity, selection di!ersity recei!er chooses antenna with largest output di!ersity combining combine output power to produce gain cophasing needed to a!oid cancellation

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SIGNAL PROPAGATION

T"#$smissio$ "#$.e Detectio$ "#$.e I$te"fe"e$ce "#$.e signal may not be detected signal adds to the bac"ground noise detection of the signal possible no communication possible communication possible low error rate

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Sende r Transmission Distance Detection Interferenc e

Si.$#l p"op#.#tio$ .ropagation in free space always li"e light (straight line) -ecei!ing power proportional to A<dP (d L distance between sender and recei!er) -ecei!ing power additionally influenced by fading (frequency dependent) shadowing reflection at large obstacles scattering at small obstacles diffraction at edges

S*#%o'i$.

Reflectio$

Sc#tte"i$.

Diff"#ctio$

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M!ltip#t* p"op#.#tio$ *ignal can ta"e many different paths between sender and recei!er due to reflection, scattering, diffraction 6ime dispersion: signal is dispersed o!er time Q ,nterference with neighbor symbols, ,nter *ymbol ,nterference (,*,) 6he signal reaches a recei!er directly and phase shifted Q &istorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts Effects of mobility 1hannel characteristics change o!er time and location signal paths change different delay !ariations of different signal parts different phases of signal parts

Q'uic" changes in the power recei!ed (short term fading) 5dditional changes in distance to sender obstacles further away

Q *low changes in the a!erage power recei!ed (long term fading) MULTIPLE4ING M!ltiple)i$. i$ 5 %ime$sio$s

space (si) time (t) frequency (f) code (c)

F"e-!e$cy Di&isio$ M!ltiple)i$. , FDM 6he oldest used technique used for multiple0ing. .ossible when the useful bandwidth of the medium e0ceeds that of the signals it has to carry. 3ach signal is modulated on a different carrier frequency. 6his results in shifting the spectrum of the signal around the carrier frequency. *ufficient guard%band is gi!en so those neighboring signals do not o!erlap in the frequency domain. 5t the recei!ing end each signal is e0tracted by first passing it through a band%pass filter and then demodulating with the same carrier frequency that was used to modulate the signal. 6he signals carried using +&M may be analog signals or may be analog signals representing digital data. =owe!er +&M is mostly a technique from the era of analog communications. ,n +&M a de!ice uses some of the channel all of the time. +&M is used in radio and tele!ision broadcasting. +&M is also used in high capacity long distance lin"s in the telephone networ". +requency di!ision multiple0ing (+&M) achie!es multiple0ing by using different carrier frequencies .-ecei!er can RtuneR to specific frequency and e0tract modulation for that one channel .+requencies must be separated to a!oid interference % Wastes potential signal bandwidth for guard channels.)nly useful in media that can carry multiple signals with different frequencies % high%bandwidth required .
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Use% i$ 6he standard of the analog telephone networ" 6he standard in radio broadcasting 6he standard for !ideo A. #roadcast ;. 1able H. *atellite

F"e-!e$cy Di&isio$ M!ltiple)i$. Di#."#m

Time Di&isio$ M!ltiple)i$. , TDM 6ime di!ision multiple0ing is more suitable for digital data. 6&M can be used when the data rate a!ailable on a communication lin" e0ceeds the data rate required by any one of the sources. ,n 6&M each source that is to use the lin" fills up a buffer with data. 5 6&M multiple0er scans the buffers in some predetermined order and transmits bits from each source one after the other. -equires digital signaling ( transmission -equires data rate L sum of inputs M framing &ata rate much higher than equi!alent analog bandwidth uses *eparates data streams in time not frequency 6he standard of the modern digital telephone system

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Co%e Di&isio$ M!ltiple)i$. , CDM 3ach channel has a unique code. 5ll channels use the same spectrum at the same time. 5d!antages: &isad!antages: lower user data rates more comple0 signal regeneration bandwidth efficient no coordination and synchroni/ation necessary good protection against interference and tapping

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#:36LA'I:N%

Di.it#l mo%!l#tio$ o o o digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband) 5*J, +*J, .*J % main focus in this chapter differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness

A$#lo. mo%!l#tio$ o o o o B#sic sc*emes o o o 5mplitude Modulation (5M) +requency Modulation (+M) .hase Modulation (.M) shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier Moti!ation smaller antennas (e.g., l<F) +requency &i!ision Multiple0ing medium characteristics

Mo%!l#tio$ #$% %emo%!l#tio$

digital data 101101001

digital modulation

analog 5ase5and signal

analog modulation radio carrier

!a,io tra+s0itter

analog demodulation radio carrier

analog 5ase5and signal

s8nc6roni*ation decision

digital data 101101001 !a,io re(ei?er

Di.it#l mo%!l#tio$ Modulation of digital signals "nown as *hift Jeying.

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Amplit!%e S*ift 0eyi$. 6AS07 !ery simple low bandwidth requirements !ery susceptible to interference F"e-!e$cy S*ift 0eyi$. 6FS07 needs larger bandwidth

P*#se S*ift 0eyi$. 6PS07 more comple0 robust against interference

5*J

+*J

.*J

A%&#$ce% F"e-!e$cy S*ift 0eyi$. bandwidth needed for +*J depends on the distance between the carrier frequencies special pre%computation a!oids sudden phase shifts Q M*J (Minimum *hift Jeying) bit separated into e!en and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled
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depending on the bit !alues (e!en, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or in!erted is chosen the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other e!en higher bandwidth efficiency using a 2aussian low%pass filter Q 2M*J (2aussian M*J), used in 2*M. A%&#$ce% P*#se S*ift 0eyi$. #.*J (#inary .hase *hift Jeying): bit !alue C: sine wa!e bit !alue A: in!erted sine wa!e !ery simple .*J low spectral efficiency robust, used e.g. in satellite systems

'.*J ('uadrature .hase *hift Jeying): ; bits coded as one symbol symbol determines shift of sine wa!e needs less bandwidth compared to #.*J more comple0

)ften also transmission of relati!e, not absolute phase shift: &'.*J % &ifferential '.*J (,*%AH?, .51*, .=* BPS0 6Bi$#"y P*#se S*ift 0eyi$.7

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8PS0 68!#%"#t!"e P*#se S*ift 0eyi$.7

1 0

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0 0

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8!#%"#t!"e Amplit!%e Mo%!l#tio$ 'uadrature 5mplitude Modulation ('5M): combines amplitude and phase modulation # # # it is possible to code n bits using one symbol ;n discrete le!els, nL; identical to '.*J bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable .*J schemes SPREAD SPECTRUM Effects of sp"e#%i$. #$% i$te"fe"e$ce

P i7 ii 7 sender P iii 7 f

P user signal 5road5and interference narro 5and interference

f P

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:7

DSSS 6Di"ect Se-!e$ce Sp"e#% Spect"!m7 S)- of the signal with pseudo%random number (chipping sequence) # many chips per bit (e.g., A;G) result in higher bandwidth of the signal 5d!antages reduces frequency selecti!e fading in cellular networ"s o base station scan use the same frequency range se!eral base stations can detect and reco!er the signal o soft hando!er &isad!antages # precise power control necessary # #

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user data = c6ipping sequence

spread spectrum signal

modulator radio carrier

transmit signal

tra+s0itter

correlator recei:ed signal lo pass filtered signal products = integrator sampled sums decision

data

demodulator radio carrier

c6ipping sequence re(ei?er

F2SS 6F"e-!e$cy 2oppi$. Sp"e#% Spect"!m7 &iscrete changes of carrier frequency 6wo !ersions 5d!antages &isad!antages not as robust as &*** simpler to detect frequency selecti!e fading and interference limited to short period simple implementation uses only small portion of spectrum at any time +ast =opping: se!eral frequencies per user bit *low =opping: se!eral user bits per frequency sequence of frequency changes determined !ia pseudo random number sequence

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F2SS 6F"e-!e$cy 2oppi$. Sp"e#% Spect"!m7

t5 user data 0 f f& f2 f1 f f& f2 f1 t td t fast 6opping 4& 6ops95it7 1 td slo 6opping 4& 5its96op7 0 1 1 t

t 5 > 5it period

t d > d ell time

F"e-!e$cy 2oppi$. Sp"e#% Spect"!m

user data modulator

narro 5and signal modulator

spread transmit signal

tra+s0itter

frequenc8 s8nt6esi*er

6opping sequence

recei:ed signal

narro 5and signal demodulator demodulator

data

6opping sequence

frequenc8 s8nt6esi*er

re(ei?er

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MAC Me%i!m Access Co$t"ol 6MAC7

MAC p"otocol which were de!eloped for nodes at short distance did not show good performance for nodes at longer distance so another protocol has to be de!eloped Jnown as ;p M51 .rotocol. GC;.AA protocols were good for de!ices which had no power supply issue frequent charging were a!ailable to them etc. A. 6his protocol based de!ices were not good for certain operation li"e monitoring the natural habitat of wildlife. ;. *ampling the water le!el of dam. 6hese applications do not require frequent human inter!ention and are required to run for a longer duration. 6o fulfill the requirement other protocol was de!eloped se$so" $et'o"( 69:;1<=157 # 3nergy #udgets:%Main points which were discussed in this were how its protocol helps in sa!ing power by cle!erly managing the time when de!ice should sleep when to wa"e up. # M51 protocol used in GC;.AB.F. # -outing and tree formation in Tig#ee: % -outing protocol was de!eloped by Tigbee firm.
Wi"eless MAC Iss!es Wireless medium ma"es the M51 design more challenging than the wireline networ"s. 6he three important issues are: A. =alf &uple0 operation UV either send or recei!e but not both at a gi!en time ;. 6ime !arying channel H. #urst channel errors <1 2#lf D!ple) Ope"#tio$ ,n wireless, itKs difficult to recei!e data when the transmitter is sending the data, because: When node is transmitting, a large fraction of the signal energy lea"s into the recei!er path 6he transmitted and recei!ed power le!els can differ by orders of magnitude 6he lea"age signal typically has much higher power than the recei!ed signal %V,mpossible to detect a recei!ed signal, while transmitting data 1ollision detection is not possible, while sending data 5s collision cannot be detected by the sender, all proposed protocols attempt to minimi/e the probability of collision %V +ocus on collision a!oidance ;1 Time /#"yi$. C*#$$el 6hree mechanisms for radio signal propagation # Reflectio$ U occurs when a propagating wa!e impinges upon an ob@ect that has !ery large dimensions than the wa!elength of the radio wa!e e.g. reflection occurs from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls Diff"#ctio$ U occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and the recei!er is obstructed by a
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surface with sharp edges # Sc#tte"i$. U occurs when the medium through which the wa!e tra!els consists of ob@ects with 6he recei!ed signal by a node is a superposition of time%shifted and attenuated !ersions of the ransmitted signals the recei!ed signal !aries with time .6he time !arying signals (time !arying channel) phenomenon also "nown as multipath propagation. 6he rate of !ariation of channel is determined by the coherence time of the hannel 1oherence time is defined as time within which When a nodeKs recei!ed signal strength drops below a certain threshold the node is said to be in fade .=andsha"ing is widely used strategy to ensure the lin" quality is good enough for data communication. 5 successful handsha"e between a sender and a recei!er (small message) indicates a good communication lin". >1 B!"st C*#$$el E""o"s 5s a consequence of time !arying channel and !arying signals strengths errors are introduced in the transmission (4ery li"ely) for wire line networ"s the bit error rate (#3-) is the probability of pac"et error is small .+or wire line networ"s the errors are due to random +or wireless networ"s the #3- is as high.+or wireless networ"s the errors are due to node being in fade as a result errors occur in a long burst. .ac"et loss due to burst errors % mitigation techniques # W *maller pac"ets # W +orward 3rror 1orrecting 1odes # W -etransmissions (5c"s) # Loc#tio$ Depe$%e$t C#""ie" Se$si$. $ocation &ependent 1arrier *ensing results in three types of nodes that protocols need to deal with: 2i%%e$ No%es 3!en if the medium is free near the transmitter, it may not be free near the intended recei!er E)pose% No%es 3!en if the medium is busy near the transmitter, it may be free near the intended recei!er C#pt!"e 1apture occurs when a recei!er can cleanly recei!e a transmission from one of two simultaneous transmissions 2i%%e$ No%e?Te"mi$#l P"oblem 5 hidden node is one that is within the range of the intended destination but out of range of sender 7ode # can communicate with 5 and 1 both 5 and 1 cannot hear each other When 5 transmits to #, 1 cannot detect the transmission using the carrier sense mechanism 1 falsely thin"s that the channel is idle E)pose% No%es 5n e0posed node is one that is within the range of the sender but out of range of destination .when a nodeKs recei!ed signal strength drops below a certain threshold the node is said to be in fade .=andsha"ing is widely used strategy to ensure the lin" quality is good enough for data communication. 5 successful handsha"e between a sender and a recei!er (small message) indicates a good communication lin". ,n theory 1 can therefore ha!e a parallel transmission with any node that cannot hear the transmission from #, i.e. out of range of #. #ut 1 will not transmit to any node because its an e0posed node. 30posed nodes waste bandwidth.
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C#pt!"e 1apture is said to occur when a recei!er can cleanly recei!e a transmission from one of two simultaneous transmissions both within its range 5ssume node 5 and & transmit simultaneously to #. 6he signal strength recei!ed from & is much higher than that from 5, and &Ks transmission can be decoded without errors in presence of transmissions from 5.& has captured 5. 1apture is unfair because it gi!es preference to nodes that are closer to the recei!er. ,t may impro!e protocol performance MULTIPLE ACCESS FDMA ,t is an 575$)'U3 technique in time. *ynchroni/ation the transmission bandwidth is partitioned to frequency slots different users has different -+ carrier frequencies, i.e. 3ach user is assigned a particular frequency slot. users<signals are at the recei!er by separated out +,$63-,72 if all frequency slots are occupied then the system has reached its. TDMA ,t is a &,2,65$ technique requires between users synchroni/ation each user<signal is assigned a particular (within a time%frame) time slot. CELLULAR WIRELESS NETWOR0S ,mplements space di!ision multiple0: base station co!ers a certain transmission area (cell).Mobile stations communicate only !ia the base station 5d!antages of cell structures: higher capacity, higher number of users less transmission power needed more robust, decentrali/ed base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally

.roblems:

fi0ed networ" needed for the base stations hando!er (changing from one cell to another) necessary interference with other cells

1ell si/es from some ACC m in cities to, e.g., HB "m on the country side (2*M) % e!en less for higher frequencies +requency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations St#$%#"% mo%el !si$. @ f"e-!e$cies:

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f$ f&

f% f1 f2

f& f, f(

f2 f$

f% f1

Fi)e% f"e-!e$cy #ssi.$me$t certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell problem: different traffic load in different cells Dy$#mic f"e-!e$cy #ssi.$me$t base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in neighbor cells more capacity in cells with more traffic assignment can also be based on interference measurements

f& f1 f2 f&

f2 f& f1

f& f1 f2 f&

f2 f& f1

f& f1 f2 f&
f1 f2 f2 f2 f1 f f1 f& 62 f& 6 & 61 6 2 g2 6& g2 1 6& g 2 g1 g1 g1 g& g& g&

> cell cl!ste" Cell W*y 2e)#.o$A O O

> cell cl!ste" 'it* > secto" #$te$$#s

,n reality the cell is an irregular shaped circle, for design con!enience and as a first order appro0imation, it is assumed to be regular polygons 6he he0agon is used for two reasons: U 5 he0agonal layout requires fewer cells, therefore, fewer transmission site U $ess e0pensi!e compared to square and triangular cells

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,rregular cell shape leads to inefficient use of the spectrum because of inability to reuse frequency on account of co channel interference uneconomical deployment of equipment, requiring relocation from one cell site to another

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