Volume 97 Page 25

Bangladeshi Leather Industry: An Overview of Recent Sustainable Developments

H. L. PAUL1, A. P. M. ANTUNES1, A. D. COVINGTON1, P. EVANS1 and P. S. PHILLIPS2
Institute for Creative Leather Technologies, School of Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Boughton Green Road, Northampton, NN2 7AL, U.K. 2 Environmental and Materials Sciences, School of Science and Technology, University of Northampton, Avenue Campus, Northampton, NN2 6JD, U.K.
Abstract The Government of Bangladesh has indentified the leather sector as one with considerable growth and investment potential ranked fifth in the export earning sector. Currently Bangladesh produces and exports quality bovine and ovine, caprine (buffalo and cow; sheep and goat) leathers that have a good international reputation for fine textured skins. However, the entire leather sector meets only 0.5% of the worlds leather trade worth US$75 billion. There are about 113 tanneries in Bangladesh that produce 180 million square feet of hides and skins per year. In addition there are about 30 modern shoe manufacturing plants engaged in the production of high-quality footwear, with over 2500 smaller footwear manufacturers also present in the sector. There are around 100 small-to-medium leather goods manufacturers, and a small number of niche larger manufacturers. The sector directly employs approximately 558 000 people. Most of the tanneries do not have proper effluent plants and generate 20 000m3 tannery effluent and 232 tonnes solid waste per day. Tannery liquid and solid wastes are a potential pollutant but also have a potential value. Specific technologies to convert wastes are required. These vary from crude and simple to highly sophisticated and complex. A proposed new leather park is expected to bring a clear transformation to the leather industry with a marked increase in production, product diversification and new product lines with increased sustainability of the sector. Sustainable and cleaner production will be a key issue for the development without placing burdens on the environment.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is a developing country with a population of about 152.5 million in a total area of 147 570sq.km., making it one of the most heavily populated countries of the world. Dhaka has been the capital city of Bangladesh since it achieved independence in 1971. The overall economy of Bangladesh has registered a steady improvement with more than 6% average growth during the last five years. The industrial sector has been an important contributor to the countrys GDP,1 its share standing at 28.6% in 2011.
500 450

1.1 Leather in Bangladesh Leather is the basis of one of the oldest industries in Bangladesh and plays a significant role in the national economy with a good reputation worldwide. This is an agro-based by-product industry with locally available indigenous raw materials having a potential for export development and sustained growth over the coming years. Bangladesh leather is widely known around the world for its high qualities of fine grain, uniform fibre structure, smooth feel and natural texture. Real progress in terms of product development with respect

Millions US$ US$ Amount in Million

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 20012002 20022003 20032004 Leather 20042005 20052006 20062007 20072008 20082009 Total 20092010 2010- (July to 2011 March)

YEAR Year
Footwear Leather Products Figure1. Bangladesh's export of leather, footwear and leather goods.6

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to crust and finished leather commenced in the 1990s following the ban on export of wet-blue hides from Bangladesh.2 1.2 Tanning in Bangladesh A number of tanneries took the opportunity in 1990s for the production of crust and finished leather. There are reportedly around 220 tanneries in Bangladesh but, in fact, only 113 tanneries are in effective operation, out of these 20 units are reported to be fairly large (7 units very large), around 45 units are considered of medium size and around 48 units are considered small groups as detailed in Table I.3 105 of the tanneries are positioned arbitrarily in the Hazaribagh area in Dhaka where 84 per cent of the total supply of hides and skins are processed in a highly congested area of only 29 hectares of land as in Figure 2.4

1.3 Livestock in Bangladesh Bangladesh has a fairly large livestock population to support a strong and growing tanning industry. Table II shows that cow hides account for 56% of the production, goat skins for 30% and buffalo makes up the rest.5 The current output in Bangladesh is about 200 million sq.ft. of leather annually. Apart from bovine hides, buffalo, goat and sheep; a good quantity of kangaroo hides (pickled condition/wet-blue) are imported from Australia and finished in Bangladesh, shoes are made of this kangaroo leather for export, mostly to Japan. Some ostrich leather is also imported from Australia for production of high quality and high priced bags and wallets for re-export to Australia. 1.4 Leather export performance The contribution of the leather industry to the Bangladesh economy was about US$500 million, accounting for 3% of countrys exports6 in 2010-11. Recent export trends indicate that the footwear sector (value added merchandise), is growing the fastest. Figure 1 shows that the performance with regard to footwear is increasing substantially. Further progress in this regard is expected in the years to come. Currently there are about 30 mechanized footwear companies in the country, most produce leather footwear for global export. A large number of semimechanized and non-mechanized footwear units are also operating for the domestic market. Some 5 or 6 companies produce quality leather goods which are regularly exported in appreciable volume. Export performance can be anticipated to increase in the next five years with at least 12-15% growth in turnover per annum. In the next two years the existing footwear factories are likely to export more shoes. The new capacity [expanded and new factories] that will come on stream from late 2012 will give increased growth. The Export Processing Zones (throughout Bangladesh) at present have 18 shoe and leather goods factories and there are at least seven large factories under construction. The

Figure 2. Bangladesh (inset tannery locations).

TABLE I Structure of tanneries in Bangladesh3

Number of tanneries 7 13 45 48 Total: 113

Typical annual production capacity/tannery >5 million sq.ft 25 million sq.ft <2 million sq.ft <1 million sq.ft

Total installed capacity/ annum for all tanneries 40 million sq.ft 60 million sq.ft 70 million sq.ft 60 million sq.ft 230 million sq.ft

Total actual production/annum for all tanneries 30 million sq.ft 52 million sq.ft 60 million sq.ft 38 million sq.ft 180 million sq.ft

Share of actual production (%) 17 29 33 21 100

TABLE II Livestock population for leather industry5

Sl. No 1 2 3

Category Cow/calf Goat/sheep Buffalo

Annual kill in millions 4.00 15.00 0.50

Average weight/piece in kg 12 1.52 20-25

Total annual production Average area in tonnes per piece (sq.ft) 48 000 (56%) 26 000 (30%) 11 000 (14%) 20-22 3.75 32-35

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factories under construction include the Korean company Young ones footwear complex which will be the largest in Asia. The leather products sub-sector is ideal for youth, women and micro entrepreneurial start-up businesses, based on the low costs and capital investment. It can also provide the opportunity to gain experience to transfer to footwear or other creative sub sectors. 1.5 Professional Associations There are large number of associations such as Bangladesh Finished Leather, Leather Goods and Footwear Exporters Association (BFLLFEA) which operates with over 80 members. The Bangladesh Tanners Association (BTA) with over 150 members engages in export trade. The Institute of Leather Engineering and Technology (ILET) is the only educational institution in Bangladesh covering human resources development in the field and new technology.

Annually about 85 000 tonnes of raw material are processed in Bangladesh. The estimated quantity of tanned and untanned waste from the processing of one tonne of salted hides/skins according to various authors and Bangladeshi leather industries is shown in Table III.9,11

3. CASE STUDY PROJECT: UNIDO RE-TIE BANGLADESH

The reduction of environmental threats and increase of the export portential of Bangladeshi leather products (Re-Tie Bangladesh) is a project co-funded by the European Commission. This is under the SWITCH Asia programme and implemented by the project partners: SEQUA (lead partner), BFZ, BFLLFEA, BTA, DCCI and UNIDO for three years with total budget 2 071 000 (EU contribution 90%). The overall objective of Re-Tie Bangladesh is the provision of employment and income-opportunities for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the leather sector in Bangladesh, the SMEs to work economically and ecologically more sustainably using advanced technologies and practices. Table IV shows the project activities of Re-Tie Bangladesh.12 The objectives of Re-Tie Bangladesh are: I. More efficient use of natural resources and significantly reduce environmental pollution and waste in the Bangladeshi leather sector; II. More efficient use of energy and implementation of measures for consumption reduction; III. Improved occupational safety and health and other international standards to enhance the exportability of Bangladeshi leather products; IV. A strengthened institutional structure and an outreach to SMEs for the promotion of sustainable production in Bangladeshi tannery/leather industry.

2. CURRENT METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE FROM THE BANGLADESH LEATHER INDUSTRY
Only 255kg of finished leather (grain and embossed split) is obtained for every 1000kg wet salted hides processed, i.e. just 25.5% of the raw material becomes finished leather.7 Around 40m3 of water (process and technical water) is required for this and out of 452kg of process chemicals used only 72kg are retained in and on the leather thus, 380kg are wasted and discharged in various forms.8,9 The estimated amount of tannery effluent is 20 000 m3/day in the Hazaribagh area. All wastewater generated is discharged untreated to the sewer passing through the area leading to the Buruganga River, the main river through Dhaka which is shown in Figure 2.4 The sewers in the area do overflow causing health problems. Hazardous wastes pollute the surrounding environment and, finally reaching the river Buriganga, destroy its ecosystem and make its water unusable. The river is now on the verge of ecosystem destruction and is a major health hazard. A substantial quantity of the solid waste generated by tanneries is dumped by the roadside in Hazaribagh, so the environmental challenges are significant and present a danger to human health. The living conditions in those areas are far from satisfactory.2,10

4. CASE STUDY OF RECENT RESEARCH

4.1 Materials and methods To further develop an insight into tannery pollution a chemical analysis was carried out in four tanneries in Dhaka (A, B, C, D) to measure the effluent characteristics of the composite waste (raw to finish) water from tanneries with and without effluent treatment plant. The results are shown in Tables V and VI respectively. Composite wastewater (waste streams from different

TABLE III Solid waste generated (kg) during processing of 1 tonne hides and skins9,11

Solid waste Untanned waste Raw trimmings Fleshings Tanned waste Split Shavings Crust/finished cutting

Alexander11

Buljan9

Bangladesh

Quantity generated tonnes per annum 8500 21 250 8500 8500 2550

120 70-230 115 100 32

100 300 107 99 25

100 250 100 100 30

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TABLE IV Project activities: Re-Tie Bangladesh12

G G

Training of Bangladeshi experts to coach others Implementation of cleaner production facilitated by those experts (e.g. strict water management systems, float recycling, segregation of streams (especially chrome bearing), segregation of solid waste, avoidance and monitoring of banned/hazardous substances, desalting of wet salted hides and skins, hair-save unhairing, low ammonium salts deliming, full-scale chrome management, low-energy drying, solar appliances, water-based finishing and simple energy saving methods) Institutionalisation of Outreach: Establishment of ca. 1518 companies, each lead by one facilitator who will be trained, coached and employed. One sector unit comprises up to 25 entrepreneurs/enterprises Dissemination of innovation, results through those companies to approx. 400 SMEs (supported by campaigns, conferences etc.) Training of Bangladeshi experts and factory staff, including shop-floor level, practical demonstration of OHS (Occupational Health and Safety) methods and documentation in various guides and videos Capacity strengthening of Business Membership Organisations (BMOs) in the leather sector (organisational development) Contributing to the design of the relevant physical infrastructure of the new industrial site for the leather industry (Savar)

process steps are combined, homogenized and treated as a single sample) was collected by composite sampling and collected in sealed bottles from the selected tanneries at different sampling points and stored at approximately 4C until analysed. This was carried out within 24 hours to ensure that the oxygen concentration remained constant to inhibit growth of micro-organisms prior to analysis. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) was determined by DIN 38409T51 (Simple Determination of BOD5) by using an Oxitop measuring system, inductive stirring system and a thermostatic incubator (temperature 20C 1C). The sample was incubated within 48 hours of sampling. The pH of the sample was adjusted for analysis. The desired pH for this procedure is between 6.5 and 7.5 so that bacterial growth is possible. After five days the value was converted into the BOD5 value with the following equation: Value x Factor = BOD5 (mg/l) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) was determined by DIN 38401(Method: H 41.1,) using the Open Reflux Method with heating at 148 3C; all chemicals were of analytical grade (sulphuric acid, = 1.84g/ml; standard potassium dichromate solution (K2Cr2O7), ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS), mercuric sulphate, silver sulphate, ferroin indicator solution). The sample is refluxed with a known excess of potassium dichromate in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid for 2.5 hours and the excess dichromate is back titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate. The amount of oxidisable matter, measured as oxygen equivalents, is proportional to the potassium dichromate consumed. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was estimated using the Iodometric method with 0.025(N) Na2S2O3, MnSO4, H2SO4 and sodium azide dissolved oxygen present in the sample is quantitatively converted to an equivalent amount of manganese(IV) hydroxide, which liberates iodine from iodide upon acidification; this is titrated using standard thiosulfate solution. Method: Alkali iodide-azide solution: Dissolve 500gms of sodium hydroxide in about 800ml distilled water and cool to room temperature. Weigh separately 28

150gms of KI and dissolve it in about 150ml of distilled water. Add this solution to the caustic solution prepared earlier. Dissolve 10gm of sodium azide in 40ml distilled water and add it to the alkali-iodide mixture, with constant stirring. Make up the volume to one litre. MnSO4 + NaOH = Mn(OH)2 + Na2SO4 then add H2SO4 Mn(OH)2 + O(DO) + H2O = Mn(OH)4 Mn(OH)4 + 2HI = Mn(OH)2 + I2 (equal to DO) + H2O then titration I2 + Na2S2O3 = Na2 S4O6 + 2NaI Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) was measured using a meter (Hanna Instruments Ltd, Italy, model No.HI 96302,DiST2) and the pH was determined by SLC 13 method13 (Determination of pH value and difference figure of an aqueous extract) using a pH meter (ORION, Model 370). Total chromium (method EN-7 the chromium is chelated and extracted into methyl isobutyl ketone) and sodium (method-EN-4) were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) using Perkin Elmer AAnalyst 300 model. 4.2 Results and discussion COD, BOD5, TDS, DO, total chromium, sodium values have been used as indicators of effluent quality. The effluent found was blackish/dark brown/dark grey and heavily turbid with a bad smell. It contained a high concentration of solids (mainly organic matter) that precipitated with inorganic coagulants these are deposited when the flow rate is lowered. It may be assumed that the drains become filled with such matters. Table V shows a very high concentration of chromium (average 1012mg/l) and sodium (average 824mg/l). It can be seen that at an elevated pH, the chromium ion coagulates with sulphide and settles as sediment in the drain.14 Wastewater from different tanneries accumulates in the drain and the overflow runs onto agricultural fields on the opposite side of the Dhaka flood protection dam. It has been reported that discharge of tannery wastes into surface waters like

channels and tanks has increased their salinity. Pretreatment techniques such as chrome recovery and sulphide oxidation are recommended in order to avoid the detrimental effect. It has been suggested that waste streams are segregated according to their characteristics to avoid possible safety risks. DO results (nil) indicate the stabilization action (degradation of organic matter). COD (average 3407mg/l) and BOD5 (average 1388mg/l) values show the presence of a very high concentration of dissolved organic matter in the wastewater. These values indicate depletion of oxygen from the receiving water. The high oxygen demand of tannery wastes is due to proteins, fatty matter, tannins and inorganic pollutants present in significant quantities. High pH, excessive alkalinity (average 824mg/l), very high dissolved solids (average 7100mg/l) are injurious to fish and other aquatic life. Their presence will affect physical, chemical and biological characteristics and can make the receiving water less acceptable for drinking, industrial and agricultural purposes. However Table VI shows that the values for the treated effluent (except Cr/Na) are within the limits as set by the Department of Environment15 standards of Bangladesh.

5. CASE STUDY: EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT (ETP)

The Effluent Treatment Plant changes pollutants into something which is environmentally more acceptable and is designed to meet a specific need because of variation of effluent from tannery to tannery and from process to process. Figure 3 shows the structure of one ETP plant in Bangladesh which has a multi-stage process to purify wastewater before it is discharged. The purpose is to reduce or remove organic matter, solids, nutrients, chromium and other pollutants. The raw effluents emanating from the process section (wetblue-finish) pass through the screen chamber to the equalization tank. The suspended solids are separated from wastewater by the bar screen. The equalization tank is equipped with three ejectors to homogenize the waste and to prevent settling of solids. The effluent from

the equalization tank is transferred into the flash mixer tank. Lime, alum and polymer are added according to the proper requirements for sedimentation of sludge. The effluent from the flash mixer then transfers to the clariflocculator (primary clarifier) for settling of the solids. Inorganic substances (chromium) are precipitated here (Fig. 3). The settled solids are then transferred to the sludge thickener. The overflow of the clariflocculator is transferred to the aeration tank for biological treatment. The target of biological treatment is to convert soluble organic matter and non-soluble colloidal solids into inert solids and other simple end products. Nutrients such as urea and diammonium phosphate (DAP) are added to support the micro-organisms. Oxygen is added by a fixed aerator. After biological treatment the overflow from the aeration tank (Fig. 3) is transferred to the secondary clarifier. The biological mass is then separated and settled in the lower part of the clarifier. If the bio mass is above 25% it will be transferred to the sludge thickener. The overflow from the secondary clarifier is then transferred into a tube settler through a baffled channel. The overflow from the tube settler is collected in sump-I and sludge is transferred to the sludge thickener. The treated water is pumped through a pressure sand filter to remove any fine solids that may have been carried over with the water. The water from the sand filter is collected in sump-II (Fig. 3). Lightly coloured water passes through the activated carbon filter and is then discharged into inland water. Sludge from the sludge drying beds goes to landfill within the factory area and in the rainy season, a centrifuge is used to form the sludge cake. There are about 1095 individual companies in Bangladesh and in about 709 of them ETP is required for pollution containment but, only 186 ETPs are in operation.15

6. CASE STUDY: IMPACTS ON COMMUNITY OF POLLUTION

About 0.5 million residents of the Bangladesh capital, Dhaka are at risk of serious health issues due to

TABLE V Tannery without an effluent treatment plant (raw to finishing; composite effluent)

Parameter pH Colour Odour DO BOD5 COD TDS TSS Na Cr (total) Effluent Flow

Tannery A 8.70 Blackish/dark grey Pungent Nil 1250mg/l 3010mg/l 6850mg/l 1910mg/l 800mg/l 1210mg/l >40m3 / 1000kg H/S

Tannery B 8.12 Dark brown Foul Nil 1435mg/l 3460mg/l 6920mg/l 1720mg/l 770mg/l 1150mg/l >40m3 / 1000kg H/S

Tannery C 9.3 Dark grey Pungent Nil 1478mg/l 3750mg/l 7530mg/l 1850mg/l 901mg/l 675mg/l >40m3 / 1000kg H/S

DOE standard for Bangladesh (Discharge to inland surface water) 6-9 Absent Absent 4.5-8mg/l 50mg/l 200mg/l 2100mg/l 150mg/l 60mg/l 2mg/l 30m3 /1000kg hides/skins (H/S)

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Figure 3. Simplified flow diagram for an effluent treatment plant in Bangladesh.

TABLE VI Tannery D with effluent treatment plant (wet-blue-finishing; composite effluent)

Parameter

Raw effluent

Treated effluent

DOE standard for Bangladesh (Discharge to inland surface water) 6-9 Absent Absent 4.5-8mg/l 50mg/l 200mg/l 2100mg/l 150mg/l 60mg/l 2mg/l 30m3/1000kg H/S

pH Colour Odour DO BOD5 COD TDS TSS Na Cr(total)

8.90 Blackish /dark grey Pungent Nil 370mg/l 935mg/l 3870mg/l 1800mg/l 560mg/l 150mg/l

7.30 Absent Not present 4.6mg/l 44mg/l 115mg/l 140mg/l 30mg/l 90mg/l 3mg/l

have very little knowledge about their short, medium and long term impact on humankind and the environment. Legislation must also be developed to take account of the combined effects of chemical substances. Tannery effluent in Bangladesh has reached such an alarming level that it poses a significant threat to public health and economic growth of surrounding areas.

7. POSSIBLE TANNERY RELOCATIONS: TANNERY ECONOMIC ZONE

The unplanned tanneries at Hazaribagh in Dhaka do not have supporting infrastructure facilities. Hazaribagh itself is surrounded by thickly populated localities of the city. Relocation of the tanneries to a more spacious location with appropriate infrastructure for efficient and cost effective treatment of solid and liquid wastes is an obvious need. To set up a Central Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) has thus become a prerequisite for the survival and growth of this vital export-oriented sector of the country. The Government of Bangladesh has decided to move the whole tannery operation to a new location of 200 acres at 20km from Dhaka city. According to the present plan, 144 acres (72%) of the land are to be developed as industrial plots. The balance, 56 acres (28%), will be utilized for infrastructure for the estate that includes a Central Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), disposal yard, administrative building, drainage, electricity sub-station and others. After the relocation of tanneries from Hazaribagh, the project envisages relocation of tannery units from other parts of the country; and also hopes to attract fresh investment from within and outside the country for establishment of new tannery units. A total of 195 developed industrial plots in 4 categories will be created from the 200 acres of the estate as in Table VII.17

Effluent flow =<30m3/1000kg H/S

chemical pollution from tanneries near their homes, according to a report released by the Bangladesh Society for Environment and Human Development. The report says large numbers of the 8 000-12 000 workers at the tanneries suffer from gastrointestinal, dermatological and other diseases that could be related to pollution and that 90% of them die before the age of 50 as compared 60% for the country as a whole.16 It is imperative that the non-sustainable techniques for tannery solid waste disposal in Bangladesh must be improved. The open disposal of solid tannery waste must be terminated and the workers should be provided with health and safety equipment. Major efforts need to be made both to reduce direct exposure and the spread of substances hazardous to health from the leather industry. The development of sustainable leather technologies is rapid and areas of use are increasing, however we 30

TABLE VII Categories of newly developed industrial plots17

SI No 1 2 3 4 Total

Category of plots A type B type C type S type

Size of plot (Ha) 0.72 0.36 0.18 0.27

Approx indicative cost per plot US$ 103,000 51,5000 25,750

Number of plots 26 39 114 16 195

Number of units to be set up 26 39 114 16 195

Total revenue US$ 2,674,000 2,006,000 2,931,000 7,611,000

Figure 4. The site for the Savar leather park.

An Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) for the CETP and other industrial installations in the proposed tannery estate was completed by Bangladesh Engineering and Technological Services Ltd. (BETS)18 in 2005. If operations are conducted according to international standards and if appropriate mitigation measures are put in place, the proposed project is likely to cause a minimal impact and will comply with Bangladesh national standards and other environmental requirements. It is a clear move towards Industrial Ecology (IE).

Bangladeshs leather sector is deemed competitive because of its low labour cost differentiation, local availability of hides and a favourable business environment. This is complemented with the existence of organizations and institutional arrangements like the Export Processing Zone (EPZ) etc. and duty free access to major international markets. There are about 49 300 tonnes of solid waste generated every year from tanneries in Bangladesh. The government should try to facilitate growth in industries which can use these wastes to make other value added products. A by-product manufacturing unit (chrome and protein recovery) and energy generation could be useful options. Bangladeshi leather products will have no access to developed countries, including those of European Union if the government fails to set up the CETP by June 2014. The industry in Bangladesh as a whole, faces considerable concerns with regard to end-of-life, recycling and re-use of leather and leather products. To make progress, the Government is keen to relocate tanneries from Hazaribagh to Savar, this gives the unique opportunity to adopt sustainable practice in a suitable environment. (Received September 2012)

References 1. Bangladesh Country Report, Homepage of Global Finance.2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2. UNIDO Expert Team, Technical Report, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). TF/BGD/05/001, (2005). 3. Bangladesh Tanners Association (BTA), Survey Report. 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 4. Map, (Bangladesh) 2012, http://www.worldofmaps.net/en/asia/map-bangladesh/mapbangladesh-regions.htm and http://www.dhakacity.com.bd/dhaka_city_map.php 5. Hide and Skin Merchants Association (HSMA), Survey report. 2005, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 6. Bangladesh Export Promotion Bureau (EPB). 2011, (http://www.epb.gov.bd), Dhaka, Bangladesh. 7. Aquim, P. A. D., Gutterres, M. and Trierweiler, J., J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 2010, 94, 253. 8. Buljan, J., Sahasranaman, A., Science and Technology for leather into next millennium, proceedings of the XXV IULTC Congress. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,1999, New Delhi, India. 9. Buljan, J., Reich, G., Ludvik, J., United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East Asia. 2000.

8. CONCLUSIONS
Developed countries are treating Bangladeshs leather sector as secure for investment. However, the sector has a rather constrained demand structure in the domestic market due the limited national purchasing power. Nevertheless, industry insiders are expecting a growth in the domestic market in consideration of the fact that approximately 10% of Bangladeshs total population (around 15 million) is estimated to have an income level comparable to that of the developed countries. Hence, there appears to be a large unexplored domestic market for footwear and other leather products for Bangladesh with an estimated demand for 30 million pairs per year. The footwear sub-sector of Bangladesh earned revenues in excess of US$250 million in 2010-2011. The European Union (EU) is the biggest destination for footwear exports with a 60% share, followed by Japan with 30%, and the rest of the world accounting for 10%. Bangladesh has only a 1% share of the world footwear market.

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10. Training Institute for Chemical Industries (TICI), Report on Existing Environmental Status of Hazaribagh. 2005, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 11. Alexander, K. T. W., Corning, D. R., Cory, N. J. et al., J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem., 1992, 76, 17. 12. European Union (EU), Re-Tie Bangladesh: Reduction of environmental threats and increase of exportability of Bangladeshi leather products, Switchasia Project. 2010, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 13. Society of Leather Technologists and Chemists (SLC), Official Methods of Analysis. 2000.

14. Avila-Perez, P., Balcazar, M., Zarazua-Ortega, G. et al., The Science of the Total Environment. 1999, 234, 185. 15. Department of Environment (DOE), 2011, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 16. Gain, P., Moral, S., Leather Industry: Environmental Pollution and Mitigation measures. SEHD, 1998, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 17. Ministry of Industries (MOI), Masterplan for relocation of tanneries from Hazaribagh to Savar. 2005, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 18. Bangladesh Engineering and Technological Services Ltd. (BETS), Environment Impact assessment (EIA) for the Central Effluent Plant (CETP) and other industrial installations in the proposed tannery estate. 2005, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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