'$-'

I!

LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA

PRESENTED BY
Glen G. Mosher

ff&O-

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,tft

GRAPHIC STATICS
WITH APPLICATIONS TO

TRUSSES, BEAMS,

AND ARCHES.

BY

JEROME SONDERICKER,

B.S., C.E.,

Associate Professor of Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.

NEW YORK:

JOHN WILEY & SONS.

LONDON:

CHAPMAN &
1904.

HALL, LIMITED.

Copyright, 1903,

BY

JEROME SONDERICKER.

ROBHRT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK.

PREFACE.

THIS book

is

the outgrowth of an extended experience in

Massachusetts Institute of Techteaching Graphic Statics at the While it deals specifically with problems encountered nology.
in building construction,
it

should be found serviceable to en-

students generally. gineers and engineering As preparation, the reader should have a knowledge of and Strength of Materials, including beam stresses and
tions, as these subjects are

Statics
deflec-

commonly

presented.

To
it

is

be successful in the employment of graphical methods, necessary not only to understand the general principles in-

volved, but also to

know how

to

proceed in the construction

of the drawings, in order to secure the

most

satisfactory results.

This matter

is

given more attention than usual.

An

attempt has been

made

in

6,

general method

of dealing with frames

Chapter II, to develop a where bending stresses

It is

occur in addition to the tension and compression stresses.

hoped

this

may be found

useful.

JEROME SONDERICKER.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
May,
1903.

at

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
I.

I.

GENERAL METHODS.
INTRODUCTION.
FAGS
Definition of Graphic Statics
I I

ART.
I.

a.

3. 4.
5. 6.

Representation of Forces Resultant of Forces lying in the

Same Plane

Example
Conditions of Equilibrium
t

4
5

Examples and Problems

2.

FUNICULAR POLYGON.
8
IO
II

7.

Definitions

8.
9.

Applications

Notation

10. 11.

Problems
Distributed Forces

13

14
for

12. Funicular
13.

Polygon

a Distributed Force

14
15

Funicular Polygon for a Uniformly Distributed Force

3.

FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM.
17
17

14.

Use

of Funicular Polygon
I.

15. 16.
17.

Case Case
Case

Parallel Forces

II.

Non-parallel Forces Non-parallel Forces

19

III.

20
21

18.

Resolution of Forces into Components

4.

GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF MOMENTS.

any System of Forces
21

19.

20.

Moment Moment

of Resultant of

of Resultant of Parallel Forces

22

yi

CONTENTS.
5.

SOME SPECIAL CONSTRUCTIONS FOR FUNICULAR POLYGONS.

PAGE
23

ART.

Locus of Points of Intersection of Corresponding Strings 22. Locus of Poles of Funicular Polygons passing through Two Given Points. 23. Funicular Polygon through Three Points
21.
24. 25.

24
25
25

Funicular Polygon through Three Points.

Parallel Forces

Funicular Polygon through Direction

Two

Points,

One

String

having a Given

CHAPTER

II.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
I.

CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS; LOADS, ETC.

30
!

26. Construction of Roofs 27.

Loads.

. . o . .

2.

DETERMINATION OF REACTIONS OF SUPPORTS.

33
35

28. Cases
29.

Examples

30. Algebraic Solution

37
3.

DETERMINATION OF STRESSES.
38
38

31. General
32.
33. 34.

Methods
of Sections

Method

Method of Joints
Determination of Stresses in Roof-trusses

39

40 40
Stresses

35.
36. 37.

Example.

Bow's Notation

Determination of

Maximum and Minimum

44
45

Example

38. General 39.

Remarks

49
5
r

Problems

40. Cantilever Truss

41.

53

Trusses having only

Two

Forces to determine at Each Joint

53 53

42. Fink, or French, Roof-truss

4.

COUNTERBRACING AND DOUBLE SYSTEMS OF BRACING.

55
56

43. Definitions
.44.

Notation

45. Determination of Stresses.

46.

Diagrams drawn

for

Combined Loads
Second Method

Example

56 60

47. Determination of Stresses in Trusses with Counterbracing.

62

CONTENTS.
ART.
48. Trusses 49.

vii

PAGE

having a Double System of

Web Members

64
65

Double Diagonal Bracing

5.

THREE-HINGED ARCH.
66
.

50. Definition
51.
c 2.

Determination of Reactions of Hinges

66

Determination of Reactions.

Algebraic Solution

68
69
72

53. 54.

Determination of Stresses in Braced Arches

Three-hinged Arch.

Solid Ribs.

Determination of Stresses

55.

Bending Moments proportional

6.

to Vertical Intercepts

74

BENDING STRESSES, SWAY-BRACING.

75

56. 57.
58.

Conditions under which Bending Stresses occur

Purlins supported at Other Points than the Joints

76
79

Trussed

Beam
by Columns
at the Joints

59. Incomplete Trusses

60. Trusses supported

79 82
82

6 1 . Case
62. Case
63.

Columns hinged at Base Columns hinged at Base and loaded only Case III. Columns fixed at Base
I.

II.

87
87

64.

Case IV. Columns fixed at Base and loaded only at the Joints

89 90
92

65

Example
Approximate Solution Problems
Illustration

66.
67.

94
95

68. Sway-bracing. 69.

Example

96

CHAPTER

III.

I.

SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT.

98
98
100
101

70.

Definitions

71.

Graphical Representation of Shearing Force and Bending Moment 72. Relation between Shear and Moment Diagrams 73. Relation between Moment Diagram and Elastic Curve
74.
75.

Examples Problems

101

106

viii

CONTENTS.
2.

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS.
PAGE
107

ART.
76.

Graphical Determination of Elastic Curve

77. 78. 79.

Examples Problem
Center of Gravity of

no
1

12

Any

Quadrilateral Area

112

CHAPTER

IV.

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

I.

ETC.

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF STABILITY.

114
115

80.

Nature of the Forces involved

81. Resistance of a

Masonry

Joint

82. Resistance to Overturning

83.

115
115

Resistance to Sliding
to

84. Resistance

Crushing 85. Conditions to be satisfied by Masonry Arches, Abutments, etc

2.

116
117

MASONRY ARCH.

LINE OF PRESSURE.
118
118 119

86. Definitions 87. Line of Pressure a Funicular Polygon

88.

Test of Stability

89. Relation between Line of Pressure

90.

and Form of Arch-ring

122

Maximum and Minimum Crown

Example
Unsymmetrical Cases
3.

Pressure

124 124
129
131

91. Location of

True Line of Pressure

92. 93.

ABUTMENTS,

PIERS, ETC.

94. Conditions of Stability

95.
96.

133
133

Example

Example 2 Example
3

134
135 135

97. 98.

Example 4

GRAPHIC STATICS.
CHAPTER
I.

GENERAL METHODS.
i.

Introduction.
its

1.

Graphic
in statics

Statics

has for

object the solution of

prob-

lems

by means

of geometrical constructions, the results

being obtained directly from the scale drawings.

(A knowledge of Statics
presentation of -its principles
in the

is

presupposed.

However, a

brief

and methods

in case of forces lying

same plane

will

be made.

In the subsequent chapters, familiarity with the subject of

Strength of Materials, including
also assumed.)

beam

stresses

and

deflections, is

2.

Representation of
its

Forces.

force

is

fully

determined

when

magnitude, direction, and point o] application are known.

direction,

In dealing with problems in Statics of Rigid Bodies, the magnitude, and line of action of a force are the elements commonly

involved, since the equilibrium or motion of such a

affected

body

is

not

by

transferring the point of application of a force to any

its line

other point in

of action.

3.

Resultant
Plane.

of

any System

of

Forces

Lying

in

the

Same

The magnitude and

direction of the resultant of

GRAPHIC STATICS.

any system of forces lying in the same plane either of the following methods:

may be found by

1. Geometrically. Represent the given forces by the sides of a polygon taken in order. The closing side in reverse order is

the resultant in magnitude

2.

and

direction.

Algebraically.

Resolve each

force

into

components
respectively.

Fx

and

FV

parallel to

coordinate axes
.

and

Then

RX =IFX

and

R y =IFy

Combining these we have

(i)

(2)

Equations
resultant,

(i)

and

(2) give the

R being its magnitude and a r the angle

magnitude and direction of the it makes with X.

The

line 0} action of the resultant

may be found by
in

either

of the following methods:

la. Geometrically.

Combine

the

forces

succession

by

means
the

of the principle that the resultant of

two forces lying in

2a. Algebraically.

same plane must pass through their point of intersection. Use the method of moments, i.e., The
of the resultant of

moment
braic

any such system of

forces,

about any

axis perpendicular to the plane of the forces, is equal to the alge-

sum

of the

moments

of the forces.

In case the magnitude of the resultant is zero, the forces either form a couple or are in equilibrium. If the resultant is a couple,
its

moment can be found by

2a or the given forces can be combined

is

into a single resultant couple

case of a couple

by la. Equilibrium whose moment is zero.

the special

If the lines of action of the given forces intersect at a

common

point, the line of action of the resultant will pass through this point,
its

magnitude and direction being found by the methods pre-

viously stated.

GENERAL METHODS,
It will

when
tions,
tion.

it

is

be observed that the determination of the resultant, a single force and not a couple, involves two operai.

namely:
2.

The

determination of
its

its

magnitude and
i

direc-

The

determination of

line of action.

We may

peria,

form both of these operations graphically by means of or algebraically by means of 2 and 20.

and

4.

Example. Find the resultant of the four forces F,

i

f
,

F",

F'"

(Fig.

A) by each of the preceding methods.

First Solution. Represent the given forces

by the

sides of the

polygon (Fig.
sents

B) taken in order; then the closing

side,

AD, repre-

the

magnitude

and direction of the

resultant.

The

nu-

merical values of these

quantities

may

be

found

(i)

by solving
(B)

the polygon by trigonometry, or (2) by

direct

FIG.

i.

measurement from a

scale drawing.

To

find the line of action of the resultant

by the

first

method,

we can proceed
resultant of
parallel to

as follows:

F and F' is AB through the

The magnitude and direction of the AB. Its line of action, R', is drawn
intersection of the lines of action of

F
be

and F'.

Continuing in the same manner, we determine

R"

to

the line of action of the resultant of F, F',

and F", and

finally

to

be the

line of action of the resultant of the four forces.

Second Solution.
zontal

Resolve each' of the four forces into hori-

(H) and

vertical (F)

components.

Then

2H=\$o+ioo cos 45+ 0150 cos 30 = 90.8, 2V = 0+100 sin 45+ 80+ 1 50 sin 30 = 225. 7,

GRAPHIC STATICS.
2 >+(2T) = 243.3,

-,

_
axis,

/y l-K-)=685'.
R, apply the method of moments.

TT\

To
Using

find the line of action of

as

moment

we have
1.414+80-0
1

2M =150-0
Hence the moment
distance from

ioo-

50 -.866=

271.3.

of the resultant about

O is left-handed,

and

its

O
i.

is

-^-

= 1.115.

This locates the resultant as

given in Fig.

The moment arms

of the several forces

may be measured
PROBLEM.

directly

may be computed or from a scale drawing when the results

thus obtained are sufficiently exact.

Represent four forces by the sides of a closed polygon taken in order. Assume the lines of action of these forces at random. Find the moment of the resultant couple by each of the

two methods of Art.

3.

5.

Conditions of Equilibrium.

Forces not acting at the same

point.

The

conditions

of equilibrium

may be deduced from

two
a
i.e.,

the fact that any system of balanced forces can be reduced to

equal and opposite forces having the same lines of action,

couple whose

moment

is is

zero.

A. If the resultant
1.

a couple,

R = o,

hence:

given forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a closed polygon taken
Geometrically.
in order.
2.

The

Algebraically. If the forces

parallel to coordinate axes, the algebraic

be resolved into components sum of each set of com<3.

ponents must be zero,

i.e.,

IFx = o and IFV =

GENERAL METHODS.
B. In order for the

moment

of the resultant couple to be zero,

we have:
i a.

Geometrically.

The

line of action of the resultant of

any

portion of the given forces must coincide with the line of action
of the resultant of the remainder.
2a. Algebraically.

The

algebraic

sum
and

of the

moments

of the

forces
i

must be

zero.
2

and la

constitute the geometrical,

and 2a the algebraic

i

conditions of equilibrium.

Forces acting at the same point.

is

In
if

this case condition

or 2

sufficient.

The

condition

that

three

non-parallel
is

forces

balance they must intersect at a

common

point,

a special case

under

la.

system of forces lying in the same plane is in equilibof the preceding conditions of equilibrium serve or more one rium,
to determine the

When any

unknown elements

of the problem,

if it is

solvable

under the assumption that the body acted on

is rigid.

6.

Examples,

i.

The

truss (Fig. 2)

is

in equilibrium

under

the supporting forces

and

and the load W.

is

vertical

and W, the known

point O.

force, is

normal

to the roof surface at its

middle

Indicate

how

to find
(i)

methods

(see Art. 5):

and P' by each of the following By using la and i; (2) by using 2a

one
force,

alone; (3)

by using ia

to find

then

to find the remain-

ing force; (4)

by using 2a

to find

one

force, then 2 to find the

remaining force.
First Solution.

The

resultant of

and W, acting through

N, must balance

the remaining force, P', acting at

M;

hence the
f

line of action of P'

must be

MN. The

forces P,

W, and P

to

balance must form a triangle (not shown"), the sides taken in order. and completing the triangle, P and P' are determined. Plotting

Second Solution.

Substitute for P',

unknown

in

magnitude

GRAPHIC STATICS
direction, the

and
in

two component forces

PH
f

and P'v unknown

,

magnitude only. and V components.

Also, for convenience, substitute for

its

To

find

take the

moment
forces.
,

axis at

M.
the

the intersection of the two other

algebraic

unknown

Then

sum

of the

moments

of P,

WH W v
,

P' H and P'v about

M must be zero.

Solving the equation thus formed,

we determine

'

so-

FIG. 2.

P.

Py, take moments about O P' H take moments about any convenient point not on
Similarly, to find
f
.

To

find

its line

of

action, e.g., O.

Third Solution.

Find one

force, e.g., P,

by moments, then
formed gives
Then.

and W, the closing plotting the magnitude and direction of

Fourth Solution.
since

side of the triangle

P'. force, as

Find one

P, by moments.

2FX and IFy must each be zero,

P'

we have

=W

and

P'V =

W V -P.
and
tan

a=

EXAMPLE

2.

The

portion of the truss (Fig. 2) to the

left

of

AB

is

in equilibrium

under the action of the supporting force P,

GENERAL METHODS.
load

W, and

the forces F,

f
,

and F" exerted by the portion

of the

truss to the right of the section

AB

upon

the left-hand portion.

The

lines of action of these latter forces coincide

with the centre

lines of the

members

cut

to the stresses existing in

by AB, and their magnitudes are equal P and being known, these members.

indicate

how

to find the three (see Art. 5)

:

unknown

forces

by each of the
20.

following methods
(i)

By using
20-

conditions la and i; (2)

by using

alone;

(3)

by using 20
(4)

to find

one

force,

then

i to

find the remaining two;

by using
forces.

to find

one

force, then 2 to find

the remaining

two

and F" acting through O r must balance the resultant of W, F, and F' acting through O. " _ Hence the line of action of each resultant, R, must be OO'. P,
First Solution.

The

resultant of

" *1

F", and their resultant R, must form a triangle (Fig. 2 A) being the known force, F" and R are thus determined. The

P
re-

sultant, R, must balance the forces at O, hence R, W, F, and F' must form a closed polygon as shown in Fig. 2 A. F and F' the remaining unknown forces, are thus determined by plotting
',

W and completing the polygon.

Second Solution.
intersection

To

find

jP,

take the

moment

axis at the

O"

of the other

two unknown

forces, so that their

moments moments

will

each be zero.

Then

the

algebraic

sum

of

the

of P,

W, and

about

the equation thus formed, we F' take moments about O', and to find

equal zero. Solving determine F. Similarly, to find

O" must
F"

take

moments about O.

Third Solution.

We

find

one

force, as

F, by the preceding

method, then represent the known forces P, W, F, by the sides of a polygon taken in order, and complete the polygon by lines f parallel to the two remaining forces, F and F".
Fourth Solution.

ments as before.

We find one force, F, by the method of moThen, placing the algebraic sums of the hori-

GRAPHIC STATICS.
zontal

and

vertical

we form two equations which unknown forces, F' and F".

components of the forces each equal to zero, are solved for the two remaining

In algebraic solutions the directions of the unknown forces

are assumed, the algebraic signs of the results indicating whether
the

assumed directions are correct or

not.

PROBLEM

i.

In Example

i,

obtain the numerical results,

methods mentioned. 5000 Ibs. In Example 2, obtain the numerical results, Also determine solving by each of the four methods mentioned. the kind of stress (tension or compression) in the members cut
solving by each of the four

W=

PROBLEM

2.

by AB.
Remarks.

The

student should

become

familiar with

each

mode
is

of solution so as to

be able to

select readily that

one which

best adapted to the problem at hand.

Ability to

make such

selection can

be secured only by solving

a variety of problems by various methods and comparing the

merits of the different solutions.

In using the method of moments, it should be noted that it is and V components of the forces than usually better to use the

it is

to use the original forces.

It

should also be noted that in case of forces not acting at the

lying in the
if

same point but

same

plane, three

unknown

quantities

can be determined, while

two can be determined.

the forces act at the

same point only

2.

Funicular Polygon.

7.

Definitions.

Let F, F',

F"

(Fig. 3 A),

be given

forces, their

magnitudes being represented by AB, BC, CD (Fig. 3 B). Assume any point P, and draw the radial lines PA, PB, etc. From any
point

M on

the line of action of

F draw ML

and

MN parallel

GENERAL METHODS.
to

PA

and

PB

respectively.

From N, where

MN intersects the

line

of action of F',
parallel to

draw
simi-

NO
larly

PC;

draw

OQ

parallel

to
L

PD,
sider

thus forming the broken

lineLMNOQ. We may con-

AP
i,

and PB, having

to

the directions of the arrows

marked
lines

be the com-

ponents of the force F, the

of

action

of

these

MN respectively.
BP
lines

components being

ML

and
(8)

Similarly,

and PC,
of action

having
2

the
FIG. 3.

directions

marked
and

and the

NM and
'.

NO, may
and
is

be taken as components of
for lines of action as the

F'

and

CP

PD with ON

OQ

components of F"

MN
PB,

and opposite
forces

forces

thus the line of action of two equal of the two equal and opposite and

NO

These two pairs of forces leaving APand PD, having ML and OQ

PC.
as the equivalent of the original forces.

consequently

balance,

for their lines of action,

The broken line LMNOQ is called a funicular or equilibrium The former name is given because the line corresponds polygon. to the shape assumed by a weightless cord when fastened at the
ends and acted on by the given
forces.

This

is

shown by

the

polygon drawn in dotted lines. The latter name is applicable since a jointed frame of the form of the polygon would be in equilibrium under the action of the given forces.

The
rays;

point

is

called the pole; the lines

PA, PB,

etc.,

are the

and the corresponding

lines of the funicular

polygon are

its strings.

10

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Figure 3

is

called the space diagram, since

it

represents the

location of the lines of action of the forces.

distance.

Its scale is

one of
lines

Figure 3

is

the force diagram, the lengths of

its

representing the magnitudes of the forces to scale.

The perpenis

dicular distance from the pole to any side of the force polygon
called the pole distance of that force.
It is to

be noted that

this

distance represents a force magnitude.

In the case of parallel forces the force polygon becomes a

straight line,

and the pole distances of

all

the forces are equal.

8.

Applications.

The

following results
7. is

are readily derived

from the construction explained in Art. and F" (1) The resultant of F, F',
direction

given in magnitude and

by the closing

side

AD
is

of the force polygon,

and

its line

of action passes through the point of intersection of the strings

LM and OQ.
L

The

resultant

thus completely determined; and,

in general, the line of action of the resultant 0}

any system

o) forces,

\taken consecutively, passes through the point 0} intersection o] the

,

two strings between which the forces

lie.

polygon hence the corresponding strings

this case the resultant
is

(2) If the force

is

closed,

PA

and

PD will coincide, and

will
is

LM and OQ
arm

be parallel

In

a couple whose

the perpendicular
forces are repre-

distance between the parallel strings,

and whose

sented by the ray

(PA

=PD)

corresponding to these strings.

(3) In order for the given forces to be in equilibrium, the of the couple in (2) must be zero; that is, the strings and

arm

LM

OQ
said

must coincide
to be closed.

in

MO.

In

this case, the funicular

polygon

is

The

conditions of equilibrium, therefore, are that

close.

both the force

and funicular polygons must

If the forces intersect at a

common

point, the first of these

conditions
couple.

is sufficient,

since such a set of forces cannot

form a

GENERAL METHODS.
(4)

1 1

Any number

of funicular polygons

may be drawn

for the

same system

of forces

by using

different poles

and beginning the

construction of the polygons at different points.

rical relations exist

Various geometbetween these different polygons, some of which

are given in

5.

The

following relations are derived directly

from the preceding discussion.

(a)

Corresponding pairs of non-parallel strings of the various

funicular polygons

must

intersect

on the same

straight line, this

being the line of action of the resultant of the forces included

these strings.
(b)

by

In the case where

the

force

different poles different couples will

polygon closes, by using be obtained; but as these

couples are
their

all

equally the resultant of the given system of forces,

will

moments

be equal.

It is

obvious that any string can be given any desired direction

by drawing the corresponding ray in this direction and assuming the pole at any point on the line thus drawn.
In selecting the pole, the obtaining of accurate and convenient diagrams is kept in view. Generally the rays should not make
very oblique angles with the adjacent lines of the force polygon. If the pole is taken at a vertex of the force polygon, as at A, Fig. 3 B,
the construction of the funicular polygon becomes identical with
that explained in Art. 4, for finding the line of action of the resultant

by
rate

id-

The

construction in Art. 4 frequently leads to inaccuis

and inconvenient diagrams and

inapplicable to parallel

forces.

9.

Notation.

Resultant of a System of Forces.

let it

To

illustrate

the notation to be used,

be required
(Fig. 4).

to find the resultant of the

four forces
force
is

AB, BC, CD, DE

The

line of action of
;

any

designated by the two letters between which it lies thus, ab represents the line of action of the first force, be of the second

GRAPHIC STATICS.
In the force diagram, the same letters in capital type are used, but placed at the ends of the lines representing the In constructing the forces.
force, etc.

force
letters

polygon,

the

forces

and

must be taken

in order

from the space diagram (e.g., proceeding from left to right)."

When
are

this is done,

if

the letters
left

read in order from

to

right in the space diagram, the

same order
polygon
FIG. 4.
is

of letters in the force

used

to

indicate the

directions in
forces act.

which the successive

be noticed that

It will

the string corresponding to the ray

PA

lies

in the space a, that

corresponding to

PB

in the space b, etc.

b, etc.,

These

strings will

be

referred to as the strings a,

and the corresponding rays as

the

the rays

B,

etc.

Having constructed

the force and funicular polygons,

the- resultant is represented

magnitude and direction of

closing side,

by the

AE,

of the force polygon,

and one point

in its line

of action
(a

is

the point of intersection of the similarly lettered strings

and

e).

The

line of action of the resultant,

R,

is

then drawn

through

this point of intersection, parallel to

AE.

any

force (e.g., the force

BC), the capital

letters

In referring to will be employed,

its

although the line of action of the force as well as and direction is included in the reference.

magnitude

The system
the forces
is

of notation just described

is

applicable in most
the location of

cases occurring in engineering practice.

When

such that

it

cannot be used to
5

advantage, the
instead.

modified notation illustrated in Fig. This needs no description.

may be employed

GENERAL METHODS.
In general, in referring
to forces in

ij

the text, the letters will

be used so as

by their order of succession the direction in which the forces

to indicate

act.

Special Case.

of a system of forces the case

in

In finding the resultant may occur

which the two

the

strings

whose

intersection

locates

resultant

are parallel (but do

not form a couple), or are so nearly parallel A

that they

do not

intersect conveniently.

In

such cases the resultant

may be
is

located as follows:

Let

it

be

required to find the resultant of the forces

(Fig. 4).

BC, CD, and

DB

This resultant

BE,

its

line of action
e,

passing through
parallel.

the intersection of the strings b

and

which here are

Now we know

(Art. 7) that the forces

under consideration are

equivalent to the two forces represented by the end strings b and e and the corresponding rays, BP and PE. Hence we can solve the

problem by finding the resultant of these two forces by means of

a second funicular polygon, as follows Taking the point A as a, convenient pole, draw a funicular polygon (shown in dotted lines)
:

for the forces

at

BP

and PE.

The
is

intersection of the

end strings

locates the resultant which

drawn

parallel to

BE.
-^

10.
(1)

Problems.

Assume Assume
and

five non-parallel forces,

and

find their resultant,

using two different poles.

(2)

five

non-parallel

forces

whose force polygon

closes,
(3)

find their resultant, using

five parallel forces

two different poles.

find their resultant, using

Assume
Assume

and

two and

different poles.
(4)

five parallel forces

whose algebraic sum

is

zero
t

find their resultant, using

two

different poles.

14
11. Distributed

GRAPHIC STATICS,
Forces.

Distributed

forces

are

commonly

represented in terms of their intensity.

tributed force
is

The

intensity of a dis-

the force per unit length, area, or volume, as the

illustra-

case

may

be.

Gravity and water pressure are familiar

tions of such forces.

If the intensity is the
distributed.

same

at all points, the force

is

unijormly

Parallel forces lying in the

same plane

will alone

be consid-

ered here.

Such forces are reprebe any

line per-

sented as follows:

Let

AB

(Fig. 6)

pendicular to the direction of the

p, represent the intensity

dx any infinitesimal portion AB, and let the ordinate, length of the force at the point from which the
forces,

of

ordinate

is

drawn.

The shaded

area pdx thus represents the

line.

amount

of force acting

on the length dx of the

The diagram

(Fig. 6) is then to

be interpreted as follows:

The

length of the ordinate at any point of the line

AB

repre-

sents the intensity of the force at that point,

and the area included

of force acting

between any two ordinates represents the amount on the corresponding portion of AB.

12.

(Fig.

7)

Funicular Polygon for a Distributed Force. Let Divide XZ into equal represent a distributed force.

WXYZ
by any

divisions sufficiently small so that the force represented

area, as

taken to act at the middle point n of the division and the area may be taken to be equal to UVXnm.

STUV, may be

Then

the distributed force

their

is

equivalent to the four forces

etc.,

AB,

BC, CD, and DE,

magnitudes (AB, BC,

of the force

polygon) being proportional to the lengths of the corresponding middle ordinates, such as mn. The funicular polygon is

GH

GENERAL METHODS. drawn from

divisions of
this

15
is

system of forces.
are

Now

it

evident that as the

polygon would more approach the true funicular polygon (curve) for the disThe true funicular polygon would then be a curve tributed force.
smaller,
this

XZ

made

closely

tangent to the polygon

GH

at the points

(marked with short

lines) corresponding to the points of division of the distributed

FIG.

7.

force.

Each

string

would be

infinitesimal in length

and have

the direction of a tangent to the curve.

and

Such a funicular polygon can be used for the same purposes in a similar manner to one drawn for concentrated forces.
to find the line of action, R, of the resultant force

Thus

AE, we

would draw tangents, GK and HK, to the curve at the points and Z, these tangents being drawn parallel to corresponding to

the rays

A and E

of the force diagram.

13.

Funicular Polygon for a Uniformly Distributed Force.

a parabola
dividing a

familiar construction of analytical geometry for

is

with axis vertical

shown

in Fig. 8.

It consists in

vertical line 1-8 into equal parts

vertical lines as

shown.

and drawing a series of equidistant The broken line i'-8' is then obtained
i',

by drawing

its

successive segments,

2',

etc.,

parallel

to Pi,

i6

GRAPHIC STATICS.
etc.

P2,
of

its

segments

curve tangent to this broken line at the middle points is a parabola with axis vertical.
this construction

Comparing
is

with that of Fig.

7,

we

see that

it

identical with the construction of a funicular polygon for

FIG. 8.

The funicular polygon for a uniuniformly distributed force. formly distributed jorce is thus a parabola whose axis is parallel
to the force.
If,

then, the force

WXYZ (Fig.

7)

were uniformly distributed,

B'

FIG.

9.

the funicular curve would be a parabola, axis vertical, tangent

to

the strings

KG

and

KH

at

the

points

corresponding to

GENERAL METHODS.
the limits of the force.
follows (see Fig. 9)
:

Such a parabola can be constructed as

Plot the resultant force

and draw the

respectively.
parts, as at
division, as

strings

Divide
3

AB, its line of action R bisecting XZ, Kx and Kz parallel to the rays A and B Kx and Kz into the same number of equal
i', 2'

i, 2,

and

and

3'.

Lines joining these points of

to

shown, are tangents

the required

curve.

The

points of tangency, indicated

lines parallel to

by

circles,

are located by drawing

through the alternate points of division (com-

pare with Fig.

8).

3.

Forces in Equilibrium.

14.

Use

of

Funicular Polygon.

It will
is

be noticed from

that the funicular polygon construction

especially adapted to

the case of parallel

may

and other non- concurrent forces, although it be used to advantage in problems relating to forces inter-

secting at a

of the drawing.

common point, when The conditions

this point lies outside the limits

of equilibrium, given in Art. 8,

for non- concurrent forces are

close,

(i)

that the force polygon

must

and

(2) that the funicular polygon

must

cation of these conditions to the solution of

illustrated, ,the

The appliproblems will now be

close.

cases most frequently arising in

practice being

presented.

15.

Case

I.

Parallel

Forces.

Given a

system of parallel

forces in equilibrium, the lines of action of all

and the magnitudes

and
the

directions of all but

two being known.

It is required to find

unknown

elements.

Let the unknown forces be the supporting forces of the

(Fig.
10).

beam
AB, draw

Represent the loads in succession by the sides

BC,

CD

of the force polygon, and, selecting a suitable pole,

GRAPHIC STATICS.
b, c,

the strings a,

intersects the left reaction at

d of the funicular polygon. The string a w, and the string d the right reac-

tion at n.

m, n is then the closing string e of the funicular and the polygon, ray PE drawn parallel to it determines DE and EA to be the right- and leftline joining
B
-

The

a ijt^t*^? ^
e

hand supporting
s P ect i ye ty-

forces re-

^""^^TT
-$

When

the un-

\m

known

(supporting) forces

are parallel, but the given

FlG I0
-

forces (loads) are not, the

supporting forces must be parallel to the resultant load. If we take (Fig. 10) to represent this resultant load, the construc-

AD

tion for determining the magnitudes of the supporting forces

will'

be similar

to that just explained.

The method

of determining the

magnitudes and directions of

is

the supporting forces from the lettering, after the construction

completed, should be carefully noted. It is as follows: (1) The strings are lettered with the same letters as the cor-

responding rays, so that the strings intersecting on the line of

action of any force have the

same

letters as those

that force in the force polygon.

The two
e,

strings intersecting

which represent on
represents the

the

left

supporting force are a and

of this force.

hence

AE

magnitude

Similarly d and

e intersect

on the

right

supporting force;
(2)

so

its

magnitude

is

DE.
them
in the space

The

forces are laid off in the force polygon in right-handed

order;

i.e., if

the letters representing

diagram
in the

be read

in right-handed order, the

same order

of letters

force polygon indicates the direction in

also

which the forces

close.

act.

We

know
is

that the force polygon

must

The

force polygon

then

ABCDEA,

the order of letters

It

DE, EA

indicating that

each supporting force acts upwards.

should be noted in this

GENERAL METHODS.
and
the following solutions that the

19

known

forces are

made

to

follow

consecutively in constructing the force polygon.

(To obtain a thorough understanding of these solutions, it would be well for the student to trace out the construction from
the standpoint of the triangle of forces.
the force

AB CD

is

resolved into

are the strings a

and

b.

Thus, in the present case, and PB, whose lines of action Similarly BC is resolved into BP and

AP

PC, and

into

CP

and PD.

The two

forces

PB

and

BP

balance since they are equal and opposite and have the same line of action, b. PC and CP balance for a similar reason; hence
the three loads are equivalent to are a and d respectively. the resultant of

AP and PD, whose lines of

in order to

action

Now,

have equilibrium,

the resultant of

AP and the left PD and the right

supporting force must balance supporting force.

in

The
mn.

lines of

action of these two resultants

must then coincide

is

Since,

of the three forces intersecting at m, one

the resultant of the

other two, they must form a triangle,

tude.

AP being the known

EA
is

magnideter-

This triangle

is

APE;

thus the reaction

mined.
in

The
EPD.)
Case

corresponding triangle for the

forces intersecting

is

16.

II.

Non-parallel Forces.

Given a system of forces

in equilibrium, all but

these two, the line

two of which are known completely. Of of action of one and one point in the line of
It is

action of the other are known.

required to determine the

unknown

elements.

Let the known forces be the wind pressures AB, BC,

roof (Fig. n).
ports.
it

CD on the
is

The unknown
and one

forces are the reactions of the sup-

The

line of action of the right

supporting force
left

given,

being

vertical;

point, m, of the

reaction

is

known.

the force polygon.

Represent the loads in succession by the sides AB, BC, CD of The strings e and a must intersect on the

GRAPHIC STATICS,
line

of

action of the

supporting force
is

EA, and

as the point
will

of this line of action

known, the funicular polygon

is

be

constructed so that these strings will intersect at this point.

construction of the funicular polygon

The

then begun by drawing

FIG. ii.

the string a through the point m, the strings

b, c,

d being then

drawn

in order.

The
is

string d intersects the right supporting force at n, and, of

course, the string a intersects the left supporting force at

m;

mn

thus the closing side,

e,

of the funicular polygon.

e
.is

The

ray cor-

responding to the string

supporting force,

DE,

at E.

now drawn, intersecting the right The triangle of forces, PDE, whose
formed, and the magnitude
Finally, the

lines of action intersect at n, is thus

of the supporting force

side,

DE

is

determined.

closing

EA,

of the force polygon represents the

direction.

other supporting
is

force in

magnitude and

Its line of action

drawn

through m, parallel to EA.

17.

Case

III.

Non-parallel

Forces.

Given

system

of

forces in equilibrium, the lines of action of all are

known, but the

magnitudes and directions of three of the forces

are

unknown.

It is

required to determine the unab, be, cd (Fig

known
FIG. 12.

elements.

Let

12)

be the

lines of action of the three

unknown

forces.

The

resultant of

any two, as

be

and

cd,

must pass through

their point

GENERAL METHODS.
of intersection, n.
If this resultant

21

be substituted for be and

cd,

the problem becomes identical with Case II; ab being the line of
action of one of the other.

unknown

force,

and n one point of the

line of action

The
of be

construction of Case II having been made, the resultant

into

and cd can be resolved

components

parallel to these lines

of action, thus completing the solution.

Figure

13 shows this

FIG. 13.

method applied to determine the stresses in the members and ga, of the truss, the loads and reactions being known.
Resolution

ef, jg,

18.

of

Forces

into

Components.

Since forces

equal and opposite to the components and having the same lines of action will balance the given forces, we can solve problems of
this

nature in the same manner as

if

the forces balanced, the

desired components being the balancing forces with their directions reversed.

4.

Graphical Determination of Moments.

of Resultant of

19.

resultant of

Moment AB,

any System
is

of Forces.
its line

The

EC

and

CD

(Fig. 14)

AD,

of action,

GRAPHIC
lettered

ST/tTICS.
intersection

R, passing

through

th^

of

the

strings

a
8

and
this

d.

The moment
resultant

of

about
thus
is

any
the

point

is

(R = AD)x, in which x

moment arm.

Now

draw S T through parallel to AD and terminaFIG. 14.

ting in the strings a

and

d,

thus forming with these strings a triangle (drawn in heavy lines)

similar to

PAD.

From
But

these two
is

similar

triangles

we

have,

AD-x = ST-y.
force,

AD-x

the

moment

of

the

resultant

hence
of the resultant of

The moment

any system
on
this line

0} forces

may

be

found by drawing a line parallel

to the resultant

through the moment

by the strings cor-

axis, noting the distance intercepted

responding

to

the resultant.

The product

of this intercept into the

pole distance of the resultant is the desired moment.

This method

has no value except in case of parallel forces.

20.

Moment
forces.

of

Resultant of

Parallel

Forces.

The

con-

structions of this section are especially adapted to the case of

parallel

Illustration:

Let

the

beam (Fig. 15) be loaded as shown. The reactions of the supports (Art. 15)
are found to be

CD

and DA.

It is re-

quired to find the

any

section,

ST.
is

bending moment at By definition, this

equal to the algebraic of the forces to the

bending moment

sum
left

of the

moments

of the section, and,

by Art.

19, this

c
FIG, 15.

resultant

moment

is

equal to the pole

distance, y, times the intercept

ST.

GENERAL METHODS.

Now
same
for

in

case
the

of

parallel

forces,

the pole

distance

is

the

all

forces,

hence the bending moments at the

are directly proportional
is

various sections of the

beam

to

the

corresponding intercepts.

This subject

further developed in

Chapter

III.

It follows directly

from Arts. 19 and 20 that

if

any two funicular

polygons be constructed for a given system of parallel forces, the

ratio of the intercepts of

corresponding pairs of strings on any line

drawn

parallel to the forces is constantj being equal to the inverse

ratio of the pole distances of the respective polygons.

5.

Some

Special Constructions for Funicular Polygons.

21.

Locus of Points of Intersection of Corresponding Strings*

two funicular polygons be drawn for the same system of forces, JA // any their corresponding strings will intersect on a straight line parallel ])
I

to the line

joining the two poles.

Proof.

Let AB, BC,

CD

(Fig. 16)

be the given forces.

(The

student should keep both diagrams in mind, also that the order
of letters in the text indicates the directions of the forces.)

The

funicular polygons for

the two poles,

P
in

and
full

f
,

are

drawn

and broken
spectively.

lines

re-

The

resultant
is

of
f
.

PA
Its
is

and AP'
line

PP

of

action

xz
FIG. 16.

parallel to

PP' and

passes through x, the point of intersection of the strings a and a' which are the lines of action of the forces PA and AP' respectively.
Similarly, the resultant of

PB

and BP'

is

PP',

its line

of action
etc.

yz passing through the intersection of the strings b

and V,

24

GRAPHIC STATICS,
f

ant of

Now PB is the resultant of PA and AB, also BP is the resultBA and AP'. Since ^4 and BA are balanced forces, the resultant of PB and J3P' is the same as the resultant of PA and
;

AP'

hence their

lines of action,

xz and yz, must coincide.

The
PP'

same reasoning

applies to the intersections of the remaining strings.

etc.,

The
this

points x, y,

therefore

lie

on the

line xz, parallel to

',

being the line of action of the

common

resultant of the pairs

etc.

of forces,

PA

and AP'

PB

and BP'\

PC

and CP',

22.

Locus of Poles

of Funicular

Polygons passing through

Two

Given Points.

The

locus of the poles 0} all funicular poly-

gons, two of whose corresponding strings pass through two given

points, is a straight line parallel to the line joining the two points.

Let AB, BC, CD (Fig. 17) be the given forces and Proof. x and y be the points through which the strings a and d respectively

FIG. 17.

are to pass.
to

Assume two balancing

forces

DE

and EA,

parallel

AD and

passing through the points y

f
f

and x

respectively.

The
by and
are
If,

magnitudes of these balancing forces are found, as in Art. 15,

drawing the closing string

the corresponding ray E.

e (x

of the funicular polygon

Now

since the forces

ABCDEA
will close.

balanced,
then,

all

funicular polygons

drawn

for

them

we wish

the string a of any such polygon to pass through

string d through y, the string e must evidently pass through both x and y, and the pole P' therefore lie somewhere on the ray

and the

drawn through
two given

parallel to xy,

i.e.,

parallel to the line joining the

points.

GENERAL METHODS.
23. Funicular

2$

Polygon

through Three Points.

PROBLEM.

To draw a

funicular polygon for a given system of forces, such that

shall

three designated strings

pass through three given points.

It is

Let the forces be

ABCDEF
and the

(Fig. 18).

required to

draw a

funicular polygon such that the string a will pass through O, the
string c through O', string
/

through O".

FIG. 18.

Let

mn

be any funicular polygon for the given

of the construction of Art. 22,

forces, with

for pole.

By means

we determine

P'X

be the locus of the poles of all funicular polygons whose c pass through O and O' respectively. Also, by the same construction we determine P'X' to be the locus of the poles of
to strings a and
all

funicular polygons
respectively.

O"

whose strings c and / pass through O' and Hence, in order for both conditions to be satislie

fied,

the pole must

on both P'X and P'X',

required polygon
is

i.e.,

at their point
in full lines.
c,

of intersection, P'.

The

drawn

(Note.

To

secure accuracy,

draw the

strings a,

and

/ first,

then draw the intermediate strings closing on the ones

midway

between the given points.)

Funicular Polygon through Three Points.
Parallel Forces.

24.

shorter solution than that given in Art. 23 can be

made

for this
it

case.

Let AB, BC, CD, and

DE (Fig.

19) be the given forces,

26

GRAPHIC STATICS.

for them such that being required to draw a funicular polygon the string a will pass through O, the string c through O', and the Let mn be any funicular polygon for the string e through O".

given forces,

being the pole.

Draw

lines parallel to the forces

the ones through through each of the three given points. Taking and followof action of lines forces, the to be O" and balancing O the construction of Art. 22, we determine mn to be the closing
ing
string
(/)

of the polygon drawn, the closing string of the required

FIG. 19.

polygon being OO".

Knowing

that the string c of the required

polygon must pass through O', the intercept on a line through O' made by the strings c and / of this polygon will be O'S', the
corresponding intercepts of the first polygon being RS. Now, O'S' constant for all corresponding intercepts of the ratio -^-F being
the two polygons (see Art. 20), the vertices of the required poly-

gon may be determined as 19 A). From S" describe an

tangent

follows:

Lay

off

R"S" = RS

(Fig.

arc, radius

S"X = O'S'
and
step

and draw the

from

R"T.

Then

to

determine any intercept, for example

it

uv, take the distance u'i/ in the dividers

off

R"

on R"S"

The

perpendicular distance from the point thus located

GENERAL METHODS.
to

27
in full lines

R"T is

the desired intercept.

locaied.

The polygon drawn

was thus

In case the intercept

RS
will

is

shorter than O'S', Fig. 19

3,

must
In

be modified by making such case the proportion

R"S" = n-RS, where n = 2,

be

etc.

uv :O'S' ::n-u'i/:n-RS.

The

pole P' of the required polygon can be located on

P'F

(see Art. 22)

by means

of the proportion

y-.y.'.RS-.O'S' (see Art. 20).

PROBLEM.

Draw

a funicular curve (parabola) for a uniformly

distributed load so as to pass through three given points (Fig. 20).

FIG. 20.

Let the load be distributed over the length OO", the three
points being O, O',

and O"

Draw

lines

(vertical)

parallel to

the load through these three points.

of the load lying
their resultants

Substitute for the portions

on the two

sides of the vertical through

AB

and BC, and construct any funicular polygon

mn for them, P being the pole.

would be tangent

The
b,

corresponding funicular curve

to the strings a,

and

c at

m, R, and n respect-

GRAPHIC STATICS.
ively (see Art. 13).
will pass

A
is

second funicular polygon whose string b

through O'

located as explained for Fig. 19.

now drawn, the vertices i and 2 being The strings Oi, 1-2, and zO"
This curve
is

of this polygon will be tangent to the required funicular curve at

O, O', and

O"

respectively.

constructed by the

method shown

in Fig. 9.

25.

Funicular Polygon through

Direction

Two Points, One String having

To draw a
funicular polygon

a Given

PROBLEM.

for a given system of forces, such that two designated strings shall

pass through two given points and one string of the polygon shall

have a given

direction.

The method
the poles of
all

of Art. 22 can be used to determine the locus of

polygons passing through the two given points.

The

intersection of the ray corresponding to the string

is

whose

direction

given with this locus will be the pole of the required

polygon.
If the string

whose direction

is

given

is

also

one of the two

which are

through the given points, the following simpler Let AB, BC, and CD (Fig. 21) be the solution can be made.
to pass

given
pole of

forces,

and

the

any funicular polyfor

gon
It
is

mn

these

forces.

required to

draw a

second polygon such that the strings a and d will

pass through
spec a vely,

and O'

re-

and the

string
rein-

a be horizontal.
FlG 2J

The
forces

sultant

of

the

cluded between the desig-

nated strings a and d

is

AD,

its line

of action passing through the

GENERAL METHODS
intersection

29
first

of the strings a

and d

of the

polygon.

The
on

corresponding strings of the second polygon

this
line

must

intersect

(Art.

8).

These

strings

are,

therefore,

OS',

drawn

horizontally,

and S'O'.

The new

pole P' will be at the inter-

section of the corresponding rays.

The polygon can now be

completed.

CHAPTER

II.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
i.

Construction of Roofs, Loads,

of

etc.

26. Construction

Roofs.

roof

includes the covering

slate,

.and the framework.

The

covering

is tin,

tarred

felt,

cor-

rugated iron, etc., laid over sheathing;

omitted, as
is

or the sheathing
iron
is

may be

The

roof

commonly done when corrugated covering is supported by a more

arrangement of
shops,
etc., is

used.

or less

elaborate

framework, the principal members of which are

or arches.

often trusses

A common

this

framework, in case of
assembly
halls,

^JACK-RAFTER

train-sheds,

shown
of

in plan

and elevation

in

Fig. 22

The

trusses,

AB,

are

made up
chord,

an upper chord, a lower and the web members. At

right angles to the trusses

and sup-

ported

by them are a system of

called purlins.

members, CD,

The
iron

purlins are usually

wooden or

beams, but in case of wide spacing between the trusses they may be
FlG
-

*2

trussed members.

It is

desirable to

support the purlins at the joints of the upper chord, otherwise

bending
covering
raj ters,

stresses
is

would occur
on the

in these

members.

Sometimes the

laid directly

purlins, but more commonly jack-

EF, supported by

the purlins, serve to further subdivide

30

'

ROOF-TRUSSES.

31

the area, the covering being laid on them.

bracing
is

A system of swayemployed, when necessary, to keep the trusses vertical

Such a system
is

and

in line.

represented in Fig. 22 by the diag-

onal rods S, S, situated in the plane of the upper chord.

Roof-trusses are supported either by masonry walls or piers, by wooden or iron columns. When iron trusses of considerable span rest on masonry, a more or less effectual provision for expanor

sion consists in supporting one end

rollers.

on a planed bed-plate or on

(For a range of temperature of 120 F. iron changes in length about i inch in 100 ft.) To provide for expansion lengthwise of an iron framed building, expansion joints are inserted in the
longitudinal

members

at suitable intervals.

27. Loads.

The

loads which have

commonly

to

be provided

for in designing a roof-truss are:

This includes the weight of the covering, (1) Dead Load. framework, and any other permanent loads supported by the This loading truss, such as the weights of floors, ceilings, etc.
varies

from about 8

Ibs. to

35

Ibs.

or

more per square

Ibs. to

foot of roof

surface.
(2)

Snow Wind

Load.

This

is

estimated at 10

25

Ibs.

per

horizontal square foot in northern United States.

(3)

Load.

This

is

estimated at 30

Ibs. to

50

Ibs.

per

square foot
1

on a

vertical surface, the resulting

normal pressure

For detailed descriptions

E. Bernard

"Revue Technique de
Atlas).

of roofs, see the following references: 1'Exposition de Chicago," Part I, Architecture (with

&

Co., Paris.

"Philadelphia and Reading Terminal Station, Philadelphia." Soc. C. E., 1895.

Trans.

Am.

"The South Terminal

1899. "St. Louis Coliseum."

Station, Boston,

Mass."

Trans.

Am.

Soc. C. E., Dec.,

"Dome
Am.

of

Jour. Assoc- Eng. Soc., May, 1898. Government Building, World's Columbian Exposition."

Trans.

Soc. C. E., Jan., 1892.

GRAPHIC STATICS.
on an inclined surface being determined by some empirical
formula.
1

Provision should be

made

for

ported by the roof,

e.g., live loads

any additional loads to be supon floors, weights of shafting

and

travelling cranes, pull of belts, thrust of jib-cranes, etc.

The
ing, are

pressures at the various joints of a truss, due to the load-

in case of in the

determined by the same methods as the supporting forces a beam. The direct stresses (tension or compression
-

members

of a truss

depend on these

joint pressures or

loads.

When

loads are applied to a truss at other points than

the joints, the

1

members

of the truss thus loaded are subjected

130-133, from which the following
is

Read Lanza's "Applied Mechanics,"

is

extract

taken:
as fol-

"Duchemin's formula, which Professor W. C. Unwin recommends,

lows, viz.:
.

2 sin 6

where p= intensity of normal pressure on normal to the direction of the wind.

"i) Mutton's formula,

roof,

p t = intensity

of pressure

on a plane

P=Pi
V

(sin 0)i- 84

cose-

1.

"Unwin

claims that this and Duchemin's formula give nearly the same results

for all angles of inclination greater than 15. "The following table gives the results obtained

by the use of each, on the

assumption that
e

/> 1

=4o."

ROOF-TRUSSES.
to bending stresses in addition to the direct stresses.

33

This case

is

discussed in

6.

The

direct stresses in the

members

of a roof-truss can usually

be determined most readily by graphical methods. In order to use such methods to the best advantage, however, it is necessary to freely employ algebraic methods in connection with them, as
indicated in the following pages.

2.

Determination

of Reactions of

Supports.

28. Cases.

Let the loads acting on the truss (Fig. 23) be

resolved into horizontal

(H) and

vertical (V)

components,

2H.
and
1

and

2V

representing the algebraic

sums

of

the horizontal

vertical

respectively,

component and

loads the
|V

IM

*
H

algebraic

sum

of the
loads.
2,

moLet
I

ments of the
HI,

/
Vl

^\'
"*
v,

V u and

be the
left

components of the

and

Fro- 2 3-

right reactions respectively.

Then we have

IH, F V,+ =2T;

2

....... .......

(i)
(2)

and. Faking

moments about

the right support,

in

which

VJ-2M,
span.
.

........

(3)

From

These three equations involve four unknown quantities. equations (2) and (3) V^ and Vy can be determined; their

values are thus independent of the

of the truss.

manner

The

values of

and

2,

of supporting the ends however, vary with the

manner

of supporting the truss.

The

following cases occur:

34

GRAPHIC STATICS.

CASE

I.

Truss fixed in position

at both supports by

anchorso that

bolts or otherwise.

When

the roof

is

comparatively
is

flat,

the resultant load, including wind pressure,

reactions

nearly vertical, the

parallel to the resultant load.

can be assumed parallel to each other, and consequently In the case of steep roofs, or in

general where the resultant load

vertical, this

makes a

large angle with the

assumption may The assumption which probably approaches

lead to absurd results.

the
truth
as

can be expected for so indeterminate a case is that the horizontal reactions o] the two supports are equal. If the truss is
closely as

assumed

to

be

rigid, the

supports equally

elastic,

and no other

forces besides the horizontal pressure

on the

truss in action to

cause the supports to yield, this assumption would be correct;

supports yield equally, the horizontal forces causing such yielding must be equal. When the truss is not anchored to its supports, the conditions
for, since the

are evidently similar to Case

I,

so long as the weight

and

friction

are sufficient to prevent motion.

CASE

II.

One end

of

truss^sup ported onjrollers^ planed bedIf friction

plate, or similar device to provide for expansion.

be

neglected, the reaction at the free end

tion at the free

is

evidently vertical.
:

Fric-

end may be dealt with as follows

First determine

the supporting forces on the assumption that both ends are fixed.
If the resulting reaction at the free
vertical less

end makes an angle with the

than the angle of repose, these reactions are the

true ones.

If, however, the reaction at the free end, thus determined, makes a greater angle with the vertical than the angle

of repose,

both reactions must be determined anew on the

assumption that the reaction at the free end makes an angle with
the vertical equal to the angle of repose.

CASE
cussed in

III.
6.

Truss supported on columns.

This case

is

dis-

ROOF-TRUSSES.
29.

35

Examples.

The methods
5,

of determining the supporting

15,

forces are included under Arts.

and

16.

few examples

are given to indicate suitable solutions.

EXAMPLE
from the
left,

i.

The

truss (Fig. 24)

is

subjected to wind pressure

the load being uniformly distributed over the rafter.

Find reactions of supports: (i) When both ends are fixed (Fig. 24 A); (2) When the right end is supported on rollers (Fig. 24 B);
(3)

When
The

the

left

end

is

supported on

rollers (Fig.

24 C).

resultant load acts at

the middle of the rafter.

In

Case

(i) the reactions are as-

sumed

to

be

parallel.

They

are found, by the method of

Art. 15, also
resultant load,

by dividing the

AD,

into parts

inversely proportional to the

segments into which the

divides
the

line

of action of the resultant load

line

joining

the

supports.

The method

of Art. 16
(2)

is

used to solve Cases

(3),

and

the reaction at the free

vertical.
FIG. 24.

end being assumed

The

line of action of the reis

action at the fixed end

also determined

from the condition

that three non-parallel forces in equilibrium

must

intersect at the

same

point, after

which the magnitudes of the reactions can be

forces.

determined by the triangle of

The

vertical

components of the reactions are the

same

for all

three cases (see Art. 28);

hence the results for any one of these

36

GRAPHIC STATICS.

cases might have been used in solving the other two cases (see

Example
sultant
ively,

2).
2.

EXAMPLE
and

In the truss (Fig. 25)

vertical

AB

and

BC

are the rerespect-

wind loads on the

and inclined surfaces

It is

CD

is

the resultant dead load.

forces,

required to deter-

mine the supporting

making use

in turn of each of the

following assumptions:
(i)

Left end supported on

rollers, reaction vertical;

(2) left

end supported on smooth bed-plate, coefficient of friction = J; (3) both ends fixed, reactions parallel; (4) both ends fixed, horizontal

FIG. 25.

reactions equal;
tical.

(5) right

end supported on

rollers, reaction ver-

Solution.
is

The

line of action of the resultant of

BC

and

CD
AD.

xy,

drawn through x
supporting forces

parallel to

BD.

This resultant combined

with

AB

gives zy for the line of action of the resultant load

The

under assumption
i

second method used in Example

i, determined by the for Cases 2 and 3, are

DE

and EA.

ROOF-TRUSSES.

37

Now,

since the vertical

of any assumption, the point corresponding to

horizontal line through

component reactions are independent E must lie on a

in all cases.

E
off

Hence the remaining

cases can be solved as follows:

Assumption

2.

Lay

EE' = %EA, then

DE

and E'A are

the supporting forces.

Assumption

3.

DE"

and

E"A
IV

are the supporting forces.

'",

Assumption

4.

Bisect

EE

at

then

DE"

and

E"A

are the supporting forces.

Assumption
It

5.

DE

IV

and
if

E A
IV

are the supporting forces.

should be noted that

the supporting forces

had been

de-

termined for the dead and wind loads separately and the results combined, the resultant reactions thus found would differ from
those in

Example

when assumptions

and 3 are employed,

but not in the other cases.

r
FIG. 26.

PROBLEM.

The

truss (Fig. 26)

is

subjected to wind pressure

on the

left

side as shown, in addition to a uniformly distributed

vertical load of 75,000 Ibs.

Determine the supporting forces under

2.

each of the assumptions of Example

30. Algebraic

Solution.

The

student

should be able to

determine reactions algebraically as well as graphically.

The

GRAPHIC STATICS.
general method
is

indicated in Art. 28.

(Art. 28) serve to

determine

V and V
l

2.

Equations (2) and (3) In order to determine

HI and

2,

we must

have, in addition to Equation (i), a second

equation based on the assumption employed.

Taking the
is

five

assumptions of
follows:

Example

in order, this second equation

as

Assumption

i.

2.

H,
r I
.

H IH
2

V2
__

TT

TT

TT

PROBLEM.

Solve the problem (Fig. 26) algebraically.

3.

Determination

of Stresses.
is

31. General Methods.

truss

designed to support loads

applied at the joints by virtue of the resistance to extension

and

compression of

its

various members.
for determining the tension

There are two general methods

and compression stresses in the members of sections; (2) method of joints.

32.

of a truss: (i)

method

Method

of Sections.

Let the imaginary

line

xy

(Fig. 27)

divide the truss into two parts, this line intersecting the three

members
of

dj, jk,

ka.

The

portion of the truss to the

left

xy

is

a body in equiaction

librium under the

of certain forces.

Consider
If
it

the
FIG. 27.

member

dj.

is

in

tension, the portion to the

right

of

xy must be exerting

force

upon the portion

to

the

ROOF-TRUSSES.
left of

39
compression,
force
its

xy, toward the right.

If dj is in

rightits

hand portion must, on the other hand, be exerting

upon

In either case, the magnitude left-hand portion, towards the left. in the member, and the of the stress that to is force of this equal
line of action of the force

has the direction of the length of the

be represented by the

member.

This force
left

is

external with reference to the portion of

It will

the truss to the

dj.

of xy.

letters

Similar explanations hold for jk and ka.

The
and

forces, there-

fore,

which hold the

left

portion of the truss in equilibrium are the

known

forces ab, be, cd,

and the

forces dj, jk,

ka, exerted

by

the right-hand portions of these three members upon their leftThe lines of action of these last three forces hand portions.

known, their magnitudes and directions being unknown. These six forces constitute a system of forces in equilibrium, lying
are
in the

same

plane, but not acting at the

same

point.

One

or more

of the conditions of equilibrium of Art. 5 can therefore

be used to

determine the

unknown

forces, as

was indicated
2)
is

in Art. 6.

The

third solution of Art. 6

(Example

generally most useful in

dealing with roof-trusses.

The
(1)

following points should be noted

Only three
if

forces,

unknown

in magnitude, can

be deter-

mined, so that

the section

xy cuts more than three members

loads, a solution cannot

which are

in action

under the given

a

be

made.
(2)

The

stress in
it

member

is

equal to the magnitude of the

stress, tension,

force

which

exerts,

and the nature of the

or

compression can be determined from the direction of the force

(tension,
if

directed

away from

left

portion;

otherwise com-

pression).

33.

Method

of Joints.
(i)

The

external forces acting

upon the
load

joint b (Fig. 27) are:

the supporting force ab;

(2) the

4
be;
(3)

GRAPHIC STATICS,
the forces exerted by the
If either

members

ck

joint.

member

as ck,

is

in tension, the force

and ka upon the which it

the joint;

exerts
if

on the

joint b is evidently directed

away from
is

in compression,

towards

it.

As

the joint

in equilibrium,

these four forces

braic

must balance, and by applying

either the alge-

method

of resolution of forces or the geometric

method

of

polygon of forces, the unknown forces can be determined. In using the method of joints, the following points should be
noted
:

(1)

The

forces dealt with are those acting

on the

joint.

(2)

In dealing with any one joint only two unknown forces

can be determined.
(3)

The

nature of the stress in a

member can be determined

the joint; compression,

from the direction of the force which the member exerts on the
joint:
if

tension,

if

the force acts

away from

the force acts towards the joint.

(4)

When the
upon

stress in a

member is determined,
is

the force which

forces being

it

exerts

the joint at each end

known, these

equal and opposite.

34.

Determination

of

Stresses

in

Roof-trusses.

Of

the

methods which have been explained, the one best adapted to rooftrusses is the method of joints, solving by the polygon of forces.
this method, the external forces being known, we begin by constructing the polygon of forces at any joint of the truss where only two stresses are unknown. Having thus deter-

In applying

mined these two, we repeat the construction for another joint where only two stresses remain unknown, and continue in this

manner

until the stresses in all the

members have been determined.

35.

Example.

Bow's Notation.

jected to a uniformly distributed load,

The truss (Fig. 28) is subW. Each intermediate

ROOF-TRUSSES.
joint of the

41

upper chord supports \W, and each end joint f W.

is

Each

supporting force

^W.

The

external

forces are lettered as in the preceding

chapter, ab representing the

tion;
be, cd, etc.,

left

reac-

the successive loads.

Letters are also placed in the spaces

into

which the surface

the

web members.
is

is divided by Each member of

the truss
in the

represented by the letters

e.g.,

adjacent spaces;
of
the

the two

halves

lower

chord

are
is

ka
FIG. 28.
;?,

and ha;
etc.

the vertical

member

The

directions of the

forces are indicated in

the force

diagram by the order of the letters. For this purpose the letters are to be read in right-handed order around the truss
(or stress)

or any joint of
be
etc.;

it;

e.g.,

the

left

reaction

is ab,

left-hand load

the force exerted

by the member ck upon the left-hand

is kc.

joint is ck,

and upon the

joint cdjk

To

illustrate the

manner

of using this notation, the stresses in

First con-

the various
struct the

members

of the truss will be determined.

polygon of external forces.

vertical line in right-handed order.

Lay The first

off the

loads on a

load, beginning at

the

left, is be;

it

acts

lettered so that

BC

downwards, and to indicate this the force is reads downwards. Continuing in this manner,
completed,
if

when

the polygon

is

we read

the letters surrounding

the truss in right-handed order, bcdefgab, these letters in the stress

diagram, read in the same order, will represent the polygon of external forces, the order of succession of the letters indicating
the direction in which the forces act.

Next the polygon of

is

forces for the left-hand joint of the truss

constructed.

in the stress

The known forces ab and be are already included diagram. The two unknown forces are ck and ka.

42

GRAPHIC STATICS.
letter of

One

each (C and A)

is

already in the stress diagram.

These

letters indicate the points

from which

to

draw the
is

lines

representing the

unknown

forces.

Thus

the polygon

completed

by drawing from

C and A

lines parallel to ck

and ka

respectively,

their point of intersection being lettered

K.

Proceeding to the

next joint, kc and cd are the

known

forces.

From
By

the points

D
of

and

lines are

drawn

parallel to dj

and jk

respectively, interthis

secting at /, thus completing that polygon.

mode

construction, the polygons of forces for the various joints of the

truss are

grouped together

in a single
is

diagram called the

all

stress

diagram.
will

When
stress

the last joint

reached,

the stresses but one

be known.

The

letters

representing this one will already

line joining

be in the

diagram, and the

them
if

will

be parallel
is

to the corresponding

member

of the truss

the construction

accurate.

The
(1)

following points should be noted in using Bow's notation:

The

stress in

any member of the

truss

is

represented by

the

same
(2)

letters as the

member

itself.

The polygon of forces for any joint is lettered with the surrounding that joint, the direction of the forces being indicated by the succession of letters obtained by reading the letters
letters

surrounding the joint in right-handed order. (3) To determine whether any member is in tension or compression,

read the letters representing that

joint at either

member

in

right-

handed order about the

end of the member.

The
on

same order

of succession of these letters in the stress diagram

indicates the direction of the force

which the member

towards the

exerts

the joint used.

If this direction is
if

joint, the stress is

illustration,
let

compression;

away from
In the
is

it,

tension.

As an
this

the nature of the stress in ck be determined.

Using the

left joint,

the letters read c-k.

sion of these letters

stress

diagram
left.

order of succes-

towards the

Referring again to the

ROOF-TRUSSES.
truss, the direction,

43
seen to be towards the

towards the

left,

is

joint used as a centre,

this indicating that the

member
is

ck

is

ex-

erting force
(4)

on

this joint

towards

it.

Hence

ck

in compression-

In constructing the polygons of forces it is to be noted any polygon but the two corresponding tothe two unknown forces at the joint will be already represented
that all the sides of
in the stress diagram,

and the points from which

by the
is

to

draw these

two

sides are indicated

lettering, as previously explained.

The
letter

point of intersection of these two sides

marked with the

common

to the

corresponding members

of the truss.

(5) Referring to Fig. 27, any portion of the truss (e g., the shaded portion) is a body in equilibrium. The external forces, acting on it must then form a polygon which would be lettered with the letters surrounding it (e.g., abcdjka). It should be:

observed that
(see Fig. 28).

all

Hence the same

such polygons are included in the stress diagram! stress diagram would be obtained
1

whether the method of joints or method of sections were employed in constructing the various force polygons. In using the method illustrated, the truss is drawn accurately to scale, the loads are also plotted accurately to scale, and the
stress

diagram

is

constructed with extreme care.

The magnithe.-

'

tudes of the stresses are gotten by scaling off the proper lines of
stress

diagram, and the nature of the stress

previously explained.

is

derived from the

serious

lettering, as

The most

cause of
of

inaccuracy, especially in case of trusses having a large

number

members,

is

that the construction of each polygon, in turn, -is

based upon preceding ones, so that errors accumulate. To guard against this, the method of sections should be employed as indicated in Art. 37.

The

student is

recommended

to

study trusses with the view of

understanding the purpose and action of their various members In Fig. 28, for example, the independently of the stress diagrams.

44

GRAPHIC STATICS.

load cd tends to deflect the rafter, this deflection being prevented by the brace kj, which would therefore be in compression, kj,

being in compression, exerts a downward thrust on the lower chord at a. The lower chord is prevented from deflecting under
this thrust

by

ji;

ji is

therefore in tension.

in such a

manner

will assist the student to

A study of trusses a better understand-

ing of their design.

36.

Determination of

Maximum and Minimum

Stresses.

In

order to proportion the various parts of a truss, it is necessary to know the extreme range of the stresses to which each member
will

to occur.

be subjected under the various combinations of loads liable The loads to take into account will vary with the cirIn case of the arches supporting the train-shed roof

cumstances.

of the Philadelphia

and Reading Terminal

Station, Philadelphia,

the stresses were determined for: (i) dead load; (2) dead load

and
(4)

snow on one

side;

(3)

dead load and snow on both

(5)

sides;

dead and wind loads;

1 dead, snow, and wind loads.

On

the

other hand, the train-shed trusses of the South Terminal Station,

Boston, were designed to support a uniformly distributed vertical

load only.
(2)
2

The most

usual combinations are:

(i)

dead load;

dead and snow loads; (3) dead and wind loads. There are two methods of procedure in this connection:
stresses thus

(i)

Construct a separate stress diagram for each kind of loading, and

combine the

determined;

(2)

Construct a diagram

for each combination of loads.

The

student should be familiar

with both methods; the

latter,

however, appears to be generally

(i)

preferable for the following reasons:

tions the
first

Under

certain assumpe.g.,

method does not

give correct results;

if

under

the assumption of parallel reactions,

See Trans.
1

the reactions for dead

Am.

Soc. C. E., Aug., 1895.

Ibid., Dec., 1899.

ROOF- TRUSSES.

45-

and wind

loads, considered separately, are

assumed

to

be

parallel,,

the resultant reactions found by combining these will in general,

not be parallel.

Again, in dealing with friction at the supports,

the two methods will give different reactions,

different
stresses.
(2)
is

and consequently
(

In
the

dealing with

counterbracing
(3)

4),

the second

method

more simple

of the two;

When

the second
stresses

method is employed, the maximum and can be scaled directly from the diagrams.

minimum

37.
i,
ft.

Example.
I,

Wooden Truss

fixed at

Both Ends.

Figure

Plate

represents one of a series of parallel trusses, spaced 16

roof.

between centres, supporting a

it

The

vertical iron tie-ro'ds

divide
of

into eight panels of equal width.

ft.

Span = 80

ft.

Rise

upper chord =16

i

on sheathing
2
in.

by

in.

The roof is to be covered with tin laid in. thick. The sheathing is supported by rafters The section, spaced two feet between centres.
in.

rafters are

supported by purlins 8
at the joints of the

by 12

in.

section, these

being supported

upper chord.
2 feet

Each
by
10.8

rafter supports
ft.

an area of the roof surface

proportioned as a

wide

long,

and

is

beam
is

to support the
liable to

maximum
upon
10.8
this
ft.

load, including its area.

own
and

weight, which purlin

come

Each intermediate
ft.

supports

an area

wide by 16

long,

is

also proportioned as a
liable to

beam

for the

maximum

load to which

it is

be subjected.

The

student should verify these dimensions of rafters and purlins,

using a working stress of 1000

Ibs.

per sq.

in.

CALCULATION OF LOADS.
Wt.
" "
of tin "

and sheathing per

sq.

ft.

of roof surface

rafters (30 Ibs. per cu.

"
ft.)

" "

" "
Total

"

purlins (30 Ibs. per cu.

"
ft.)

=3 =i =2
=7

Ibs.

"
'

Ibs.

46

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Estimated weight of truss =5760 Ibs. This weight is assumed be supported at the joints of the upper chord. (The weight of the truss must be estimated from the actual
gives the formula for

to

weights of trusses of similar design and loading already built.

Merriman
.and
for

wooden

trusses,

W = %al(i + ^l),
formulas
are
.

iron

trusses

JF = fa/(i + Ty).

These

derived from a table of weights of trusses given by Ricker.

2 son gives, for iron trusses, the formula s\al = = case weight of truss in pounds, a distance between trusses

W=

JohnIn each

in

feet,

= span

in feet.

These formulas can,

to

at the best,

be only

rough approximations.) The snow load is assumed

on a

be 20

Ibs.

per sq.

ft.

of horizontal
Ibs. per. sq.

projection of roof surface, and the wind pressure 40

ft.

vertical surface.

Normal component
20
Ibs.

of

wind pressure (Hutton's formula)

per

sq.

ft.

of roof surface.

LOADS AT INTERMEDIATE JOINTS or UPPER CHORD.

Roof
covering, etc ......................... Truss ...................................

7X16X10.8= $X576o =

1210
720

Ibs.

"

Total dead load at each intermediate joint " Snow

= 1930 Ibs. =20X16X10 =3200 =20X16X10.8 = 3460

"

Wind

"

"

"

"

"

"

Each end
mediate
joint.

joint supports one-half the load carried

by an

inter-

The
(2)

loadings considered in this example are:

(3)

(i)

dead load;

dead and snow loads;

dead and wind

loads.

The

stu-

dent should trace out the construction of the diagrams, noting the steps taken to secure accuracy and to check the work.

Dead-load Diagram (Fig.

B).

The

reaction of each

supto

port

is

7720

Ibs.

The

total load is plotted

and subdivided

ROOF-TRUSSES.
obtain the joint
loads.

47
is

Since

the

truss
in

symmetrical and

symmetrically

loaded,

the

stresses

corresponding

members

be equal; the diagram is therefore conIn order to avoid a long succession of structed for one side only. the and to check work, the stresses in er, rq, and qk are joints

on the two

sides will

determined at the outset by the method of sections (Art. 32) as

follows
:

Calculate the stress in one of these members,

as qk,

by

moments.

Taking the moment other two members, we have

7720-30

axis at the intersection of the

965-30

1930(20+
of

io)

= i2QK.

.'.

QK= 12,062

Ibs.

The moment moment of QK,

under

the

known

forces being right-handed, the

to balance,

in tension since the force acts

must be left-handed, hence QK is away from the portion of the truss

plot
this

consideration.
off

Next

computed and

stress

in the

diagram, laying
it

from

the length

QK in

such direction that

rq are next

will represent

tension.

The
'the

stresses in er

determined by completing
remaining stresses to the
left

polygon

QKABCDERQ. The
by the

of the section are determined

method
At

of joints as follows:
i

joint

determine

BL

and LK;
line
this

at joint 2,

LM

and

at joint 3,

CN and NM;
If,
is

at joint 4,

DP and
is

PQ;

at joint 5,

MK; PO

and OK.
no, the

now, the closing

checked.

NO

parallel to the

member

order of procedure a long sucBy cession of force polygons dependent on each other has been
avoided, thus preventing inaccuracies from accumulating, and
the

work

divided in this

work has been completely checked. Trusses should be manner by a sufficient number of sections so that
joints.

each division will contain not more than ten or twelve

It

should be noted that the mere closing of the force polygons, without the introduction into the stress diagram of stresses com-

puted independently of the diagrams, does not completely check

48
the work, since errors

GRAPHIC STATICS.

made

in constructing the truss

interfere with

diagram

and

plotting th: loads

would not

the diagrams

closing.

is

distributed in the

Dead and Snow Loads. Since, in this example, the snow load same manner as the dead load, the stresses
stresses

can be found by multiplying the dead-load

by

-^
is

-~

Dead and Wind Loads

come from
points:
(1)

(Fig.

A).
is

The wind
to

taken to
following

the

right.

Attention

directed

the

The

resultant

dead and wind loads are

first

plotted, as

shown by the dotted

subdivision.
(2)

lines, the joint

loads being found by suitable

The

resultant load intersects the lower chord at

z,

the

reactions

dividing

JK and KA (assumed to be parallel) being AJ into parts inversely proportional to the

stresses are

found by
segments

of the lower chord.

(3)

The

determined in a manner similar to that

explained for the dead load.

convenient to
forces.

know

the

In calculating the

stress in qk

it is

and

components of the external

H component of wind load =

V component of wind load=

40

^ 13840

5 140 Ibs.

13840= 12850

Ibs.

Taking moments about the right-hand support,

80 Vl = 1 5440 -40+ 1 2850 -20+ 5 140 -8.
.'.

F = ii4461bs.
1

H = 15440+ 12850 -^
l

1446 = 2080

Ibs.

ROOF-TRUSSES.

49

QK =

1446 30

2O8O -12

965 30
12

1930(20+

IO)

19300

Ibs. (tension).

Maximum and Minimum

minimum
for

Stresses.

The maximum and

of the truss were
all

stresses for the different

members

determined as follows: Tabulate the stresses in

each of the three combinations of loads.

the members,
that

Note

the

extreme range of stresses will be the same, in case of corresponding

the

members on

the two sides of the truss.

uv,

Thus, considering

members op and

we

find the stresses (in pounds) re-

corded in the following table:

GRAPHIC STATICS.
:

Fig. 29)

Having resolved the loads into

D
<

H and V components, plot

and

AD' = ZH

AD
/

is

the resultant load.

H component
etc.,
'

the joint loads,

D'D = 2V, then To plot AD' off on the lay

AB',B'C
the
f
,

joint loads

in order,

and on

D'D
',

component
etc.,

joint loads

D'B" B"C",
Combining
etc., for

in the

same

order.

these

we have AB, BC,

the

resultant joint loads.

2.

The

precaution, illustrated in

Art. 37, of
FIG. 29.

computing the stress in one or more of the members by the

method

of sections,

and

plotting the results in the stress diagram,

should always be employed in large or important work.

3.

In constructing

stress

diagrams

it

is

sometimes desirable
accurately than can

to obtain the directions of the

members more

be done by using the truss diagram unless the latter is constructed For this purpose coordinate on an inconveniently large scale. axes can be used, the slopes of the various members being plotted

on them

as indicated for

st

and uv

(Fig.

D).

good general

rule to follow is to avoid obtaining the direction of a line of the

stress
4.

diagram from a shorter

is

line of the truss.

stress diagram on Nothing a very large scale. The lines of such diagrams need not be in error more than two or three hundredths of an inch. With a

gained by constructing the

scale of 10,000 Ibs. to the inch this

would be an error of 200

is

to

300

Ibs.

in the stress.

Such an error

of no importance in

work
5.

requiring so small a scale.

The diagrams
manner

should be constructed with such care and

in such a

as to leave

no question

as to their accuracy at

any stage of the construction.

The wooden

edges of the ordinary

ROOF- TRUSSES.

drawing-board and

square are unreliable. A steel straightwith lead edge weights to hold it in position is preferable. The edges of the triangles must be straight and the 90 angle true.

The
The

usual hard -rubber and celluloid triangles are not sufficiently

accurate in these respects and should be tested before using.

best quality of dividers

and compasses, a metal

list

scale grad-

ated to hundredths of an inch, and a hard pencil kept sharpened

to a fine chisel edge,

complete the

of necessary instruments.

All intersections to be preserved are located

by a

fine prick-point

enclosed in a

circle.

39.
is

Problems,

i.

The

truss,

Fig.

30,

fixed
ft.

at

both ends,

one of a system of parallel

trusses,

spaced 10

apart, support-

ing a roof.

The dead
is

load

is

20
to

Ibs.

per sq.
Ibs.

ft.

of roof surface.
ft.

The wind
surface.

pressure

assumed

be 40

per sq.

on a

vertical to the

Determine the

stresses in all the

members due

combined dead and wind

Directions,

loads.

equal.

(2)

(i) Assume the component reactions to be Determine the normal wind loads on the two inclined

roof surfaces by Hutton's or Duchemin's formula (see table, p. 32).

(3) Plot these two wind loads together with the resultant dead load and determine the reactions of supports by drawing a funicu-

lar polygon for these (three) resultant loads

(see Arts.

15

and

52

GRAPHIC STATICS.
(4)

29).

Plot the joint loads in order (see Art. 37)

and draw the

stress diagram, checking

on the middle portion of the lower

loaded on the upper chord In addiIbs.

chord.

PROBLEM

2.

The

truss, Fig. 31, is

with a uniformly distributed dead load of 75,000

tion,

2000

Ibs.

each intermediate joint of the lower chord is loaded with The lower chord is a circular arc. The vertical web
are equidistant.

members
bers.

Determine the

stresses in all the

mem-

Directions,

(i)

In plotting the
(2)

truss,

locate

the joints of

the lower chord by ordinates.

Plot the external forces in

right-handed order as usual, namely, loads on upper chord right-hand reaction loads on lower chord left-hand reaction.
(3)
it

Calculate stress in

member a
(4)

(or a')

by moments,

plotting

in the stress diagram.

Construct the stress diagram for

either half-truss, checking

on

b (or &').

PROBLEM
per sq. Prob. 2.
reaction
ft.

3.

Determine the

maximum and minimum stresses

wind pressure of 40 Ibs. dead loads of
on
rollers,

in the truss, Fig. 31, providing for a

on a

vertical surface as well as for the

Assume
at

that one end of the truss rests

the

end being vertical. (Note. Three combinations of loads must be dealt with, namely: dead load alone;
that

ROOF-TRUSSES.

53

dead load with wind on

fixed side.)

roller side;

dead load with wind on

40. Cantilever Truss.

Fig. 32,

which represents one of the

train-shed trusses of the South Terminal Station, Boston, con-

FIG. 32.

sists

of a central truss,

the cantilevers.

The

dotted

AB, supported at A and B on the ends of AC, acting as a link, provides for expansion. chord members are furnished with sliding joints and
resist

thus do not

tension or compression.

The

stresses

can be
at

determined in the usual way, first finding the reactions and B due to the loads on the central truss. 1

41. Trusses

having only Two Forces

to determine at

Each

In the preceding examples only two unknown stresses were encountered at each joint, so that the polygons of forces for
Joint.

the successive joints of the truss could be constructed at once.

Other cases of the same nature are given in Fig. 33 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H. The student should verify this statement, indicating the order of succession of joints to 'use in constructing

the stress diagrams.

42. Fink, or French, Roof-truss.

in

This

is

a type of iron truss

common
its

use for shops and similar

represents

most usual form.

1

buildings. Fig. 33 L In applying the method of joints

See Trans.

Am.

Soc. C. E., Dec., 1899.

GRAPHIC STATICS.

FIG. 33

ROOF-TRUSSES.
to this truss a difficulty
directed.
is

55
is

encountered to which attention

Beginning at the left-hand support, the force polygons can be constructed in the usual manner until the joint S There is reached, where three unknown forces are encountered.
are various graphical devices for overcoming the difficulty;

the

most

satisfactory solution, however,

is

to calculate the stress in

ST

by moments (method of
diagram.

sections)

and

insert this calculated

stress in the

The

.stresses in the

two remaining memfollowed

bers at the joint

5 can

then be found by completing the force

of

polygon.

If

the

method

procedure of Art. 37
of

is

no

difficulty

arises.
I, J,

Other trusses

the

same nature are

shown

in Fig. 33

K, and M.

4.

Counterbracing and Double Systems of Bracing.

It will

43. Definitions.

be noticed that the members of a

triangles.

properly designed truss

form in general a system of

The

triangle

is

the elementary truss.

Under the

action of forces

lying in

its plane and acting at its vertices, it cannot be distorted without changing the lengths of one or more of its sides, and

such changes are opposed by the resistance to extension and compression of the sides. A polygonal frame of more than three
sides,

assumed

free to turn at the joints,

can be distorted with-

out altering the lengths of any of the sides. The quadrilateral frame (Fig. 34), acted on by the force

would

be

distorted

as

shown, the distance^

AB

becoming shorter and

CD

longer, change

in length of the diagonals necessarily

accom-

panying the distortion of the frame. A diagonal member capable of resisting both extension

tion.

and compression would, then, prevent distorA member joining C and D, capable of

resisting tension

$6

GRAPHIC STATICS.

alone, would prevent distortion in the direction

shown

in Fig. 34,

but not in the opposite direction.

Two tension diagonals, however,

would evidently make the frame stable. Thus a quadrilateral frame may be made capable of resisting any forces acting at the
angles, tending to distort
.

it,

by the introduction of a

single diagonal

member

capable of resisting both tension and compression, or

of two diagonals, both capable of resisting tension alone or compression alone.

In the

latter case

it

is

evident that only one of

the diagonals would be stressed at a time.

rilateral of Fig.

which
the

is

Considering the quad34 to represent one panel of a truss, the diagonal stressed under the action of the dead load may be called
brace, the other the counterbrace or counter.

main

The

counter

may be

stressed

under the action of the wind, snow on one side

of the roof, or other non-symmetrical temporary load.

44. Notation.

The

system of notation of Fig. 35

is

con-

venient to use for trusses with counterbracing.

of each panel
is

One

diagonal
in full
letters

drawn

dotted.

The

diagonals
ij,

drawn
same

lines are designated

by the

letters

gh and

the

accented being used for the dotted diagonals. To illustrate, if the diagonals under stress were g'h' and ij, the verticals would

be represented by ]hf gf i, and jk; the members of the upper f chord would be bg and a, and of the lower chord h'e and je,
,

the diagonals not stressed being considered omitted from the

diagram.

45. Determination of Stresses.

Diagrams Drawn

for

Comwhich

bined Loads.

CASE
external

i.

Parallel Chords.

Having

plotted the

polygon
loads.

of

forces,
is

we must

first

determine

diagonal in each panel

stressed

In the case of parallel

under the given system of chords this may be done as

follows (see Fig. 35):

ROOf

TRUSSES.

57

-TF = o,

Using the method of sections, apply the condition of equilibrium, to the forces acting on
1000

the shaded portion of the truss.

The V component

stresses in the

chord members, bg and he, are each zero, hence the V component stress in the diagonal (gh or
f g h ) under stress must be equal and opposite in direction to the
f

V component
ternal force.

of the resultant ex-

Now

it

will

be seen
repre-

that this resultant force

is

sented in the stress diagram by

the letters

which

lie

in right-handed order,

below and above the panel in question, read This order of letters (see stress i.e., EB.

diagram)
force acts

is

downward, indicating that the resultant external downward, hence the V component diagonal stress
Keeping
it

must
is

act upwards.

in

mind

the fact that

if

member

upon the shaded portion of the truss acts away from that portion and conversely, we see that if the diagonals are tension members gh is the one under stress, while
in tension the force

exerts

compression members g'h' is stressed. Thus by the resultant external force lying to the left whether observing
if

they are

of any panel acts

up or down

as indicated in the external force

polygon, and knowing whether the diagonals are tension or compression members, we can determine at a glance which diagonal
is

under

stress.
is

The

use of the condition

of shears.

2T = o

in determining

stresses

called the

method

those

In Fig. 35 the diagonals are assumed to be tension members, drawn in full lines being consequently under stress. The

dotted diagonals are therefore omitted and the stress diagram

constructed in the usual manner.

GRAPHIC STATICS.

CASE

2.

Chords not

Parallel,

In

this case the condition of

equilibrium,

JTM = o, can be
loads
(see

used, as indicated in the following

example, to determine which diagonals are stressed.

plotted

the

Fig.

36), -the

reactions

DE

Having and EA

\ y-=

'" v

FIG. 36.

(assumed to be

parallel) are

determined by drawing a funicular

polygon for the joint loads.

forces acting

Now,

consider the panel eb and the

to the
left

on the portion of the truss

of the section

ROOF-TRUSSES.

59

The two chord members intersect at O'. Taking this moment axis, the moment of the stresses in the members cut by mn must balance the moment of the external forces acting on the left portion of the truss. The moment of each chord stress being zero, the moment of the stress in the diagonal gh or g'h' must balance the moment of the resultant external
mn.
point as
'force

EB.

This resultant force must act through the intersection

e

of the
of

strings

and
falls

b (see Arts. 8

and

9).

The

intersection

these strings
it

here outside the limits of

the

drawing,

but

is

evident

from the direction of two

EB

location of the intersection of the

strings

and the general e and b that the

moment

about O' would be right-handed; hence the moment of the diagonal stress must be left-handed, i.e., the diagonal
of

EB

gh would be stressed if the diagonals were tension members; and g'h' if they were compression members. Dealing with the panel
ec in the

same manner, we

find that the

moment
is

of the resultant

external force

EC = R,
if

about the axis O,

left-handed, hence

the
ij

moment
stressed

of the diagonal stress

is

the

diagonals

are tension

must be right-handed; i.e., members and con-

versely.

those

In Fig. 36, the diagonals are assumed to be tension members, drawn in full lines being stressed. The stress diagram can
constructed in the usual manner.

now be
If
it

were necessary

to locate the resultant force

EB,

it

could

be done by Art. 9 (Special Case) as follows:

the strings
e',

Using
f

for pole,

p',

and

of the special polygon for the forces

f

EP

and

PB

are drawn, the intersection of e

and

(not

shown) being
stress

one point in the line of action of EB. It should be remarked that the diagonals under be determined by trial during the construction of

may
stress

the

diagram as follows: Omit either diagonal of a panel at random and draw the force polygons, determining from the order of the

60
letters the

GRAPHIC STATICS.

kind of stress in the diagonal used. If this agrees with the stress for which the diagonals were designed, the diagram

correct, otherwise the other diagonal is stressed and the force polygons involved must be re-drawn. This method is unsatisfactory compared with those previously described.
is

46.
is

Example.

The

lower chord of the truss, Fig.

ft.

2,

Plate

I,

a circular arc of 185

radius.

The

verticals are equidistant

and the diagonals are tension members. Both ends are fixed and the reactions are assumed to be parallel. It is required to
determine the stresses in
of loads, viz.:
i.

all

the

members

for the following system

A uniformly distributed
Ibs.)

dead load of 75,000

Ibs.,

on the two central panels being divided between the monitor and main roofs as follows: 5000 Ibs. on
the loading (18,750 the monitor roof and 13,750
roof.
2.

Ibs. supported directly by the main normal wind pressure on the left side, distributed as follows: 17,000 Ibs. on vertical surface of main roof; 33,000 Ibs.

on inclined surface
monitor
1.

of

main

roof;

roof,

and 11,000
in

Ibs.

9600 Ibs. on vertical surface of on inclined surface of monitor roof.

Stresses

Monitor Roof.

diagram are given in Fig. 2 B. be tension members,

}e

The joint loads and stress The diagonals are assumed to

is

being evidently the one under stress;

gh

is

therefore omitted.

The diagram

constructed beginning
ah, hg, g},
je,

at the joint ab.

The

stresses in the

members

and

ed evidently act as loads on the main truss and are included in The computed stress in the table of joint loads given below.
g}
is

50

Ibs. tension.

2.

Joint Loads and Reactions for

Main

Truss.

The

joint
for

loads for the main truss, resolved into

H and

V components

convenience in plotting and computing, are given in the following

table:

ROOF-TRUSSES.
TABLE or JOINT LOADS FOR MAIN TRUSS.
Joints.

6r

62

GRAPHIC STATICS.
in

manner, working

both directions from centre and ends and

checking midway. The results are given in the table, Plate I. It should be noted that no counterbrace is needed in those
panels where the same diagonal
is

stressed

under

all

circumstances.

determine which diagonals are stressed under the action of the dead load alone.

PROBLEM.

In the

truss, Fig. 2, Plate I,

47. Determination of Stresses in Trusses with Counterbracing.

SECOND

METHOD.

When

separate

diagrams are constructed

FIG. 37.

for the different kinds of loading (see Art. 36), the determination
of the

maximum

stresses,

where counterbracing

is

involved, is

ROOF-TRUSSES.

63
i

somewhat complicated.
in the example, Fig. 37.

method of procedure
to

is

illustrated

The
2.

The

diagonals are
i.

assumed
load;

notation of Art. 44 is employed. be tension members. The loadload.

ings are:

Dead

Wind

Both ends of the

Fig. 37

truss

are fixed, the

reactions being

assumed equal.
left side,

is

the diagram for

wind load on the

Fig. 37

is

the dead-

load diagram.
1.

In constructing the stress diagrams, one

those dotted,
is

set of diagonals,

e.g.,

omitted, and the force polygons are

drawn

in the usual

then repeated in the same figure, using the diagonals previously omitted (the addiThe diagrams thus contain the stresses tional lines are dotted).
construction
is

manner.

The

in

all

the
is

members
to

of the truss,

panel
if

assumed

be stressed.

There

whichever diagonal of each will be no confusion

the
2.

mode The
is

panel

44 is employed. determine which diagonal of each stressed under each combination of loads, i.e., i. Dead
next step
is

of lettering of Art.
to

load alone;

2.

Dead
Alone.

load and wind on one side.

Dead Load
in tension are

From
and k'V

Fig. 37

B we B

find that the diagonals

stresses in the

// (full)

(dotted).

The

mem-

bers are therefore lettered in Fig. 37

as follows:

BH,

CI, DK',

EM, HG, JG,

L'G,

MG, HJ,

//,

IK

f
,

K'L', L'M.

Dead Load and Wind on

Left Side.

We

first

determine which

diagonal of each panel is stressed by combining the stresses of We thus find that the diagonals intension Figs. 37 A and 37 B.
are
i'j'

(dotted)

and

WV

(dotted).

The

stresses for this

com-

bination of loads are therefore lettered in the two diagrams as

follows
:

BH, CF, DK', EM, HG,

K'V, L'M.

J'G, L'G,

MG,

HI',

I'J',

J'K',

64

GRAPHIC STATICS.
found by combining the two diagrams. Dead Load and Wind on Right Side. In this example, this
resultant
stresses

The

are

therefore

stresses lettered as above, in the

combination of loads need not be dealt with as

the

it is

obvious that
the two sides

maximum
3.

stresses in corresponding

members on
due

of the truss will be equal.

Having determined the

stresses

to the different stresses

com-

binations of loads, the

maximum and minimum

can be

selected as explained in Art. 37.

&
48. Trusses

Such a
ing

truss

may be

having a Double System of Web Members. treated as a combination of two trusses hav-

common

chords, but distinct systems of

web members.

The
shown

girder of Fig. 38 A, for example, can be resolved into those

in Figs. 38

B and 38 C, the stresses in the members of these component trusses being found in the usual manner. The actual
stress in

any web member of

truss
is

the

original

given

directly

by the diagrams while

in

the stress

any chord

seg-

ment, as
to the
stresses

ab, is evidently

equal

algebraic

sum

of the
(Fig.

found for cd
ef (Fig.

38

38 C). When the given truss can be resolved in more than one way, or when

B) and

the distribution of loads be-

tween the component trusses

is

uncertain,

the problem

is

indeterminate.
Fig. 39
bers, as
is

a crescent roof-truss with two systems of web

the full

memBy

shown by

and dotted

lines

respectively.

ROOF- TRUSSES.
tracing out the force polygons for the different joints
it

65,

will

be

seen that the stress diagram can be

plete truss. truss
is

drawn

at

once for the com-

suitable system of lettering the interior of the

given, the intersections of the diagonals being treated

If the joint
i were made to coincide with 2, the porload supported by each component truss would be

as joints.
tion of
its

FIG. 39.

uncertain and the problem in this particular would be indeterminate.

49.

Double Diagonal Bracing.

In the case of counterbraced

panels (see Fig. 33 N, O, P, Q), the two diagonals are assumed

not to be in action for the same loading; both being designed for
the

same kind

of stress.

When

the diagonals are designed to

is

act simultaneously (one being in tension while the other

in

compression), the truss can be resolved into two trusses having

common
Each

chords and verticals but distinct systems of diagonals.

joint

division of

its

would belong to both component trusses, and the load between the two trusses would be uncertain.
is

One way

of dealing with this case

is

to

assume that the load

at

each joint

divided equally between the two trusses.

stresses in the verticals

and chords would be the

algebraic

The sum

of those found for the separate trusses.

The

results of this

method are evidently

liable to err in the

wrong

direction.

66

GRAPHIC STATICS.

Three- hinged

A rch.

50. Definition.
ribs hinged at the

three-hinged arch consists of two arched

(Fig. 40).

crown and abutments

The outward
a
tie-

thrust at the ends

rod joining the

51.

may be resisted by the abutments or by The ribs may be braced or solid. ends.
The

Determination of Reactions of Hinges.

reactions

are assumed to act through the centres of the hinges.

The

re-

actions of the hinge at the crown on the two half-ribs must be

evidently equal

and

opposite.

Let ab

(Fig.

40) represent the

line of action of the resultant load supported

by the

left half-rib,

the right half being assumed to be unloaded.

at

and O" must be equal and

left

act along the

The reactions line O"O' The

.

three forces acting on the

sect at a

half must, for equilibrium, inter-

common

point.

This condition determines

On

to

be

the direction of the reaction at O.

The magnitudes

of these reactions can

now be found by

con-

structing the triangle of forces

ABD'.

BD

is

the magnitude

ROOF-TRUSSES.

67

of the reaction at O", and of the two equal and opposite reD'A is the magnitude of the reaction at O. actions at O'.

The
and O",

directions
for

and magnitudes of the reactions at O, O', any resultant load be on the right half-rib, are found

manner, the triangle of forces being BCD". When both sides are loaded, the reaction at either hinge is evidently the resultant of the reactions due to the loads taken separately.
in a similar

Combining the two separate reactions for each of the hinges by the triangle of forces, we find the resultant reactions for the right half-rib to be CD and DB at O" and O' respectively; and
for the left half- rib,

BD

and

DA

at

O' and

respectively.

The
drawn

lines of action of these reactions are

parallel to

DA, DB, and

DC

respectively.
if

Ox, xO'y, yO", These lines

is

should intersect on ab and be as shown,

accurate.

the construction

reactions at the
actions of the

In the case of a symmetrical arch, symmetrically loaded, the crown will evidently be horizontal. The re-

end hinges can then

for this case

be found

directly;

the points

x and y being determined by

the intersections of a

horizontal line through O' with the resultant loads.

Fig.

40 can now be interpreted as follows: The point

to

can

be taken

be the pole, and the

lines

Ox, xy, yO" the

strings of a

funicular polygon for the given loads.

can, then, be determined

The

reactions of ihe hinges

by constructing a funicular polygon

be the
lines of action of the reactions,

for the loads, such that the three strings will pass through the

hinges.

The

strings will

and the lengths

employed

of the corresponding rays their magnitudes.

Instead of using the resultant loads, the actual loads

in applying this

may be

sary to construct

only necesa funicular polygon for the given loads, such

this case
it is

method.

In

that the three limiting strings will pass through the three hinges.

(For methods, see Arts. 23 and 24.)

68
52.

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Determination of Reactions.
it

ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION.

In

order to secure greater accuracy,

may be

desired to determine

by calculation the position of the pole of the required funicular 1 polygon. This is done by calculating the reaction at O since
,

the ray

DB

(Fig. 40) or

PD

(Fig. 41) represents this reaction.

Let R}*R be the equal and opposite reactions at O' (Fig. 41). These are resolved into horizontal (H) and vertical (V) comTaking moments, about O, of the forces acting on ponents.
the
left half,

we have H-b'-V -a' = IW'x

and
yf its

f
,

in

which

repre-

sents

any load,

arm.

Similarly, the
right half

moments about
the equation

O" of the forces acting on the H-b + V-a' = 2Wx. By solving

f

give

these two equations,

we

deter-

mine the values

of

and F, and consequently R.

This value

w,'

FIG. 41.

of R, laid off in the proper direction from the point

D of the force

polygon, locates the pole P of the required funicular polygon. PA and PG are then the reactions at O and O" respectively.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
It is to

69

be noted that

PAD

and

PDG

are the polygons of external

forces for the

two

half- ribs.

PROBLEM.
is

The

semicircular arch (Fig. 42) hinged as shown,

loaded with a dead load of

dis-

8000 pounds uniformly

tributed
also

over the roof,

a

and
of
I

with

wind

load

,_,--'

8000
side.

pounds on the right Find the reactions of

(i)

the hinges:
(2)

graphically;

by

calculation

as

exFIG. 42.

plained.

Also draw a funic-

ular polygon for these loads, to pass through the three hinges.

53.

Determination

of

Stresses

in

Braced Arches.

The

determination of the stresses in three-hinged braced arches will

be illustrated by the following example.

clined chord

Fig. 3, Plate II, rep-

resents half of a symmetrical three-hinged arch.

is

The

outer inft.

divided by the joints into 6 divisions of 5

ft.

each
the

and one

of 8.1

The member

7,

is

drawn

so as to

make

adjacent segments of the inner chord equal, the other corresponding members being perpendicular to the outer chord. The arch is

loaded with a dead load uniformly distributed over the outer

chord, together with a wind load on the right side.

The wind

pressure on the vertical sides of the building

is

not supported by

the arches.

It is required to

determine the stresses in the wind-

ward

rib.

The

diagonals are assumed to be tension members.

The

joint loads (pounds) are as follows:

Joint.

?o
1.

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Determination
loads,
is

oj Reactions of

Hinges.

The

resultant

dead
their

and wind

IK

and

KA

(Fig. 3 A), are plotted

and

subdivided into the joint loads. The and V reactions of the middle hinge, calculated by the method of Art. 52,
resultant (IA]
are:

H= 14,860

Ibs.;

V = ggoo

Ibs.

These are plotted

(see Fig.

3 A), thus locating the pole P.

sultant

funicular polygon for the re-

string (a) through the

(i)

is now constructed by drawing the end hinge, parallel to PA, and the string through the middle hinge, parallel to PI; when it is found

dead and wind loads

that the closing string (k)

location of the pole.

is

parallel to

PK,
is

thus checking the

The

reactions of the hinges are thus

forces

PI

and AP, and the polygon of external

2.

PIHGFEDCBAP.

Line

of Pressure.

joint loads is

The funicular polygon for the resultant now drawn (see Fig. 3). The significance of this

i is

polygon should be noted. Beginning at the left end, the string the reaction on the hinge, its magnitude being PI; the string

is

the line of action of the resultant of this reaction and the load
its

at the apex,

magnitude being
etc.

PH;

action of the resultant of the reaction

its

the string g is the line of and the loads ih and hg,

magnitude being PG,

Thus

it is

the funicular polygon for the joint loads,

seen that any string of drawn through the hinges,

represents the line of action of the resultant external force acting

on the portion

of the rib to either side of the

panel in question; the

magnitude of this force being represented by the corresponding ray. This funicular polygon is called the Line of Pressure,, since its
strings represent the lines of action of the resultant pressure

on

the corresponding panels of the arch.

3.

Determination as
Art. 45 are

to

-which Diagonals are Stressed.

to

The

methods of

determine which diagonals are stressed, the application of these methods being based on the

employed

preceding paragraph.

Take, for example, panel

g,

where the chords are

parallel.

ROOF-TRUSSES.

7r

The
PG,

resultant external force, R, to the left of the section

mn

is

acting along the string g as shown.

The component

of this

force at right angles to the chords evidently acts

upwards; the

corresponding component of the diagonal stress must then act downwards (method of shears) hence if the diagonals are tension,
;

members, the one drawn

full

(16-17)

is

the one stressed.

not parallel* Again, take the panel c, where the chords are The resultant external force, R' to the left of m'ri', is PC acting
',

along the string

as shown.

The moment

of this force about

is

the intersection (not shown) of the chord

members

evidently

right-handed;

hence the

moment

of the diagonal stress

must

be left-handed; therefore, the diagonals being tension members, In Fig. 3 the diagonals the one drawn full (8-9) is stressed.
stressed are
4.

drawn

in full lines.

Calculation of Stress in c-8 by Moments.

to

Having previously

found 8-9

be the diagonal stressed

at the joint

in this panel,

we

take the

moment moment
use the

axis at the intersection of this diagonal

i.e.,

and the inner

chord member,

o.

In calculating the resultant

o,

of the external forces to the left of m'n', about

we may
and
take the

and

component

reactions at the middle hinge

left

the stated joint loads to the

of m'n'

or

we may
string c

moment
ray PC.
resultant

of their resultant as represented

by the

and the
this

In the

latter case
off

we would
from the

find the
stress

magnitude of

by scaling

PC

diagram, and the

moment arm by
to

scaling off the perpendicular distance

from o

This moment divided by the perpendicular distance from o to c-8 would give the stress in c-8. Its value
the
string
c.

is

35250
5.

Ibs.

compression.

We plot the computed of Stress Diagram. and complete the diagram in the usual way, checking jt on the members 4-5 and 12-14 (marked ck in the stress diagram). In an arch of many members more sections than one
Completion
stress in c-8

72

GRAPHIC STATICS.

should be taken to secure sufficient accuracy. In the preceding example counterbracing was introduced in order to indicate the
use of the line of pressure in determining which diagonals are It is advisable to draw the line of pressure in any

stressed.

case.

PROBLEM.

Determine the

stresses in the

leeward rib of the

arch of the preceding example, also the stresses for dead load
alone.

Find the

maximum and minimum

stresses in all the

mem-

bers for dead and wind loads.

Figure 43 represents one of the arches supporting the trainshed roof of the Philadelphia and Reading Terminal Railway.

The

1 diagonals are tension members.

FIG. 43.

54.

Stresses.

Solid Ribs. Determination of Three-hinged Arch. Let Fig. 44 represent such an arch, the line of pressure
force polygon for the given system of loads being drawn.

and the

The

resultant external force acting to the right of

any

cross-

section
string.

is

DP = F,

its

line of action

being the corresponding

Apply

at n, the centre of gravity of the cross- section,

opposite forces equal and parallel to F, and resolve one of these

forces into F'

= Dx and F"=xP,
The

respectively perpendicular

and

parallel to the section.

original force

and

F form a

couple

which causes a bending

stress at the section, the

bending moment

being equal to the moment of the original jorce about the centre oj
1

See Trans.

Am.

Soc. C. E., Aug., 1895.

ROOF- TRUSSES.
gravity of the section.
stress

73
is

In addition,

the direct compression

and F" the shearing

stress at the section.

bending moment (Af) being the moment of the resultant external force on either side of the section,
taken about the centre of gravity of the section.
If

We thus see that the stress i. A bending stress, the

at the section is

made up

of:

we

let

/=

*>

FIG. 44.

moment

of inertia of the section about the neutral axis through

the centre of gravity, and y the distance from this neutral axis to
the most compressed fibre,

we have

for the

maximum

intensity

of the bending (compression) stress

M
(i)
2.

uniformly

distributed

compression
'

stress,

F' = Dx,

whose

intensity is

(2)

74

GRAPHIC STATICS.
of
section.

A = area

Combining

(i)

and

(2),

the

maximum

intensity of the compression stress will be

_

A
3.

(3)

transverse

shearing stress,

F" = xP.

This

last

stress

will

usually be comparatively small in the case of arches.

55.

Bending Moments Proportional

vertical loads,

to

Vertical

Intercepts.

In the case of

the bending

moments

are propor-

tional to the vertical intercepts

between the

line of pressure

and
an

the centre line of the arch ring.

Proof: Let

RS

(Fig. 45)

be a portion of the centre

line of

arch, the corresponding portions of the force

diagram and
being shown.

line of pressure

Let n be any section of the

arch,

nx being drawn perpenb,

dicular to the string

z
vertical.

and ny

The

triangles
similar,

nxy

and PzB are

hence

But

PB-nx = bending moment

is

at

(see Art. 54),

n.

hence Pz-ny
pole distance
are propor-

also equals the

bending moment at

As

the

(Pz)

constant for vertical loads, the

moments

tional to ny, the vertical intercepts.

Q.E.D.

PROBLEM.
arch of 20
ft.

Given a symmetrical three-hinged semi-circular span between end hinges. The hinges intersect

the centre line of the arch ring.

tical

The
6
ft.

arch

is

loaded with a ver-

load of 10,000

Ibs.

ft.

to the left of the

Ibs.

with a vertical load of 2000

to the right of the

crown hinge, and crown

ROOF-TRUSSES.
hinge.

75
flanges,

The

cross- section

is

an I section of equal

10

inches deep, 5 sq. inches section,

moment

of inertia =150 (inches).

Find the

maximum

intensity of the compression stress.

6.

Bending

Stresses.

Sway-bracing.

56. Conditions

under which Bending Stresses occur.

In

order that no bending stresses

may

occur in the members of a

frame, the following conditions must, in general, be fulfilled:

i.

The

centre lines of the

members must be

straight
2.

and

inter-

sect at

common
act at

point at the various joints.

External forces,
3.

must not

any other points than the

joints.

The

various,

members must be
and

free to turn at the joints.

If these conditions

are not fulfilled, bending stresses of greater or less magnitude

definiteness will occur

and should be taken

cases in

into account.

Some
i.

of the

more prominent
2.

which such bending;

at

stresses occur are:

Curved

members.

External

forces

acting

other'

points than the joints.

E.g.,

when

the purlins are supported

on

the upper chord of a roof-truss at other points than the joints.

3.

Incomplete or defective

trusses,

i.e.,

trusses in

which the memSO'

bers are either insufficient in

number

or improperly placed,

that their resistances to tension

to secure stability.
4.

and compression are inadequate.Columns in buildings. 5. Centre lines

not intersecting at a

of

members forming a

joint,

common

point,

etc.

Maximum Intensity of Stress. The determination of the maximum intensity of the combined bending and direct (tension
or compression) stress
If
is

similar in all cases to that given in Art. 55.

we

let

P = total

direct stress at

area of section,

M = bending

moment

any section of a member, A = at section, 7 = moment of

inertia of section

about neutral axis through centre of gravity,

76

GRAPHIC STATICS.
this neutral axis to

and y = distance from

the most stressed fibre;

we

have, for the

maximum intensity

of the

combined

stress,

M
some
special cases

The

following Articles give solutions of

in which bending stresses occur:

57.

Purlins

supported
truss,

at

Other Points
is

than

the Joints.

EXAMPLE.
chord into

The
six

Fig.

46 A,

loaded with a uniformly

purlins divide the upper

distributed vertical load of 9000 Ibs.

The

equal parts;

thus the load at each intermediate

CD)

FIG- 46.

purlin point

is

1500

Ibs.,

and

at

each end point 750

Ibs.

It is

required to determine the stresses in the frame, including the maximum intensity of compression in the different segments of
the upper chord,
its

cross-section being 8"

Consider the portion

n.

AB

of the

wide by 10" deep. upper chord and the load

at

The components
Ibs.

of this load at

and

are 500 Ibs.

and

1000

respectively.

Therefore apply at these points equal

Ibs.

and opposite forces of 500 These added forces will

and 1000

Ibs.

as

shown

in Fig.

46 C.

neutralize each other

and hence not

ROOF-TRUSSES.
affect the stresses, so that the

77

system of forces given in Fig. 46 C This system of forces may be separated into two systems, namely: i. The downward forces of 500 Ibs. and 1000 Ibs. at A and B respectively.
are the equivalent of the 1500 Ibs. load at n.

These cause
load at

direct stresses in the

members

of the truss.

2.

The
This,

n and

the

upward

forces at

and B, these

latter corn.

responding to the reactions of a

beam AB,

loaded at

system of forces (shown by

full lines in Fig.

46 C)

will cause

bending
in

stresses,

also direct compression

and shearing

stresses

AB.

The preceding analysis leads to the following solution: (i; Resolve each load into components at the adjacent joints, thus
obtaining the joint loads of Fig. 46 B.
stresses in the

Determine the direct

to these joint loads,

members

of the truss,

due

by

constructing a stress diagram in the usual way.

(2)

supported at the ends

calculating the
(3)

Treat each segment of the upper chord as an oblique beam (joints) and loaded at the purlin points,

beam

stresses in the usual

way.

Combine

the stresses found in (i) and (2).

making

(The following conception of the case may be of service in If the loads of Fig. 46 A this method of solution clearer.

were supported as shown in Fig. 46 D, instead of being applied directly to the upper chord, there would be bending stresses in the
jack-rafters,

and

direct

stresses only, in

the upper chord.

In

this case the forces acting at the joints of the

upper chord and

those acting on the jack- rafters, together with the resulting stresses in these members, would be determined as indicated in (i) and
(2)

respectively.

In Fig. 46

the upper chord

alone serves the same purpose

as the jack- rafters

if

and upper chord together in Fig. 46 D, so that the cross- sections of jack-rafters and upper chord of Fig. 46 D
equal to
the cross-section of

were each

the upper

chord of

78

GRAPHIC STATICS.

Fig. 46 A, the stresses in the latter would be equal to those found by combining the stresses existing in both jack-rafters and upper chord of Fig. 46 D.

The
Fig. 46

case

may

be stated otherwise as follows

Combining

the external forces acting on the jack- rafters and upper chord of

D, we obtain those given in Fig. 46 A. Therefore, if we combine the stresses in the jack-rafters and upper chord of Fig.

46 D, we will obtain those existing in the upper chord of Fig. 46 A, provided, of course, that the cross-sections are identical in each instance.)
Solution,
i.

By drawing
in

a stress diagram (not shown) for

the joint loads of Fig. 46 B,

Ibs.

we
to

find the stress in

Ibs.

AB

to

be 5850

compression, and
2.

BC

be 4050

compression.

Treating

AB

(see Fig.

46 C) as a beam loaded with 1500

Ibs. at n,

find that the maximum bending moment (at n) = = 500X5X12 30,000 inch-lbs. Also, by resolving the reaction at A into components along and at right angles to the beam, we

we

find

an additional
below
n,

direct compression stress of 278 Ibs. in the part

to the obliquity of the loading.

of

AB
3.

due

We

thus find the

maximum

direct stress (compression) in

AB

be 5850+278 = 6128 Ibs., and the maximum bending moment to be 30,000 inch-lbs. Substituting these values in the
to

formula of Art.
pression in

56,

we
6128

have, for the

maximum
Ibs.

intensity of

com-

AB, /""gT" + In a similar manner we

30,000-5 66

= 302

per square inch.

intensity of

find the

maximum
,

com-

pression in
It will

be 283 Ibs. per square inch. be observed that the additional stress due
to
is

BC

to the ob-

liquity of the loading

small.
truss of 20
ft.

PROBLEM.
rise,

Given a triangular

span and 6

ft.

loaded with a uniformly distributed vertical load of 8000

Ibs.

applied directly to the rafters.

The

rafters are

wooden beams

ROOF-TRUSSES.

79

in.

by 10

in. section.

Find the

maximum

compression

stress

per square inch in these members.

58.
(Fig. 47

Trussed Beam.

EXAMPLE.
It is

The

trussed

beam

DE

in

A) is loaded uniformly. the members.

required to find the stresses

As a beam,

DE

is

loaded uniformly.

The

supported at three equidistant points and reaction of the middle support in such a
is

case (see Strength of Materials)

%W, and

of each
6/
8

end support

Wat at

Therefore

apply

^
''|{ D

equal and opposite forces of

%W
by

the

middle

and

^1 i i i i [% w"--~J~
3
:

ill 1 1 1

liiijj^
jVtW
3
:

each end as shown

dotted
lines.

/i 6

w
,

(A)

54^
,

/">

the

forces of Fig. 47
.

The A can now

shown
47
in
re-

, , t
1

j t t
(

j be separated into two bal-

3/16

\
B)

1 t t

Vsw

anced
Figs.

systems,

47

B and

spectively.

Fig. 47

C B

rep-

resents the forces acting

on

FIG. 47.

DE

as a beam, the maximum fibre stress being found by the methods of " Strength of Materials." Fig. 47 C represents the

forces acting at the joints, the resulting tension

stresses being

and compression
Finally,

found by constructing a
intensity of the stress in

stress

diagram.

the

maximum

DE is found by combining
in the

the stresses obtained from Figs. 47

as in Art. 57.

B and 47 C

same manner

59.

Incomplete
to

Trusses.

Frames

of

this

character

are

usually subjected

bending as well as direct stresses.

The

solution of a simple case follows.

8o

GRAPHIC STATICS.
If the

frame of Fig. 48 were loaded symmetrically

at the joints,

no bending stresses would occur, and the direct be found from a stress diagram in the usual way.

stresses

would

(0
(A)

FIG 48.

Under an unsymmetrical
Fig. 48, the rafters

load,

however, such as given in

deflect equally in the

would evidently

manner

indicated by the dotted lines.

In order

to

determine the stress in

AB,
Ibs.

resolve the load at

into a horizontal

component P, and one acting along the

tan 60
stress

rafter.

We

thus obtain

P = 2000

= 3464
AB.

Let x = compression
tions of the

in

Now,

since the deflec-

two

rafters are equal, the horizontal pressures at

and

must be equal.
/.

P x=x;

=%P = 1732 Ibs.

treated as a triangular truss loaded

The frame can now be

at

with 2000

Ibs.

(vertical)

and

1.732 Ibs.

(horizontal) acting

ROOF-TRUSSES.
to the left;

81
Ibs.

and loaded

at

with 1732

(horizontal) acting

to the right, in addition to the joint loads of

1000

Ibs.

each at

apex and left support. Following the method of Art. 57, these loads can now be separated into the systems of loads shown in
Figs. 48 A, B,

and C.
due
to the joint loads (Fig.

The

stresses

48 B) are deter-

mined from a

stress

diagram.

They

are given in the figure.

Solving Fig. 48 A,

we

find additional direct stresses,

due to

the obliquity of the loads, of 1250 Ibs. compression in the lower

We half, and 1250 Ibs. tension in the upper half of the rafter. have also a maximum bending moment in the rafter of 30000
inch
Ibs.

Solving Fig. 48 C,
Ibs.

we

find additional direct stresses of

750

compression in the lower half,

this

and 750

Ibs.

tension in the

upper half of

rafter;

also

maximum

bending moment

of 30000 inch-lbs.
.

Combining the

stresses in these three diagrams,

we obtain

the following results:

Max.
"

direct stress in left-hand rafter 3250 Ibs. C " " " right-hand rafter =2 750 Ibs. C.

Stress in lower chord

= 2600 Ibs. T

..........
= 30000 = 30000
in.-lbs. in.-lbs.
. .

..... ...

(i)
(2) (3)

Max. bending moment

" "

"

in left-hand rafter " right-hand rafter

(4)

(5)

Finally, (the rafters are

assumed

to

be 4" wide by 10" deep)

with (5):

we

have, combining (i) with (4) and

.(2)

Max.

intensity of compression in left-hand rafter

30000.5

40

333

_"

82

GRAPHIC STATICS.
intensity of compression in right-hand rafter

Max.

30000 -t;
333
60. Trusses

= 5'9

lbs<

per Sq>

mch

'

supported

by

Columns.

(For

examples

see

Fig. 33 G, H, and P,

also Figs. 49, 52,

and

54.)

The

entire

frame, including columns, will be treated together, the points

of support being at the bases of the columns.

There are two general

cases,

namely:

i.

When

the columns

are rigidly attached to substantial foundations so that they

may

be considered fixed in direction at the base. 2. When fastenings and foundations are insufficient for this, in which case the columns
are

assumed

to

be hinged

at the base.

If the sides of the building are

masonry of

sufficient strength,

the frame will be required to resist wind pressure on the roof

surface only.
iron, etc.,
If,

however, the sides are of wood, corrugated

resist

supported by the columns, the frame must

acting

the
the

wind

pressure

on the

sides

as

well

as

roof

of

building.

Under
columns

the action of the wind or other non-vertical loads the

will

be subjected to bending

stresses.

Special cases are

discussed in the following articles.

61. Case

I.

Columns Hinged
at

at Base.
of

The

Joints oj the

Frame may
addition,

be subjected to

Any System

Loads; the Columns, in

being loaded

Other Points than the Joints.

In

order to avoid unnecessary complication, the additional column loading will be assumed to be a horizontal wind load, W, uni-

formly distributed over the left-hand column (Fig. 49). The method used in deriving the formulas which follow is applicable
to

any other system of column

loads.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
Let Fig. 49 represent the frame, knee-braces,
connecting the columns and
truss.
d,

},

and

d',

The

joint

loads are
additional

not

shown,

the

column

loading

(W) only

being represented.

The

no-

^+%r

tation of Art. 28 will be used

as far as

it is

applicable,

IH
the

and

2V

representing

horizontal

and
loads

vertical

comFIG. 49.

ponent

(including

column

loading).

Assumptions.

As

in case of trusses supported

on masonry

walls (see Art. 28), this solution must be based on assumptions; those which appear to be as reasonable as any, and which will

be employed here, being that the truss is comparatively rigid, the distances e-ef d-d' and b-b f remaining unchanged, while the
,

'

columns bend as shown by the dotted lines e, d, b v and e f f being assumed jree to turn at the joints e, d, b, and e ,d

1 ,

d', b{,

f
.

It

follows from these assumptions that the deflections of the

two

columns
will

at

d and

d',

relative to straight lines joining their ends,

be equal
i.

Separation oj the Loads into:

in the columns.
2.

Those causing beam

stresses

Those causing
clear the

direct stresses in the frame.

In order to

make

manner
column

of separating the loads,

57.

we

will

employ a conception similar to that stated in Art.

It is as follows:

The

left-hand

(Fig. 49)
is

is

united to the

frame
direct

at the points e

and

d.

This column

subjected to both

and bending

stresses.

Now

let

us imagine that a separate

the column,

piece (Fig. 50 B), of the

same

cross-section as
e,

and

connected with the frame by rods

resist

the bending stresses (the

d be employed to right-hand column being simie

d,

and

84

GRAPHIC STATICS.
columns of
Fig. 50

larly treated), so that the

will

be subjected

to direct stresses only.

Under

these circumstances the forces acting in Fig.

i.

50
2.

will include:

The
3.

horizontal reaction

H^

at the base;

B The

wind pressure rods. These

W\

The

reactions

^ and

of the connecting

forces

evidently cause bending stresses.

Similar

Rl

>

ROOF-TRUSSES.
50

85
\

C
i.

with those of Fig. 50 A, obtain the actual stresses in the

frame.

Determination of the Values 0}

R R S S
1}

2,

1}

2,

H H
l}

2)

Applying the general conditions of . equilibrium

V and (IH = o;
l}

= o)
FromFig. 50 B.

to the forces of Figs. 50

A, B, and

C we
.

have:

H^S^W-R^
Hi-c^^+S^c-a)

(IH = o)

(i)

(IM = o)
(2H = o)
o)

(2)

FromFig. 50 C.

H = S -R
2
2

(3)

(4)

FromFig. 50 A.

S^S^R^R^+IH-W
we have from

(2H = o)
(Fig.

(5)

Also: Deflection at d (Fig. 50 B)

= deflection at d'

50 C)

(6)

To

find the deflection at d,

the ordinary formulas

for deflection of

beams, treating Fig. 50 the ends and loaded with Si and W:

as a

beam supported

at

Deflection at d due to

S =~
l

Deflection at

d due

to

W=

a
.

(c

+ca

Adding, we have:

Similarly:

Total deflection at

^=

^~~..........

(8)

86

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Equating
(7)

and

(8)

and reducing, we have

2 2 W(c +ca-a )

ROOF-TRUSSES.

87
<r^

Having determined the above quantities, the beam stresses in the columns are calculated from the loads of Figs. 50 B and C, while the direct stresses in the frame can be found by drawing a
stress

diagram
Case

for the joint loads (Fig. 50 A).

62.

II.

Columns Hinged
is

at

Base and Loaded Only at

I,

the Joints.

This

a special case under Case

the value of the

in this work),

loading on the columns, other than at the joints

(W

being zero.

= Substituting W o in Eqs. (u), (12), (13), (14), (15),

and

(16)

we have

Approximate Solution
of Case I

of

Case

I.

An

approximate solution

may be made by
in this

substituting for the intermediate

its

column

loading
e

(W

work)

and

d,

or d

and

b (Fig. 49),

components at the adjacent joints, and using the formulas of Case II.

The

error involved will evidently vary with each individual case

(see Art. 66).

-**&
III.

63. Case the

Columns Fixed

at

the Base.
of

The

Joints of

Frame may

be subjected to

any System

Loads; the Columns,

in addition, being loaded at Other Points than the Joints.

As
to

in

**f

column loading will be taken uniformly distributed wind load W. We assume as before that the truss Assumptions.
Case
I the intermediate

be a

is

comwhile
e'd'b2

paratively rigid, the points e, d, e

f
,

and

d' deflecting equally,

the columns
of Fig. 49.

bend

as

shown by the dotted

lines edb2

and

GRAPHIC STATICS.
""*

Separation of Loads.

Treating the columns as beams fixed

is

in direction at the base, the loading

separated

(see Art. 61) as

shown

in Fig. 51.
of

Determination of Values

R S R
1}

l}

2,

and S2

It follows

from

the assumptions just stated that the deflections of the columns

sv
'SH-W.

ROOF-TRUSSES.

89

Equating

(i)

and

(3)

and reducing, we have

CS,-^'-(*,-Jw--.
Equating
2

(5)

(i)

and

(2)

and reducing, we have

=
(3)

*-*- ~
and
(4)

*).

(6)

Equating

and reducing, we have

2 .

),

.........

(7)

From

2H =

o, Fig.

51 A,
2
1

we have
2

(S 1

+S )-(R + R )=IH-W......
(5), (6), (7),

(8)

From

equations

and

(8)

we have

finally

-^S =R
2
1

2c
2

-2

+2ca
2

a2

..........
2 2

(u)
(12)

S = IH-W+(R
From
eqs. (9), (10),

+R )-S ........
(12) the values of

(n),and

Ru R S
2)

1}

and S2 can be

readily determined.

all

The beam stresses in the columns and the direct stresses in the members of the frame can now be found as described for
I.

Case

64. Case IV.

Columns Fixed

at

Base and Loaded Only at the

Joints.

This

is

a special case under Case III, the value of the

9o

GRAPHIC STATICS.

loading on the columns, other than at the joints

(W

in this

work)

being zero.
reducing,

Substituting

W = o in

(9), (10),

(n), and

(12),

and

we have
(13)

4(c-a)(c+2fl)

(14)

Approximate Solution.

An

approximate solution of Case III

I.

may be made
65.

as described for Case

steel

Example. Fig. 52 represents an intermediate bent of framed building, the sides of which are corrugated iron
It is

attached to the columns.

required to determine the stresses

fixed at base).

due

to

wind pressure on the left-hand side (columns

(B)

(O

The
causing

loads are separated as explained in Art. 63 into:

i.

Those
C);
2.

beam

stresses in the

columns

(Fig.

52

B and

Those causing

direct stresses in the

frame

(Fig. 52 A).

Distance between bents

Assumed wind load on a

vertical surface

Total wind load on column =

= 16 ft. = 30 Ibs. per. = 19200 Ibs.

= 19
Ibs.

sq.

ft.

Normal wind load on

roof (Hutton's formula)

per

sq.

ft.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
Total wind load (normal) on roof
Horizontal component of
Vertical

91

=P= 10336 Ibs.

= 4864 Ibs.
=5=

component

of

9120

Ibs.
Ibs.

IH= 19,200+4864
a
c

=24064

=30 ft. =40 ft.

and
(12), Art. 63,

Substituting these values in (9), (10), (u),

we

obtain
Ibs.;

^=10795

.2=11071
52

Ibs.;

^ = 7457 Ibs.;

,$2=19273^8.

Figs. 52

B and

can now be solved as beams fixed at

results:

one end, with the following

Windward column

(Fig.

526):
Ibs.
ft.-lbs.

Maximum shearing force (at base) = 15862 Maximum bending moment (at base) = 175910
The bending-moment diagram
dotted
lines.

(see

Chap. Ill)

is

shown by
is

The

point
ft.

of

inflexion

(bending

moment = o)

distant

^=14.1

from base.

Leeward column

(Fig. 52

C)

Maximum

shearing force (upper segment)

=
base=

Shearing force in lower segment, including

11071 8202

Ibs.
Ibs.

Maximum bending moment

(at base)

= 135350 ft.-lbs.
Chap. Ill)
is

The bending-moment diagram

dotted
lines.

(see

shown by
is

The
#,=
i6.s

point
ft.

of

inflexion

(bending

moment =

o)

distant

from base.

92
"

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Direct stresses in frame (Fig. 52 A)
:

Taking moments about base

of right-hand column,

we have

'

and

F = 1736 Ibs. V = 9120 1736 = 7384

t

Ibs.

The
The
is

values of

and

might also be found by using the

actual system of loads on the frame (Art. 28).

direct stresses in the

frame can now be found by conFig. 52

structing a stress diagram for the loads of Fig. 52 A.

suitably lettered for this purpose
is

and the external

force polygon

ABCDEFGHIJA
The
stresses

drawn.

columns being known, the bending can be computed and combined with the direct comcross-section of the

pression stresses given in the stress diagram (see Art. 57).

66.

Art. 64.)

Approximate Solution of the Example, Art. 65. (See Resolving the wind load on the column into compo-

nents at the adjacent joints,

at e v 9600 Ibs. at d v
Fig. 53 B, since

we

obtain (see Fig. 53) 2400

the last being

Ibs.

and 7200

Ibs. at &,;

shown
In

in

its effect is

to cause

a shearing stress at the base

this

of the column rather than direct stresses in the frame.

case

2H = 4864 +2400 +9600= 16864 Ibs.

and
(14), Art.

Substituting in (13)

64 we obtain
Ibs. Ibs.

7^
l

=1-383

S = S = 19815
2

Separating the loads as before,

we obtain

the systems of forces

shown

in Fig. 53

A, B, and C.

Solving,

we

obtain the following

results:

ROOF-TRUSSES.

93-

Windward column

(Fig. 53

B)

Maximum shearing force (at base) = 15632 Ibs. Maximum bending moment (at base) = 139130 ft.-lbs.
The
point of inflexion (bending

moment = o)

is

16.5

ft.

above

the base.

Leeward column

(Fig. 53

C)

Maximum Maximum
The

shearing force (upper segment)

11383 Ibs.

Shearing force in lower segment, including base=

8432

Ibs.
ft.-lbs.

bending moment
is

(at

base)

=139130

point of inflexion

16.5

ft.

above base.

R,+2400\

94
force

GRAPHIC STATICS.
and bending moment
in Arts. 65

and

66, will serve to in-

dicate the difference in the results obtained, in this particular

example, by the two methods of solution. When such frames are hinged at the bases of the columns
the stresses in general are larger than

when

fixed at the base.

67. Problems,

i.

Solve the example of Art. 65, assuming

the columns hinged at the base.

of Art. 65
2.

Compare

the results with those

Solve Problem

by the approximate method, and compare

Also compare the results with those
'

results with those of Art. 66.

of

Problem
3.

i.

Determine

the

maximum

bending

moment,

maximum

shearing force, and points of inflexion for the columns of Fig. 54,

FIG. 54.

due

to a vertical load of

20000

Ibs.

uniformly distributed over

the roof surface, together with a normal wind load of 12500 Ibs. on the inclined roof surface. Also determine the direct stresses

in

all

the

members

of the frame.

Assume

the columns to be

hinged at the base.

ROOF-TRUSSES.
4.

95

Solve Problem

3,

assuming the columns to be fixed at the

base.

c*.

68. Sway-bracing.

Illustration.

The frame
is

(Fig.

55)

is

made up

of a

number

of transverse frames or bents, braced so as

to resist distortion of

any kind.

Each bent

composed of a

1
ELEVAT.ION

SIDE ELEVATION
IENDJ

FIG. 55.

truss supported

together as

shown

on columns, the in the end

truss

and columns being braced

In the intermediate
are

elevation.

bents knee-braces,

shown by

the dotted lines,

commonly

used;

while at the ends two intermediate columns are shown,

the bracing for these consisting of

diagonal tension-rods and

horizontal struts.

The

bents are braced together by (i) diagonal

tension-rods in the plane of the upper chords, the purlins serving

as struts;

2)

diagonal tension-rods in the plane of the lower

96

GRAPHIC STATICS.
(3)

chords;

diagonal tension-rods in the sides of the building

between the columns.

tortion of the individual bents,

tical

Such a system of bracing as described aims to prevent and to keep the various bents

dis-

ver-

and

in line,

as

wind on the

side or

under the action of any horizontal force such end of the building, the pull of belts,

thrust of jib-cranes, etc.

The

particular system of bracing

em-

FIG. 56.
1 The stresses in such ployed will vary with the circumstances. bracing can usually be best determined by algebraic methods.

The

following example indicates a suitable solution for a

simple case, the system of bracing shown being, however, generally inconvenient to

employ

for such structures.

69.

Example.

The

vertical

lines

(Fig.

56)

represent two

adjacent tiers of columns in a building of skeleton construction.

The

horizontal lines are floor girders or special

Johnson's "Theory and Practice of Modern

members

located

^ee

Framed Structures";

also Freitag's "Architectural Engineering."

ROOF-TRUSSES.
in the floor system
these, with the diagonal tension-rods,

97

forming

a system of wind bracing for a width of side wall of 20 ft. It is required to find the stresses resulting from a wind pressure of

30

Ibs.

per sq.

ft.

on the side of the building.

The wind pressure on each panel is 30X12X20=7200 Ibs. The resulting pressures at the joints are given. Since the diagonals
are tension members, those

drawn
4).

in full lines will

be stressed for

wind on the

side

shown

(see

The

stresses in the

members
:

cut by any section, xy,

may be found

algebraically as follows

Dealing with the forces acting on the portion of the frame = o. above the section, we have (i)

^H

.'.

3600+7200 + 7200=^'
.'.

cos 6 = .8F'.

F = 22500 Ibs.
r

(tension).

(2)

Taking moments about O,

12

3600-24+7200(3)

= i6F.

.'.

F= 10800 Ibs.
Ibs.

(tension).

From

2M = o
column

or
to

2V=o
be 24300

we

find the compression stress

in the leeward

To find IH = o.
.*.

the stress in jk

we have,

dealing with the joint

Compression

stress in jk

= F' cos 6= 18000 Ibs.

is

The

stress

diagram

for this

example

given in Fig. 56.

" " 1 See Freitag's Architectural Engineering for discussion of sway-bracing in steel framed buildings of skeleton construction.

CHAPTER
BEAMS.
i.

III.

Shearing Force and Bending Moment.

70. Definitions.

The

shearing force (S) at any cross-section

of a

beam

is

the measure of the tendency of the external forces to

cause the portion of the

slide over the

beam

lying

on one

side of the section to

remaining portion,

this

tendency being opposed

by

the resistance to transverse shearing of the material.

-5 is

The

value of

found by taking the algebraic sum of the external forces lying on either side of the section. The bending moment (M) at any cross-section of a beam is

the measure of the tendency of the external forces to cause the

portion of the

beam

lying

on one

side of the section to rotate about

the section, this tendency being opposed by the resistance to

longitudinal tension and compression of the material.

The

value

found by taking the algebraic sum of the moments of the external forces lying on either side of the section, about the neutral
of
is

axis of the section.

71.

Graphical Representation of
is

5"

and M.

The beam

(Fig. 57)

supported at the ends and loaded with three con-

centrated loads.
scale,

These

loads,

and the supporting

forces,

AB, BC, and CD, are plotted to DE and EA, are determined
e.g.,

by

constructing the funicular polygon (Fig. 57 A).

In the

S diagram

(Fig. 57

B) any ordinate from XX',

n'm',

represents the value of

at the corresponding section of the

beam.

BEAMS.

99

These ordinates are taken from the external force polygon and Thus at any section in space b, S=EA plotted as indicated.

AB = EB,

etc.

The

following points should be noted:

i.

At

FIG. 57.

any concentrated load, e.g., ab, there are two ordinates, n"m\' and ri'm" These represent the values of 5* at sections imme.

diately to the left

and

right of the load, respectively,

2.
5"

and

differ in

value by the amount of the load.

has opposite signs on the two sides of the load be, hence passes through the value zero at this section. 3. S is constant for any unloaded portion of a beam,

and and

varies uniformly in case of a uniformly distributed load;

-5*

the

corresponding portions of the

diagram consisting of horizontal

inclined straight lines respectively (see Figs. 57 to 62).

It

M Diagram.
beam, any

intercept, e.g.,

has been shown (Art. 20) that in case of a mn, of a funicular polygon multiplied
the value of
is

by the pole
section
in

distance, y (proper attention being given to the scales

of the force

and funicular polygons),

is

at the

question.

Since the pole distance

constant,

the

intercepts are proportional to the values of

M.

funicular

polygon for the external forces acting on the beam therefore con-

ioo
stitutes the

GRAPHIC STATICS.

diagram.

In constructing

this

diagram the pole

distance should be taken to represent a convenient

units, e.g.,

number

of

1000

Ibs.

The method
is

for determining the strings

is

between which any intercept

value of

measured

as follows:

The

at

any

section, e.g.,

mn,

is,

by

definition, equal to

the algebraic

sum

of the

moments

of the forces

(EA and AB]

lying to one side of the section.

The

strings in question are the

ones between which these forces

It

lie, i.e., e

and

b in this instance.

should be noted that in case of any system of concentrated

loads the

M diagram

is

made up

of straight lines, while the por-

tion of the

load

is

diagram corresponding to a uniformly distributed a parabola which can be constructed as explained in

Art. 13.

Algebraic Signs 0}
are in vogue:

portion of the

S and M. The following arbitrary rules 5 is positive if the tendency is for the left-hand beam to slide upwards relatively to the right-hand

portion and conversely.

is

positive

if

the tendency

is

for the
57).

beam
In the

to

bend convex downward and conversely

diagrams positive ordinates
will

(see Fig.

In the

diagrams positive intercepts

will

be plotted upwards. lie above the closing

strings of the funicular polygon provided that the pole be taken

on the
72.

left side

of the force polygon (see Figs. 57 to 62).

Relation between

S and

Diagrams.

The

algebraic

condition for
is
r

maxima and minima

applied to

bending moments

dx

=o.

It is

" proved in Strength of Materials" that

at

dx

=S.

Hence, in general, the sections of a beam

intercepts are greatest

which the

M diagram
This
cases

(or least) correspond with those where

the

S diagram

cuts the

axis (see Figs. 57, 59, 61, 62).

in

relation
(see Fig.

between the two diagrams does not

certain

58) hold true, the reason being that the numerically

greatest (or least) value of

an ordinate, occurring within a limited

BEAMS.
space,
is

10 1

not necessarily a

maximum

or

minimum

value in the

mathematical sense.
73. Relation

is

assumed

to

between Moment Diagram and Elastic Curve. be positive where the beam bends convex

downward and
curve

conversely, so that the general shape of the elastic

may be determined by observing the algebraic sign of in the various parts of the beam as indicated in the diagram. The sections at which changes sign and hence equals zero

evidently correspond to points of inflexion of the elastic curve.

The
for

general form of these curves, determ'ned in this manner,

Examples 4 and

5 (see Art. 74),

are represented in Figs. 61

and 62
circles.

respectively, the points of inflexion being

marked with

The

following examples will serve to indicate suitable methods

for constructing the

74.

5 and
i.

M diagrams.
cantilever,

Examples,
as shown.

The

Fig.

58,

is

loaded with

a uniformly distributed load

load

(resultant

AB) and

a concentrated

BC

The 5 diagram

(Fig.

58 B) needs no ex-

FIG. 58.

planation.

The

M diagram (Fig.
,

58 A)
its

is

constructed as follows:

Substitute for the distributed

the dotted arrow)
at the free end.

by and construct the funicular polygon, beginning By taking the pole on a horizontal line through

load

resultant (represented

102

GRAPHIC STATICS.
c

C, the string
strings b

may be

taken to

coincide with the

beam;

the

and a are then drawn.

is

The

true diagram for the dis-

tributed load

points

n and
is

n',

a parabola tangent to the strings a and b at the corresponding to the ends of the load. The

parabola

constructed as explained in Art. 13.

2.

EXAMPLE

The beam

(Fig.

59)

is

supported at the ends

and loaded with the uniformly distributed load shown. The supporting forces, BC and CA, are determined by constructing

gram

a funicular polygon for the resultant load AB. The actual diafor the distributed load is a parabola tangent to the strings
n' respectively.

a and b at n and

The

true funicular polygon

thus formed, shown by heavy lines in Fig, 59 A, constitutes the

M diagram.

The 5 diagram, Fig. 59 B, needs no explanation. From the S diagram it is seen that S is zero at the point O, the maximum intercept ST, and hence maximum occurring

at this section of the

beam.

EXAMPLE
at

3.

If,

in case of a distributed load, the value of

some designated

section of the

beam

is

wanted,

it

can be found,

without constructing the funicular curve, by making such section

BEAMS.

103

beam supported

a point of division of the load (Art. 12). Fig. 60 represents a at the ends and loaded uniformly. It is reat the middle of the beam. quired to find the value of Making

BD

104
the

GRAPHIC STATICS.

5 diagram
of

(lettered

FA').

On

the
1

left-

sides

the

load

BC

the values of 6 are

FA-AB = FB
and and right-hand

and right-hand and

lettered

FA-AB-BC=FC.
of the supporting force

These

values

are
left-

plotted

F'B' and F'C' respectively.

On

the

sides

EF,

the values of S are

FA AB BC CX
(lettered

= FX
E'X
f

and

FA-AB-BC-CX+EF=EX
The
load

F'X" and

respectively).

CX

is

the portion of

CD

lying

FIG. 61.

to the left of the right-hand support. at the right

Finally, the value of

end of the beam

is

DE.

varies uniformly between

these sections (see Art. 71).

Max. 5 (F'X") occurs immediately hand support.

to the left of the right-

The maximum
at the load

values of

(S=o) occur

at the load

BC

and

at the right-hand support, the numerically greater value being

BC as

is

seen by inspection of the seen that

M diagram.

From

the

M diagram
The

it is

M=o

at the point

O, being positive

to the left

and negative

to the right of this section.

is

genera] form of the elastic curve

indicated in the upper-

BEAMS.

10 5

most diagram,

its

point of inflexion,

marked by a

circle,

being

at the section O.

EXAMPLE

5.

Fig.

62 represents a

beam made up

of two

segments hinged together as indicated. It is supported at three equidistant points and loaded uniformly, the resultant loads on

FIG. 62.

the two segments being

these resultant loads
is

AB

and BC.

funicular polygon for

constructed as follows:

Since there can

be no bending moment at the hinge, the intercept between the Hence the construcstrings b and d must be zero at that point.
tion
is

direction

= begun by drawing the string b ( xy) in any convenient and the corresponding ray; the pole P being taken
The
strings a

on

this rayi

and

are next drawn.

The

string

d must now pass through the points n' and O, intersecting the middle support at n" This determines the closing string e
'.

(nn"}.

Rays
true

parallel to the strings

d and

determine the supa parabola

porting forces

CD, DE, and EA.

diagram
for the

The

distributed load

is

106

GRAPHIC STATICS.
a, b,

tangent to the strings

spectively.

and
is

c at

The
4,

M diagram

the points w, O,
in

and

'

re-

drawn
is

heavy

lines.

The 5 diagram,
Example
two
sides of the

Fig. 62 B,

constructed as described for

AX = XC = \AC
= o)

being the resultant loads on the

middle support.
occurs

Max. 5 occurs on both

sides

of the middle support.

Max.

(5

at

beam, the greatest value being at the middle of the

K, K', and the middle of the beam as shown

is

by inspection
elastic

of the

M diagram. M
is

zero at

O arid O

(Fig. 62 A),

these points being consequently the

curve.

points of inflexion of the

This curve

drawn, one point of inflexion being

at the hinge.
i. Given a beam, 16 ft. 75. Problems, span, supported at both ends and loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 1000

Ibs.

M M graphically.
S and
PROBLEM
apart and

per foot, extending over the left half-span. Construct the diagrams and determine the values of max. S and max.

Check the graphical work by determining

Given a beam supported
at

these

values algebraically.
2.

two points 16
feet.

ft.

overhanging the right-hand support 4 loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 1000

It

is
ft.

Ibs.

per

covering the left half-span (8 ft.), also with a concentrated load Construct of 6000 Ibs. at the extreme right end of the beam.
the

S and

max.

diagrams and determine the values of max. S and both graphically and algebraically. Also locate the

point of inflexion of the elastic curve both graphically and algebraically.

PROBLEM umns of Fig.

3.

Construct the

5 and

diagrams for the

col-

52

and determine the values of max. 5 and max.

for each graphically.

BEAMS.

107

2.

Deflection of
of

Beams.
Elastic

*~- 76. Graphical Determination

Curve.
-for

In simple

cases the usual formulas furnish the best

the deflection of a beam.

section, or loaded

determining In the case of beams of non-uniform

method

in a complex manner, a graphical solution can be employed advantageously where extreme accuracy is not

required.

EXAMPLE.
shown.

The beam

(Fig. 63), of

uniform section,

is

sup-

ported at the ends and loaded with two concentrated loads as

It is

Solution.

required to construct the elastic curve. Construct the funicular polygon (Fig. 63 A) for the

given loads.

The

force

diagram

is

Fig. 63 A'.

Treat the surface

FIG. 63.

of this polygon as

if it

represented a distributed load for the same

beam, and construct a second funicular polygon.

pose the surface (Fig. 63 A)
division
circle.
is

is its

For this pursubdivided by ordinates, and each

centre of gravity,

concentrated at

marked by a

The

areas of these surfaces are plotted to scale in the

(Fig. 63 B'),

force

diagram

and the corresponding funicular poly-

io8
*+.

GRAPHIC STATICS.
(Fig. 63

gon

B)

is

drawn.
its

The

exact diagram will be a curve

inscribed in this polygon,

tangent points corresponding to the points of division of Fig. 63 A. This curve is the elastic curve

of the beam, the deflection at any point being represented to scale

by the length

of the intercept between the curve

and the

line

SS

f
,

this line being

drawn

so as to satisfy the condition that the deflecis

tion at each support

zero.

Proof:

Let

O = any
Z)

ordinate of Fig. 63

(inches, full size).

= pole distance in Fig. 63 A' (Ibs.). Z>' = pole distance .in Fig. 63 B' (sq. inches, full size). M = bending moment at any section of the beam (inch-lbs.). E = modulus of elasticity of material (Ibs. per sq. inch). / = moment of inertia of beam section (inches).
Take
that SS'
at

the origin of coordinates at S,

X axis,

horizontal,
is

and

axis, vertical.
is

(For convenience, the pole P'

here taken so
elastic

horizontal.)

Let

mn

be tangent to the

curve

any point P'C' are parallel respectively to

dy

C" whose

coordinates are x, y.

SS and mn.

rays P'S and Hence

The

SC

SA'-A'C

In Eq. i, SA' 63 A, lying to the

is

constant and A'C'

is

equal to the area in Fig.

i.e.,

left

of the point being considered;

A'C'= f*Odx.

Jo
Substituting in

Eq.

i,

SA'
dy_

f*0d* Jo

dx

BEAMS.
Differentiating

109
\,

and dividing by dx, we have, neglecting

signs,

*~'
The
general (approximate) equation of the elastic curve
is

(2) (2 >

d y

M
(3)

dx-~EI

Hence the curve of Fig. 63 B will be the true elastic curve provided that the second members of Eqs. 2 and 3 are equal, i.e.,

If the pole distances are

taken at random, the relative lengths

of the ordinates, Fig. 63 B, will represent the relative deflections

at the various points of the
to satisfy

beam.

If

and

are taken so as
will

Eq.

4,

the scales of abscissas

and ordinates

be the

magnify the ordinates so as to determine Thus if the the deflections more accurately than otherwise.
sarhe.
It is desirable to

scale of abscissas

is i

a and

we wish

to

make

the ordinates in the

drawing n times as great as the actual deflections, we must make the scale of ordinates nY,a as great as the scale of abscissas in For this purpose DD' must be reduced in the same Fig. 63 B.
ratio (see Art. 20)

and Eq. 4 then becomes

f can be selected By means of Eq. 5 suitable values of and such that the ordinates of Fig. 63 B will represent the deflections

of the

beam magnified n

times.

not necessary, in determining deflections, for SS' (Fig. 63 B) to be horizontal, since the ordinates remain the same so r is not altered. long as the pole distance
It is

no
MM*

GRAPHIC STATICS.

If the lending moment changes sign, the areas (Fig. 63 A) corresponding to negative moments must be plotted in the force

polygon

(Fig. 63 B') in the opposite direction

from those correArt. 77).

sponding
If the

to positive

moments

(see

Example

2,

beam

is

of non-unijorm section, Eq. 5

shows that

DD

must vary in the same ratio as /. This is accomplished by varying the pole distance D' (see Example i, Art. 77). To determine the deflection at any given section of the beam make one division line of the moment diagram (Fig. 63 A) correspond to such section (compare with Example 3, Art. 74). Otherwise the moment diagram may be subdivided in any manner, except in case of beams of non-uniform section, for which
see

Example
77.

i,

Art. 77.

Examples,

i.

Fig.

i,

Plate II,

is

a cantilever,

10

ft.

span, loaded at two points.

/ has three different values, as

Ibs.

given in the diagram.

= 30000000

per.

sq.

in.

It

is

required to construct the elastic curve and determine the deflection

at the free end of the beam. Scale 1 of space

diagram,

1:20.

.'.a

=20.

Scale

of

force

diagram
the
is

(Fig.

A'),
.'.

4000
.0

lbs.

= i".

The

pole distance

PA

is

taken to be 4".

= 4X4000 =16000.
i

The

construction of
Its surface

moment diagram

(Fig.

A) needs no explanation.

divided as

shown and the

centres of gravity of the divisions

are indicated by circles. The areas of these divisions are plotted in = i". The full-size Fig. i B' to the scale, 1000 sq. in. (full size)

area
400.

is

obtained by multiplying the diagram area by a 2 =(2o) 2 =

deflections are to

The

be magnified

five times, i.e.,

n=$.
,

Substituting the preceding values in the formula

DD' =

The

scales referred to here are those of the original drawings,

which have

ibeen reduced about one-half in the plate.

BEAMS.

we have 16000 D' = pole P'

(Fig.
i

^OOOOOOO 2OO
-,

'

.-.

= 3750 = 3.75". The

taken with a pole distance of 3-75", and the elastic curve The strings correspondB) is then constructed as follows
is
:

ing to

P'G

f
,

P'F', P'E' are

drawn

in order.

At the section

e'

the value of I changes to 150,

reduced in the same

construction
is

ratio,

and the pole distance must be the new pole P" lying on P'FJ The
.

continued in a similar manner, the pole for the portion of the beam where 7=ioo being P'". A curve tangent
to these strings at the points corresponding to the points of division

of Fig.

is

the elastic curve.

determines the deflection of the

The ordinate mn, divided by 5, beam at the free end to be .496".

.

The computed deflection is .493" The following points concerning Fig. i. The vertical scale is 5-20= 100 times as
scale.
encl, it
2.

should be noted:

great as the horizontal

In order to determine the true deflection at the free

sufficient to

would have been

have divided Fig.

only

at the
If

two sections where / changes in value. the value of / varied continuously, the divisions of the beam
c
f

and moment diagram (corresponding to should be made sufficiently numerous

mation
of the
to the true result, the

and

e*,

where / changes)

to insure a close approxi-

mean

value of / for each portion

beam being employed

in the construction of the elastic

is

curve.

Otherwise the solution for such a case

similar to that

just explained.

EXAMPLE
end.
It is

2.

The beam
h,

(Fig.

2,

Plate II)

is

supported at
at the right

two points a and

Cross-section = 6"

14

ft.

apart,

and overhangs 6
=1200000.

ft.

loaded with a distributed load of 300

Ibs.

per foot.

X 1 2".

7 = 864.

Scale of space

diagram,

40.
is

The

load

divided into ten equal lengths, each division being

its

concentrated at

middle point. Scale of force diagram (Fig.

2 A'),

H2
*

GRAPHIC STATICS.
Ibs.

2000

= i".

Pole distance = i J";

1

i.e.,

D = ^ooo.
in.

The

sur-

face of the

moment diagram

(Fig. 2

A)

is

divided as shown and

the areas plotted in Fig. 2 B' to the scale, 500 sq.

positive

= i",

the

and negative areas being

laid off in opposite directions.

=5777"

Substituting in the formula

DD' =

we have
'

1200000-864

= 1728.
Fig. 2

Hence
is

the pole distance (Fig. 2 B')

is

-^W = 3-456".
ft.

B
ft.

the elastic curve.

left

The measured
5,

ordinates at 7

and 20

from the

end, divided by

determine the deflections at these

points to be

.144" and +.012" respectively.

The
scale

true shape of the elastic curve here

its

would be obtained
line,

by plotting
40
5

ordinates from a horizontal

times.

reducing their

= 200

78. Problem.

Given a beam 16
in

ft.

span, supported at both

ends and loaded

Ibs., 30000000. In the middle half of the span the cross-section is uniform, the value of / being 300. Outside the middle half the value of /

the

middle with 4000

diminishes at a uniform rate to each support where 7=ioo.

is

It

required to determine the deflection at the middle of the span.

(Note.

In constructing the elastic curve, divide the middle

segments, using the average value of / in each.)

portion of the span into two 4- ft. segments and each end portion
into four
%

i-ft.

79. Centre of Gravity.

The

following constructions for centre

of gravity will be found useful in connection with the

work
Let

of this

and the following chapter.

i.

Centre o] Gravity oj

Any

Quadrilateral Area.

A BCD

(Fig.
1

64) be the quadrilateral

in question.

Draw

the two diago74.

This diagram might better have been constructed by the method of Art.

BEAMS,
nals.

Bisect one of these, as

.

AC,

at E.

Also lay
is

off

DK' = BK

and draw EK'

of the area.

Trisect

EK'

at G.

the centre of gravity

FIG. 64.

FIG. 65.

2.

Centre of Gravity of a Trapezoid.

is

The

following special

be the trapezoid. r Bisect each of the parallel sides and draw the medial line EE . Extend the two parallel sides in opposite directions, laying off
construction
useful:
(Fig. 65)

Let

ABCD

AF=BC

and

CF = AD.

Draw FF',

intersecting

EE

at

G.

G is the centre of gravity

desired.

CHAPTER

IV.

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

i.

ETC.

General Conditions oj Stability.

involved.

80. Nature of the Forces

Let

PRMN

(Fig. 66)

be a block

of

to this force,

masonry acted upon by a force AB. the weight of the block must be taken
is

In addition
into account.

This weight

represented by

BC,

its

line of action be

being

drawn through

the centre of gravity of the block.

is

The

resultant

of these two forces

AC,

its line

of action passing through the

N
FIG. 66.

intersection of ab

and

be.

AC

is,

therefore, the resultant pressure

exerted by the block

MN. This plane may be upon taken to be a joint of the masonry or its base. Also, the forces which hold the block in equilibrium are AB, BC, and the reaction of the plane MN, this last being a force equal and opposite to
the plane

AC.

Moreover,

AC

represents the resultant stress on the plane

MN.
Again,
let

PRMN

(Fig.

67} be an arch-stone,

BC

being the
114

M/tSONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS, ETC.

"5

load supported by this stone including its own weight. The line of action be of this load passes through its centre of gravity.
is

BC
by

balanced by the forces

arch-stones.

AB

and

CA

exerted

upon

PRMN

the adjacent

These three

forces must, therefore,

form a triangle as shown, and their

at the

lines of action

must

intersect

same

point.

81. Resistance

of

Masonry

Joint.

The

conditions

of

66 as far as the joint is concerned are evidently the following: (i) the block must not overturn about an edge, as N; (2) it must not slide over the joint;
stability for the block of Fig.
(3)

MN

the material of the stone

and mortar must not

crush.

These

three conditions will be discussed in turn.

82. Resistance

to

tensile strength of the

In this connection, the Overturning. mortar joint is commonly neglected. Then

if

the block (Fig. 66) would evidently overturn,

the line of action

of the resultant force

surface of the joint.
is

MN outside of the The moment of AC about N as moment axis

AC
pierced the plane
it

the measure of the resistance to overturning about this edge,

in order to overturn the block

i.e.,

a force whose moment about

having the opposite
sign.

would be necessary
to that of

to

apply

was equal

AC, but

83. Resistance to Sliding.

Let the resultant force

AC (Fig. 66)

be resolved

into

joint, as indicated.

to the components parallel The normal component represents the direct

and perpendicular

pressure on the joint, while the parallel component tends to slide the block over the joint, and must be resisted by the sliding
friction at

the joint, the adhesion between the stone

and mor-

tar being neglected.

Coefficient
of

Friction.

Let

(Fig.

68)

be the resultant

n6

GRAPHIC STATICS.

pressure of the block on the plane

AB, and

(f>

the

minimum
called

angle of inclination with the normal at which

sliding
will

occur.

This angle
<j>,

</>

is

the

angle of repose, and tan

to normal
coefficient

or ratio of tangential
is

component
of friction.

of the force,

called the

joints,

In the case of masonry the value of the coefficient of friction is taken to be from

.4 to .5.

pressure at any joint must

In order, then, for sliding not to occur, the resultant make with the normal an angle less
.4.

than tan" 1

84. Resistance

to

Crushing.

The

normal component of

AC
joint

(Fig. 66) represents the resultant

MN.

This

stress

is

compression stress at the assumed to be uniformly varying.

are repre-

The

three cases

whch may occur

In Fig. 69 A the stress is distributed over the whole surface of the joint,
sented in Fig. 69.
the limiting case being Fig. 69 B, where the
intensity

of

stress

is

zero

at
is

one edge

M.
M
ihTll

In Fig. 69
the portion

the pressure

distributed over
If the joint
last

XN of the joint.
is

were

capable of resisting tension, this

the case where the stress
partly

would be

^ilUlljlUj-

partly tension

and

compression,

but,

assuming the joint

incapable of resisting tension, the portion

MX
A

is

without stress

and tends
Case
oj

to open.

Rectangular Joint.

In Fig. 69

the

maximum

in-

(at N) is given by the formula /=~r+ ~jy A. 1 = resultant normal pressure on joint; A = (Art. 54), in which R area of surface of joint; M = moment of R about centre of gravity / = moment of inertia of surface of joint of this surface = R X^

tensity of

compression

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

about
joint).
its

ETC.

II?
of

centre

of

gravity,

and

y=\d

(d=MN= depth

In Fig. 69
T>

B
XT

the intensity of compression at

.'.

is

zero, hence

f
yl

XT

TT>

=
-j-y

-^-.

^T

= $d, or

7? acts at

\MN from 2V.

Hence

ln

order for the pressure on a rectangular joint to be distributed

its entire

over

surjace, the resultant

oLthe depth of the joint.

The maximum

intensity of stress (at

i.e.,
:-.

__
To

must
.

act

within the middle third

__
in Fig.

<

___
N}

_
69

is evi-

dently double the average stress,

the

A.

Similarly, in Fig. 69 C,

maximum
Case

stress is

double the average stress on the surface

determine the limits within which

0} Circular Joint.

must act

in order for the pressure to

joint,

be distributed over the

whole surface of the

.-.

we have

as before ~i
A.

^fy 1

A.r

~ A

=}r

(r.

= radius
act

of joint surface).

Hence in

this case the

resultant

must

within one-fourth 0} the radius from the centre

of the joint.

For other forms of

joint, the

limits within

which

must act
and

in order for the pressure to be distributed over the entire area,

the value of the

maximum

intensity of stress

so distributed, are determined in the

when the pressure is same manner as indicated

above for rectangular and circular surfaces.

85. Conditions to be Satisfied
etc.

by Masonry Arches, Abutments,

The
i.

following conditions respecting the joints should, in

general, be fulfilled:

The

limits within

which the resultant pressure

acts should

be such that the pressure will be distributed over the of each joint.

entire surface

n8
2.

GRAPHIC STATICS.

The

direction of the resultant pressure should be nearly

at right angles to the surface of the joint.

3.

The maximum

intensity of compression

on each

joint, in-

cluding the base, must not exceed the safe compression strength
of the material.

2.

Masonry Arch.
In Fig.
70,

Line

of Pressure.

86. Definitions.

a and b are respectively the span

and

rise of the arch,

is

the thickness of the arch-ring, also the

of the joints.

The

inner and outer surfaces of the arch-

FIG. 70.

ring are the intrados

and extrados

respectively, these terms being

also applied to the lines cmc'

and dm'd'.

The

highest part of the

arch

is

the crown.

The

surfaces cd

and dd' are the skew-backs.

crown and skew-

The

portions of the arch-ring between the

backs are the haunches.

The
is

the spandrel.

space B, outside the extrados and within the dotted lines, The masonry, usually with horizontal joints,

lying in space

is

the backing.
is

The timber frame which

the centring.

sup-

ports the arch during erection

Arches are designated according to the form of the intrados

as semicircular, segmental, elliptical, pointed, etc.
87. Line

of

Pressure a Funicular Polygon.

Let AB, BC,

If

CD,

etc. (Fig. 71),

be the loads supported by the arch-stones.

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

the pressure at

ETC.

119

any

joint, as a, is

given completely, the pressures

at the other joints

can be found by
(Art.

the

triangle

of

forces

80).

Thus, representing the pressure on

the joint a by

PA,

the resultant of.

will
its

PA

and AB, i.e., PB, pressure on the joint b,

action
section

be the
line

of

passing
of

through

the

inter-

pa and ab as
the

shown.

Similarly, PC is PD on joint
c,

the pressure on the

joint
d,
etc. FIG. 71.

Thus

it

is

seen that

the

lines

of

action of the resultant pressures on the successive joints of an arch are the strings of a funicular polygon, the corresponding

rays

representing

the magnitudes

of

these

pressures.

This

funicular polygon will be referred to as the line of pressure of

the arch, although the line of pressure or line of resistance, as

commonly

defined, is the broken line joining the centres 0} pres-

sure of the successive joints.

When
to

the arch

and

its

loading are symmetrical

it

is

evident

that the line of pressure will also be symmetrical with reference

crown

a vertical through the crown, and hence the pressure at the In this case only one-half the archwill be horizontal.

ring need be considered.

88.

Test of Stability.

In order

to satisfy condition (i) of

it

Art. 85, in case of rectangular joints,

is

necessary for the re-

sultant pressure to act within the middle third of the depth of

the joints (Art. 84)

or, as

commonly

stated, the line of pressure

must
If,

lie

within the middle third of the depth of the arch-ring.

it

then,

is

for the given system of loads

found impossible to draw any funicular polygon which will satisfy this condition,

GRAPHIC STATICS.
the proposed arch is unsatisfactory and must be altered in one or more of the following particulars: i. Thickness of arch- ring;
2.

Form

of arch- ring;

3.

Distribution of loading.

A method

of determining the possibility of drawing a funicular

is

polygon which will satisfy the above condition case of the segmental arch of Fig. 72.
a
i

illustrated in

&

FIG. 72.

The arch is loaded symmetrically, the loads being assumed The two curves drawn include between them the middle third of the thickness of the arch-ring. The half-arch
vertical.
is

divided into equal segments, the loads supported by these

being AB, BC, etc. The letters a, b, etc., will be used to represent the strings of the funicular polygons and also the joints of the
arch, a being the joint at the crown and g the joint at the springing.

These

so-called joints need not be actual joints but only

convenient divisions of the arch- ring.

The constructions
Using
first

of either Arts. 23, 24, or 25

may be
,

employed.

the construction of Art. 25,

we proceed

as follows:

P on a horizontal line through A any funicudrawn, the strings being extended to intersect f the string a at the points b c', etc., as shown. These points of intersection locate the resultant loads lying between the correAssuming any pole
lar polygon

XY

is

sponding joints

(see Art. 25). to seek

We

now proceed

a polygon whose various strings pierce

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

ETC.

121

the corresponding joints w'thin the limiting curves.

the general form of the polygon

Judging from appears probable, for exand Y' will satisfy the ample, that one drawn through the points

X Y,

it

condition.

as follows:
f

The strings d, e, /, and g of Draw the string g through

/,

this

polygon are drawn

its

Y'',

direction being
/',

Y'g
etc.,

then draw
as shown.

e,

etc.,

in turn so as to pass through

this

f
,

It is
its

observed that

polygon

falls

outside the

required limits,
d.

point of greatest departure being at the joint

It

thus becomes apparent that a polygon

drawn through
is

and touching the outer

structed

limiting curve at the joint d

most

likely

to satisfy the requirement.

This polygon might have been con-

by be drawn as one-half the funicular polygons for the whole arch, Since the rethe closing strings will be horizontal as shown.
quired polygon
the
vertical

Art. 24 as follows:

by the same method as the preceding one, otherwise Treating the polygon XY and the one to

through O', the intercepts made by O' are RS and O'S' respectively. The through services of the new polygon and its pole P' are then located as
is

to pass

described in Art. 24.

This

final

polygon

is

seen to satisfy the

requirement.
It

should be noted that

if

this final

polygon were the true

strings

line of pressure, the points, indicated

by arrows, where the

cut the corresponding joints

would be the centres of pressure

at

such

joints, the

corresponding rays representing the magnitudes

of these pressures.

"For the case of non-symmetrical loading see Art. 93.

The

student should be able to check any graphical work

algebraically, as in case of frames.

Thus

let it

be required to

determine algebraically the magnitude and location of the crown (Fig. 72), such that the funicular polygon will pass pressure

through O' and Y'.

It is

known

that any string represents the line of action of

122

GRAPHIC STATICS.

joint

the resultant external force acting between the corresponding and the crown. Thus the string d through f is the line

of action of the resultant of

H and the loading above the joint

d.

The

resultant
i.e.,

moment

of these forces about O'

must therefore

be zero,

H-y = M,
is

(i)

in
d.

which

M
M
f

the

moment, about O',

of the loads above the joint

Similarly,

H(y+n) = M',
in

(2)

which

is

the resultant

moment, about

F', of the loads

above

the springing.

By

solving (i)

and

(2),

the values of

H and y may be obtained,

and Form
of

89. Relation between Line

ring.

of Pressure

Arch-

It is evidently desirable, to insure

stability, that the true

line of pressure coincide, as nearly as possible,

line of the arch-ring.

with the centre

If various funicular polygons be constructed for the same system of loads, changing the position of the pole but keeping it on the same horizontal line, all such polygons will have the

same general form; hence,

since one such polygon

constitutes

the true line of pressure, the most suitable form of arch for a

given system of loads may be determined by observing the general form of funicular polygons for such loads. Thus, in Fig. 72, or X'Y' would suggest the elliptical' the form of the polygon

XY

or the multiple-centred circular arch to be the best forms for that

case.

The most
is

suitable

form

for a load uniformly distributed

horizontally

would be parabolic,
flat

since the funicular polygon for

such loading
comparatively
creases
in

a parabola (Art. 13).

at the

And,

in general,

an arch

crown

is

suitable

when

the load in-

intensity

from the
is

crown towards the abutments,

while a pointed arch

better adapted to the reverse condition.

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

Conversely,

ETC.
its

123-

when

the form of arch

is

given,

most suitable

distribution of loading can be determined in a general

treating
its

way by

centre line as a funicular polygon

the corresponding distribution of loads.

in Fig. 73.

and determining The method is illustrated

FIG. 73.

Let

MN

be the centre

line of the arch- ring, the short lines.

a, b, etc.,

of action of the loads.

being the joints and the dotted lines indicating the lines The strings of a funicular polygon to

coincide with
b,

MN

will

etc.

Therefore,

to

be tangent to the curve at the points a, determine the distribution of loading

corresponding to this funicular polygon, draw from any pole

PA, PB, AB, BC, etc.,

lines

etc., parallel to

tangents at a,

b, etc.

The

lengths

thus determined indicate the relative magnitudes

ab, be, etc., of the arch-ring.

of the loads

on the divisions

This

distribution of loads

such as

may be ST = DE, etc. The

and

represented by laying off ordinates

area between the

the

curve

XY

thus

constructed
It

MN

represents

distribution

of loading.

should be observed that the diagram only represents the desired

it is

distribution of loads in a general way, since

not

known

that

MN

is

the true line of pressure.

124
90.

GRAPHIC STATICS.

Maximum and Minimum Crown

(i.e.,

Pressure.

It is evident

that as the pole distance

-the

pressure at the

crown) increases,

rays

and

strings

of the

funicular polygons

become more

nearly horizontal

nearly flat. the middle third (or other

and consequently the polygons become more Hence, of all polygons which can be drawn within
designated
limits) of the arch- ring,

that one will correspond to a

pressure which touches the inner limiting curve at a point nearer the crown than
that at

maximum crown

which

it

touches the outer curve, and conversely.

mum

the final polygon X'Y' corresponds to miniThus, crown pressure (P'A], while the one corresponding to maximum crown pressure would touch the inner limiting curve
in Fig. 72
at the

crown and the outer limiting curve

at

some point nearer

the springing.
It

should be noted in this connection that, other things equal, should also be noted that when three points on the line of

as the rise of an arch increases the crown pressure diminishes.

It

pressure (corresponding to the three hinges of a three-hinged

arch) are given, the magnitude and direction of the resultant
pressure at such points can be determined algebraically in a

manner
r>

similar to that explained in Art. 52.

It

91. Location of the True Line of Pressure.

remains to

consider the question as to which of the infinite number of funicular polygons corresponding to a given system of arch loads constitutes the true line of pressure.

in use for locating the true line of pressure

The prominent methods * which have been suggested or are may be divided into
classes,

two

namely:
the

I.

Methods based on

"

Theory of the

Elastic Arch."

See Baker's
See

"Masonry Construction

" for discussion of the various methods.

also,

Weyrauch's "Theorie der Elastigen Bogentrager"; ** Applied Mechanics."

Lanza's

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

II.

ETC.

125

Methods not deduced mathematically, but rather concharacter,

ventional^ in
reliability

the

only substantial evidence of their

being apparently derived from observation and ex-

perience in their use.

discussed briefly.

These two

classes of solutions

will

be

CLASS I. It has been frequently suggested that a masonry arch be treated in the same manner as a continuous iron archfixed at the ends, the solutions for the latter case being based

on

the

"Theory
A.

of the Elastic Arch."

These solutions

may be

designated as follows:

The

exact solution, in

which the general formulas derived

from the "Theory of the Elastic Arch" are employed. The line of pressure thus located may be taken to conform within very
slight limits of error to the theory.

This solution

is

very labo-

rious.

B. The approximate solution, in which all but one of the terms of the general formulas are omitted, leaving them in the
following form:

This method
It is

is

the one

commonly presented

in text-books,

adapted to graphical methods of solution. C. A proposition by Dr. Winkler forms the basis of a solu-

tion

derived from the formulas of solution B.

as follows:

which may be properly included under Class I, since it This proposition

is

is

"For an arch
is

of constant section, that line of resist-

approximately the true one which lies nearest the axis of the arch- ring as determined by the method of least
ance (pressure)
squares."

No

approximate
1

method should be employed without

first

See Lanza's "Applied Mechanics."

126
ascertaining the

GRAPHIC STATICS.
amount of
error involved.

For this purpose a com-

parison of the results to be obtained

by the use of methods A,

2.

B, and C was made in the cases shown in Plate III. cases were taken, namely: i. A semicircular arch;
arch whose ratio of
:

Two extreme A segmental

10. In each case three rise to span is i systems of loads were employed, namely: i. A concentrated load at the crown; 2. A load uniformly distributed over the entire span; 3. A load uniformly distributed over the half-span.

The
ratio of

arches were of uniform thickness (shown at the crown),

lines of pressure (C)

span to thickness of arch- ring being about n.6. The were located by the calculus, not by trial,

so as to conform exactly .with Winkler's proposition.

The
1.

results will not

be discussed in

detail,

but the following

conclusions seem to be warranted.

Method C

gives in each case (except Case 4) a line of

pressure deviating to such an extent from that of

to prove the unreliability of the former.
2.

Method

as

Method B

gives a line of pressure agreeing closely with (A)

in case of the semicircular arch, but deviating considerably from

the latter in the case of the segmental arch.

It is
if

evident that

Method B must be used with

to be trustworthy.

discrimination
the

the results are

In

'general,

greater

the ratio of span

ratio

to

thickness

of

arch-ring and the greater the

of

rise

to span, the less will be the difference between the results obtained

from Methods

and B.
these, the

CLASS
seems
to

II.

Of

method

of "Least

Crown Pressure"

be most commonly employed. 1 The theory of least crmvn pressure is essentially that the true line of pressure is that one which, lying within the middle third
(or other

designated limits) of the arch-ring, corresponds to a

See Baker's " Masonry Construction."

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

minimum crown
upon
the centring
is

ETC.

127

pressure (see Art. 90).

It

appears to be based

the observation that

most arches

settle at the

crown when

removed, and upon

the

consideration that the

.the
is

crown pressure is a passive force developed by the two half-rings to tip towards each other, and
that
is

tendency of

the least force

necessary to prevent such overturning.

If the

arch

settles at the

crown

(as a result of rotation, not

sliding, of the arch-stones), the

tendency would appear to be to

open the joints as shown

in Fig. 74, the centre of pressure

moving

FIG. 74.

FIG. 75.

upward

at the

crown and inward

at the haunches.

The

resulting

position of the line of pressure

would thus agree with the case of minimum crown pressure (Art.
observed that
all

in a general 90).

way
be

(It will
lie

the lines of pressure A, Plate III, also

above

the centre of the arch- ring at the crown

and within

it

at points

nearer the abutments.)

The
is

joints a, a,

where the tendency

line of pressure

to

open

at the extrados

greatest,

are called the joints 0} rupture.

They correspond

to the points

where the

corresponding to mini-

mum

crown pressure touches the inner limiting curve. In the case of a pointed arch, or an arch very lightly loaded
crown and heavily loaded at the haunches, the tendency for the crown to rise and the haunches to move inward
various other methods of Class II differ from the pre-

at the

may be
The

(Fig- 75)-

ceding only in details.

Thus

the true line of pressure

may be

128

GRAPHIC STATICS.
to

assumed

be that one which

intersects the

crown

joint at the

middle of
etc.;

its

depth; at one- third the depth from the extrados,

also,

satisfying,
all

other conditions of a similar character.

Apparently

such conditions are substantially expressions of

oj the

judgment only.
Comparison
that the

Methods

oj Classes

I and II.

The

fact

masonry arch is built up of blocks instead of the material and homogeneous, as in case of the elastic arch, continuous being renders it questionable as to whether the same methods of solution are applicable to both.
It

must

also

be recognized that the

uncertain.

conditions which determine the location of the line of pressure

of

a masonry arch are

commonly numerous and

is

Among
1.

such conditions are evidently the following:

loading.

The

This

generally

uncertain
of

in

amount,

distribution,

and

direction.

In the

case

arches supporting
it

masonry walls the uncertainty is particularly exists to some extent in all cases.
2.

great, but

evidently

The

behavior of the arch as to the kind and amount of

distortion occurring

when
its

the

centring

is

removed and subse-

quently.

Evidently

behavior will depend upon the quality

rigidity of the supports,

of the material
etc.,

and workmanship, the

as well as

upon the loading.

formulas cannot be derived from

It is evident that reliable

uncertain data, however correct the reasoning

may

be.

Under

such circumstances the

of solution

final test of the reliability of

any method

must be agreement with the

results of experiment

and experience. In this respect the methods of Classes I and II stand on the same footing, as each requires experimental verification.

For the present,

in lieu of adequate experimental results

we

must

rely largely

upon the experience of the past

in the construc-

tion of

masonry arches;

making use

of that line of pressure

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

ETC.
it

129^

which appears to be most reliable and seeing to

that,

with such

line of pressure, the conditions of Art. 85 are fulfilled.

The author has no recommendation

best

to

make

as regards the

method

of locating the line of pressure of a

masonry arch.

In the following examples, however, the condition that "the true

line of pressure is that

of the arch-ring, corresponds to the

will

one which, lying within the middle third, minimum crown pressure,"

be employed;

the portion of the solution subsequent to the

location of the line of pressure being the same,

line

however

this

may

be located.
fix

In order to

the position of the line of pressure, three hinges

have been employed to some extent in Germany and elsewhere. The line of pressure is thus determined by the condition that it

must pass through the hinges, the same as

three-hinged iron
arch.

in

case of the

92.

Example.

Figure

i,

Plate III,

is

one-half of
is

a symlimited

metrical full-centred arch in a masonry wall whose height

by a horizontal
determine
if

line, as

shown.

It is

required to draw the line of

pressure according to the theory of least crown pressure, and to

the arch satisfies the conditions of stability.
is

The

half-ring

divided by radial lines, which need not coinIt will

cide with the actual joints of the arch.

be assumed that

each of these divisions supports the weight of the portion of wall If the specific directly above it, as indicated by the vertical lines.
gravity of the material above the arch- ring
of the arch-ring, the load supported
is

the

same as that
If the

by any

single division, as

mn,

is

specific

proportional to the area of the polygon mnn'm'. gravities are unequal, the vertical ordinates

may be

altered in length so that the areas above the divisions will repre-

sent weights to the

selves.

same

scale as the areas of the divisions them-

Otherwise the weights of the divisions and material

I 3o

GRAPHIC STATICS.

above them
wall
is

may be
Ibs.

dealt with separately.

In

this

example, the
is,

of uniform thickness

and the weight of the masonry

throughout, 160

per cubic foot.

Considering one foot thickness of wall, the loads (see table)

TABLE or LOADS.
(Fie.
i,

are calculated by multiplying the cor-

PLATE

responding areas by 160 taken

to

Ibs.

HI
//
to

is

III.)

include

two

divisions

to
is

avoid confusing the drawing;

the

weight

of

the
i;

masonry

the

right of the line

JK
loads

is

the weight

of the

masonry below RS.

resultant
act
at

The

the

centres of gravity of the areas.

The

centre of gravity of the division

is

mn
O"

O',

and the centre

of gravity of the
is

trapezoid above this division

(see Art. 79).

The

centre of gravity

of the entire area

mnn'm'

is

then found by dividing the line

O'O"

into parts inversely proportional to these areas.

The

centres

of gravity are indicated

by

circles.

The

line of pressure is
etc.,

now

constructed as follows:

The

loads

AB, BC,
point

are plotted to scale, and, selecting any pole

on a

horizontal line through A, a preliminary polygon

xy

is

drawn, the

x being

one-third the depth of the joint below the extrados.

, ,

f f In drawing this polygon, the intersections c d etc., of a are marked (see Art. 88). strings with the string

its

various

The

line of pressure desired is

such that the resultant pressure

at the joint of rupture will act at one-third the depth of the joint

may be determined by be near the joint g, we trisect f The that joint at i and draw the string g through i and g are then in the and shown drawn, drawing) adjacent strings (not
from the intrados.
joint of rupture
it

The

trial as follows:

Judging that

will

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

it is

ETC,

131

limit.

found that the string / falls farthest outside the middle-third This joint is then trisected at 2 and the string 2]' of a new

This polygon is completed by drawing the is drawn. f remaining strings in succession through e', d etc., and is found to satisfy the conditions except near the springing where it falls
polygon
,

outside the middle-third limit.

This portion of the arch, however,

can be treated as part of the abutment.

at the different joints are indicated

The

centres of pressure

by arrows.

Aside from the condition that the pressure must act within
the middle third of the arch-ring, the resistance to sliding and

crushing must be investigated.

As regards

sliding,

it is

seen that the direction of the resultant

pressure at each joint

is

very nearly normal to the joint, with the

exception of the springing plane, where the pressure p'i makes with the normal an angle greater than tan" 1 ^. When, however, the weight // is combined with P'I, the resultant pressure, P"J
(Art. 96), satisfies the

requirement for safety against

sliding.

For crushing, the

stress
Ibs.

maximum

compression

stress is to

be

cal-

culated at each dangerous joint.

For example, the resultant

off the
is

on the

joint

/,

found by scaling

ray P'F,

is

1310x3
ft.

The
in.

area of the surface of the joint

iXif=if
Ibs.
in.

sq.

252 sq.
the

Average pressure per

stress

sq. in.
Ibs.

= -if -^.= 52

Hence

maximum
stress

= 2X52 = 104

per sq.

(see Art. 84).

This

must not exceed the working compression strength

(For strength of masonry see Lanza's "Applied
references.)

of the masonry. "

Mechanics

and other

When the arch or loading is 93. Unsymmetrical Cases. unsymmetrical, the line of pressure is also unsymmetrical, and must therefore be drawn for the whole arch. The construction
of the line of pressure involves the problem of drawing a funicular

polygon through three points (see Arts. 23 and 24).

32

GRAPHIC STATICS.
EXAMPLE.
Given a segmental arch of 16 ft. span (Fig. 76.) Thickness of arch- ring = i \ ft. The left and right

and 3
foot

ft.

rise.

halves are loaded with 3200 Ibs. and 6400 Ibs. respectively, per

width of arch, these loads being uniformly distributed over

It is

the arch-ring.

required to construct,

if

possible, the line of

pressure in accordance with the

a!

method

of "least

crown pressure."

FIG. 76.

The
surface.

arch-ring

is

load supported by each

divided into sixteen equal divisions, and the is assumed to act at the middle of its outer

The

loads are plotted to scale, and the funicular polygon

xy and ur

is

constructed, using
at one-third

for pole.

Selecting the points

t'

',

i/,

and two-thirds the depth

of the joints from

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

ETC.

133

the intrados, the funicular polygon which will pass through these points is located as explained in Art. 24 (see Fig. 76 A). This

polygon
sure, are
It is

is

not drawn, but the points on

it,

falling outside the

middle-third limits, which serve to locate the final line of pres-

marked by

dots.

seen that to the right of the crown this polygon rises above
left

the middle-third limit, while near the

abutment

it falls

below.

From the position of these points

drawn through
specified limits.

it

appears probable that a polygon

the three points

i', 2',

and vf

will fall within the

The vertices

of this polygon (drawn in full lines) as the preceding one (see Fig.
all

were located
76 B), and
fall

in the

same manner

it is

seen that the centres of pressure at

the joints

within the required limits.

The

pole P' of this final polygon

i.e.,

of Art. 23,

PZ
2'

and PZ' were drawn

was located by the method parallel to i, 2 and 2, v

respectively;
parallel to
i',

then ZP' and Z'P' were drawn through

Z
.

and Z'
This

and

2',

if respectively,

thus locating P'

pole might

also

compression at

have been located by Art. 24. The resultant the various arch sections is represented by the

rays of this final polygon.

The
(see

stability of the

abutments

is

essential to that of the arch

3).

3.

Abutments, Piers,

etc.

94. Conditions of Stability.

bility of
i

The

general conditions of sta-

are applicable to any piles of

masonry subjected

to

the action of external forces, such as the thrust of an arch or

truss, pressure of earth, water,

wind,

etc.

95.

Example

i.

Fig.

77

is

an abutment subjected
vertical pressure

to

horizontal pressure

AB

and a

BC,

their re-

54

GRAPHIC STATICS.

sultant.

AC

acting at the point

c.

CD, DE,

EF

and

FG

are

the weights of the four divisons

of the masonry, their centres of

gravity being

marked by
of

circles.

The
the

pressure on the
resultant

joint

is

AC
AD,

and the
block.
line of

weight

CD

of the
is

first
its

This resultant

action passing through the intersection of ac

and

vertical

through the centre of gravity of

the block.
.

The

point of appli-

77

cation of this resultant pressure,

at d,

is

indicated by an arrow.

The

resultant pressures at the

remaining joints are found in a similar manner.

The

conditions

of

safety

as

regards

sliding,

overturning,

and crushing have been previously discussed. The maximum pressure on the soil must also be kept within safe limits (see Baker's

"Masonry

Construction," Chap. X).

line connecting the points of application
c,

broken

d,

e,

/,

and g of the resultant pressures on the successive joints of an abutment is commonly called the line of resistance or line oj pressure, as in case of

an arch

(see Art. 87).

96.

Example

2.

The abutments

of a

masonry arch can be

In Fig. i, Plate III, the weights // and JK, lying above and below the joint RS, are = i in.), the pole for these two loads plotted to half scale (4000 Ibs.
considered in connection with the arch.

being located by bisecting the ray P'l at

sure on

P"

The

resultant pres-

RS is P"J)
p
f

its line

of action p"j passing through the interresultant pressure

section of
its line

and

ij.

The

on the base

is

P"K,

of action being p"k.

To

find the

maximum

intensity of

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

the pressure on the base

ETC.

135

we have
is

F"K = g.i
i.i
ft.

36400

Ibs.

By measurement, p"k acts The

bearing area

= (inches) X 4000 from the centre of

ft -

the base.

7fXi = 7l

s q-

Substituting

these values in the formula

^ we have

36400
7-75

36400.1.1
3

bs per S q.
.

ft.

TVi-(7-75)
60
Ibs.

per sq. inch.

97.

Example

3.

Let Fig. 78 represent a pier supporting the

side.

thrust of

an arch on each

These thrusts are

on the centre

AB
of

and BC,

their point of intersection

line

lying
pier.

the

Let CD, DE, EF, and

sent

FG
the

repre-

the

weights

of

pier

divisions,

CD
The

being

the

weight

of

the
d.
is

pier

masonry above the

resultant

joint

pressure

on d

AD,

its line

of action

Od

passing

through

O.

The
also

lines

of action of the pressures

on the
pass
FIG. 78.

remaining joints

will

through
through

O,

since

the

vertical

this point contains the centres of gravity of all the blocks.

These
to

lines are

AD,

Od, Oe, Of, and Og, drawn parallel respectively AE, AF, and AG. If the thrusts of the two arches are

equal and equally inclined, the resultant pressure on the pier will
evidently be vertical.
98.
to

Example

4.

Let Fig. 79 represent a chimney subjected

wind pressure.

The

weights of the portions ab,

be, etc.,

are

-3 6

GRAPHIC STATICS.
portions are AB',

AB, BC, etc., and the wind pressures on these 3'C etc. The lines of action of these wind
f
,

pressures are the

pole

horizontal dotted lines ab,

funicular polygon

be,

etc.

With any
loads.

draw the

mn

for the

wind

(For this purpose

these loads should be plotted to a larger scale.)

F'ED'CB

FIG. 79.

To
action

find the resultant pressure at

tr

of the resultant

located by the intersection

any section, as e, the line of wind pressure above that section is of the strings a and e.

The
pressure

pressure at the section e is the resultant of this wind and the weight of masonry above e. The line of action

rs of this pressure will act

through

r,

the point of intersection of

e,

the resultant

wind pressure and weight of masonry above

be parallel to E'E,
its

and

its direction will

magnitude being repre-

MASONRY ARCHES, ABUTMENTS,

sented by the length of E'E.

ETC.

137

The

resultant pressure at

any other

section can be determined in a similar

manner.

preceding examples will serve to indicate the method of determining the stability of such structures when the loads are

The

known.

-17000
-45200

17000
43200

HCCO
3SSOO

Fig.

1C

ELA.TE

1.

Fig.

TABLE OF STRESSES.
UPPER CHORD

DEAD LOAD WITH WIND ON LEFT

SIDE.

Fig.

2000 Tos.

F\g.2

PLATE

II

PLATE

II.I

2. LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN

METHODS B AND C, COINCIDE CLOSELY WITH AXIS OF ARCH RING)

(LINES OF PRESSURE,

4.

LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER SPAN

LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER LEFT HALF-SPAN

ARCHES OF UNIFORM SECTION. FIXED ENDS*

LINES OF PRESSURE
j.
(

1
(

METHOD A METHOD B METHOD C

FULL LINES

BROKEN LINES DOTS AND DASHES

6.

LOAD UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED OVER LEFT HALF-SPAN.

T&
'

U 2 ,

THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Santa Barbara

THIS BOOK

IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW.