Environmental engineering-I UNIT-I PLANNING FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM Introduction to Environmental Engineering

What is Environmental Engineering? It is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the environmental issues and their solutions. Generally, it includes supply of water, disposal and recycling of wastes, drainage of communities, control of water, soil, atmospheric pollution and environmental impacts of different activities carried out on earth. The practice and application of engineering laws in compliance with the safety of environment and the code of ethics prescribed as standards. Some of those are as below

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers conduct ha ardous!waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such ha ards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems"#$"%$ as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, o one depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile e&hausts and industrial sources."'$"($")$"*$ +t many universities, Environmental Engineering programs follow either the ,epartment of -ivil Engineering or .he ,epartment of -hemical Engineering at Engineering faculties. Environmental /civil/ engineers focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water treatment plant design. Environmental /chemical/ engineers, on the other hand, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes

Development o environmental engineering

Ever since people first recogni ed that their health and well!being were related to the 0uality of their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to attempt to improve the 0uality of their environment. .he ancient 1arappan civili ation utili ed early sewers in some cities. .he 2omans constructed a0ueducts to prevent drought and to create a clean, healthful water supply for the metropolis of 2ome. In the #)th century, 3avaria created laws restricting the development and degradation of alpine country that constituted the region4s water supply.

.he field emerged as a separate environmental discipline during the middle third of the %5th century in response to widespread public concern about water and pollution and increasingly e&tensive environmental 0uality degradation. 1owever, its roots e&tend back to early efforts in public health engineering."6$ 7odern environmental engineering began in 8ondon in the mid!#9th century when :oseph 3a algette designed the first major sewerage system that reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera. .he introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industriali ed countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities.";$ In many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits for those societies had longer!term impacts which reduced other environmental 0ualities. <ne e&ample is the widespread application of ,,. to control agricultural pests in the years following =orld =ar II. =hile the agricultural benefits were outstanding and crop yields increased dramatically, thus reducing world hunger substantially, and malaria was controlled better than it ever had been, numerous species were brought to the verge of e&tinction due to the impact of the ,,. on their reproductive cycles. .he story of ,,. as vividly told in 2achel -arson4s />ilent >pring/ is considered to be the birth of the modern environmental movement and the development of the modern field of /environmental engineering./"9$ -onservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm the environment have been developed by various societies for millennia. ?otable e&amples are the laws decreeing the construction of sewers in 8ondon and @aris in the #9th century and the creation of the A.>. national park system in the early %5th century.

S!ope o Environmental Engineering

3riefly speaking, the main task of environmental engineers is to protect public health by protecting (from further degradation), preserving (the present condition of), and enhancing the environment. Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to the environment. >ome consider environmental engineering to include the development of sustainable processes. .here are several divisions of the field of environmental engineering.

Environmental impa!t a""e""ment an# mitigation

In this division, engineers and scientists use a systemic identification and evaluation process to assess the potential impacts of a proposed project , plans, programs, policies, or legislative actions upon the physical!chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components on environmental conditions."#5$ .hey apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts to water 0uality, air 0uality, habitat 0uality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are e&pected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts. +n e&ample of a mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road development if it is not possible to reroute the road.

.he practice of environmental assessment was intitiated on :anuary #, #965, the effective date of the ?ational Environmental @olicy +ct (?E@+) in the Anited >tates. >ince that time, more than #55 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have adopted procedure used elsewhere. ?E@+ is applicable to all federal agencies in the Anited >tates."#5$

Water "$ppl% an# treatment

Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. .hey evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses. =ater is treated to achieve water 0uality objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable water supply, water is treated to minimi e the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of non!infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. =ater distribution systems are designed and built to provide ade0uate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end!user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.

Wa"te&ater !onve%an!e an# treatment

=ater pollution 7ost urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and treatment systems to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and deto&ification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake, or ocean system. ,eveloping nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems so that they can improve water 0uality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of water!borne infectious disease.

>ewage treatment plant, +ustralia. .here are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. + wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final disinfection process. .he aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge). .he secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. .he tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall."##$

Air '$alit% management

Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels. >crubbers, electrostatic precipitators, catalytic converters, and various other processes are utili ed to remove particulate matter, nitrogen o&ides, sulfur o&ides, volatile organic compounds (B<-), reactive organic gases (2<C) and other air pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to allowing their emission to the atmosphere. >cientists have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration of a pollutant at a receptor or the impact on overall air 0uality from vehicle e&hausts and industrial flue gas stack emissions. .o some e&tent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dio&ide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes(

Ot)er appli!ation"

Environmental policy and regulation development -ontaminated land management and site remediation Environment, 1ealth and >afety 1a ardous waste management ?atural resource management ?oise pollution 2isk assessment >olid waste management

Water supply and sanitation in India

Water "$ppl% an# "anitation in In#ia continue to be inade0uate, despite longstanding efforts by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. .he level of investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international standards, has increased during the %555s. +ccess has also increased significantly. Dor e&ample, in #9;5 rural sanitation coverage was estimated at #E and reached %#E in %55;."#$"*$ +lso, the share of Indians with access to improved sources of water has increased significantly from 6%E in #995 to ;;E in %55;."#$ +t the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In addition, no major city in India is known to have a continuous water supply"6$ and an estimated 6%E of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities. + number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early %555s. .hese include demand!driven approaches in rural water supply since #999, community!led total sanitation, a public!private partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in Farnataka, and the use of micro!credit to women in order to improve access to water In %55;, ;;E of the population in India had access to an improved water source, but only '#E had access to improved sanitation. In rural areas, where 6%E of IndiaGs population lives, the respective shares are ;(E for water and only %#E for sanitation. In urban areas, 9*E had access to an improved water source and )(E to improved sanitation. +ccess has improved substantially since #995 when it was estimated to stand at 6%E for water and #;E for sanitation."#$ +ccording to Indian norms, access to improved water supply e&ists if at least (5 liters/capita/day of safe drinking water are provided within a distance of #.* km or #55 meter of elevation difference, to be rela&ed as per field conditions. .here should be at least one pump per %)5 persons.

Servi!e '$alit%
=ater and sanitation service 0uality in India is generally poor, although there has been some limited progress concerning continuity of supply in urban areas and access to sanitation in rural areas.

Water "$ppl%

Dour girls carrying water in India.

*)allenge". ?one of the ') Indian cities with a population of more than one million distribute water for more than a few hours per day, despite generally sufficient infrastructure. <wing to inade0uate pressure people struggle to collect water even when it is available. +ccording to the =orld 3ank, none have performance indicators that compare with average international standards.";$ + %556 study by the +sian ,evelopment 3ank showed that in %5 cities the average duration of supply was only (.' hours per day. ?o city had continuous supply. .he longest duration of supply was #% hours per day in -handigarh, and the lowest was 5.' hours per day in 2ajkot."'$ In ,elhi residents receive water only a few hours per day because of inade0uate management of the distribution system. .his results in contaminated water and forces households to complement a deficient public water service at prohibitive 4coping4 costsH the poor suffer most from this situation. Dor e&ample, according to a #99* survey households in ,elhi spent an average of %,#;% (A>I(;.() per year in time and money to cope with poor service levels."9$ .his is more than three times as much as the %55# water bill of about A>I#; per year of a ,elhi household that uses %5 cubic meters per month. A!)ievement". :amshedpur, a city in :harkhand with )6',555 inhabitants, provided %)E of its residents with continuous water supply in %559."#5$ ?avi 7umbai, a planned city with more than #m inhabitants, has achieved continuous supply for about half its population as of :anuary %559. "##$ 3adlapur, another city in the 7umbai -onurbation with a population of #(5,555, has achieved continuous supply in ' out of #5 operating ones, covering '5E of its population."#%$ .hiruvananthapuram, the capital of Ferala state with a population of 6(),555 in %55#, is probably the largest Indian city that enjoys continuous water supply."#'$

Sanitation
7ost Indians depend on on!site sanitation facilities. 2ecently, access to on!site sanitation have increased in both rural and urban areas. In rural areas, total sanitation has been successful (see below). In urban areas, a good practice is the >lum >anitation @rogram in 7umbai that has provided access to sanitation for a 0uarter million slum dwellers."#($ >ewerage, where available, is often in a bad state. In ,elhi the sewerage network has lacked maintenance over the years and overflow of raw sewage in open drains is common, due to blockage, settlements and inade0uate pumping capacities. .he capacity of the #6 e&isting wastewater treatment plants in ,elhi is ade0uate to cater a daily production of waste water of less than )5E of the drinking water produced.";$ <f the %.) 3illion people in the world that defecate openly, some **) million live in India. .his is of greater concern as ;;E of deaths from diarrhea occur because of unsafe water, inade0uate sanitation and poor hygiene."#)$"#*$"#6$"#;$

Environment

7illions depend on the polluted Canges river. See also: Environment of India +s of %55', it was estimated that only %6E of India4s wastewater was being treated, with the remainder flowing into rivers, canals, groundwater or the sea.,"($"#9$ Dor e&ample, the sacred Canges river is infested with diseases and in some places /the Canges becomes black and septic. -orpses, of semi!cremated adults or enshrouded babies, drift slowly by./."#;$ ?ews=eek describes ,elhi4s sacred Jamuna 2iver as /a putrid ribbon of black sludge/ where fecal bacteria is #5,555 over safety limits despite a #)!year program to address the problem."%5$ -holera epidemics are not unknown."%5$

+ealt) impa!t
.he lack of ade0uate sanitation and safe water has significant negative health impacts including diarrhea, referred to by travelers as the /,elhi 3elly/,"%#$ and e&perienced by about #5 million visitors annually."%%$ =hile most visitors to India recover 0uickly and otherwise receive proper care, the =orld 1ealth <rganisation estimated that around 655,555 Indians die each year from diarrhea."#9$ .he dismal working conditions of sewer workers are another concern. + survey of the working conditions of sewage workers in ,elhi showed that most of them suffer from chronic diseases, respiratory problems, skin disorders, allergies, headaches and eye infections."%'$

Water "$ppl% an# &ater re"o$r!e"

,epleting ground water table and deteriorating ground water 0uality are threatening the sustainability of both urban and rural water supply in many parts of India. .he supply of cities that depend on surface water is threatened by pollution, increasing water scarcity and conflicts among users. Dor e&ample, 3angalore depends to a large e&tent on water pumped since #96( from the Faveri river, whose waters are disputed between the states of Farnataka and .amil ?adu. +s in other Indian cities, the response to water scarcity is to transfer more water over large distances at high costs. In the case of 3angalore, the ',';( crore (A>I6)#.% million) Faveri >tage IB project, @hase II, includes the supply of )55,555 cubic meter of water per day over a distance of #55 km, thus increasing the city4s supply by two thirds."%($"%)$

Re"pon"i,ilit% or &ater "$ppl% an# "anitation

=ater supply and sanitation is a >tate responsibility under the Indian -onstitution. >tates may give the responsibility to the @anchayati 2aj Institutions (@2I) in rural areas or municipalities in urban areas, called Arban 8ocal 3odies (A83). +t present, states generally plan, design and e&ecute water supply schemes (and often operate them) through their >tate ,epartments (of @ublic 1ealth Engineering or 2ural ,evelopment Engineering) or >tate =ater 3oards. 1ighly centrali ed decision!making and approvals at the state level, which are characteristic of the Indian civil service, affect the management of water supply and sanitation services. Dor e&ample, according to the =orld 3ank in the state of @unjab the process of approving designs is centrali ed with even minor technical approvals reaching the office of chief engineers. + majority of decisions are made in a very centrali ed manner at the head0uarters."%*$ In #99' the Indian constitution and relevant state legislations were amended in order to decentrali e certain responsibilities, including water supply and sanitation, to municipalities. >ince the assignment of responsibilities to municipalities is a state responsibility, different states have followed different approaches. +ccording to a @lanning -ommission report of %55' there is a trend to decentrali e capital investment to engineering departments at the district level and operation and maintenance to district and gram panchayat levels."%6$

Poli!% an# reg$lation

.he responsibility for water supply and sanitation at the central and state level is shared by various 7inistries. +t the central level, .he 7inistry of 2ural ,evelopment is responsible for rural water supply through its ,epartment of ,rinking =ater >upply (,,=>) and the 7inistry of 1ousing and Arban @overty +lleviation is responsible for urban water supply. 1owever, e&cept for the ?ational -apital .erritory of ,elhi and other Anion .erritories, the central 7inistries only have an advisory capacity and a very limited role in funding. >ector policy thus is a prerogative of state governments.

Servi!e provi"ion
Ur,an area". Institutional arrangements for water supply and sanitation in Indian cities vary greatly. .ypically, a state!level agency is in charge of planning and investment, while the local government (Arban 8ocal 3odies) is in charge of operation and maintenance."%$ >ome of the largest cities have created municipal water and sanitation utilities that are legally and financially separated from the local government. 1owever, these utilities remain weak in terms of financial capacity. In spite of decentrali ation, A83s remain dependent on capital subsidies from state governments. .ariffs are also set by state governments, which often even subsidi e operating costs."%;$ Durthermore, when no separate utility e&ists there is no separation of accounts for different activities within a municipality. >ome states and cities have non!typical institutional arrangements. Dor e&ample, in 2ajasthan the sector is more centrali ed and the state government is also in charge of operation and maintenance, while in 7umbai the sector is more decentrali ed and local government is also in charge of planning and investment."%$ Private "e!tor parti!ipation( .he private sector plays a limited, albeit recently increasing role in operating and maintaining urban water systems on behalf of A83s. Dor e&ample, the :amshedpur Atilities K >ervices -ompany (:usco), a subsidiary of .ata >teel, has a lease contract for

:amshedpur(:harkhand), a management contract in 1aldia(=est 3engal), another contract in 7ysore(Farnataka) and since %556 a contract for the reduction of non!revenue water in parts of 3hopal (7adhya @radhesh)."%9$ .he Drench water company Beolia won a management contract in three cities in Farnataka in %55)."'5$"'#$"'%$ In %55% a consortium including .hames =ater won a pilot contract covering (5,555 households to reduce non!revenue water in parts of 3angalore, funded by the :apan 3ank for International -ooperation. .he contract was scaled up in %55(."''$ .he -ypriot company 1ydro!-omp, together with two Indian companies, won a #5!year concession contract for the city of 8atur -ity (7aharashtra) in %556 and an operator!consultant contract in 7adurai (.amil ?adu)."'($ Durthermore, the private Indian infrastructure development company >@78 is engaged in 3uild!<perate!.ransfer (3<.) projects, such as a bulk water supply project for 3hiwandi (7aharashtra)."')$ R$ral area". .here are about a #55,555 rural water supply systems in India. +t least in some states responsibility for service provision is in the process of being partially transferred from >tate =ater 3oards and district governments to @anchayati 2aj Institutions (@2I) at the block or village level (there were about *5( districts and %)*,555 villages in India in %55%, according to >ubdivisions of India. 3locks are an intermediate level between districts and villages). =here this transfer has been initiated, it seems to be more advanced for single!village water schemes than for more comple& multi!village water schemes. ,espite their professed role @anchayati 2aj Institutions currently play only a limited role in provision of rural water supply and sanitation. .here has been limited success in implementing decentrali ation, partly due to low priority by some state governments."%*$ 2ural sanitation is typically provided by households themselves in the form of latrines.

Innovative approa!)e"
+ number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in India, in particular in the early %555s. .hese include community!led total sanitation, demand! driven approaches in rural water supply, a public!private partnerships to improve the continuity of urban water supply in Farnataka, and the use of micro!credit to women in order to improve access to water.

*omm$nit%-le# total "anitation

In #999 a demand!driven and people!centered sanitation program was initiated under the name .otal >anitation -ampaign (.>-) or -ommunity!led total sanitation. It evolved from the limited achievements of the first structured programme for rural sanitation in India, the -entral 2ural >anitation @rogramme, which had minimal community participation. -ommunity!led total sanitation is not focused on building infrastructure, but on preventing open defecation through peer pressure and shame. In 7aharashtra where the program started more than %555 Cram @anchayats have achieved /open defecation free/ status. Billages that achieve this status receive monetary rewards and high publicity under a program called ?irmal Cram @uraskar."'*$"'6$"';$

Deman#-#riven approa!)e" in r$ral &ater "$ppl%

7ost rural water supply schemes in India use a centrali ed, supply!driven approach, i.e. a government institution designs a project and has it built with little community consultation and no capacity building for the community, often re0uiring no water fees to be paid for its subse0uent operation. >ince %55% the Covernment of India has rolled out at the national level a program to change the way in which water and sanitation services are supported in rural areas. .he program, called Swajaldhara, decentrali es service delivery responsibility to rural local governments and user groups. Ander the new approach communities are being consulted and trained, and users agree up!front to pay a tariff that is set at a level sufficiently high to cover operation and maintenance costs. It also includes measures to promote sanitation and to improve hygiene behavior. .he national program follows a pilot program launched in #999."'9$ +ccording to a %55; =orld 3ank study in #5 Indian states, Swajaldhara results in lower capital costs, lower administrative costs and better service 0uality compared to the supply!driven approach. In particular, the study found that the average full cost of supply!driven schemes is '; (A>I5.;) per cubic meter, while it is only %* (A>I5.*) per cubic meter for demand!driven schemes. .hese costs include capital, operation and maintenance costs, administrative costs and coping costs incurred by users of malfunctioning systems. -oping costs include traveling long distances to obtain water, standing in long 0ueues, storing water and repairing failed systems. +mong the surveyed systems that were built using supply!driven approach system breakdowns were common, the 0uantity and 0uality of water supply were less than foreseen in designs, and '5E of households did not get daily supply in summer. .he poor functioning of one system sometimes leads to the construction of another system, so that about '5E of households surveyed were served by several systems. -urrently only about #5E of rural water schemes built in India use a demand!driven approach. >ince water users have to pay lower or no tariffs under the supply!driven approach, this discourages them to opt for a demand!driven approach, even if the likelihood of the systems operating on a sustainable basis is higher under a demand!driven approach."(5$

A!)ieving !ontin$o$" &ater "$ppl% &it) t)e )elp o a private operator in -arnata.a
In the cities of 1ubli, 3elgaum and Culbarga in the state of Farnataka, the private operator Beolia increased water supply from once every %L#) days for #L% hours, to %( hours per day for #;5,555 people (#%E of the population of the ' cities) within % years (%55*L%55;). .his was achieved by carefully selecting and ring!fencing demonstration ones (one in each city), renovating the distribution network, installing meters, introducing a well!functioning commercial system, and effective grass!roots social intermediation by an ?C<, all without increasing the amount of bulk water supplied. .he project, known by its acronym as FA=+>I@ (Farnataka Arban =ater >ector Improvement @roject), was supported by a A>I'9.) million loan from the =orld 3ank. It constitutes a milestone for India, where no large city so far has achieved continuous water supply. .he project is e&pected to be scaled!up to cover the entire area of the three cities."'5$"'#$"'%$

Mi!ro-!re#it or &ater !onne!tion" in Tamil Na#$

In .iruchirapalli in .amil ?adu, the ?C< Cramalaya, established in #9;6, and women self!help groups promote access to water supply and sanitation by the poor through micro!credit. +mong the benefits are that women can spend more time with their children, earn additional income, and sell surplus water to neighbors. .his money contributes to her repayment of the =ater-redit loan. .he initiative is supported by the A>!based non!profit =ater @artners International."(#$

T)e /am")e#p$r Utilitie" an# Servi!e" *ompan%

.he :amshedpur Atilities and >ervices -ompany (:A>-<) provides water and sanitation services in :amshedpur, a major industrial center in East India that is home to .ata >teel. Antil %55( a division of .ata >teel provided water to the cityGs residents. 1owever, service 0uality was poor with intermittent supply, high water losses and no metering."#5$ .o improve this situation and to establish good practices that could be replicated in other Indian cities, :A>-< was set up as a wholly owned subsidiary of .ata >teel in %55(. Efficiency and service 0uality improved substantially over the following years. .he level on non! revenue water decreased from an estimated '*E in %55) to #5E in %559H one 0uarter of residents received continuous water supply (although the average supply remained at only 6 hours per day) in %559H the share of metered connections increased from %E in %556 to %*E in %559H the number of customers increasedH and the company recovered its operating costs plus a portion of capital costs. Identifying and legali ing illegal connections was an important element in the reduction of non!revenue water. .he utility prides itself today of the good drinking water 0uality provided and encourages its customers to drink from the tap. .he utility also operates a wastewater treatment plant that meets discharge standards. .he private utility pays salaries that are higher than civil service salaries and conducts e&tensive training programs for its staff. It has also installed a modern system to track and resolve customer complaints. Durthermore, it conducts independent annual customer satisfaction surveys. :A>-<Gs vision is to be the preferred provider of water supply and other urban services throughout India. .ogether with 2anhill 7alaysia it won a %)!year concession contract for providing the water supply in 1aldia -ity, =est 3engal."#5$

E i!ien!%
.here are only limited data on the operating efficiency of utilities in India, and even fewer data on the efficiency of investments. -oncerning operating efficiency, a study of %5 cities by the :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission with the support of the +sian ,evelopment 3ank showed an average level of non!revenue water (?2=) of '%E. 1owever, ) out of the %5 cities did not provide any data. Dor those that provided data there probably is a large margin of error, since only %)E of connections are metered, which makes it very difficult to estimate non!revenue water. +lso, three utilities show ?2= levels of less than %5E, two of which have practically no metering, which indicates that the numbers are not reliable and actual values are likely to be higher."'$ In ,elhi, which was not included in the +,3 study, non!revenue water stood at )'E and there were about %5 employees per #555 connections. Durthermore, only 65E of revenue billed was actually collected."(%$

-oncerning labor productivity, the %5 utilities in the sample had on average 6.( employees per #,555 connections, which is much higher than the estimated level for an efficient utility. "'$ + survey of a larger sample of Indian utilities showed an average ratio of #5.9 employees per #,555 connections."%$

Tari "0 !o"t re!over% an# "$,"i#ie"

=ater and sewer tariffs in India are low in both urban and rural areas. In urban areas they were set at the e0uivalent of about A>I5.#5 per cubic meter in %556 and recovered about *5E of operating and maintenance costs, with large differences between cities. >ome cities such as Folkata do not bill residential users at all. In rural areas the level of cost recovery often is even lower than in urban areas and was estaimated at only %5E in rural @unjab. >ubsidies were estimated at A>I#.# billion per year in the mid!#995s, accounting to (E of all government subsidies in India. 65E of those benefiting from the subsidies are not poor.

Ur,an area"
Metering( =ater metering is the precondition for billing water users on the basis of volume consumed. +ccording to a #999 survey of '55 cities about *%E of urban water customers in metropolitan areas and )5E in smaller cities are metered (average ))E). 1owever, meters often do not work so that many /metered/ customers are charged flat rates. 3angalore and @une are among the few Indian cities that meter all their customers. 7any other cities have no metering at all or meter only commercial customers."%$ Asers of standposts receive water free of charge. + %556 study of %5 cities by the :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission with the support of the +sian ,evelopment 3ank (+,3) showed that only %)E of customers of these utilities were metered. 7ost other customers paid a flat tariff independent of consumption. >ome utilities, such as the one serving Folkata, actually do not bill residential users at all."('$ Tari level". +ccording to the same +,3 study the average tariff for all customers ! including industrial, commercial and public customers ! is (.9 (A>I5.#) per cubic meter."'$ +ccording to a %556 global water tariff survey by the <E-, the residential water tariff for a consumption of #) mM was e0uivalent to A>I5.#) per m' in 3angalore, A>I5.#% per m' in -alcutta, A>I5.## per m' in ?ew ,elhi and A>I5.59 per m' in 7umbai. <nly 3angalore had a sewer tariff of A>I5.5% per m'. .he other three cities did not charge for sewerage, although the better!off tend to be the ones with access to sewers."(($ Tari "tr$!t$re( .he tariff for customers that are effectively metered is typically a uniform linear tariff, although some cities apply increasing!block tariffs."%$ A or#a,ilit%( Arban water tariffs were highly affordable according to data from the year %555. + family of five living on the poverty line which uses %5 cubic meter of water per month would spend less than #.%E of its budget on its water bill if it had a water meter. If it did not have a water meter and was charged a flat rate, it would pay %.5E of its budget. .his percentage lies below the often used affordability threshold of )E. 1owever, at that time the average metered tariff was estimated at only A>I5.5' per m', or less than three times what it was estimated to be

in %556."()$ +pparently no more up!to!date estimates on the share of the average water bill in the budget of the poor are available. *o"t re!over%( +ccording to a %556 study of %5 cities the average rate of cost recovery for operating and maintenance costs of utilities in these cities was *5E. >even of the %5 utilities generated a cash surplus to partially finance investments. -hennai generated the highest relative surplus. .he lowest cost recovery ratio was found in Indore in 7adhya @radesh, which recovered less than %5E of its operating and maintenance costs."'$ Del)i e1ample. In ,elhi revenues were just sufficient to cover about *5E of operating costs of the cityGs utility in %55(H maintenance has, as a result, been minimal. In the past, the ,elhi utility has relied heavily on government financial support for recurrent and capital e&penditures in the magnitude of ' billion (A>I**.* million) per year and 6 billion (A>I#)).( million) respectively. +s financial support for both capital and recurrent e&penditures has been passed on as loans by the Covernment of the ?ational -apital .erritory of ,elhi, the utilityGs balance sheet is loaded with a huge debt totaling about )5 billion (A>I#.# billion) that it is unlikely to be able to service. +ccounts receivable represent more than #% months of billing, part of it being non recoverable.";$ .he average tariff was estimated at A>I5.56(/mM in %55#, compared to production costs of A>I5.5;)/mM, the latter probably being a very conservative estimate that does not take into account capital costs."(*$ *)allenge" a!e# in attempting to in!rea"e tari "( Even if users are willing to pay more for better services, political interests often prevent tariffs from being increased even to a small e&tent. +n e&ample is the city of :abalpur where the central government and the state government financed a #'5 million (A>I%.9 million) water supply project from %555!%55( to be operated by the :abalpur 7unicipal -orporation, an entity that collected only less than half of its operational costs in revenues even before this major investment. Even so the municipal corporation initially refused to increase tariffs. <nly following pressure from the state government it reluctantly agreed to increase commercial tariffs, but not residential tariffs."(6$

R$ral area"
-ost recovery in rural areas is low and a majority of the rural water systems are defunct for lack of maintenance. >ome state governments subsidi e rural water systems, but funds are scarce and insufficient."(;$ In rural areas in @unjab, operation and maintenance cost recovery is only about %5E. <n one hand, e&penditures are high due to high salary levels, high power tariff and a high number of operating staff. <n the other hand, revenue is paid only by the #5E of the households who have private connections. .hose drawing water from public stand posts do not pay any water charges at all, although the official tariff for public stand post users is #) (A>I5.') per month per household."%*$

S$,"i#ie" an# targeting o "$,"i#ie"

.here are no accurate recent estimates of the level of subsidies for water and sanitation in India. It has been estimated that transfers to the water sector in India amounted to ),(65.; crore (A>I#.% billion) per year in the mid!#995s, accounting for (E of all government subsidies in

India. +bout 9;E of this subsidy is said to come from >tate rather than -entral budgets."(9$ .his figure may only cover recurrent cost subsidies and not investment subsidies, which are even higher (see below). .here is little targeting of subsidies. +ccording to the =orld 3ank, 65E of those benefiting from subsidies for public water supply are not poor, while (5E of the poor are e&cluded because they do not have access to public water services."()$

Inve"tment an# inan!ing

Investment in urban water supply and sanitation has increased during the first decade of the %#st century, not least thanks to increased central government grants made available under :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission alongside with loans from the 1ousing and Arban ,evelopment -orporation.

Inve"tment
.he Eleventh Dive!Jear @lan (%556L%5#%) foresees investments of #%6,5%) crore (A>I%;.% billion) for urban water supply and sanitation, including urban (stormwater) drainage and solid waste management.")$

Finan!ing
))E of the investments foreseen under the ##th @lan are to be financed by the central government, %;E by state governments, ;E by /institutional financing/ such as 1A,-<, ;E by e&ternal agencies and #.)E by the private sector. 8ocal governments are not e&pected to contribute to the investments. .he volume of investments is e&pected to double to reach 5.6E of C,@. +lso, it implies a shift in financing from state governments to the central government. ")$ ,uring the 9th @lan only %(E of investments were financed by the central government and 6*E by state governments. -entral government financing was heavily focused on water supply in rural areas.")5$

In"tit$tion"
>tate Dinancing -orporations (>D-) play an important role in making recommendations regarding the allocation of state ta& revenues between states and municipalities, criteria for grants, and measures to improve the financial position of municipalities. +ccording to the @lanning -ommission, >D-s are in some cases not sufficiently transparent and/or competent, have high transactions costs, and their recommendations are sometimes not being implemented. ")#$ +n important source of financing are loans from 1ousing and Arban ,evelopment -orporation 8td (1A,-<), a -entral government financial undertaking. 1A,-< loans to municipal corporations need to be guaranteed by state governments. 1A,-< also on!lends loans from foreign aid, including :apanese aid, to states. .he :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission initiated in %55) also plays an increasingly important role in financing urban water supply and sanitation through central government grants.

.he current system of financing water supply and sanitation is fragmented through a number of different national and state programs. .his results in simultaneous implementation with different and conflicting rules in neighboring areas. In rural areas different programs undermine each other, adversely affecting demand driven approaches re0uiring cost sharing by users.

E1ternal !ooperation
In absolute terms India receives almost twice as much development assistance for water, sanitation and water resources management as any other country, according to data from the <rganisation for Economic -o!operation and ,evelopment. India accounts for #' per cent of commitments in global water aid for %55*!56, receiving an annual average of about A>I;'5 million (N*%5 million), more than double the amount provided to -hina. India4s biggest water and sanitation donor is :apan, which provided A>I*') million, followed by the =orld 3ank with A>I#'5 million.")%$")'$ .he annual average for %55(!5*, however, was about half as much at A>I((; million, of which :apan provided A>I%9' million and the =orld 3ank A>I;6 million.")($ .he +sian ,evelopment 3ank and Cermany are other important e&ternal partners in water supply and sanitation. In %55' the Indian government decided it would only accept bilateral aid from five countries (the Anited Fingdom, the Anited >tates, 2ussia, Cermany and :apan). + further %% bilateral donors were asked to channel aid through nongovernmental organisations, Anited ?ations agencies or multilateral institutions such as the European Anion, the +sian ,evelopment 3ank or the =orld 3ank."))$

A"ian Development 2an.

India has increased its loans from the +sian ,evelopment 3ank (+,3) since %55) after the introduction of new financing modalities, such as the multitranche financing facility (7DD) which features a framework agreement with the national government under which financing is provided in fle&ible tranches for subprojects that meet established selection criteria. In %55; four 7DDs for urban development investment programs were under way in ?orth Farnataka (A>I;*% million), :ammu and Fashmir (A>I#,%*5 million), 2ajasthan (A>I()5 million), and Attarakhand (A>I#,);9 million). Included in these 7DDs are major investments for the development of urban water supply and sanitation services.")*$

German%
Cermany supports access to water and sanitation in India through financial cooperation by Ff= development bank and technical cooperation by C.O. >ince the early #995s both institutions have supported watershed management in rural 7aharashtra, using a participatory approach first piloted by the >ocial -enter in +hmednagar and that constituted a fundamental break with the previous top!down, technical approach to watershed management that had yielded little results. ")6$ .he involvement of women in decision!making is an essential part of the project. =hile the benefits are mostly in terms of increased agricultural production, the project also increases availability of water resources for rural water supply. ");$ In addition, C.O actively supports the introduction of ecological sanitation concepts in India, including community toilets and

decentrali ed wastewater systems for schools as well as small and medium enterprises. 7any of these systems produce biogas from wastewater, provide fertili er and irrigation water.")9$

/apan
+s India4s largest donor in the sector the :apan International -ooperation +gency (:I-+) finances a multitude of projects with a focus on capital!intensive urban water supply and sanitation projects, often involving follow!up projects in the same locations. *$rrent pro3e!t"( @rojects approved between %55* and %559 include the Cuwahati =ater >upply @roject (@hases I and II) in +ssam, the Ferala =ater >upply @roject (@hased II and III), the 1ogenakkal =ater >upply and Dluorosis 7itigation @roject (@hases I and II) in .amil ?adu, the Coa =ater >upply and >ewerage @roject, the +gra =ater >upply @roject, the +mritsar >ewerage @roject in @unjab, the <rissa Integrated >anitation Improvement @roject, and the 3angalore =ater >upply and >ewerage @roject (@hase II)."*5$ Eval$ation o pa"t pro3e!t". +n e&!post evaluation of one large program, the Arban =ater >upply and >anitation Improvement @rogram, showed that /some *5E!65E of the goals were achieved/ and that /results were moderate/. .he program was implemented by the 1ousing and Arban ,evelopment -orporation, 8td. (1A,-<) from #99* to %55' in %* cities. .he evaluation says that /state government plans were not based on sufficient demand research, including the research for residentsG willingness to pay for services/, so that demand for connections was overestimated. +lso fees (water tariffs) were rarely increased despite recommendations to increase them. .he evaluation concludes that /1A,-< was not able to make significant contributions to the effectiveness, sustainability, or overall 0uality of individual projects. <ne of the reasons that not much attention was given to this problem is probably that there was little risk of default on the loans thanks to state government guarantees./"*#$

Worl# 2an.
*$rrent pro3e!t". .he =orld 3ank finances a number of projects in urban and rural areas that are fully or partly dedicated to water supply and sanitation."*%$ In urban areas the =orld 3ank supports the +ndhra @radesh 7unicipal ,evelopment @roject (approved in %559, A>I'55 million loan), the Farnataka 7unicipal 2eform @roject (approved in %55*, A>I%#* million loan), the .hird .amil ?adu Arban ,evelopment @roject (approved in %55), A>I'55 million loan) and the Farnataka Arban =ater >ector Improvement @roject (approved in %55(, A>I'9.) million loan). In rural areas it supports the +ndhra @radesh 2ural =ater >upply and >anitation (A>I#)5 million loan, approved in %559), the >econd Farnataka 2ural =ater >upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55#, A>I#)#.* million loan), the Attaranchal 2ural =ater >upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55*, A>I#%5 million loan) and the @unjab 2ural =ater >upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55*, A>I#)( million loan). Eval$ation o pa"t pro3e!t". + study by the =orld 3ank4s independent evaluation department evaluated the impact of the =orld 3ank!supported interventions in the provision of urban water supply and wastewater services in 7umbai between #96' and #995. It concluded that water supply and sewerage planning, construction and operations in 3ombay posed daunting

challenges to those who planned and implemented the investment program. +t the outset, there was a huge backlog of unmet demand because of underinvestment. @opulation and economic growth accelerated in the following decades and the proportion of the poor increased as did the slums which they occupied. .he intended impacts of the program have not been reali ed. >hortcomings include that /water is not safe to drinkH water service, especially to the poor, is difficult to access and is provided at inconvenient hours of the dayH industrial water needs are not fully metH sanitary facilities are too few in number and often unusableH and urban drains, creeks and coastal waters are polluted with sanitary and industrial wastes./ "*'$
#. (a) ?ame any four important waterborne diseases. =hat are the sources, symptoms, signiPcance and methods of prevention and (or) control of these diseases. (b) Cive the @rocess Qow diagram of a typical @rotected =ater >upply >cheme for a .own of popu! lation # lakh using 2iver =ater as its source. ";R;$ %. (a) ,istinguish between a S2eservoir IntakeG and a S@ortable IntakeG. (b) ,iscuss the -riteria for S8ocation of IntakesG. "#*$ '. ,iscuss in detail, with the help of sketches, the role of following design considerations while designing a >ettling/>edimentation system like a clariPer. (a) >urface loading (b) ,etention .ime (c) >hape of the 2eactor (d) ,epth (e) .ypes of >edimentation. "#*$ (. (a) ,escribe the working of a @ressure Dilter with the help of a sketch. (b) A private estate uses a Pressure lter to treat 500 cu.m./day of turbid water. If lter operates from 04.00 pm to 08.00 am every day, nd the size of pressure lter. Also nd the approximate HP of the pump that supplies water to pressure lter under pressure. "#*$ ). (a) E&plain the general methods of distribution of water employed in municipal water supply schemes. (b) Illustrate with sketch the Crid iron type of layout of pipe system in distributing water, and compare its merits and demerits. "*R#5$ *. (a) ?ame the two factors used as criteria for selection of pipe diameter and slope in design of sewer. (b) -alculate the ratio of discharge of a sewer when Qowing at full depth to that when Qowing at '/( depth. ";R;$ 6. =rite short notes on the followingT (a) 1umus tank (b) -ontact bed (c) ,unbar Plter (d) 3io!Plter. "(R(R(R($ ;. (a) ,esign a septic tank for #55 users in a hostel. +ssume per capita water demand as #)5 litres. (b) =rite a note on soak pit. ";R;$

@opulation Dorecasting Met)o#"

Population is one of the most important factors for design of the water systems, so it should be estimated, so as to know the increasing demand and ensure continuous supply to them. Population data is obtained by previous records and the rate of increase is found out and this used for further analysis, which may be by using the methods described below

#. Arithmetic growth method %. Geometric growth method '. Curvilinear method (. Logistic method 5. Decline growth method *. Ratio growth

+rithmetic growth methodU

It is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of population is constant. It means that the each year population increase by the same increment. Mathematically dp / dt !a Where! dp / dt is the rate of change of population !a the constant arithmetic increment

!a can be determined by finding the slop of the graph of population against time. The population in the future is thus estimated.

Ceometric methodU
It is based on the hypothesis that rate of change of population is proportional to the population. "ccording to this, method it is assumed that the rate of increase of population growth in a community is proportional to the present population.

Mathematically: dP /dt P # dp / dt !g where !g Geometric Growth constant. If P$ is the population at any time t$ and Pf is

the population at time tf then "Pf P$ dp/p !g % tf t$ dt # &n 'Pf/P$ # 'Pf/P$ &n 'Pf/P$ !g )t P$ 'e( !g )t !g 'tf/t$(

'e( !g )t and Pf

This method gives somewhat larger value as compared to arithmetic method and can be used for new cities with rapid growth. In normal practice, arithmetic and geometric growth average is taken.

-urvilinear methodU
In this it is assumed that the population of a city will grow, in the same manner as in other cities in the past. This similarity between the cities includes geographical pro*imity, similarity of economic base, access to similar transportation system etc. #n $ractice it is di%%icult to %ind similar cities.

8ogistic methodU
+hen the growth rate of population due to birth, death and migration are under normal situation and not sub,ected to e*traordinary changes due to unusual situation like war, epidemics earth -uakes and refugees etc. Then this method is used. "ccording to this method P P sat / '/0 ea0 b)t(, where P sat is the saturation population, of the community and a, & are constants. ' sat, a and & can be determined from three successive census populations and the e-uations are Psat 1 P$ P/P1 2 P/1 'P$ 0 P1( / 'P$ P1 2 P/1(

,ecline growth metho#4

This method like, logistic, assumes that the city has some limiting saturation population and that its rate of growth is a function of population deficit3

2atio methodU
4atio method of fore casting is based on the assumption that the population of a certain area or a city will increase in the same manner to a larger entity like a province, or a country. It re-uires calculation of ratio of locals to re-uired population in a series of census years.

Pro,ection of the trend line using any of the techni-ue and application of pro,ected ratio to the estimated re-uired population of pro,ected ratio to the estimated re-uired population in the year of interest. This method of forecasting does not take into account some special calculations in certain area but have the following advantages.

-onsumption of water Ases

/. 1. 7. 8. 5omestic use 6ommercial use Public use &oss and waste

,omestic use of waterU

"dvertisements 5omestic uses of water include the consumption of water for drinking,

washing, cooking, toilets, livestock etc. the domestic average use per capita per day is 9$ : ;$ gallons '<$ : 7=$ liters per capita per day(. This use is increasing by $.9> 2 /.$> per year and at this time comprises 9$> of all the uses of water. +ater uses are for drinking, cooking, meeting of sanitary needs in houses and hotels, irrigating lawns etc. 4esidential water use rates fluctuate regularly.

"verage daily winter consumption is less than annual daily average, whereas summer consumption averages are greater. Similarly, peak hourly demand, is higher than ma*imum. ?o universally applied rule for prediction

*ommer!ial an# in#$"trial4

This is the amount of water used by the shops, markets, industries, factories etc. It contributes /9 : 18> of total use of water. It includes factories, offices and commercial places demand. It is based on either having a separate or combined water supply system. Demand of water based on unit production. ?o. of persons working and floor area

@ublic useU
The public use of water is that one which is used by city halls, ,ails, hospitals, offices, schools etc. This consumes ;> of total use of water. Its water demand is 9$ : <9 liters per capita per day. @ire protectionAs need of water is also fulfilled by this sector. The fire demand does not greatly affect the average consumption but has a considerable effect on peak rates. Schools, hospitals, fire fighting etc

Lo"" an# &a"te"4

. BnauthoriCed, connections3 leakage in distribution system, Dydrant flushing, ma,or line breakage and cleaning of streets, irrigating parks. Total consumption is sum of the above demands. The water which is not intended for specific purpose or use is also called EBn2accounted forE. &oss and wastage of water is due to. /. 1. 7. 8. Frrors in measurements &eakages, evaporation or overflow Bn2metered uses e.g. fire fighting, main flushing Bn2authoriCed connections

(actors a%%ecting the use o% water

SiCe of the city Industry and commerce 6limate Time of the day 5ay of the week or month

E"timation o Water Deman#

+hile estimating the water demand, the above factors should be considered e.g. the siCe of the city3 its population does matter when estimating the water demand. The more the siCe of population, more will be the demand. Estimation o% water demand is necessary to) Calculate design %low Determine the $um$ing $ower o% machines to &e used Reservoir ca$acity 'i$e ca$acity

To estimate water demand, following parameters must be determined or calculated.

1. Average daily water consum$tion) It is based on complete one year supply of water. It
is the total consumption during one year, divided by the population. - 'G / P * 7H9( l$cd 'liters per capita per day( 2. Ma*imum daily consum$tion) It is the ma*imum amount of water used during one day in the year. This amount is /=$> of the average daily consumption I56 /.= * "vg. daily consumption. It is usually a working day 'Ionday( of summer season. 3. Ma*imum wee+ly demand) The amount of water used by a population during a whole single week in a study span of / year. Ia*imum weekly demand /.8= * "vg. 5. 6 Ia*imum monthly demand /.1= * "vg. 5. 6 Ia*imum hourly demand /.9 * "vg. 5. 6 Ia*imum daily demand /.= * "vg. 5. 6 4. (ire water demand , (ire Demand) Theamount of water usedfor fire fighting is termed as fire demand. "lthough, the amount of water used in fire fighting is a negligible part of

the combine uses of water but the rate of flow and the volume re-uired may be so high during fire that it is a deciding factor for pumps, reservoirs and distribution mains. Iinimum fire flow should be 9$$ gpm '/=;$ &/m( Iinimum fire flow should be =$$$ gpm '71, 8$$ &/m( "dditional flow may be re-uired to protect ad,acent buildings.

So$r!e" o Fre") &ater

Do!$mentar% 5i#eo on *on!rete

(lowchart o% the sources o% clean drin+ing water

WasteWater -reatment Dis$osal . Management

The -uantity of water re-uired for a community depends upon.

/. 1. 7. 8. 9. H. @orecasted population Types and variation in demand 'e.g. seasonal variation( Ia*imum demand 'Per day/Per month( @ire demand 4ural demand and supplies "ppropriate / "vailable technology

Main sources o% water are

/ur%ace water sources. &akes impounding reservoirs, streams, seas, irrigation canals Ground water sources) Springs, wells, infiltration wells

"bove are the common sources of clean drinking water, other different sources of drinking water are

7erits of surface sources 7erits of ground water sources

/. Jeing underground, the ground water supply has less chance of being contaminated by atmospheric pollution. 1. The water -uality is good and better than surface source. 7. Prevention of water through evaporation is ensured and thus loss of water is reduced. 8. Ground water supply is available and can even be maintained in deserted areas. 9. The land above ground water source can be used for other purposes and has less environmental impacts.

,emerits of ground water source

/. The water obtained from ground water source is always pressure less. " mump is re-uired to take the water out and is then again pumped for daily use. 1. The transport / transmission of ground water is a problem and an e*pensive work. The water has to be surfaced or underground conduits are re-uired. 7. Joring and e*cavation for finding and using ground water is e*pensive work. 8. The modeling, analysis and calculation of ground water is less reliable and based on the past e*perience, thus posing high risk of uncertainty.

,emerits of surface source

-hemical -haracteristics of water

A!i#it% Al.alinit% +ar#ne"" T$r,i#it%

Acidity)

"dvertisements

"cidity or alkalinity is measured by pD. PD measures the concentration of Dydrogen ions in water. IoniCation of water is DKD D0 0 KD2 In neutral solutions LKDM LDM hence pD <

If acidity is increased, LDM increases and pD reduces from < 'because D is log of LDM(. The value of pD of water is important in the operations of many water and waste water treatment processes and in the control of corrosion.

Al+alinity)

The values of pD higher than <, shows alkalinity. The alkaline species in water can neutraliCe acids. The ma,or constituents of alkalinity 'or causticity( are KD2, 6K712 and bicarbonates D6K7 ions. "lkalinity in water is usually caused by bicarbonate ions.

+ar#ne"" o &ater4 De inition o )ar# &ater

Dardness is the property that makes water to re-uire more soap to produce a foam or lather. 0ardness o% water is not harmful for human health but can be precipitated by heating so can produce damaging effects in boilers, hot pipes etc by depositing the material and reducing the water storage and carriage capacity. A&solute so%t water on the other hand is not acceptable for humans because it may cause ailments, especially to heart patients. Dardness in water is commonly classified in terms of the amount of 6a6K7 '6alcium 6arbonate( in it.
Concentration o% CaC12

Degree o% hardness $ : <9 mg / & <9 : /9$ mg / & /9$ : 7$$ mg / & 7$$ up mg / & -a&le 3 4 Degree o% 0ardness &ow level of hardness can be removed ,ust by boiling but high degree of hardness can be removed by addition of lime. This method has also the benefit that iron and manganese contents are removed and suspended particles including micro2organisms .are reduced Reservoir + re"ervoir (etymology from Drench rservoir a /storehouse "#$) or an arti i!ial la.e is used to store water. 2eservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by e&cavation in the ground or by conventional construction techni0ues such as brickwork or cast concrete. Soft Ioderately hard Dard Nery Dard

.he term reservoir may also be used to describe underground reservoirs such as an oil or water well.
A dam is any barrier that holds back water; dams are primarily used to save, manage, and/or prevent the flow of excess water into specific regions. In addition, some dams are used to generate hydropower. This article examines man made dams but dams can also be created by natural causes like mass wasting events or even animals like the beaver.

Another term often used when discussing dams is reservoir. A reservoir is a man made lake that is primarily used for storing water. They can also be defined as the specific bodies of water formed by the construction of a dam. !or example, the "etch "etchy #eservoir in $alifornia%s &osemite 'ational (ark is the body of water created and held back by the )%*haughnessy +am.

Types of Dams

Today, there are several different types of dams and the man made ones are classified by their si,e and structure. Typically a large dam is classified as being higher than -. /- feet 01- 2. meters3 while ma4or dams are those over 562 72. feet 01-. 2-. meters3.

)ne of the most common types of ma4or dams is the arch dam. These masonry or concrete dams are ideal for narrow and/or rocky locations because their curved shape easily holds back water via gravity without the need for a lot of construction materials. Arch dams can have one large single arch or they can have multiple small arches separated by concrete buttresses. The "oover +am which is on the border of the 8.*. stateAnother type of dam is the buttress dam. These can have multiple arches, but unlike a traditional arch dam, they can be flat as well. 'ormally buttress dams are made of concrete and feature a series braces called buttresses along the downstream side of the dam to prevent the natural flow of water. The +aniel 9ohnson +am in :uebec, $anada is a multiple arch buttress dam.

In the 8.*., the most common type of dam is the embankment dam. These are large dams made out of soil and rock which use their weight to hold back water. To prevent water from moving through them, embankment dams also have a thick waterproof core. The Tarbela +am in (akistan is the world%s largest embankment dam.

!inally, gravity dams are huge dams that are constructed to hold back water using only their own weight. To do this, they are constructed using extensive amounts of concrete, making them difficult and expensive to build. The ;rand $oulee +am in the 8.*. state of <ashington is a gravity dam.

Types of Reservoirs and Construction

=ike dams, there are different types of reservoirs as well but they are classified based on their use. The three types are called> a valley dammed reservoir, a bank side reservoir, and a service reservoir. ?ank side reservoirs are those formed when water is taken from an existing stream or river and stored in a nearby reservoir. *ervice reservoirs are mainly constructed to store water for later use. They often appear as water towers and other elevated structures.

The first and usually largest type of reservoir is called a valley dammed reservoir. These are reservoirs that are located in narrow valley areas where tremendous amounts of water can be held in by the valley%s sides and a dam. The best location for a dam in these types of reservoirs is where it can be built into the valley wall most effectively to form a water tight seal.

To construct a valley dammed reservoir, the river must be diverted, usually through a tunnel, at the start of work. The first step in creating this type of reservoir is the pouring of a strong foundation for the dam, after which construction on the dam itself can begin. These steps can take months to years to complete, depending on the si,e and complexity of the pro4ect. )nce finished, the diversion is removed and the river is able to flow freely toward the dam until it gradually fills the reservoir.

Dam Controversy

In addition to the high cost of construction and river diversion, dams and reservoirs are often controversial pro4ects because of their social and environmental impacts. +ams themselves affect many different ecological components of rivers such as fish migrations, erosion, changes in water temperature and therefore changes in oxygen levels, creating inhospitable environments for many species.

In addition, the creation of a reservoir re@uires the flooding of large areas of land, at the expense of the natural environment and sometimes villages, towns and small cities. The construction of $hina%s Three ;orges +am, for example, re@uired the relocation of over one million people and flooded many different archaeological and cultural sites.

Main Uses of Dams and Reservoirs

+espite their controversy, dams and reservoirs serve a number of different functions but one of the largest is to maintain an area%s water supply. Aany of the world%s largest urban areas are supplied with water from rivers that are blocked via dams. *an !rancisco, $alifornia for example, gets the ma4ority of its water supply from the "etch "etchy #eservoir via the "etch "etchy A@ueduct running from &osemite to the *an !rancisco ?ay Area.

Another ma4or use of dams is power generation as hydroelectric power is one of the world%s ma4or sources of electricity. "ydropower is generated when the potential energy of the water on the dam drives a water turbine which in then turns a generator and creates electricity. To best make use of the water%s power, a common type of hydroelectric dam uses reservoirs with different levels to ad4ust the amount of energy generated as it is needed. <hen demand is low for instance, water is held in an upper reservoir and as demand increases, the water is released into a lower reservoir where it spins a turbine.

*ome other important uses of dams and reservoirs include a stabili,ation of water flow and irrigation, flood prevention, water diversion and recreation.

Water '$alit%
Water '$alit% is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water."#$ It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the re0uirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose."%$ It is most fre0uently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. .he most common standards used to assess water 0uality relate to drinking water, safety of human contact and for the health of ecosystems.
Standards

In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how the water will be used."'$ In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. ,ifferent uses raise different concerns and therefore different standards are considered. ?atural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions. Environmental scientists work to understand how these systems function which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policy makers work to define legislation that ensure that water is maintained at an appropriate 0uality for its identified use. .he vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable nor to&ic. .his remains true even if sea water in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. +nother general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water 0uality is a very comple& subject, in part because water is a comple& medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial pollution is a major cause of water pollution, as well as runoff from agricultural areas, urban stormwater runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage (especially in developing countries).

*ategorie"
.he parameters for water 0uality are determined by the intended use. =ork in the area of water 0uality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption or in the environment.

+$man !on"$mption
-ontaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and bacteriaH inorganic contaminants such as salts and metalsH organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum useH pesticides and herbicidesH and radioactive contaminants. =ater 0uality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water). In the Anited >tates, the A.>. Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by public water systems. .he >afe ,rinking =ater +ct authori es E@+ to issue two types of standardsU primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe aesthetic 0ualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance. .he A.>. Dood and ,rug +dministration (D,+) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for public health. ,rinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be e&pected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. .he presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk. >ome people use water purification technology to remove contaminants from the municipal water supply they get in their homes, or from local pumps or bodies of water. Dor people who get water from a local stream, lake, or a0uifer (well), their drinking water is not filtered by the local government.

Environmental &ater '$alit%

Water runoff

Environmental water 0uality, also called am,ient &ater '$alit%0 relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. =ater 0uality standards vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. .o&ic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health ha ard for non!drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. .hese conditions may also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. 7odern water 0uality laws

general specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and re0uire as a minimum,retention of current 0uality standards. .here is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre!industrial conditions. 7ost current environmental laws focus of the designation of uses. In some countries these allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Civen the landscape changes in the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy eco!systems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human health.

Mea"$rement
.he comple&ity of water 0uality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water 0uality indicators. >ome of the simple measurements listed below can be made on siteV temperature, p1, dissolved o&ygen, conductivity, <&ygen 2eduction potential (<2@), turbidity, >ecchi disk depthVin direct contact with the water source in 0uestion. 7ore comple& measurements that must be made in a lab setting re0uire a water sample to be collected, preserved, and analy ed at another location. 7aking these comple& measurements can be e&pensive. 3ecause direct measurements of water 0uality can be e&pensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted by government agencies. 1owever, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general assessment. .ools available to the general public are on!site test kits commonly used for home fish tanks and biological assessments.

Te"ting in re"pon"e to nat$ral #i"a"ter" an# ot)er emergen!ie"

Inevitably after events such as earth0uakes and .sunamis, there is an immediate response by the aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subse0uent recovery. +ccess to clean drinking water and ade0uate sanitation is a priority at times like this. .he threat of disease increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in s0ualid conditions, and without proper sanitation. +fter a natural disaster, as far as water 0uality testing is concerned there are widespread views on the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. .he key basic water 0uality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of fecal contamination, Dree -hlorine 2esidual, p1, turbidity and possibly -onductivity/.,>. .here are a number of portable water test kits on the market widely used by aid and relief agencies for carrying out such testing. .he following is a list of indicators often measured by situational categoryU

Drin.ing &ater

Filtering water

Alkalinity Color of water pH Taste and odor geos!in" 2#!et$yliso%orneol &I'(" et)( *issol+ed !etals and salts sodiu!" )$loride" potassiu!" )al)iu!" !anganese" !agnesiu!( &i)roorganis!s su)$ as fe)al )olifor! %a)teria Escherichia coli(" Cryptosporidiu!" and ,iardia la!%lia *issol+ed !etals and !etalloids lead" !er)ury" arseni)" et).( *issol+ed organi)s- )olored dissol+ed organi) !atter C*.&(" dissol+ed organi) )ar%on *.C( /adon Hea+y !etals 0$ar!a)euti)als Hor!one analogs

Environmental
Chemical assessment

also see salinity( *issol+ed .1ygen *.( nitrate#2 ort$op$osp$ates C$e!i)al o1ygen de!and C.*( 'io)$e!i)al o1ygen de!and '.*( 0esti)ides

Physical assessment

pH Te!perature Total suspended solids TSS( Tur%idity

Biological assessment

3iological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,

@lecoptera and .richoptera. (-ommon names are, respectively, 7ayfly, >tonefly and -addisfly.) E@. inde&es will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a region, the greater the number of ta&a from these orders, the better the water 0uality. E@+ and other organi ations in the Anited >tates offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other a0uatic insect orders.

WA-ER 56AL#-7 'ARAME-ER/ A8D DR#89#8G WA-ER /-A8DARD/

/L. 81. /. 1. 7. 8. 9. H. <. =. ;. /$. //. /1. /7. /8. /9. /H. /<. /=. /;. 1$. 1/. 11. 17. 18. 19. 1H. 1<. 1=. 1;.

'ARAME-ER/ 6olour Kdour Taste Turbidity pD value Total hardness 'as 6a6K7( Iron 6hlorides 4esidual, free 6hlorine 5issolved Solids 6alcium 6opper Ianganese Sulphate ?itrate @luoride Phenolic compounds Iercury 6admium Selenium "rsenic 6yanide &ead Oinc "nionic detergents 6hromium Polynuclear aromatic Dydrocarbons Iineral oil Pesticides 4adioactive materials

68#/ DaCen units 2 2 ?TB 2 mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l J-/l

DR#89#8G WA-ER #/) 3:5:: 4 3;;3 DE/#RA<LE MA=#M6M 5 6no&?ectiona&l e Agreea&le 5 @.5 to A.5 2:: :.2 >5: :.> 5:: B5 :.:5 :.3 >:: 5: 3.: :.::3 :.::3 :.:3 :.:3 :.:5 :.:5 :.:5 5 :.> :.:5 4 :.:3 A&sent 4 >5 4 4 3: 8o rela*ation @:: 3.: 3::: 4 >::: >:: 3.5 :.2 C:: 8o rela*ation 3.5 :.::> 8o rela*ation 8o rela*ation 8o rela*ation 8o rela*ation 8o rela*ation 8o rela*ation 35 3.: 8o rela*ation 4 :.:2 :.::3 :.3

'b(
7/. 71.

Jeta emitters
mg/l mg/l >:: :.:2 @:: :.>

"lkalinity "luminlum

UNIT-II *ON5EYAN*E SYSTEM

=ater supply network

+ &ater "$ppl% "%"tem or &ater "$ppl% net&or. is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. + water supply system typically includesU
1. A drainage %asin see water purifi)ation # sour)es of drinking water(3 2. A raw untreated( water )olle)tion point a%o+e or %elow ground( w$ere t$e water a))u!ulates" su)$ as a lake" a ri+er" or groundwater fro! an underground a4uifer. 5ntreated drinking water usually water %eing transferred to t$e water purifi)ation fa)ilities( !ay %e transferred using un)o+ered ground#le+el a4uedu)ts" )o+ered tunnels or underground water pipes. 3. Water purifi)ation fa)ilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes usually underground(. 4. Water storage fa)ilities su)$ as reser+oirs" water tanks" or watertowers. S!aller water syste!s !ay store t$e water in )isterns or pressure +essels. Tall %uildings !ay also need to store water lo)ally in pressure +essels in order for t$e water to rea)$ t$e upper floors.( 6. Additional water pressuri7ing )o!ponents su)$ as pu!ping stations !ay need to %e situated at t$e outlet of underground or a%o+e ground reser+oirs or )isterns if gra+ity flow is i!pra)ti)al( 8. A pipe network for distri%ution of water to t$e )onsu!ers w$i)$ !ay %e pri+ate $ouses or industrial" )o!!er)ial or institution esta%lis$!ents( and ot$er usage points su)$ as fire $ydrants( 9. Conne)tions to t$e sewers underground pipes" or a%o+eground dit)$es in so!e de+eloping )ountries( are generally found downstrea! of t$e water )onsu!ers" %ut t$e sewer syste! is )onsidered to %e a separate syste!" rat$er t$an part of t$e water supply syste!

=ater abstraction and raw water transfer

2aw water (untreated) is collected from a surface water source (such as an intake on a lake or a river) or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an underground a0uifer) within the watershed that provides the water resource. >hallow dams and reservoirs are susceptible to outbreaks of to&ic algae, especially if the water is warmed by a hot sun. .he bacteria grow from stormwater runoff carrying fertili er into the river where it acts as a nutrient for the algae. >uch outbreaks render the water unfit for human consumption. .he raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered a0ueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes.

Water treatment
Birtually all large systems must treat the waterH a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state and federal agencies, such as the =orld 1ealth <rgani ation (=1<) or the Anited >tates

Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+). =ater treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). =ater purification usually occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming contaminated after treatment. .raditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three stepsU clarification, filtration and disinfection. -larification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic matter, etc.) from the water stream. -hemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabili es the particle charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. >and, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate matter. =hile other methods of disinfection e&ist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. -hlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.

Water #i"tri,$tion net&or.

T$e Central Ari7ona 0ro:e)t A4uedu)t transfers untreated water

&ost treated( water distri%ution $appens t$roug$ underground pipes

0ressuri7ing t$e water is re4uired %etween t$e s!all water reser+e and t$e end#user

.he product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called fresh water if it receives little or no treatment, or drinking water if the treatment achieves the water 0uality standards re0uired for human consumption. <nce treated, chlorine is added to the water and it is distributed by the local supply network. .oday, water supply systems are typically constructed of plastic, ferrous, or concrete circular pipe. 1owever, other /pipe/ shapes and material may be used, such as s0uare or rectangular concrete bo&es, arched brick pipe, or wood. ?ear the end point, the network of pipes through which the water is delivered is often referred to as the water mains. .he energy that the system needs to deliver the water is called pressure. .hat energy is transferred to the water, therefore becoming water pressure, in a number of waysU by a pump, by gravity feed from a water source (such as a water tower) at a higher elevation, or by compressed air."#$ .he water is often transferred from a water reserve such as a large communal reservoir before being transported to a more pressurised reserve as a watertower. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressuri ing). .his eliminates the need of a water!tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure. .hese systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water privati ation). =ater supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. .heir planning and design re0uires the e&pertise of city planners and civil engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe si e, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. V using pipe network analysis and other tools. -onstructioncomparable sewage systems, was one of the great engineering advances that made urbani ation possible. Improvement in the 0uality of the water has been one of the great advances in public health.

+s water passes through the distribution system, the water 0uality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. -orrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. 2elease of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of /red water/ at the tap . 2elease of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of /blue water/ and/or a metallic taste. 2elease of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or from brass fi&tures. -opper and lead levels at the consumer4s tap are regulated to protect consumer health. Atilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimi e its corrosiveness. .he simplest adjustment involves control of p1 and alkalinity to produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. -orrosion inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. -ommon corrosion inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates. 7aintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. .ypically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. 3ooster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have ade0uate sustained levels of disinfection.

Topologie" o &ater #i"tri,$tion net&or."

8ike electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. .he piping networks are circular or rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting all users on the network. 7ost systems are divided into ones. Dactors determining the e&tent or si e of a one can include hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population density. >ometimes systems are designed for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. .errain affects hydraulics and some forms of telemetry. =hile each one may operate as a stand!alone system, there is usually some arrangement to interconnect ones in order to manage e0uipment failures or system failures.

Water net&or. maintenan!e

=ater supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility. >ystematic documentation of maintenance works using a -omputeri ed 7aintenance 7anagement >ystem is a key to a successful operation of a water utility.
=ater pipe

Water pipe" are pipes or tubes, fre0uently made of polyvinyl chloride (@B-/u@B-), ductile iron, steel, cast iron, polypropylene, polyethylene, or copper, that carry pressuri ed and treated fresh water to buildings (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

Pipe v"( t$,e

Typi)al 0;C !uni)ipal water !ain %eing installed in .ntario" Canada

A plasti) water pipe %eing installed. 2ote t$at t$e inner tu%e is a)tually transporting t$e water" w$ile t$e outer tu%e only ser+es as a prote)ti+e )asing

.he difference between pipe and tube is simply in the way it is si ed. @B- pipe for plumbing applications and galvani ed steel pipe for instance, are measured in I@> (iron pipe si e). -opper tube, -@B-, @eW and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average diameter. .hese si ing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. Dor instance, #/%/ @eW tubing is the same si e as #/%/ copper tubing. #/%/ @B- on the other hand is not the same si e as #/%/ tubing, and therefore re0uires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. =hen used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form /pipe/ is often used as a plural. @iping is available in rigid /joints/, which come in various lengths depending on the material. .ubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered /joints/ or soft tempered (annealed)

rolls. @eW and -@B- tubing also comes in rigid /joints/ or fle&ible rolls. .he temper of the copper, that is whether it is a rigid /joint/ or fle&ible roll, does not affect the si ing. .he thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. @ipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules. @ipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules %5, (5, ;5, and higher in special cases. .he schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. -opper tubing is available in four wall thicknessesU type ,=B (thinnest wallH only allowed as drain pipe per A@-), type 474 (thinH typically only allowed as drain pipe by I@- code), type 484 (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 4F4 (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter). 3ecause piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. .hicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances. =all thickness does not affect pipe or tubing si e. #/%/ 8 copper has the same outer diameter as #/%/ F or 7 copper. .he same applies to pipe schedules. +s a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is reali ed due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, # foot of #/%/ 8 copper has slightly less volume than # foot of #/% 7 copper."citation needed$ ,emand for copper products have fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including @EW and stainless steel. Tap &ater Tap &ater (running water, city water, municipal water, etc.) is a principal component of /indoor plumbing/, which became available in urban areas of the developed world during the last 0uarter of the #9th century, and common during the mid!%5th century. .he application of technologies involved in providing clean or /potable/ water to homes, businesses and public buildings is a major subfield of sanitary engineering. @otable water supply .his supply may come from several possible sources.

&uni)ipal water supply Water wells *eli+ered %y tru)k 0ro)essed water fro! )reeks" strea!s" ri+ers" lakes" rainwater" et).

,omestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, e.g., a stream or river. .he water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the domiciles. 7odern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is imperative that the clean water not be contaminated by the waste water

(disposal) side of the process system. 1istorically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans."#$

6e#it7 +ot &ater "$ppl%

,omestic hot water is provided by means of water heater appliances, or through district heating. .he hot water from these units is then piped to the various fi&tures and appliances that re0uire hot water, such as lavatories, sinks, bathtubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.

6e#it7 Fi1t$re" an# applian!e"

Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categoriesH Di&ture or +ppliance. +s the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage components that will re0uire removal by the waste/sewage side of the system. .he minimum is an air gap. >ee cross connection control K backflow prevention for an overview of backflow prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and physical principles. Di&tures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.

6e#it7 Pipe material"

.he earliest known evidence of drain tile being used for plumbing was found in 7esopotamia and is estimated to have been made around '555 3-. .he tiles were made from clay mi&ed with short lengths of straw. 3oth brass and copper pipes have been found in Egypt believed to have been made close to %)55 3-. .he 2omans made e&tensive use of lead pipe by joining sheets of lead into piping to carry their water supply and waste. ,uring the ,ark +ges following the fall of the 2oman Empire, plumbing development virtually ceased for centuries e&cept for isolated cases of plumbing installed in palaces and castles. In the #'th century, blacksmiths formed sheets of iron and lap welded the seam to create iron pipe. .hough it is unclear as to when galvani ed iron pipe was first used, a Drench chemist named 7elouin is credited with developing the process in #6(%. .he earliest known use for cast iron pipe is for the water supply to a fountain in 8angensal a,Cermany, built around #)*5. In #;#9 the first cast iron pipe constructed in the A>, was manufactured in =eymouth, ?ew :ersey. 3efore that time, cast iron pipe and fittings had to be imported from Europe. It was not until the #9*54s that the hubless cast iron pipe was brought to the A.>. from Europe by way of -anada. ,uring the early #9554s, heavy!walled copper joined with threaded fittings was in use, but limited to public buildings because of its4 high cost. 1owever, during the #9'54s light!gauge -opper tube and fittings were developed which made copper economically feasible and increased it4s popularity. @olyvinyl -hloride(@B-) was produced e&perimentally in the #9th century but did not become practical to manufacture until #9%*, when =aldo >emon of 3D Coodrich -o. developed a method to plastici e @B-, making it easier to process. @B- pipe began to be manufactured in the #9(54s and was in wide use during the ,=B reconstruction of Cermany and :apan following ==II. In the #9)54s, plastics manufacturers in =estern Europe and :apan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene

styrene(+3>) pipe. .he methods for producing cross!linked polyethylene(@EW) was also developed in the #9)54s. @lastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed, however plastic water pipes do not keep water as clean as copper and brass piping does. -opper pipe plumbing is bacteriostatic. .his means that bacteria can4t grow in the copper pipes. @lumbing codes define which materials may be used, and all materials must be proven by +>.7, A8, and/or ?D@+ testing.

6e#it7 Steel
Calvani ed steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal diameters from '/;/ to %/. It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. >teel pipe has ?ational @ipe .hread (?@.) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Calvani ed steel (often known simply as /galv/ or /iron/ in the plumbing trade) is relatively e&pensive, difficult to work with due to weight and re0uirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of e&isting /galv/ systems and to satisfy building code non!combustibility re0uirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also e&tremely durable. 3lack lac0uered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas. 7ost single family homes4 systems typically won4t re0uire supply piping larger than '/(/. In addition to e&pense, another downside is it suffers from a tendency to obstruction due to internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time after the internal galvani ing inc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvani ed steel pipe has a service life of about '5 to )5 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

6e#it7 *opper
See also Copper tubing

Copper Tu%ing Si7es CTS( for 0lu!%ing Nomina l

[edit] Sizes

Outside diameter (OD)

[in (mm)]
1

Inside diameter (ID)

[in (mm)]

size
3

Type K @.4@2 1@.211( @.62? 13.411( @.862 18.681( @.946 1?.A23( @.AA6 26.293( 1.246 31.823( 1.4?1 39.819( 1.A6A 4A.96A( 2.436 81.?4A( 2.A@9 93.?3?(

Type L @.43@ 1@.A22( @.646 13.?43( @.88? 18.A89( @.9?6 1A.A3A( 1.@26 28.@36( 1.286 32.131( 1.6@6 3?.229( 1.A?6 6@.41A( 2.486 82.811( 2.A46 94.?@3(

Type M @.46@ 11.43@( @.68A 14.463( @.8A@ 19.628( @.?11 2@.6AA( 1.@66 28.9A9( 1.2A1 32.9A1( 1.629 3?.9?8( 2.@@A 61.@2A( 2.4A6 83.393( 2.A?1 96.919(

>? >2 >? >4

6

>2 12.9(

>? 16.?96( >4 1A.@6(

>? 22.226(

1 11>4 11>2 2 21>2 3

11>? 2?.696( 13>? 34.A26( 16>? 41.296( 21>? 63.A96( 26>? 88.896( 31>? 9A.396(

-ommon wall!thicknesses of copper tubing in the A>+ are /.ype F/, /.ype 8/ and /.ype 7/U"%$

Type < $as t$e t$i)kest wall se)tion of t$e t$ree types of pressure rated tu%ing and is )o!!only used for deep underground %urial su)$ as under sidewalks and streets" wit$ a suita%le )orrosion prote)tion )oating or )ontinuous polyet$ylene slee+e as re4uired %y )ode. Type = $as a t$inner pipe wall se)tion" and is used in residential and )o!!er)ial water supply and pressure appli)ations. Type & $as t$e t$innest wall se)tion" and is generally suita%le for )ondensate and ot$er drains" %ut so!eti!es illegal for pressure appli)ations" depending on lo)al )odes.

.ypes F and 8 are generally available in both hard drawn /sticks/ and in rolls of soft annealed tubing, whereas type 7 is usually only available in hard drawn /sticks/. In the plumbing trade the si e of copper tubing is measured by its nominal diameter (average inside diameter). >ome +merican trades, heating and cooling technicians for instance, use the outside diameter (<,) to designate copper tube si es. .he 1B+- tradesman also use this

different measurement to try and not confuse water pipe with copper pipe used for the 1B+trade, as pipe used in the air!conditioning trade uses copper pipe that is made at the factory without processing oils that would be incompatible with the oils used to lubricate the compressors in the +- system. .he <, of copper tube is #X;th inch larger than its nominal si e. .herefore, # inch nominal copper tube and # #X;th inch +-2 tube are e&actly the same tube with different si e designations. .he wall thickness of the tube, as mentioned above, never affects the si ing of the tube. .ype F #X% inch nominal tube, is the same si e as .ype 8 #X% inch nominal tube ()X; inch +-2). -ommon wall!thicknesses in Europe are /.ype W/, /.ype J/ and /.ype O/, defined by the E? #5)6 standard.

Type B is t$e !ost )o!!on" and is used in a%o+e groundser+i)es in)luding drinking water supply" $ot and )old water syste!s" sanitation" )entral $eating and ot$er general purpose appli)ations. Type C is a t$i)ker walled pipe" used for underground works and $ea+y duty re4uire!ents in)luding $ot and )old water supply" gas reti)ulation" sanitary plu!%ing" $eating and general engineering. Type D is a t$inner walled pipe" also used for a%o+e groundser+i)es in)luding drinking water supply" $ot and )old water syste!s" sanitation" )entral $eating and ot$er general purpose appli)ations.

In the plumbing trade the si e of copper tubing is measured by its outside diameter in millimetres. -ommon si es are #) mm and %% mm."'$ .hin!walled types used to be relatively ine&pensive, but since %55% copper prices have risen considerably due to rising global demand and a stagnant supply.
[edit] Lead leaching

Cenerally, copper tubes are soldered directly into copper or brass fittings, although compression, crimp, or flare fittings are also used. Dormerly, concerns with copper supply tubes included the lead used in the solder at joints ()5E tin and )5E lead). >ome studies have shown significant /leaching/ of the lead into the potable water stream, particularly after long periods of low usage, followed by peak demand periods. In hard water applications, shortly after installation, the interior of the pipes will be coated with the deposited minerals that had been dissolved in the water, and therefore the vast majority of e&posed lead is prevented from entering the potable water. 3uilding codes now re0uire lead!free solder. 3uilding -odes throughout the A.>. re0uire the use of virtually /lead!free/ (Y.%E lead) solder or filler metals in plumbing fittings and appliances as well.

[edit] Corrosion

-opper water tubes are susceptible toU cold water pitting caused by contamination of the pipe interior typically with soldering flu&H erosion corrosion caused by high speed or turbulent flowH and stray current corrosion, caused by poor electrical wiring techni0ue, such as improper grounding and bonding.
[edit] Pin holes due to poor plumbing electrical grounding and/or bonding

@in!hole leaks can occur anytime copper piping is improperly grounded and/or bondedH nonmetal piping, such as @e& or @B-, does not suffer from this problem. .he phenomenon is known technically as stray current corrosion or electrolytic pitting. @in!holing due to poor grounding or poor bonding occurs typically in homes where the original plumbing has been modifiedH homeowners may find a new plastic water filtration device or plastic repair union has interrupted the water pipe4s electrical continuity to ground when they start seeing pinhole water leaks after a recent install. ,amage occurs rapidly, usually being seen about si& months after the ground interruption. -orrectly installed plumbing appliances will have a copper bonding jumper cable connecting the interrupted pipe sections. @inhole leaks from stray current corrosion can result in thousands of dollars in plumbing bills, and sometimes necessitating the replacement of the entire affected line. .he cause is an electrical problem, not a plumbing problemH once the plumbing damage is repaired, an electrician should be consulted to evaluate the grounding and bonding of the entire plumbing system. .he difference between a ground and a bond is subtle. >ee Cround (electricity), find the heading A* po&er &iring in"tallation" for a complete description. >tray current corrosion occurs becauseU #) the piping system is connected accidentally or intentionally to a ,- voltage sourceH %) the piping does not have metal!to!metal electrical continuityH ') if the voltage source is +-, one or more naturally occurring minerals coating the pipe interior act as a rectifier, converting +- current to ,- . .he ,- voltage forces the water within the piping to act as an electrical conductor (an electrolyte). Electric current leaves the copper pipe, moves though the water across the nonconductive section (the plastic filter housing in the e&ample above), and reenters the pipe on the opposite side. @itting occurs at the electrically negative side (the cathode), which may be upstream or downstream with respect to the water flow direction. @itting occurs because the electrical voltage ioni es the pipe4s interior copper metal, which reacts chemically with dissolved minerals in the water creating copper saltsH these copper salts are soluble in water and wash away. @its eventually grow and consolidate to form pin holes. =here there is one, there are almost certainly more. + complete discussion of stray current corrosion can be found in chapter ##, section ##.(.', of 1andbook of -orrosion Engineering, by @ierre 2oberge."($ ,etecting and eliminating poor bonding is relatively straightforward. ,etection is accomplished by use of a simple voltmeter set to ,- with the leads placed in various places in the plumbing. .ypically, a probe on a hot pipe and a probe on a cold pipe will tell you if there is improper grounding. +nything beyond a few millivolts is important, potentials of %55 mB are common. + missing bond will show up best in the area of the gap, as potential disperses as the water runs.

>ince the missing bond is usually seen near the water source, as filtration and treatment e0uipment are added, pinhole leaks can occur anywhere downstream. It is usually the cold water pipe, as this is the one that gets the treatment devices. -orrecting the problem is a simple matter of either purchasing a copper bonding jumper kit, composed of copper cable at least Z* +=C in diameter and two bron e ground clamps for affi&ing it the plumbing. >ee ?D@+ 65, the A.>. ?ational Electrical -ode 1andbook (?E-), section on bonding and ground for details on selecting the correct bonding conductor wire si e. + similar bonding jumper wire can also be seen crossing gas meters, but for a different reason. Note, if homeowners are e&periencing shocks or sparks from plumbing fi&tures or pipes, it is more than a missing bond, it is likely a live electrical wire is bridging to the plumbing and the plumbing system is not grounded. .his is an electrical shock ha ard and potential fire dangerH consult an electrician immediately[

6e#it7 Pla"ti!"

0lasti) piping pla)ed for a sink

@lastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drainage, waste, and vent (,=B) pipe. Dor e&ample, polyvinyl chloride (@B-), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (-@B-), polypropylene (@@), polybutylene (@3), and polyethylene (@E) may be allowed by code for certain uses. >ome e&amples of plastics in water supply systems areU

0;CEC0;C # rigid plasti) pipes si!ilar to 0;C drain pipes %ut wit$ t$i)ker walls to deal wit$ !uni)ipal water pressure" introdu)ed around 1A9@. 0;C s$ould %e used for )old water only" or +enting. C0;C )an %e used for $ot and )old pota%le water supply. Conne)tions are !ade wit$ pri!ers and sol+ent )e!ents as re4uired %y )ode. 00 # T$e !aterial is used pri!arily in $ousewares" food pa)kaging" and )lini)al e4uip!ent"F6G %ut sin)e t$e early 1A9@s $as seen in)reasing use worldwide for %ot$ do!esti) $ot and )old water. 00 pipes are $eat fused" pre+enting t$e use of glues" sol+ents" or !e)$ani)al fittings. 00 pipe is often used in green %uilding pro:e)ts.F8GF9G

0'T # fle1i%le usually gray or %la)k( plasti) pipe w$i)$ is atta)$ed to %ar%ed fittings and se)ured in pla)e wit$ a )opper )ri!p ring. T$e pri!ary !anufa)turer of 0'T tu%ing and fittings was dri+en into %ankrupt)y %y a )lass#a)tion lawsuit o+er failures of t$is syste!. Howe+er" 0' and 0'T tu%ing $as returned to t$e !arket and )odes" typi)ally first for He1posed lo)ationsH su)$ as risers. 0IB # )ross linked polyet$ylene syste! wit$ !e)$ani)ally :oined fittings e!ploying %ar%s and )ri!ped steel or )opper fittings. 0olytanks # plasti) polyet$ylene )isterns" underground water tanks" a%o+e ground water tanks" are !ade of linear polyet$ylene suita%le as a pota%le water storage tank" pro+ided in w$ite" %la)k or green" appro+ed %y 2SF and !ade of F*A appro+ed !aterials. A4ua # known as 0IB#Al#0IB" for its 0IBEalu!inu! sandwi)$ # alu!inu! pipe sandwi)$ed %etween layers of 0IB and )onne)ted wit$ %rass )o!pression fittings. In 2@@6" a large nu!%er of t$eir fittings were re)alled.

6e#it7 Fitting" an# valve"

@otable water supply systems re0uire not only pipe, but also many fittings and valves which add considerably to their functionality as well as cost. .he @iping and plumbing fittings and Balves articles discuss them further.

6e#it7 Reg$lation an# !omplian!e

3efore a water supply system is constructed or modified, the designer and contractor need to consult the local plumbing code and obtain a building permits prior to construction.";$"9$ Even replacing an e&isting water heater may re0uire a permit and inspection of the work. ?>D *# is the A.>. national standard for potable water piping guidelines. ?ational and local fire codes should be integrated in the design phase of the water system too to prevent /failure comply with regulations/ notices. >ome areas of the Anited >tates re0uire on!site water reserves of potable and fire water by law.

UNIT-III WATER TREATMENT Water -reatment

Introduction +ll surface water and some groundwaters re0uire treatment prior to consumption to ensure that they do not represent a health risk to the user. 1ealth risks to consumers from poor 0uality water can be due to microbiological, chemical, physical or radioactive contamination. 1owever, microbiological contamination is generally the most important to human health as this leads to infectious diseases which affect all populations groups, many of which may cause epidemics and can be fatal. -hemical contamination, with the e&ception of a few substances such as cyanide and nitrate, tends to represent a more long!term health risk. +n e&ample of this is nitrate which can cause methaemoglobinaemenia in babies. >ubstances in water which affect the clarity, colour or taste of water may make water objectionable to consumers and hence ability to recover costs. +s many microorganisms are found associated with particles in water, physical contamination may also represent a health risk as it e&tends microbial survival. 7ost treatment systems are designed to remove microbiological contamination and those

physical constituents which affect the acceptability or promote microorganism survival ! largely related to the suspended solids in the water. + disinfectant is nearly always included in treatment plants of any si e. .his is done for two main reasonsU firstly it is added to inactivate any remaining bacteria as the final unit of treatmentH and, more importantly, to provide a residual disinfectant which will kill any bacteria introduced during storage and/or distribution. The multiple barrier principle .reatment processes usually function either through the physical removal of contaminants through filtration, settling (often aided by some form of chemical addition) or biological removal of microorganisms. It is usual for treatment to be in a number of stages, with initial pretreatment by settling or pre!filtration through coarse media, sand filtration (rapid or slow) followed by chlorination. .his is called the m$ltiple ,arrier prin!iple( .his is an important concept as it provides the basis of comprehensive treatment of water and provides a system to prevent complete treatment failure due to a breakdown of a single process. Dor instance, with a system which comprises addition of coagulation!flocculation!settling, followed by rapid sand filtration with terminal disinfection, failure of the rapid sand filter does not mean that untreated water will be supplied. .he coagulation!flocculation!settling process will remove a great deal of the suspended particles, and therefore many of the microorganisms in the water, and the terminal disinfection will remove many of the remainder. @rovided the rapid sand filter is repaired reasonable 0uickly, there should be little decrease in water 0uality. + key element in the multiple barrier principle is to ensure that the source of water is protected and maintained at as high a 0uality as possible. .his is sometimes easier for groundwater sources on a local scale, although there are obvious difficulties for both ground and surface water on a larger scale.
54I?!I?G2+"TF4 GB"&ITP

Treatment processes - advantages and disadvantages .here are many different treatment process available and whose suitability is a function of the source water 0uality, level of operator training and resources available for operation and maintenance. It is imperative that the selection of technology for treatment plants is done taking the above into consideration to ensure that they remain sustainable. Pre iltration +s many secondary filtration processes, and in particular slow sand filtration, re0uire low influent turbidities, some form of pretreatment to reduce suspended solids load is re0uired. <ne way to achieve this is by using prefiltration of water through coarse media, usually gravel or coarse sand. @refilters can have many different configurationsU hori ontalH vertical upflowH and vertical upflow!downflow. Bertical prefilters have become increasingly popular as they re0uire far less land than hori ontal prefilters and can take faster flow runs through them. +n alternative are pressure filters, through which water is pumped at pressure to remove the suspended solids load. @refilters have an advantage in that they do not re0uire chemicals, have limited working parts and are robust. .hey do however, re0uire fre0uent cleaning and maintenance and are ineffective in removing fine particles, thus where the suspended solid load is primarily made up of silt and clay particles prefiltration is ineffective. @refiltration is a physical process designed to remove suspended solids and therefore it4s efficiency in removal of microorganisms is a function of the microbes associated with particles. Birus removal is poor and prefiltration is not effective in the removal of cysts or bacteria associated with fine particles.

Se#imentation >edimentation is the removal of suspended solids through the settling of particles moving through a tank at a slow rate. .here are a number of forms of sedimentation. In water treatment plants treating source water a high proportion of suspended solids of coarser grades (e.g. sand and coarse silt) a grit chamber may be used to remove the largest particles through simple sedimentation. In this process, water is passed through a tank at a slow rate and suspended solids fall out of suspension. In small supplies, simple sedimentors may also be used, which functioning in a similar fashion to grit chambers, although with a slower rate of water throughflow. >imple sedimentation will not remove fine grained particles because the flow rates remain too high and the retention time is insufficient. + further common fault with simple sedimenters is that design flow rates are rarely achieved in practice and a certain element of Sshort!circuitingG can occur unless construction, operation and maintenance is very careful. +s a result of the drawbacks in simple sedimentation, it is common to find that the sedimentation process is enhanced through the addition of chemicals ! or coagulation. -oagulants carry a charge and therefore attract charged clay particles. .he particles begin to aggregate and form SflocsG. <nce the flocs reach a critical mass, they sink to the bottom of the settler. .he outlet of the sedimenter is generally around the top of the structure, thus the clear water is removed by a surface channel. .his system can be further refined with the use of modular or plate settlers which reduces the time re0uire for settling by providing a wider surface area for aggregation of particles. .he most commonly used coagulants is aluminium sulphate, although there are other coagulants available including ferric salts (sulphates and chlorides) and polyelectrolytes. -oagulants are dosed in solution at a rate determined by raw water 0uality near the inlet of a mi&ing tank or flocculator. It is essential that the coagulant is rapidly and thoroughly mi&ed on dosing, this is may be achieved through the use of a hydraulic jump. .he water then passes into the settler to allow aggregation of the flocs. Increasing use is now being made of synthetic polymer compounds or polyelectrolytes. +s these are highly charged, there is a rapid increase in the formation of flocs, particularly where clay makes up a large proportion of the suspended solid load. .he advantages of the coagulation is that it reduces the time re0uired to settle out suspended solids and is very effective in removing fine particles which are otherwise very difficult to remove from water. -oagulation can also be effective in removing proto oa, bacteria and viruses, particularly when polyelectrolyte is used, as the highly charged coagulant attracts the charged microorganisms into the flocs. -oagulation can also be effective in removing by precipitation certain contaminants such as lead and barium. .he principle disadvantages of using coagulants are the cost and the need for accurate dosing, jar testing and dose adjustment and fre0uent monitoring. -oagulants can be e&pensive to buy (particularly polyelectrolyte) and need accurate dosing e0uipment to function efficiently. >taff need to be ade0uately trained to carry out jar tests to determine coagulant dosage. San# Filtration >and filtration can be either rapid or slow. .he difference between the two is not a simple matter of the speed of filtration, but in the underlying concept of the treatment process. >low sand filtration is essentially a biological process whereas rapid sand filtration is a physical treatment process. >low sand filters have an advantage over rapid sand filters in that they produce microbiologically /clean/ water which should not re0uire disinfection to inactivate any bacteria,

although the addition of a disinfectant to provide a residual for the distribution system is still advisable. 1owever, because of their slow flow rate, slow sand filters re0uire large tracts of land if they are to supply large populations and can be relatively labour intensive to operate and maintain. +s the reestablishment of the schumt decke takes several days, the plant has to have sufficient capacity to supply the water demand when one or more filters are out of action. 2apid sand filtration is now commonly used worldwide and is far more popular than slow sand filtration. .he principal factor in this decision has been the smaller land re0uirement for rapid sand filters and lower labour costs. 1owever, rapid sand filters do not produce water of the same 0uality as slow sand filters and a far greater reliance is placed on disinfection to inactivate bacteria. It is also worth noting that rapid sand filters are not effective in removing viruses. Slow sand filters >low sand filters operate at slow flow rates, 5.# ! 5.' metres per hour. .he top layers of the sand become biologically active by the establishment of a microbial community on the top layer of the sand substrate. .hese microbes usually come from the source water and establish a community within a matter of a few days. .he fine sand and slow filtration rate facilitate the establishment of this microbial community. .he majority of the community are predatory bacteria who feed on water!borne microbes passing through the filter. .he microbial community forms a layer called the schumt decke and can develop up to %cm thick before the filter re0uires cleaning. <nce the schumt decke becomes too thick and the rate of filtration declines further it is scraped off, a process done every couple of months or so depending on the source water. <nce this has been carried out, the slow sand filter will not be fully functional for another ' to ( days until a new schumt decke has developed, although this procedure can be speeded up by seeding the filter with bacteria from the removed schumt decke. >low sand filtration is e&tremely good at removing microbial contamination and will usually have no indicator bacteria present at the outlet. >low sand filters are also effective in removing proto oa and viruses. >low sand filters re0uire low influent turbidity, below %5.A and preferably below #5.A. .his means that efficient pretreatment is re0uired to ensure that the filters do not become overloaded. >low sand filters can cope with shock turbidities of up to )5.A, but only for very short periods of time before they block. .he sand used in slow sand filters is fine, thus high turbidities cause the bed to block rapidly and necessitates more fre0uent cleaning and therefore greater time out of action. ?evertheless, slow sand filters are still used in 8ondon and were relatively common in =estern Europe until comparatively recently and are still common elsewhere in the world. .he move away from slow sand filtration has largely been a function of rising land prices and labour costs which increased the cost of slow sand filter produced water, where this is not the case, slow sand filters still represent a cost!effective method of water treatment. Rapid sand filters 2apid sand filters work at much higher rates of flow (up to %5 meters per hour) and essentially rely on physical removal of suspended solids, including any floc carried over from the settlers. +lthough rapid sand filters achieve some reduction in microbial populations in water as it removes particles to which bacteria are attached, it is not a biological treatment and the use of a terminal disinfectant is vital to ensure that bacteria in the water have been inactivated. 2apid sand filters re0uire fre0uent cleaning (daily or twice daily) which is achieved through backwashing filters with clean water to re!suspended the sediment. -leaning takes relatively little time and the filters can be put back into operation immediately. 2apid sand filters are far smaller than slow sand filters and are commonly employed in

SbatteriesG. .he rapid flow rate through these filters means that demand can be more easily met from smaller plants. 2apid sand filters do not re0uire low influent turbidities, as they are essentially a physical treatment process, although higher suspended solids loads will result in more fre0uent cleaning. 3ackwashing is usually rapid and filters are not out of commission for mare than a matter of minutes. -leaning and operation can be largely mechanised and air scour is commonly employed to make backwashing more effective. =ith the small land re0uirement, several rapid sand filters can be accommodated in small area and thus it is easy to maintain capacity to meet demand when filters are being cleaned. Di"in e!tion +ll water supplies should be disinfected in order to protect public health. ,isinfection inactivates any remaining bacteria in the water after previous treatment steps and provides a residual disinfectant to inactivate bacteria introduced by any subse0uent ingress of contaminated water during storage or distribution. +t present, the principal disinfectant used worldwide is chlorine, although alternatives are being increasingly investigated and process such as o onation are becoming more important in industriali ed countries. It is important to note that all disinfectants produce by!products and that the greater knowledge about the by!products formed from the use of chlorine because it is this most widely used disinfectant should not compromise itGs use. It is also important that disinfection of water supplies is never compromised because of a risk of potential health effects from by!products in the final water. +ny health impacts from chemical contamination is likely to be long!term, whereas the absence of disinfection puts the consumers at risk from infectious diarrhoeal disease. Ot)er Treatment Pro!e""e" .he above treatment process are all designed to make drinking!water safe by the removal of microorganisms and suspended solids. 1owever, drinking!water, particularly from groundwater sources, may also contain chemical contaminants which must be removed. Cenerally the removal of chemicals from water is more difficult and much more e&pensive than removing microbiological or physical contaminants. 3asic filtration and coagulation techni0ues are not generally effective for the majority of chemicals. +s there are many different chemicals which could be dealt with, a few relevant e&amples will be provided. Iron can be a major constituent of both ground and surface waters (where it is commonly associated with bacteria and algae). +lthough iron does not represent any health risk, it causes problems of acceptability of the water as many consumers find the colour off!putting and because it stains clothes. .he principal method of removing iron from water is through aeration or o&idation of the De%R to the De'R species. .his is easily achieved by flowing the water over a simple cascade and followed by sedimentation. ?ote aeration is also used for waters known to be ano&ic or o&ygen deficient. + variety of processes are used for the removal of organic and inorganic contaminants including ion e&change and precipitation. Dor instance, fluoride may be removed through coagulation with lime or by ion e&change using calcinated burnt bone or activate alumina. Cranulated activated carbon (C+-) is commonly used for pesticide removal through adsorption. .his is e&pensive but unfortunately no other process appears to work effectively and therefore C+- remains the sole option. Selecting Technology =hen selecting technology and systems of treatment it is vital that as full a picture as possible of the source water 0uality is available. It is important to know what is in the water before trying

to design appropriate treatment systems. It is e0ually important to maintain a thorough monitoring programme through the plant to ensure that each stage of treatment is working effectively and efficiently. +ll waters may need treatment before they are fit for human consumption, although surface waters tend to be more vulnerable to contamination than groundwater. +ll surface waters will re0uire treatment prior to consumption. Durthermore, all water supplied through distribution systems should be disinfected to provide a residual disinfectant which provides ongoing protection from bacterial growth and survival.

Water -reatment Presentation Plan

Se!tion -e% point" O+P Intro#$!tion need to treat all surface waters and some groundwaters contamination may be microbiological, chemical or physical microbiological contamination is most important as it causes highly infectious disease with short!term impacts chemical contamination tends to have longer term effects on health suspended solids affect microbial survival and the acceptability of water always disinfect water supplies and maintain a residual in the water for protection against contamination during distribution and storage M$ltiple 2arrier Prin!iple need to have more than a single process during treatment prevents breakdown in one process leading to complete treatment failure source must be well protected Treatment pro!e""e" many processes available, the suitability of each is a function of source 0uality, operator capacity and financial resources technology selection must be made on the basis of the above to ensure sustainability often need to reduce turbidity before treating water as this may interfere with treatment prefiltration is a physical process which removes suspended solids prefilters can be hori ontal, vertical upflow or vertical upflow!downflow main advantage is limited working parts and doesn4t use chemicals disadvantages include poor ability to remove fine material, microbial removal poor and may need fre0uent cleaning sedimentation is achieved by the settling of particles in slow moving water simple sedimenters do not use chemical coagulants and are not effective in removing fine material Se!tion -e% Point" O+P settling is improved through addition of coagulants to form larger aggregates which speeds up settling and removes fine material modular and plate settlers improve settling efficiency alum is the most common coagulant, others include polyelectrolytes and ferric salts such as sulphate and chloride advantages include removal of fine particles, removal of some viruses, 0uick, compact disadvantages include e&pense, need for good monitoring capacity, need trained operators Treatment pro!e""e" sand filtration can be rapid or slow

slow sand filtration is a biological process and rapid sand filtration a physical process slow sand filters a biologically active top layer called the schumt decke which is composed of predatory bacteria schumt decke kills bacteria and viruses re0uire cleaning \ every % months, take '!( days to recover rapid sand filters work at much faster rates and remove suspended solids advantages of slow sand filtration include production of good 0uality water, relatively simple to operate disadvantages include large land re0uirement, labour intensive, re0uires low turbidity water advantages of rapid sand filtration include small land re0uirement Treatment plant a""e""ment" assessments of treatment plants may be carried out for a number of different reasons routine assessments often carried out by water suppliers to ensure performance is efficient and optimised assessments may also be undertaken when there is a failure in water 0uality or a failure to produce water of ade0uate 0uality assessments involve the evaluation of each unit process to ensure that it performs efficiently and to identify any process failures and causes of failures assessments should also evaluate the suitability of combinations of technologies (e.g. sometimes find simple sedimenters combined with slow sand filters when turbidity was relatively high ! led to failure) assessments should be linked to performance optimisation Se!tion -e% Point" O+P *on!l$"ion both surface and groundwater may re0uire treatment before distribution source water 0uality (and likely variations) should be known before selecting technologies technologies should be used which reflect capacity to operate the plant and which provide ade0uate treatment a multiple barrier principle should always be used when treating water source protection is also vital The Iultiple Jarrier Principle of +ater Treatment Bpflow25ownflow Prefilter DoriContal @low Prefilter @locculator 6oagulant 5osing Slow Sand @ilter

4apid Sand @ilter +ater Treatment Plant "ssessments When and why the should &e carried out) Q 4outine assessment of operational efficiency and state of e-uipment Q +hen contamination is found Q +hen disease outbreaks occur Q If disinfection dosing re-uirements suddenly change +ater Treatment Plant "ssessments Parameters Raw Water) turbidity, pD, alkalinity, coliforms, ma,or ions, nutrients, known problem substances

Coagulation4%locculation4settling) turbidity, pD, residual aluminum, residual acrylamide, coliforms 're%iltration) turbidity, pD, coliforms /and %iltration Dra$idEslowF) turbidity, pD, coliforms Disin%ection) 4esidual 'usually chlorine(, pD, turbidity, coli forms 'thermotolerant and total(
Principles of Unit operations and processes in water and wastewater treatment and disposal
Water and waste water differ only in t$e way t$at solids )on)entration will %e !ore in waste water and w$i)$ will %e t$ere in water too if t$e sa!e is taken fro! t$e ri+er water w$i)$ !akes t$e treat!ent pro)ess to %ot$ t$e sa!e e1)ept t$at filtration is on straining t$e finer parti)les in water treat!ent and is towards %iologi)al a)tion of %a)teria on t$e tri)kling filter to re!o+e organi) solids. 5nit operations are t$e p$ysi)al operations to re!o+e t$e i!purities present in t$e water and waste water w$ere as t$e unit pro)esses are t$e )$e!i)al and %iologi)al )on+ersion on t$e status of t$e i!purities t$at t$ey will %e easily re!o+ed %y )$e!i)al or %iologi)al pro)esses" %ot$ are

applied espe)ially to !ake t$e fine )olloidal parti)les to )oales)e and grow in si7e to %e re!o+ed fro! t$e water or waste water. S)reens are in use fro! t$e intake stru)ture w$ere t$ey pre+ent t$e floating !atter to enter into t$e pu!ping units" and fine and )oarse s)reens are in use to treat waste water to pre+ent t$e entry of floating wastes and )oarse solids into t$e treat!ent. Sedi!entation is si!ply detaining water for a suffi)ient ti!e !ostly in stagnant or relati+ely stagnant position to !ake t$e flow +elo)ity of water less t$an t$e settling +elo)ity of t$e solid parti)les t$at t$ey wit$out %eing dri+en %y $ori7ontal for)e settles down %y gra+ity. T$e effi)ien)y of t$e pro)ess depends on t$e detention ti!e" $ow long t$e waste water re!ains wit$in t$e sedi!entation tank. W$en applied to indi+idual units we need not redu)e t$e flow +elo)ity %ut !ake it stagnant as fill and draw type t$at t$e effi)ien)y will %e !ore. In t$e )ontinuous flow type t$e flow +elo)ity is redu)ed to t$e le+el of t$e !ini!u! +elo)ity w$i)$ will not )arry t$e parti)les wit$ it a))ording to stokes law t$at t$e +erti)al +elo)ity" w$i)$ is t$e settling +elo)ity of t$e parti)le will %e !ore t$an t$e $ori7ontal drag +elo)ity and t$e parti)le settles down. &ostly t$e tanks will %e re)tangular and we also $a+e )ir)ular tanks w$ere t$e flow will %e fro! )entre to perip$ery. W$ate+er !ay %e t$e s$ape of t$e tank" it is t$e surfa)e area w$i)$ !akes t$e tra+el of parti)les independent of ot$ers w$i)$ !akes t$e settling effi)ient t$at t$e dept$ $as to %e )onsidered taking into effe)t t$e sludge a))u!ulation and to pre+ent t$e reentry of parti)les %a)k to flow. Coagulants are added to t$e water t$at t$e flo))ulent parti)les grow %igger in si7e w$i)$ is %y )$e!i)al rea)tion %y rapid !i1ing and slow !i1ing and t$e )oales)ent parti)les w$i)$ grew in si7e gets re!o+ed %y settling. T$e )oagulant we add )$anges t$e 4uality of water and t$e sludge +olu!e too" and so!e of t$e )oagulants add to %ulking of sludge w$ere t$e re!o+al of !oisture is diffi)ult. =i!e water instead of li!e redu)es t$e +olu!e of sludge w$i)$ is to all t$e solid )oagulants. =i4uid )oagulants $a+e !ore influen)e readily on )oagulant parti)les t$an t$e solid )oagulants w$i)$ itself will take ti!e to dissol+e and rea)t wit$ t$e parti)les. Filtration is to t$e re!o+al of fine parti)le sand dissol+ed solids w$ere t$e fine sand layer and )oarse sand layer %elow ser+es as t$e !edia to re!o+e )olloidal solids and t$e water re!ains )o!pletely free of solids. In tri)kling filters t$e waste water t$at tri)kles down gets o1idi7ed t$at t$e organi) !atter grows in si7e and retained o+er t$e sand !ediu! and %a)teria assi!ilate on t$e organi) !atter to for! layer on t$e surfa)e w$i)$

grows t$i)ker and t$i)ker to gi+e !ore %a)terial !ass to a)t upon t$e organi) solids. T$e %otto! !ost layer %e)o!es depri+ed of o1ygen in due )ourse of ti!e t$at it sloug$s and t$e sa!e rea)$es t$e se)ondary settling tank w$ere t$e sa!e gets settled for its in)reased density. T$e a)ti+ated sludge pro)ess is %y indu)ed aeration w$ere t$e rea)tor is )o!pletely !i1ed wit$ sludge and air" t$at t$ere will %e )o!plete o1idation after w$i)$ t$e waste water enters t$e se)ondary settling tank. W$en all solids are re!o+ed t$e !inerals present in t$e water and waste water is re!o+ed %y re+erse os!osis" de!inerali7ation pro)ess w$i)$ is %asi)ally ion e1)$ange pro)ess. .dour and )olour present in water and waste water are re!o+ed %y aeration and adsorption pro)ess. T$e odour and )olour )ausing ele!ents are adsor%ed and aerated t$at t$e water is free fro! i!purities for use and waste water for reuse and re)y)ling. To1i) )$e!i)als and !etals too get adsor%ed wit$ suita%le !edia for adsorption. T$e waste water if not intended for re)y)ling or reuse" t$ey )an %e altered wit$ low )ost %iologi)al treat!ent as septi) tank" )ess pools" o1idation ponds and dit)$es w$i)$ are long ti!e pro)ess and adds nutrient +alue to t$e soil and )an %e used for agri)ulture and t$is leads to lot of trou%les as soil si)kness" fly nuisan)e and skin diseases as t$e sewage dire)tly )o!es into )onta)t wit$ t$e plants. T$e unit operations and pro)esses )an %e applied in indi+idual units of $ouses" )olonies and industries t$at it gi+es fewer pro%le!s to t$e en+iron!ent and $andled wit$ !ore effi)ien)y. T$e entire pro)ess of sedi!entation" filtration and $ardness re!o+al )an %e done at $o!e" for re!o+al of $ardness we need not go for re+erse os!osis w$i)$ is !u)$ e1pensi+e on installation and !aintenan)e %ut t$e si!ple li!e soda pro)ess or %oiling ser+e t$e purpose of %ot$ disinfe)tion and $ardness re!o+al as t$e water fro! t$e top stratu! of a4uifer will not %e saline in nature wit$ )$lorides and sulp$ates of )al)iu! and !agnesiu! as is seen )o!!on wit$ ri+er water dis)$arged wit$ do!esti) and industrial wastes. Apply t$e lean )on)epts to treat water and waste water and w$i)$ will lead to a )o!pa)t )ost effe)ti+e unit w$i)$ is $olisti) and %enefi)ial in t$e long run for w$i)$ t$e perspe)ti+es !ust %e in line wit$ t$e nature" 2ature $as answers to all in a !u)$ si!ple way and we t$ink we are superior to nature w$i)$ !akes us li+e a life wit$ )o!pli)ations. We )annot put t$e %urden on go+ern!ent and !ake t$e! work for us w$i)$ are pro+ing futile neit$er we nor t$e go+ern!ent s$ow t$e in)lusion for w$i)$ we e1perien)e ineffi)ien)y all t$roug$.

Threads 1. Study t$e stru)ture of an intake unit and find w$et$er t$e sa!e to take water fro! t$e %otto! of t$e ri+er is rig$t for t$e purpose or not. If not fro! w$ere t$e water s$ould %e drawnJ 2. *is)uss on t$e water 4uality para!eters. 3. *is)uss on t$e prin)iple of sedi!entation and t$e types of settling. 4" W$at do you !ean %y flo))ulationJ.W$at are t$e ways to i!pro+e )oagulationJ

6. W$at are t$e different types of filtrationJ I1plain t$e pro%le!s asso)iated wit$ filtrationJ 9. How )ould you )o!%ine filtration wit$ $ardness re!o+alJ ?. 2arrate an indi+idual water treat!ent unit for a dwellingJ A. I1plain $ow t$e waste water treat!ent train is )o!pletely in)orporated in septi) tank and )ess pools w$i)$ )an %e a))o!!odated to any type of a)ti+ity. 1@. How do you $andle t$e wastes fro! $ospitals and p$ar!a)euti)al wastes.Strpto)o))i group is fles$ eating and $elps in !ost of t$e a)ti+ities t$at $andle fles$ laden wastes. Co!!ent and ela%orate on t$is. 11. &etal eating %a)teria are t$ere w$i)$ is +iewed as due to !utageni) a)ti+ities. *is)uss on t$is and t$eir effi)a)y. 12. ,rass $as a parti)ular type of en7y!e t$at pro!otes %a)terial growt$ t$at $elps in waste assi!ilation to a great e1tend for w$i)$ )ow and $oarse dung are used as seed. *is)uss on t$is. 13. 0re%ioti) and pro%ioti)s %a)teria $elps in easy digestion of organi) wastes w$i)$ do!inate and adds t$e to1i) wastes re!o+al too. Co!!ent on t$is. 14.=e!on :ui)e" deto1ifying :ui)e wit$ %eet root" )arrot" )a%%age deto1 t$e %ody w$i)$ s$ows t$e en7y!es present in t$e! are for t$e re!o+al of to1ins. *is)uss on t$is. 16. Hu!an life syste! is natural towards eating raw plant food and !ilk. T$e waste $andling %e)a!e )o!ple1 wit$ )$anged life styles on fles$ eating $a%its. *is)uss on t$is. 18. Co!!on effluent treat!ent is not an effe)ti+e waste treat!ent !et$od. *is)uss t$e pro%le!s asso)iated wit$ t$e sa!e.
Settling *olid li@uid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases B

$larified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank 0overflow3. $oncentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank 0underflow3.

Purpose of Settling

To remove coarse dispersed phase. To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.

To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment. To settle the sludge 0biomass3 after activated sludge process / tricking filters.

Principle of Settling

*uspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering storage. ?asin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank. Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called the detention period.

Types of Settling Type I> Discrete particle settling (articles settle individually without interaction with neighboring particles. Type II> Flocculent Particles B !locculation causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a faster rate. Type III> Hindered or Zone settling BThe mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other. Type IC> Compression B The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure. Type I Settling

*i,e, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with time. *ettling velocity remains constant.

If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it> 013 force of gravity> !gDpgCp 023 the buoyant force @uantified by Archimedes as> !bDgCp If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is exerted and the particle is accelaratd in the direction of the force> !netD0p 3gCp This net force becomes the driving force. )nce the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous friction. This force, called the drag force, is @uantified by> !dD$+Apv2/2 $+D drag coefficient. Ap D pro4ected area of the particle.

?ecause the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and increases as the s@uare of the velocity, accelaration occurs at a decreasing rate until a steady velocity is reached at a point where the drag force e@uals the driving force> 0p 3gCp ] $+Apv2/2 !or spherical particles, CpDdE// and ApDd2/5 Thus, v2D 5g0p 3d E $+ Fxpressions for $+ change with characteristics of different flow regimes. !or laminar, transition, and turbulent flow, the values of $ + are> $+ D 25 0laminar3 #e $+D 25 G E G..E5 0transition3 1/2 #e #e $+D ..5 0turbulent3 where #e is the #eynolds number> #eDvd #eynolds number less than 1.. indicate laminar flow, while values greater than 1. indicate turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional flow. Stokes Flow !or laminar flow, terminal settling velocity e@uation becomes> vD 0p 3gd2 17 which is known as the stokes e uation. Transition Flow 'eed to solve non linear e@uations> v2] 5g0p 3d E $+ $+D 25 G E G..E5 1/2 #e #e #eDvd

$alculate velocity using *tokes law or turbulent expression.

$alculate and check #eynolds number. $alculate $+. 8se general formula. #epeat from step 2 until convergence.

Types of Settling Tanks

*edimentation tanks may function either intermittently or continuously.The intermittent tanks also called @uiescent type tanks are those which store water for a certain period and keep it in complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type. *ettling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. =ong narrow rectangular tanks with hori,ontal flow are generally preferred to the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow.

!ong "ectangular Settling #asin

=ong rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes is easier with this configuration. A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 5 times their width. The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping. A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.

A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional ,ones> Inlet $one% #egion in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such that the flow through settling ,one follows hori,ontal path. Settling $one% *ettling occurs under @uiescent conditions. &utlet $one% $larified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir. Sludge $one% !or collection of sludge below settling ,one. Inlet and &utlet 'rrangement Inlet devices% Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water e@ually and at uniform velocities. A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to the inlet and should pro4ect several feet below the water surface to dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow; &utlet Devices% )utlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to maintain velocities suitable for settling in the basin and to minimi,e short circuiting. <eirs shall be ad4ustable, and at least e@uivalent in length to the perimeter of the tank. "owever, peripheral weirs are not acceptable as they tend to cause excessive short circuiting. (eir &verflow "ates

=arge weir overflow rates result in excessive velocities at the outlet. These velocities extend backward into the settling ,one, causing particles and flocs to be drawn into the outlet. <eir loadings are generally used upto E.. mE/d/m. It may be necessary to provide special inboard weir designs as shown to lower the weir overflow rates. Inboard (eir 'rrangement to Increase (eir !engt)

Circular #asins

$ircular settling basins have the same functional ,ones as the long rectangular basin, but the flow regime is different. <hen the flow enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially towards the perimeter, the hori,ontal velocity of the water is continuously decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus, the particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight line path in the long rectangular tank. *ludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and re@uire less maintenance.

Settling &perations

(articles falling through the settling basin have two components of velocity> 13 Certical component> vtD0p 3gd2 17 23 "ori,ontal component> vhD^/+ The path of the particle is given by the vector sum of hori,ontal velocity vh and vertical settling velocity vt. Assume that a settling column is suspended in the flow of the settling ,one and that the column travels with the flow across the settling ,one. $onsider the particle in the batch analysis for type 1 settling which was initially at the surface and settled through the depth of the column H., in the time t.. If t. also corresponds to the time re@uired for the column to be carried hori,ontally across the settling ,one, then the particle will fall into the sludge ,one and be removed from the suspension at the point at which the column reaches the end of the settling ,one. All particles with vtIv. will be removed from suspension at some point along the settling ,one. 'ow consider the particle with settling velocity J v.. If the initial depth of this particle was such that Hp/vtDt., this particle will also be

removed. Therefore, the removal of suspended particles passing through the settling ,one will be in proportion to the ratio of the individual settling velocities to the settling velocity v .. The time t. corresponds to the retention time in the settling ,one. tD C D =H.< : : Also, t5D H. v. Therefore, H. D =H.< and v.D : v. : =< or v.D : A* Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the si,e particle that can be removed completely in the settling ,one. The determining factor is the @uantity :/As, which has the units of velocity and is referred to as the overflow rate @.. This overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins and corresponds to the terminal setting velocity of the particle that is 1..K removed. Design Details 1. +etention period> for plain sedimentation> E to 5 h, and for coagulated sedimentation> 2 to 2.- h. 2. Celocity of flow> 'ot greater than E. cm/min 0hori,ontal flow3. 3. Tank dimensions> =>? D E to ->1. ;enerally =D E. m 0common3 maximum 1.. m. ?readthD / m to 1. m. $ircular> +iameter not greater than /. m. generally 2. to 5. m. 4. +epth 2.- to -.. m 0E m3. 6. *urface )verflow #ate> !or plain sedimentation 12... to 17... =/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 25... to E.... =/d/m2 tank area. /. *lopes> #ectangular 1K towards inlet and circular 7K.
edimentation is a p$ysi)al water treat!ent pro)ess used to settle out suspended solids in water under t$e influen)e of gra+ity.F1

2a"i!"
>uspended solids (or >>), is the mass of dry solids retained by a filter of a given porosity related to the volume of the water sample. .his includes particles of a si e not lower than #5 _m.

-olloids are particles of a si e between 5.55# nm and # nm depending on the method of 0uantification. ,ue to electrostatic forces balancing the gravity, they are not likely to settle naturally. .he limit sedimentation velocity of a particle is its theoretical descending speed in clear and still water. In settling process theory, a particle will settle only ifU
1. In a +erti)al as)ending flow" t$e as)ending water +elo)ity is lower t$an t$e li!it sedi!entation +elo)ity. 2. In a longitudinal flow" t$e ratio of t$e lengt$ of t$e tank to t$e $eig$t of t$e tank is $ig$er t$an t$e ratio of t$e water +elo)ity to t$e li!it sedi!entation +elo)ity.

.here are four types of sedimentation processesU

Type 1 # *ilutes" non#flo))ulent" free#settling. I+ery parti)le settles independently.( Type 2 # *ilute" flo))ulent. 0arti)les )an flo))ulate as t$ey settle.( Type 3 # Con)entrated Suspensions" Done Settling Sludge T$i)kening(. Type 4 # Con)entrated Suspensions" Co!pression Sludge T$i)kening(.

Appli!ation"
Pota,le Water Treatment
>edimentation in potable water treatment generally follows a step of chemical coagulation and flocculation, which allows grouping particles together into flocs of a bigger si e. .his increases the settling speed of suspended solids and allows settling colloids.

Wa"te Water Treatment

>edimentation is often used as a primary stage in modern waste water treatment plant, reducing the content of suspended solids as well as the pollutant embedded in the suspended solids."%$U)!9 ,ue to the large amount of reagent necessary to treat domestic wastewater, preliminary chemical coagulation and flocculation are generally not used, remaining suspended solids being reduced by following stages of the system. 1owever, coagulation and flocculation can be used for building a compact treatment plant (also called a /package treatment plant/), or for further polishing of the treated water."'$ In the +ctivated >ludge treatment process, flocs being created through biological activity are collected in sedimentation tanks, generally referred to as Secondary Clarifiers or >econdary >edimentation .anks."%$U#'

Te!)nolog%
>edimentation tanks can be of different shapes, often rectangular or circular. .hey are si ed in order to have an optimal sedimentation speed. If sedimentation speed is too high, most particles

will not have sufficient time to settle, and will be carried with the treated water. If the speed is too low, the tanks will be of an e&cessive si e. +s turbulence is a damaging factor leading settled particles to go back in suspension, several devices are used to ensure a 0uiet flow, such as carefully designed water inlet with baffles. >edimentation may be made more efficient by the use of stacks of flat pieces that slope slightly upwards in the direction of flow, called lamellar separators. .hey are parallel and separated by a small distance. .hese structures work in two waysU
1. T$ey pro+ide a +ery large surfa)e area onto w$i)$ parti)les !ay fall and %e)o!e sta%ili7ed. 2. 'e)ause flow is te!porarily a))elerated %etween t$e plates and t$en i!!ediately slows down" t$is $elps to aggregate +ery fine parti)les t$at )an settle as t$e flow e1its t$e plates.

.he use of lamellar separators may allow the use of a smaller sedimentation tank and may enable finer particles to be separated. .ypically such structures are used for difficult!to!treat waters, especially those containing colloidal materials.
=ater purification

Water p$ri i!ation is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological contaminants from contaminated water. .he goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. 7ost water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the re0uirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. In general the methods used include physical processes such as filtration and sedimentation, biological processes such as slow sand filters or activated sludge, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light. .he purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungiH and a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may have made contact with after falling as rain. .he standards for drinking water 0uality are typically set by governments or by international standards. .hese standards will typically set minimum and ma&imum concentrations of contaminants for the use that is to be made of the water. It is not possible to tell whether water is of an appropriate 0uality by visual e&amination. >imple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring water L considered safe for all practical purposes in the #9th century L must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. -hemical analysis, while e&pensive, is the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification.

+ccording to a %556 =orld 1ealth <rgani ation report, #.# billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply, ;;E of the ( billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inade0uate sanitation and hygiene, and #.; million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. .he =1< estimates that 9(E of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water."#$ >imple techni0ues for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year."%$ 2educing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.
>ources of water
1. ,roundwater- T$e water e!erging fro! so!e deep ground water !ay $a+e fallen as rain !any tens" $undreds" t$ousands of years ago. Soil and ro)k layers naturally filter t$e ground water to a $ig$ degree of )larity %efore t$e treat!ent plant. Su)$ water !ay e!erge as springs" artesian springs" or !ay %e e1tra)ted fro! %ore$oles or wells. *eep ground water is generally of +ery $ig$ %a)teriologi)al 4uality i.e." pat$ogeni) %a)teria or t$e pat$ogeni) proto7oa are typi)ally a%sent(" %ut t$e water typi)ally is ri)$ in dissol+ed solids" espe)ially )ar%onates and sulfates of )al)iu! and !agnesiu!. *epending on t$e strata t$roug$ w$i)$ t$e water $as flowed" ot$er ions !ay also %e present in)luding )$loride" and %i)ar%onate. T$ere !ay %e a re4uire!ent to redu)e t$e iron or !anganese )ontent of t$is water to !ake it pleasant for drinking" )ooking" and laundry use. *isinfe)tion !ay also %e re4uired. W$ere groundwater re)$arge is pra)tised3 a pro)ess in w$i)$ ri+er water is in:e)ted into an a4uifer to store t$e water in ti!es of plenty so t$at it is a+aila%le in ti!es of droug$t3 it is e4ui+alent to lowland surfa)e waters for treat!ent purposes. 2. 5pland lakes and reser+oirs- Typi)ally lo)ated in t$e $eadwaters of ri+er syste!s" upland reser+oirs are usually sited a%o+e any $u!an $a%itation and !ay %e surrounded %y a prote)ti+e 7one to restri)t t$e opportunities for )onta!ination. 'a)teria and pat$ogen le+els are usually low" %ut so!e %a)teria" proto7oa or algae will %e present. W$ere uplands are forested or peaty" $u!i) a)ids )an )olour t$e water. &any upland sour)es $a+e low pH w$i)$ re4uire ad:ust!ent. 3. /i+ers" )anals and low land reser+oirs- =ow land surfa)e waters will $a+e a signifi)ant %a)terial load and !ay also )ontain algae" suspended solids and a +ariety of dissol+ed )onstituents. 4. At!osp$eri) water generation is a new te)$nology t$at )an pro+ide $ig$ 4uality drinking water %y e1tra)ting water fro! t$e air %y )ooling t$e air and t$us )ondensing water +apor. 6. /ainwater $ar+esting or fog )olle)tion w$i)$ )olle)ts water fro! t$e at!osp$ere )an %e used espe)ially in areas wit$ signifi)ant dry seasons and in areas w$i)$ e1perien)e fog e+en w$en t$ere is little rain. 8. *esalination of seawater %y distillation or re+erse os!osis.

Treatment
.he processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. >ome or most may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and 0uality of the water.

Pre-treatment

1. 0u!ping and )ontain!ent K T$e !a:ority of water !ust %e pu!ped fro! its sour)e or dire)ted into pipes or $olding tanks. To a+oid adding )onta!inants to t$e water" t$is p$ysi)al infrastru)ture !ust %e !ade fro! appropriate !aterials and )onstru)ted so t$at a))idental )onta!ination does not o))ur. 2. S)reening see also screen filter( K T$e first step in purifying surfa)e water is to re!o+e large de%ris su)$ as sti)ks" lea+es" tras$ and ot$er large parti)les w$i)$ !ay interfere wit$ su%se4uent purifi)ation steps. &ost deep groundwater does not need s)reening %efore ot$er purifi)ation steps. 3. Storage K Water fro! ri+ers !ay also %e stored in %ankside reser+oirs for periods %etween a few days and !any !ont$s to allow natural %iologi)al purifi)ation to take pla)e. T$is is espe)ially i!portant if treat!ent is %y slow sand filters. Storage reser+oirs also pro+ide a %uffer against s$ort periods of droug$t or to allow water supply to %e !aintained during transitory pollution in)idents in t$e sour)e ri+er. 4. 0re#)onditioning K Water ri)$ in $ardness salts is treated wit$ soda#as$ sodiu! )ar%onate( to pre)ipitate )al)iu! )ar%onate out utilising t$e )o!!on#ion effe)t. 6. 0re#)$lorination K In !any plants t$e in)o!ing water was )$lorinated to !ini!ise t$e growt$ of fouling organis!s on t$e pipe#work and tanks. 'e)ause of t$e potential ad+erse 4uality effe)ts see )$lorine %elow(" t$is $as largely %een dis)ontinued. Fcitation
neededG

=idely varied techni0ues are available to remove the fine solids, micro!organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials. .he choice of method will depend on the 0uality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the 0uality standards e&pected of the processed water.
pH adjustment

,istilled water has a p1 of 6 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea water has an average p1 of ;.' (slightly alkaline). If the water is acidic (lower than 6), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydro&ide is added to raise the p1. Dor somewhat acidic waters (lower than *.))"citation needed$, forced draft degasifiers are the cheapest way to raise the p1, as the process raises the p1 by stripping dissolved carbon dio&ide (carbonic acid) from the water. 8ime is commonly used for p1 adjustment for municipal water, or at the start of a treatment plant for process water, as it is cheap, but it also increases the ionic load by raising the water hardness. 7aking the water slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimi e the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings. +cid (1-l or 1%><() may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the p1. 1aving alkaline water does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water but as a generality, water with a p1 above 6 is much less likely to dissolve heavy metals than water with a p1 below 6.

flo) floating at t$e surfa)e of a %asin

&e)$ani)al syste! to pus$ flo) out of t$e water %asin

Flo!!$lation
See also: Alum#Industrial

Dlocculation is a process which clarifies the water. -larifying means removing any turbidity or colour so that the water is clear and colourless. -larification is done by causing a precipitate to form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate forms as very small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to form bigger particles. 7any of the small particles that were originally present in the raw water adsorb onto the surface of these small precipitate particles and so get incorporated into the larger particles that coagulation produces. In this way the coagulated precipitate takes most of the suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered off, generally by passing the mi&ture through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mi&ture of sand and granulated anthracite (high carbon and low volatiles coal). -oagulants / flocculating agents that may be used includeU
1. Iron III( $ydro1ide. T$is is for!ed %y adding a solution of an iron III( )o!pound su)$ as iron III( )$loride to pre#treated water wit$ a pH of 9 or greater. Iron III( $ydro1ide is e1tre!ely insolu%le and for!s e+en at a pH as low as 9. Co!!er)ial for!ulations of iron salts were traditionally !arketed in t$e 5< under t$e na!e Cuprus. 2. Alu!iniu! $ydro1ide is also widely used as t$e flo))ulating pre)ipitate alt$oug$ t$ere $a+e %een )on)erns a%out possi%le $ealt$ i!pa)ts and !is#$andling led to a se+ere poisoning in)ident in 1A?? at Ca!elford in sout$#west 5< w$en t$e )oagulant was introdu)ed dire)tly into t$e $olding reser+oir of final treated water. 3. 0oly*A*&AC is an artifi)ially produ)ed poly!er and is one of a )lass of synt$eti) poly!ers t$at are now widely used. T$ese poly!ers $a+e a $ig$ !ole)ular weig$t and

for! +ery sta%le and readily re!o+ed flo)s" %ut tend to %e !ore e1pensi+e in use )o!pared to inorgani) !aterials. T$e !aterials )an also %e %iodegrada%le.

Se#imentation
=aters e&iting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. .he sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not permit settlement or floc break up. >edimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. >edimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layerVthat furthest from the sedimentVe&its. .he amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent on basin retention time and on basin depth. .he retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger basin. .he minimum clarifier retention time is normally ( hours. + deep basin will allow more floc to settle out than a shallow basin. .his is because large particles settle faster than smaller ones, so large particles collide with and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large particles sweep vertically through the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the bottom. +s particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. .his layer of sludge must be removed and treated. .he amount of sludge that is generated is significant, often ' to ) percent of the total volume of water that is treated. .he cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant. .he tank may be e0uipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the bottom of the tank or the tank can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned.

Filtration
+fter separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc.
Rapid sand ilters

Cutaway +iew of a typi)al rapid sand filter

.he most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. =ater moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. .he top layer removes

organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. .he space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. 7ost particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration e&tends into the depth of the filter. .his property of the filter is key to its operationU if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would 0uickly clog. .o clean the filter, water is passed 0uickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction (called bac flushing or bac washing) to remove embedded particles. @rior to this, compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid the backwashing processH this is known as air scouring. .his contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mi&ing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re!introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water >ome water treatment plants employ pressure filters. .hese work on the same principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure. +dvantagesU

Filters out !u)$ s!aller parti)les t$an paper and sand filters )an. Filters out +irtually all parti)les larger t$an t$eir spe)ified pore si7es. T$ey are 4uite t$in and so li4uids flow t$roug$ t$e! fairly rapidly. T$ey are reasona%ly strong and so )an wit$stand pressure differen)es a)ross t$e! of typi)ally 2K6 at!osp$eres.

Mem,rane iltration
7embrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. Dor drinking water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 5.% umVincluding giardia and cryptosporidium! 7embrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. .hey are widely used in industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). 1owever no filtration can remove substances that are actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
Slo! sand ilters

Slow Lartifi)ialL filtration a +ariation of %ank filtration( to t$e ground" Water purifi)ation plant <MranN" C7e)$ /epu%li)

>low sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space as the water must be passed very slowly through the filters. .hese filters rely on biological treatment processes for their action rather than physical filtration. .he filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the top. ,rains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Diltration depends on the development of a thin biological layer, called the oogleal layer or >chmut decke, on the surface of the filter. +n effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if the pre!treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Bery low nutrient levels allow water to be safely sent through distribution system with very low disinfectant levels thereby reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by!products. >low sand filters are not backwashedH they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow is eventually obstructed by biological growth."citation needed$ + specific 4large!scale4 form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration, in which natural sediments in a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. =hile typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the associated e&traction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly from the major streams where bank filtration is often used.
Remo"al o ions and other dissol"ed substances

Altrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. .he type of membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what si es of micro!organisms can be filtered out. Ion e&changeU"'$"($")$"*$"6$ Ion e&change systems use ion e&change resin! or eolite!packed columns to replace unwanted ions. .he most common case is water softening consisting of removal of -a%R and 7g%R ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) ?aR or FR ions. Ion e&change resins are also used to remove to&ic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others. Electrodeioni ationU"6$"'$ =ater is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion e&change membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. 1igh purity deioni ed water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion e&change treatment. -omplete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. .he water is often pre!treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non!ionic organic contaminants.
#ther mechanical and biological techni$ues See also: Greywater and Ecological sanitation

In addition to the many techni0ues used in large!scale water treatment, several small!scale, less (or non)!polluting techni0ues are also being used to treat polluted water. .hese techni0ues include those based on mechanical and biological processes. +n overviewU

!e)$ani)al syste!s- sand filtration" la+a filter syste!s and syste!s %ased on 5;# radiation( %iologi)al syste!so plant syste!s as )onstru)ted wetlands and treat!ent ponds so!eti!es in)orre)tly )alled reed%eds and li+ing walls( and o )o!pa)t syste!s as a)ti+ated sludge syste!s" %iorotors" aero%i) %iofilters and anaero%i) %iofilters" su%!erged aerated filters" and %iorolls F?G

In order to purify the water ade0uately, several of these systems are usually combined to work as a whole. -ombination of the systems is done in two to three stages, namely primary and secondary purification. >ometimes tertiary purification is also added.

Di"in e!tion
,isinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. =ater is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters. @ossible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Shigella, and proto oa, including "iardia lamblia and other cryptosporidia. In most developed countries, public water supplies are re0uired to maintain a residual disinfecting agent throughout the distribution system, in which water may remain for days before reaching the consumer. Dollowing the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage L often called a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to complete.
Chlorine disin ection Main article: Chlorination

.he most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine or chlorine dio&ide. -hlorine is a strong o&idant that rapidly kills many harmful micro!organisms. 3ecause chlorine is a to&ic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. .his problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively ine&pensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. -hlorine solutions can be generated on site by electroly ing common salt solutions. + solid form, calcium hypochlorite e&ists that releases chlorine on contact with water. 1andling the solid, however, re0uires greater routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are more easily automated. .he generation of li0uid sodium hypochlorite is both ine&pensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. +ll forms of chlorine are widely used despite their respective drawbacks. <ne drawback is that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by!products trihalomethanes (.17s) and haloacetic acids (1++s), both of which are carcinogenic in large 0uantities and regulated by the Anited >tates Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+) and the ,rinking =ater Inspectorate in the AF. .he formation of .17s and haloacetic acids may be

minimi ed by effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. +lthough chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against proto oa that form cysts in water ("iardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are pathogenic).

*)lorine #io1i#e #i"in e!tion

-hlorine dio&ide is a faster!acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine, however it is relatively rarely used, because in some circumstances it may create e&cessive amounts of chlorite, which is a by!product regulated to low allowable levels in the Anited >tates. -hlorine dio&ide is supplied as an a0ueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problemsH chlorine dio&ide gas accumulations may spontaneously detonate.

*)loramine #i"in e!tion

.he use of chloramine is becoming more common as a disinfectant. +lthough chloramine is not as strong an o&idant, it does provide a longer!lasting residual than free chlorine and it won4t form .17s or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding ammonia to the water after addition of chlorine. .he chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. =ater distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may e&perience nitrification, as ammonia is a nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by!product.
] #zone disin ection

<' is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of o&ygen providing a powerful o&idi ing agent which is to&ic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful proto oa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. < one is made by passing o&ygen through ultraviolet light or a /cold/ electrical discharge. .o use o one as a disinfectant, it must be created on!site and added to the water by bubble contact. >ome of the advantages of o one include the production of fewer dangerous by!products (in comparison to chlorination) and the lack of taste and odour produced by o onisation. +lthough fewer by! products are formed by o onation, it has been discovered that the use of o one produces a small amount of the suspected carcinogen bromate, although little bromine should be present in treated water. +nother of the main disadvantages of o one is that it leaves no disinfectant residual in the water. < one has been used in drinking water plants since #95* where the first industrial o onation plant was built in ?ice, Drance. .he A.>. Dood and ,rug +dministration has accepted o one as being safeH and it is applied as an anti!microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods.
%ltra"iolet disin ection

Altraviolet light is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. AB light4s disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the suspended solids. .he main disadvantage to the use of AB

radiation is that, like o one treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the waterH therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. .his is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. =hen used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative aspects of chlorination.
Hydrogen pero&ide disin ection

=orks in a similar way to o one. +ctivators such as formic acid are often added to increase the efficacy of disinfection. It has the disadvantages that it is slow!working, phytoto&ic in high dosage, and decreases the p1 of the water it purifies.
'arious portable methods o disin ection

+vailable for disinfection in emergencies or in remote locations. ,isinfection is the primary goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odour, appearance, and trace chemical contamination do not affect the short!term safety of drinking water.
Solar !ater disin ection

<ne low!cost method of disinfecting water that can often be implemented with locally available materials is solar disinfection (><,I>)."9$"#5$"##$"#%$ Anlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment. <ne recent study has found that the wild >almonella which would reproduce 0uickly during subse0uent dark storage of solar!disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just #5 parts per million of hydrogen pero&ide."#'$

A##itional treatment option"

1. Water fluoridation- in !any areas fluoride is added to water wit$ t$e goal of pre+enting toot$ de)ay.F14G Fluoride is usually added after t$e disinfe)tion pro)ess. In t$e 5.S." fluoridation is usually a))o!plis$ed %y t$e addition of $e1afluorosili)i) a)id"F16G w$i)$ de)o!poses in water" yielding fluoride ions.F18G 2. Water )onditioning- T$is is a !et$od of redu)ing t$e effe)ts of $ard water. Hardness salts are deposited in water syste!s su%:e)t to $eating %e)ause t$e de)o!position of %i)ar%onate ions )reates )ar%onate ions t$at )rystallise out of t$e saturated solution of )al)iu! or !agnesiu! )ar%onate. Water wit$ $ig$ )on)entrations of $ardness salts )an %e treated wit$ soda as$ sodiu! )ar%onate( w$i)$ pre)ipitates out t$e e1)ess salts" t$roug$ t$e )o!!on#ion effe)t" produ)ing )al)iu! )ar%onate of +ery $ig$ purity. T$e pre)ipitated )al)iu! )ar%onate is traditionally sold to t$e !anufa)turers of toot$paste. Se+eral ot$er !et$ods of industrial and residential water treat!ent are )lai!ed wit$out general s)ientifi) a))eptan)e( to in)lude t$e use of !agneti) orEand ele)tri)al fields redu)ing t$e effe)ts of $ard water.Fcitation neededG 3. 0lu!%osol+en)y redu)tion- In areas wit$ naturally a)idi) waters of low )ondu)ti+ity i.e. surfa)e rainfall in upland !ountains of igneous ro)ks(" t$e water !ay %e )apa%le of

dissol+ing lead fro! any lead pipes t$at it is )arried in. T$e addition of s!all 4uantities of p$osp$ate ion and in)reasing t$e pH slig$tly %ot$ assist in greatly redu)ing plu!%o# sol+en)y %y )reating insolu%le lead salts on t$e inner surfa)es of t$e pipes. 4. /adiu! /e!o+al- So!e groundwater sour)es )ontain radiu!" a radioa)ti+e )$e!i)al ele!ent. Typi)al sour)es in)lude !any groundwater sour)es nort$ of t$e Illinois /i+er in Illinois. /adiu! )an %e re!o+ed %y ion e1)$ange" or %y water )onditioning. T$e %a)k flus$ or sludge t$at is produ)ed is" $owe+er" a low#le+el radioa)ti+e waste. 6. Fluoride /e!o+al- Alt$oug$ fluoride is added to water in !any areas" so!e areas of t$e world $a+e e1)essi+e le+els of natural fluoride in t$e sour)e water. I1)essi+e le+els )an %e to1i) or )ause undesira%le )os!eti) effe)ts su)$ as staining of teet$. &et$ods of redu)ing fluoride le+els is t$roug$ treat!ent wit$ a)ti+ated alu!ina and %one )$ar filter !edia.

Ot)er &ater p$ri i!ation te!)ni'$e"

<ther popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies. @articularly important are distillation (de!salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.
1. 'oiling- Water is $eated $ot enoug$ and long enoug$ to ina)ti+ate or kill !i)ro# organis!s t$at nor!ally li+e in water at roo! te!perature. 2ear sea le+el" a +igorous rolling %oil for at least one !inute is suffi)ient. At $ig$ altitudes greater t$an two kilo!etres or 6@@@ feet( t$ree !inutes is re)o!!ended.F19G In areas w$ere t$e water is L$ardL t$at is" )ontaining signifi)ant dissol+ed )al)iu! salts(" %oiling de)o!poses t$e %i)ar%onate ions" resulting in partial pre)ipitation as )al)iu! )ar%onate. T$is is t$e LfurL t$at %uilds up on kettle ele!ents" et)." in $ard water areas. Wit$ t$e e1)eption of )al)iu!" %oiling does not re!o+e solutes of $ig$er %oiling point t$an water and in fa)t in)reases t$eir )on)entration due to so!e water %eing lost as +apour(. 'oiling does not lea+e a residual disinfe)tant in t$e water. T$erefore" water t$at $as %een %oiled and t$en stored for any lengt$ of ti!e !ay $a+e a)4uired new pat$ogens. 2. ,ranular A)ti+ated Car%on filtering- a for! of a)ti+ated )ar%on wit$ a $ig$ surfa)e area" adsor%s !any )o!pounds in)luding !any to1i) )o!pounds. Water passing t$roug$ a)ti+ated )ar%on is )o!!only used in !uni)ipal regions wit$ organi) )onta!ination" taste or odors. &any $ouse$old water filters and fis$ tanks use a)ti+ated )ar%on filters to furt$er purify t$e water. House$old filters for drinking water so!eti!es )ontain sil+er as !etalli) sil+er nanoparti)le. if water is $eld in t$e )ar%on %lo)k for longer period" !i)roorganis!s )an grow inside w$i)$ results in fouling and )onta!ination. Sil+er nanoparti)les are e1)ellent anti#%a)terial !aterial and t$ey )an de)o!pose to1i) $alo# organi) )o!pounds su)$ as pesti)ides into non#to1i) organi) produ)tsF1?G. 3. *istillation in+ol+es %oiling t$e water to produ)e water +apour. T$e +apour )onta)ts a )ool surfa)e w$ere it )ondenses as a li4uid. 'e)ause t$e solutes are not nor!ally +aporised" t$ey re!ain in t$e %oiling solution. I+en distillation does not )o!pletely purify water" %e)ause of )onta!inants wit$ si!ilar %oiling points and droplets of un+apourised li4uid )arried wit$ t$e stea!. Howe+er" AA.AO pure water )an %e o%tained %y distillation. 4. /e+erse os!osis- &e)$ani)al pressure is applied to an i!pure solution to for)e pure water t$roug$ a se!i#per!ea%le !e!%rane. /e+erse os!osis is t$eoreti)ally t$e !ost t$oroug$ !et$od of large s)ale water purifi)ation a+aila%le" alt$oug$ perfe)t se!i# per!ea%le !e!%ranes are diffi)ult to )reate. 5nless !e!%ranes are well#!aintained" algae and ot$er life for!s )an )oloni7e t$e !e!%ranes.

6. T$e use of iron in re!o+ing arseni) fro! water. See Arseni) )onta!ination of groundwater. 8. *ire)t )onta)t !e!%rane distillation *C&*(. Appli)a%le to desalination. Heated seawater is passed along t$e surfa)e of a $ydrop$o%i) poly!er !e!%rane. I+aporated water passes fro! t$e $ot side t$roug$ pores in t$e !e!%rane into a strea! of )old pure water on t$e ot$er side. T$e differen)e in +apour pressure %etween t$e $ot and )old side $elps to pus$ water !ole)ules t$roug$. 9. ,as $ydrate )rystals )entrifuge !et$od. If )ar%on dio1ide gas is !i1ed wit$ )onta!inated water at $ig$ pressure and low te!perature" gas $ydrate )rystals will )ontain only )lean water. T$is is %e)ause t$e water !ole)ules %ind to t$e gas !ole)ules at !ole)ular le+el. T$e )onta!inated water is in li4uid for!. A )entrifuge !ay %e used to separate t$e )rystals and t$e )on)entrated )onta!inated water. ?. In Situ C$e!i)al .1idation " a for! of ad+an)ed o1idation pro)esses and ad+an)ed o1idation te)$nology" is an en+iron!ental re!ediation te)$ni4ue used for soil andEor groundwater re!ediation to redu)e t$e )on)entrations of targeted en+iron!ental )onta!inants to a))epta%le le+els. ISC. is a))o!plis$ed %y in:e)ting or ot$erwise introdu)ing strong )$e!i)al o1idi7ers dire)tly into t$e )onta!inated !ediu! soil or groundwater( to destroy )$e!i)al )onta!inants in pla)e. It )an %e used to re!ediate a +ariety of organi) )o!pounds" in)luding so!e t$at are resistant to natural degradation.

+%#rogen pro#$!tion
Dor the small scale production of hydrogen, water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water. Dirst, the water passes through a %5 micrometre interference (mesh or screen filter) filter to remove sand and dust particles, then a charcoal filter using activated carbon to remove organics and chlorine and finally a de!ioni ing filter to remove metallic ions. .esting can be done before and after the filter to verify the proper removal of barium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium and silica. +nother method that is used is reverse osmosis.
B?IT2 IN "5N"?6F5 +"TF4 T4F"TIF?T
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

Advanced Waste Water -reatment

Removal 1% /us$ended /olids 3.Iicrostraining 1. 6oagulation and flocculation 7. @iltration 8. Removal o% dissolved solids 5. Ion e*change H. 4everse osmosis <. Flectrodialysis =. 4emoval of nitrogen ;. 'hos$hate removal Dchemical treatmentF 3:. 'hos$hate removal D&iological treatmentF

33. Removal o% dissolved organic com$ounds 3>. "dsorption /7. Sludge treatment and disposal /8. 5isinfection.
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian

Advanced Waste Water -reatment

The effluent from a typical secondary treatment plant still contains 1$28$ mg/& JK5 which may be ob,ectionable in some streams. Suspended solids, in addition to contributing to JK5, may settle on the stream bed and inhibit certain forms of a-uatic life. The JK5 if discharged into a stream with low flow, can cause damage to a-uatic life by reducing the dissolved o*ygen content. In addition the secondary effluent contains significant amounts of plant nutrients and dissolved solids. If the waste water is of industrial origin, it may also contain traces of organic chemicals, heavy metals and other contaminants. 5ifferent methods are used in advanced waste treatment to satisfy any of the several specific goals, which include the removal of '/( suspended solids '1( JK5 '7( plant nutrients '8( dissolved solids and '9( to*ic substances. These methods may be introduced at any stage of the total treatment process as in the case of industrial waterways or may be used for complete removal of pollutants after secondary treatment.

Removal 1% /us$ended /olids)

This treatment implies the removal of those materials that have been carried over from a secondary treatment settler. Iany methods were proposed of which two methods were commonly used. The two methods are microstaining and chemical coagulation followed by settling and mi*ed media filtration.
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Microstraining)
It is a special type of filtration procedure which makes use of filters oven from stainless steel wires with opening only H$2<$ Rm across to remove very small particles. Digh flow rates and low back pressures are normally achieved.

Coagulation and %locculation)

The ob,ect of coagulation is to alter these particles in such a way as to allow them to adhere to each other. Iost colloids of interest in water treatment remain suspended in solution because they have a net negative surface charge that causes the particles to repel each other. The intended action of the coagulant is to neutralise that charge, allowing the particles to come together to form larger particles that can be more easily removed from the raw water. The usual coagulant is alum L"l1'SK8(1S /=D1K M, though @e6l7, @eSK8 and other coagulants, such as polyelectrolytes, can be used. "lum when added to water, the aluminium in this salt hydrolyses by reactions that consume alkalinity in the water such as. + +++71H7711L"l'DK(M7D6K"l'KD('s(76KHDK..............(1) The gelatinous hydro*ide thus formed carries suspended material with it as it settles. In addition, however, it is likely that positively charged hydro*yl2bridged dimers such as %

Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis

D0>1FCAl0110AlD0>1FCCG
and higher polymers are formed which interact specifically with colloidal particles, bringing about coagulation. Ietal ions in coagulants also react with virus proteins and destroy upto ;;> of the virus in water. "nhydrous ion 'III( sulphate can also act as effective coagulant similar to aluminium sulfate. "n advantage with iron 'III( sulfate it that it works over a wide range of pD.

(iltration)
If properly formed, the addition of chemicals for promoting coagulation and flocculation can remove both suspended and colloidal solids. "fter the flocs are formed, the solution is led to a settling tank where the flocs are allowed to settle. +hile most of the flocculated material is removed in the settling tank, some floc do not settle. These flocs are removed by the filtration process, which is usually carried out using beds of porous media such as sand or coal. The current trend is to use a mi*ed 2media filter which consists of fine garnet in the bottom layer, silica sand in the middle layer and coarse coal in the top layer which reduces clogging.

Removal o% dissolved solids)

The dissolved solids are of both organic and inorganic types. " number of methods have been investigated for the removal of inorganic constituents from
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waste water. Three methods which are finding wide application in advanced waste treatment are ion2e*change, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. @or the removal of soluble organics from waste water the most commonly used method is adsorption on activated carbon. Solvent e*traction is also used to recover certain organic chemicals like phenol an d amines from industrial waste waters.

#on e*change)
This techni-ue has been used e*tensively to remove hardness, and iron and manganese salts in drinking water supplies. It has also been used selectively to remove specific impurities and to recover valuable trace metals like chromium, nickel, copper, lead and cadmium from industrial waste discharges. The process takes advantage of the ability of certain natural and synthetic materials to e*change one of their ions. " number of naturally occuring minerals have ion e*change properties. "mong them the notable ones are aluminium silicate minerals, which are called Ceolites. Synthetic Ceolites have been prepared using solutions of sodium silicate and sodium aluminate. "lternatively synthetic ion2e*change resins composed of organic polymer with attached functional groups such as 'strongly acidic cation e*change resins(, or 2 6KK 272SK D02 D0 'weakly acidic cation e*change resins or 2?0'6D7(7KD2 'strongly basic anion e*change resins( can be used. In the water softening process, the hardness producing elements such as calcium and magnesium are replaced by sodium ions. " cation e*change resin in sodium form is normally used. The water2softening capability of cation e*change can be seen when sodium ion in the resin is e*changed for calcium ion in solution.
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The product water thus has high sodium content, which is not likely to be troublesome unless the original water is very hard. +hen the e*changer is saturated, it has to be

regenerated to allow reuse of e*pensive resin. 4egeneration can be achieved by sodium chloride solution which removes 6a10 and Ig10 ions from the resin. Since for regeneration large amounts of ?a6l has to be used, appreciable amounts of sodium chloride can be introduced into sewage by this route. This problem can be overcome by using weakly acidic cation e*change resin such 4es6KK 2D0. These cation e*changers having 26KKD as functional group are useful for removing alkalinity along with hardness. "lkalinity is generally manifested by bicarbonate ion. This ion is sufficiently basic to neutralise the acid of weak cation e*change. "nother advantage with these resins is that these can be regenerated almost stoichiometrically with dilute strong acid, thus avoiding pollution problem caused by e*cess ?a6l. This techni-ue has also been successfully applied to the recovery of chromate from waste water in pigment manufacturing. The removal of inorganic solute is essential for complete water recycling. The effluent from secondary waste treatment contains 7$$28$$ mg/& more dissolved inorganic material than does municipal water. The removal of these bulk inorganics can be efficiently done by reverse osmosis and electrodialysis .
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis ProfIndian Institute of Technology Iadras

Reverse osmosis)
In the reverse osmosis process, demineralisation water is produced by forcing water through semipermeable membranes at high pressure. In ordinary osmosis, if a vessel is divided by a semipermeable membrane 'one that is permeable to water but not the dissolved material(, and one compartment is filled with water and other with concentrated salt solution, water diffused through the membrane towards the compartment containing salt solution until the difference in water levels on the two sides of the membrane creates a sufficient pressure to counteract the original water flow. The difference in levels represents the osmotic pressure of the solution 'fig./a(. 'ure water/altsolution(ig 3a 1smosismem&rane The process can be reversed by applying sufficient pressure to the concentrated solution to overcome the osmotic pressure force the net flow of water through the membrane towards the dilute phase. The solute concentration 'impurity( builds up on one side of the membrane while relatively pure water passes through the membrane . In order to obtain ade-uate solvent 'water( flu* through the membrane, pressures of the order of 8$$$ to <$$$ k?/m1 are re-uired. @ig./b represents the principle of operation of the reverse osmosis unit.
emistry and "nalysis Prof.Indan Institute of Technology Iadras

'ressure mem&rane 'ure /alt water solution (ig 3& Reverse 1smosis

Electrodialysis)
Flectrodialysis uses ion2selective membranes and an electrical potential difference to separate anions and cations in solution Electrode mem&rane $asses only ions mem&rane $asses only ions Electrode deionised water salt solution

Electrodialysis cell
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

In the past electrodialysis was most often used for purifying brackish water, but it is now finding a role in haCardous waste treatment. Ietal salts from plating rinses are sometimes removed in this way. @ig.1 shows a simple dialysis cell in which waste water may be deionised. "s shown in the figure two types of membranes 'anionic and cationic( are arranged alternatively to form many compartments between the electrodes placed at the two ends. +hen the voltage is applied across the cell containing mineralised water, the anions migrate to the positive electrode and the cations migrate to the negative electrode. This causes solution in alternate compartments to become more concentrated while that in the remaining becomes more dilute. The electric power re-uirement is proportional to the number of ions removed from the water. In the electrodialysis process, organic molecules are not removed and they can collect on and clog the membranes. "nother disadvantage of this method is that it still leaves concentrated waste water to be disposed of by some appropriate scheme. The process does not re-uire any chemical additives and has low energy re-uirements and as such it can be an economically feasible means of demineralisation.

Removal o% nitrogen)
?itrogen compounds may be removed in waste water in two ways. Fven after secondary treatment, most of nitrogen e*ists as ammonia. Increasing the pD produces the reaction, 87?DKD?DDK+ ++1 ...............................................................( ) ;
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

Iuch of the dissolved ammonia gas may then be e*pelled from the water into the atmosphere. The ammonium ion in the waste water may also be o*idised to nitrate by bacteria like nitrobacter and nitrosomonas, in a process called nitrification. nitrosomonas81111?D7K1?K1DK8D+ ++++
7 1

............................(!) nitrobacter111?KK1?K +.......................................... ....... .....(") These reactions are slow and re-uire long retention times in the aeration tank as well as sufficient 5K. If the flow rate is too high, the slow2growing microorganisms are washed out of the aeration tank. Knce the ammonia has been o*idised to nitrate, it may be reduced by anaerobic bacteria like pseudomonas. This denitrification re-uires a source of carbon and methanol is often used for that purpose. 7711H?K16DKDH?K16K8DK +++..................................(#) .......................($) 17111H?K76DKD7?76K7DKHKD ++++

'hos$hate removal Dchemical treatmentF)

Phosphate may be removed chemically or biologically. The most popular chemical methods use lime, 6a'KD(1 and alum, "l1'SK8(7.Bnder alkaline conditions, the calcium will combine with phosphate to form calcium hydro*yapatite, a white insoluble precipitate that is settled out and removed from waste water. Insoluble calcium carbonate is also formed and removed. 9

Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

+++.................(%) The aluminium ion from alum precipitates as very slightly soluble aluminium phosphate, 778"lPK"lPK+ + 8 ..................................................................(1&) and also forms aluminium hydro*ide. 77"l7KD"l'KD(+ + ................................................................(11) which forms sticky flocs that help to settle out phosphates.
118987196a'KD(7DPK6aKD'PK(7DKHKD

'hos$hate removal D&iological treatmentF

Jiological phosphorous removal does not re-uire the addition of chemicals. In this process, the aeration tank in the activated sludge system is subdivided into Cones, some of which are not aerated. In these Cones, the aerobic microorganisms become solely stressed because of the lack of o*ygen. If these microorganisms are then transferred to an aerated Cone, they try to make up for lost time and assimilate organic matter 'as well as phosphorous( at a rate much higher than they ordinarily would. Knce the microorganisms have adsorbed the phosphorous, they are removed as waste activated sludge, thus carrying with them high concentrations of phosphorous. Bsing such se-uencing of nonaerated and aerated Cones, it is possible to remove as much as ;$> of the phosphorous.

Removal o% dissolved organic com$ounds) Adsor$tion) Kne of the most commonly used techni-ues for removing organics
involves #5
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

the process of adsorption, which is the physical adhesion of chemicals on to the surface of the solid. The effectiveness of the adsorbent is directly related to the amount of surface area available to attract the particles of contaminant. The most commonly used adsorbent is a very porous matri* of granular activated carbon, which has an enormous surface area 'T /$$$ m1/g(. "dsorption on activated carbon is perhaps the most economical and technically attractive method available for removing soluble organics such as phenols, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surfactants, and colour and odour producing substances from waste water. Granular activated carbon treatment systems consist of a series of large vessels partially filled with adsorbent. 6ontaminated water enters the top of each vessel, trickles down through granulated activated carbon, and is released at the bottom. "fter a period of time, the carbon filter becomes clogged with adsorbed contaminants and must be either replaced or regenerated. 4egeneration of the carbon is accomplished by heating it to ;9$o6 in a steam air atmosphere. This process o*idises surface, with an appro*imately /$> loss of carbon. Synthetic organic polymers such as "mberlite U"528 have hydrophobic surfaces and are -uite useful in removing relatively insoluble organic compounds such as chlorinated pesticides. These absorbents are readily regenerated by solvents such as isopropanol and acetone.

/ludge treatment and dis$osal)

Joth primary and secondary sewage treatments involve settling of particulate matter, and thus produce sludge. The concentration of solids in the primary sewage sludge is

about 9>3 the activated sludge contains about />3 and the sludge from trickling filters has about 1> solids. Thus the sludge is ##
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian Indian Institute of Technology Iadras

composed of almost entirely of water and volume reduction is the key to economic disposal. In addition to reducing its high water content, the sludge must be stabilised so that its biological activity and tendency towards putrefaction are reduced drastically. The sludge is concentrated by gravity settling and floatation. "fter concentration the sludge is sub,ected to anaerobic digestion in a digester in which the organic content of the sludge decomposes to give mainly methane and carbondio*ide and at the same time the bound water is released from the sludge. The sludge is then conditioned to improve its dewatering characteristics by adding chemicals like iron salts and polyelectrolytes. These chemicals bind the sludge particles together and encourage the release of water. The sludge is then heated under pressure and after a period of time the gel structure of the sludge breaks down so that the water is released. The thickened sludge is then dewatered for efficient handling and disposal. The dewatering is accomplished by mechanical methods, the most common being centrifugation and filtration. The dewatered sludge is then sub,ected to o*idation to reduce the organic content, with the conse-uent destruction of bacteria and a significant reduction in their volumes. Incineration and wet o*idation are the two common methods employed for o*idation. Several methods are employed for the ultimate disposal of sludge. The wet digested sludge may be sprayed on to a cropland where it functions as fertiliser. 5ried sludge may be used a land fill or soil conditioner. +et or partially dewatered sludge or ash from incineration may be transported from the shore to dumping grounds at sea. The potential drawback to the use of sewage sludge as fertiliser in agricultural fields is the presence of both organic and inorganic to*ic #%ian
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compounds. The former compounds are o*idation2resistant organic substances, such as organochlorine species which become bound in the organic matri* of the sludge. The inorganic to*icants are represented by heavy metals, mainly arsenic, cadmium , lead, mercury and Cinc. These metals can be taken up by crops and introduced into the food chains or leached to the ground water.

Disin%ection)
5isinfection, using chemical and physical methods is the final step in drinking water purification. The finished water is disinfected often with chlorine. It kills the remaining microorganisms in the water, some of which will be pathogenic. It is a very efficient o*idising, bleaching and disinfecting agent. In water chlorine reacts as follows. The hypochlorous acid 'DK6l( is the prime disinfecting agent. Its dissociation in pD dependent yielding less effective hypochlorite ions 'K6l 2( at higher pD values. Together, DK6l and K6l2 are called the free available chlorine. " principal advantage of chlorination over other forms of disinfection is that a chlorine residual is created that can protect the treated water after leaving the treatment plant. This guards against possible contamination that might occur in water distribution system. To increase the lifetime of the residual, some systems add ammonia to the treated water, forming chloramines.

6hloramines, although they are less effective as o*idants than DK6l, are more persistent. 4esidual chlorine that e*ists as chloramine is referred to as com&ined availa&le chlorine. 6hlorine may have adverse secondary effects. It has the potential to combine with trace amounts of organic substances to form trihalomethanes 'TDIs( such as the carcinogen chloroform. Some studies have shown an association between bladder and rectal cancer and consumption of chlorinated drinking water. Kne approach to reducing TDIs is to remove more of the organics before any chlorination takes place, which can be accomplished by adsorption on activated carbon. The problem faced with the formation of TDIs has spurred interest in alternatives to chlorination as the preferred method of disinfection. "lternative disinfectants include chlorine dio*ide and oCone. 6hlorine dio*ide '6lK 1( is a potent bactericide and viricide and it does not form a residual capable of protecting water in the distribution system. Dowever, there is concern for certain to*ic chlorate and chlorite substances that it may create, and it is a very costly method of disinfection. KConation involves the passage of oCone 'K7( through water. KCone is a very powerful disinfectant that is even more effective against cysts and viruses than chlorine, and it has the added advantage of having no Institutaste or odour problems. Bnfortunately, the disincentive power of oCone is limited by its relatively low solubility in water.

UNIT-I5 AD5AN*ED WATER TREATMENT INTRODU*TION +eration is a unit process in which air and water are brought into intimate contact. .urbulence increases the aeration of flowing streams (Digure (!#). In industrial processes, water flow is usually directed countercurrent to atmospheric or forced!draft air flow. .he contact time and the ratio of air to water must be sufficient for effective removal of the unwanted gas. +eration as a water treatment practice is used for the following operationsU

carbon dio&ide reduction (decarbonation) o&idation of iron and manganese found in many well waters (o&idation tower) ammonia and hydrogen sulfide reduction (stripping)

+eration is also an effective method of bacteria control. MET+ODS OF AERATION .wo general methods may be used for the aeration of water. .he most common in industrial use is the water!fall aerator. .hrough the use of spray no les, the water is broken up into small droplets or a thin film to enhance countercurrent air contact. In the air diffusion method of aeration, air is diffused into a receiving vessel containing counter! current flowing water, creating very small air bubbles. .his ensures good air!water contact for /scrubbing/ of undesirable gases from the water. Water-Fall Aerator" 7any variations of the water!fall principle are used for this type of aeration. .he simplest configuration employs a vertical riser that discharges water by free fall into a basin (Digure (!%). .he riser usually operates on the available head of water. .he efficiency of aeration is improved as the fall distance is increased. +lso, steps or shelves may be added to break up the fall and spread the water into thin sheets or films, which increases contact time and aeration efficiency. -oke tray and wood or plastic slat water!fall aerators are relatively similar in design and have the advantage of small space re0uirements. -oke tray aerators are widely used in iron and manganese o&idation because a catalytic effect is secured by contact of the iron/manganese!bearing water with fresh precipitates. .hese units consist of a series of coke!filled trays through which the water percolates, with additional aeration obtained during the free fall from one tray to the ne&t.

=ood or plastic slat tray aerators are similar to small atmospheric cooling towers. .he tray slats are staggered to break up the free fall of the water and create thin films before the water finally drops into the basin. Dorced draft water!fall aerators (see Digure (!') are used for many industrial water conditioning purposes. 1ori ontal wood or plastic slat trays, or towers filled with packing of various shapes and materials, are designed to ma&imi e disruption of the falling water into small streams for greater air!water contact. +ir is forced through the unit by a blower which produces uniform air distribution across the entire cross section, cross current or countercurrent to the fall of the water. 3ecause of these features, forced draft aerators are more efficient for gas removal and re0uire less space for a given capacity. Air Di $"ion Aerator" +ir diffusion systems aerate by pumping air into water through perforated pipes, strainers, porous plates, or tubes. +eration by diffusion is theoretically superior to water!fall aeration because a fine bubble of air rising through water is continually e&posed to fresh li0uid surfaces, providing ma&imum water surface per unit volume of air. +lso, the velocity of bubbles ascending through the water is much lower than the velocity of free!falling drops of water, providing a longer contact time. Createst efficiency is achieved when water flow is countercurrent to the rising air bubbles. APPLI*ATIONS In industrial water conditioning, one of the major objectives of aeration is to remove carbon dio&ide. +eration is also used to o&idi e soluble iron and manganese (found in many well waters) to insoluble precipitates. +eration is often used to reduce the carbon dio&ide liberated by a treatment process. Dor e&ample, acid may be fed to the effluent of sodium eolite softeners for boiler alkalinity control. -arbon dio&ide is produced as a result of the acid treatment, and aeration is employed to rid the water of this corrosive gas. >imilarly, when the effluents of hydrogen and sodium eolite units are blended, the carbon dio&ide formed is removed by aeration. In the case of cold lime softening, carbon dio&ide may be removed from the water before the water enters the e0uipment. =hen carbon dio&ide removal is the only objective, economics usually favor removal of high concentrations of carbon dio&ide by aeration rather than by chemical precipitation with lime. +ir stripping may be used to reduce concentrations of volatile organics, such as chloroform, as well as dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. +ir pollution standards must be considered when air stripping is used to reduce volatile organic compounds. Iron an# Mangane"e Removal Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates. In the aeration process, the water is saturated with o&ygen to promote the following reactionsU (De(1-<')% ferrous bicarbonate R <% o&ygen R %1%< water ] (De(<1)'! ferric R ;-<% carbon

hydro&ide %7n(1-<')% manganese bicarbonate R <% o&ygen ] %7n<% manganese dio&ide R (-<% ! R carbon dio&ide

dio&ide %1%< water

.he o&idation products, ferric hydro&ide and manganese dio&ide, are insoluble. +fter aeration, they are removed by clarification or filtration. <ccasionally, strong chemical o&idants such as chlorine (-l%) or potassium permanganate (F7n<() may be used following aeration to ensure complete o&idation. Di""olve# Ga" Re#$!tion Cases dissolved in water follow the principle that the solubility of a gas in a li0uid (water) is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the li0uid at e0uilibrium. .his is known as 1enry4s 8aw and may be e&pressed as followsU -total ] k@ where -total @ k ] total concentration of the gas in solution ] partial pressure of the gas above the solution ] a proportionality constant known as 1enry4s 8aw -onstant

1owever, the gases fre0uently encountered in water treatment (with the e&ception of o&ygen) do not behave in accordance with 1enry4s 8aw because they ioni e when dissolved in water. Dor e&ampleU 1%< water R -<% carbon dio&ide ` 1R hydrogen ion R 1>! hydrosulfide ion ` a 1R hydrogen ion R 1-<'! bicarbonate ion

1%> hydrogen sulfide 1%< R water

?1' ammonia

?1(R ammonium ion

<1! hydro&ide ion

-arbon dio&ide, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia are soluble in water under certain conditions to the e&tent of #,655, ',955, and )'#,555 ppm, respectively. 2arely are these concentrations encountered e&cept in certain process condensates. In a normal atmosphere, the partial pressure of each of these gases is practically ero. -onse0uently, the establishment of a state of e0uilibrium between water and air by means of aeration results in saturation of the water with nitrogen and o&ygen and nearly complete removal of other gases. +s the e0uations above show, ioni ation of the gases in water is a reversible reaction. .he common ion effect may be used to obtain almost complete removal of these gases by aeration. If the concentration of one of the ions on the right side of the e0uation is increased, the reaction is driven to the left, forming the gas. In the case of carbon dio&ide and hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen ion concentration may be increased by the addition of an acid. 3icarbonate and carbonate ions in the water will form carbon dio&ide, which can be removed by aeration. In a similar manner, an increase in hydro&yl ion concentration through the addition of caustic soda aids in the removal of ammonia. Digures (!(, (!), and (!* show the percentage of gas removal that may be obtained at various p1 levels. Cas removal by aeration is achieved as the level of gas in the water approaches e0uilibrium with the level of the gas in the surrounding atmosphere. .he process is improved by an increase in temperature, aeration time, the volume of air in contact with the water, and the surface area of water e&posed to the air. +s previously indicated, p1 is an important consideration. .he efficiency of aeration is greater where the concentration of the gas to be removed is high in the water and low in the atmosphere. LIMITATIONS .emperature significantly affects the efficiency of air stripping processes. .herefore, these processes may not be suitable for use in colder climates. .heoretically, at *;bD the carbon dio&ide content of the water can be reduced to 5.) ppm by aeration to e0uilibrium conditions. .his is not always practical from an economic standpoint, and reduction of carbon dio&ide to #5 ppm is normally considered satisfactory. +lthough removal of free carbon dio&ide increases the p1 of the water and renders it less corrosive from this standpoint, aeration also results in the saturation of water with dissolved o&ygen. .his does not generally present a problem when original o&ygen content is already high. 1owever, in the case of a well water supply that is high in carbon dio&ide but devoid of o&ygen, aeration simply e&changes one corrosive gas for another. .he efficiency of aeration increases as the initial concentration of the gas to be removed increases above its e0uilibrium value. .herefore, with waters containing only a small amount of carbon dio&ide, neutrali ation by alkali addition is usually more cost!effective. .he complete removal of hydrogen sulfide must be combined with p1 reduction or chemical o&idation. ?onvolatile organic compounds cannot be removed by air stripping. Dor e&ample, phenols and creosols are unaffected by the aeration process alone.

>uspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various methods to provide a water suitable for domestic purposes and most industrial re0uirements. .he suspended matter can consist of large solids, settable by gravity alone without any e&ternal aids, and nonsettleable material, often colloidal in nature. 2emoval is generally accomplished by coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation. .he combination of these three processes is referred to as conventional clarification. -oagulation is the process of destabili ation by charge neutrali ation. <nce neutrali ed, particles no longer repel each other and can be brought together. -oagulation is necessary for the removal of the colloidal!si ed suspended matter. Dlocculation is the process of bringing together the destabili ed, or /coagulated,/ particles to form a larger agglomeration, or /floc./ >edimentation refers to the physical removal from suspension, or settling, that occurs once the particles have been coagulated and flocculated. >edimentation or subsidence alone, without prior coagulation, results in the removal of only relatively coarse suspended solids. Step" o *lari i!ation Dinely divided particles suspended in surface water repel each other because most of the surfaces are negatively charged. .he following steps in clarification are necessary for particle agglomerationU

Coagulation. -oagulation can be accomplished through the addition of inorganic salts of aluminum or iron. .hese inorganic salts neutrali e the charge on the particles causing raw water turbidity, and also hydroly e to form insoluble precipitates, which entrap particles. -oagulation can also be effected by the addition of water!soluble organic polymers with numerous ioni ed sites for particle charge neutrali ation. #locculation. Dlocculation, the agglomeration of destabili ed particles into large particles, can be enhanced by the addition of high!molecular!weight, water!soluble organic polymers. .hese polymers increase floc si e by charged site binding and by molecular bridging.

.herefore, coagulation involves neutrali ing charged particles to destabili e suspended solids. In most clarification processes, a flocculation step then follows. Dlocculation starts when neutrali ed or entrapped particles begin to collide and fuse to form larger particles. .his process can occur naturally or can be enhanced by the addition of polymeric flocculant aids. Inorgani! *oag$lant" .able )!# lists a number of common inorganic coagulants. .ypical iron and aluminum coagulants are acid salts that lower the p1 of the treated water by hydrolysis. ,epending on initial raw water alkalinity and p1, an alkali such as lime or caustic must be added to counteract the p1 depression of the primary coagulant. Iron and aluminum hydrolysis products play a significant role in the coagulation process, especially in cases where low!turbidity influent waters benefit from the presence of additional collision surface areas. Table 5-1. Common inorganic coagulants

Name +luminum sulfate +lum +luminum chloride Derric sulfate

T%pi!al Form$la +l%(><()' 8 #( to #; 1%< +l-l' 8*1%< De%(><()' 891%<

T%pi!al Strengt) #6E +l%<' ;.%)E +l%<' ')E +l-l' *;E De%(><()' (#E De%(><()' *5E De-l', ')!()E De-l' ';!(*E ?a%+l%<(

T%pi!al Form" U"e# in Water Treatment lump, granular, or powder li0uid li0uid granular solution crystal, solution

Den"it%

T%pi!al U"e"

*5!65 lb/ft' primary coagulant ##.# lb/gal #%.) lb/gal primary coagulant 65!6% lb/ft' primary coagulant #%.' lb/gal primary coagulant *5!*( lb/ft' primary coagulant ##.%!#%.( lb/gal #%.'!#%.9 lb/gal primary coagulantH cold/hot precipitation softening

Derric!floc De%(><()' 891%< Derric chloride >odium aluminate De-l'

?a%+l%<(

li0uid

Bariation in p1 affects particle surface charge and floc precipitation during coagulation. Iron and aluminum hydro&ide flocs are best precipitated at p1 levels that minimi e the coagulant solubility. 1owever, the best clarification performance may not always coincide with the optimum p1 for hydro&ide floc formation. +lso, the iron and aluminum hydro&ide flocs increase volume re0uirements for the disposal of settled sludge. =ith aluminum sulfate, optimum coagulation efficiency and minimum floc solubility normally occur at p1 *.5 to 6.5. Iron coagulants can be used successfully over the much broader p1 range of ).5 to ##.5. If ferrous compounds are used, o&idation to ferric iron is needed for complete precipitation. .his may re0uire either chlorine addition or p1 adjustment. .he chemical reactions between the water4s alkalinity (natural or supplemented) and aluminum or iron result in the formation of the hydro&ide coagulant as in the followingU +l%(><()' aluminum sulfate R *?a1-<' ] %+l(<1)'! R '?a%><( sodium bicarbonate aluminum hydro&ide %De(<1)'! ferric hydro&ide sodium sulfate R '?a%><( R sodium sulfate R *-<% carbon dio&ide *-<% carbon dio&ide

De%(><()' R *?a1-<' ] ferric sulfate sodium bicarbonate

?a%+l%<( sodium aluminate

(1%< ] %+l(<1)'! water aluminum hydro&ide

%?a<1 sodium hydro&ide

Pol%ele!trol%te" .he term polyelectrolytes refers to all water!soluble organic polymers used for clarification, whether they function as coagulants or flocculants. =ater!soluble polymers may be classified as followsU

anionic!ioni e in water solution to form negatively charged sites along the polymer chain cationic!ioni e in water solution to form positively charged sites along the polymer chain nonionic!ioni e in water solution to form very slight negatively charged sites along the polymer chain

@olymeric primary coagulants are cationic materials with relatively low molecular weights (under )55,555). .he cationic charge density (available positively charged sites) is very high. @olymeric flocculants or coagulant aids may be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. .heir molecular weights may be as high as )5,555,555. .able )!% describes some typical organic polyelectrolytes. Dor any given particle there is an ideal molecular weight and an ideal charge density for optimum coagulation. .here is also an optimum charge density and molecular weight for the most efficient flocculant. 3ecause suspensions are normally nonuniform, specific testing is necessary to find the coagulants and flocculants with the broadest range of performance. Primar% *oag$lant Pol%ele!trol%te" .he cationic polyelectrolytes commonly used as primary coagulants are polyamines and poly! (,+,7+->). .hey e&hibit strong cationic ioni ation and typically have molecular weights of less than )55,555. =hen used as primary coagulants, they adsorb on particle surfaces, reducing the repelling negative charges. .hese polymers may also bridge, to some e&tent, from one particle to another but are not particularly effective flocculants. .he use of polyelectrolytes permits water clarification without the precipitation of additional hydro&ide solids formed by inorganic coagulants. .he p1 of the treated water is unaffected. .he efficiency of primary coagulant poly!electrolytes depends greatly on the nature of the turbidity particles to be coagulated, the amount of turbidity present, and the mi&ing or reaction energies available during coagulation. =ith lower influent turbidities, more turbulence or mi&ing is re0uired to achieve ma&imum charge neutrali ation. 2aw waters of less than #5 ?.A (?ephelometric .urbidity Anits) usually cannot be clarified with a cationic polymer alone. 3est results are obtained by a combination of an inorganic salt and cationic polymer. In!line clarification should be considered for raw waters with low turbidities.

Cenerally, waters containing #5 to *5 ?.A are most effectively treated with an inorganic coagulant and cationic polymer. In most cases, a significant portion of the inorganic coagulant demand can be met with the cationic polyelectrolyte. =ith turbidity greater than *5 ?.A, a polymeric primary coagulant alone is normally sufficient. In low!turbidity waters where it is desirable to avoid using an inorganic coagulant, artificial turbidity can be added to build floc. 3entonite clay is used to increase surface area for adsorption and entrapment of finely divided turbidity. + polymeric coagulant is then added to complete the coagulation process. .he use of organic polymers offers several advantages over the use of inorganic coagulantsU

$he amount of sludge produced during clarification can be reduced by %&'(&). .he appro&imate dry weight of solids removed per pound of dry alum and ferric sulfate are appro&imately 5.%) and 5.) lb, respectively. $he resulting sludge contains less chemically bound water and can be more easily dewatered. *olymeric coagulants do not affect p+. .herefore, the need for supplemental alkalinity, such as lime, caustic, or soda ash, is reduced or eliminated. *olymeric coagulants do not add to the total dissolved solids concentration. Dor e&ample, # ppm of alum adds 5.() ppm of sulfate ion (e&pressed as -a-<'). .he reduction in sulfate can significantly e&tend the capacity of anion e&change systems. Soluble iron or aluminum carryover in the clarifier effluent may result from inorganic coagulant use. .herefore, elimination of the inorganic coagulant can minimi e the deposition of these metals in filters, ion e&change units, and cooling systems.

*oag$lant Ai#" 9Flo!!$lant": In certain instances, an e&cess of primary coagulant (whether inorganic, polymeric, or a combination of both) may be fed to promote large floc si e and to increase settling rate. 1owever, in some waters, even high doses of primary coagulant will not produce the desired effluent clarity. + polymeric coagulant aid added after the primary coagulant may, by developing a larger floc at low treatment levels, reduce the amount of primary coagulant re0uired. Cenerally, very high!molecular!weight, anionic polyacrylamides are the most effective coagulant aids. ?onionic or cationic types have proven successful in some clarifier systems. Essentially, the polymer bridges the small floc particles and causes them to agglomerate rapidly into larger, more cohesive flocs that settle 0uickly. .he higher!molecular!weight polymers bridge suspended solids most effectively. -oagulant aids have proven 0uite successful in precipitation softening and clarification to achieve improved settling rates of precipitates and finished water clarity. *olor Re#$!tion Dre0uently, the objective of clarification is the re!duction of color. >wamps and wetlands introduce color into surface waters, particularly after heavy rainfalls. -olor!causing materials can cause various problems, such as objectionable taste, increased microbiological content,

fouling of anion e&change resins, and interference with coagulation and stabili ation of silt, soluble iron, and manganese. 7ost organic color in surface waters is colloidal and negatively charged. -hemically, color! producing compounds are classified as humic and fulvic acids. -olor can be removed by chlorination and coagulation with aluminum or iron salts or organic polyelectrolytes. -hlorine o&idi es color compounds, while the inorganic coagulants can physically remove many types of organic color by neutrali ation of surface charges. .he use of chlorine to o&idi e organic color bodies may be limited due to the production of chlorinated organic by!products, such as trihalomethanes. +dditional color removal is achieved by chemical interaction with aluminum or iron hydrolysis products. 1ighly charged cationic organic polyelectrolytes can also be used to coagulate some types of color particles. -oagulation for color reduction is normally carried out at p1 (.) to ).). <ptimum p1 for turbidity removal is usually much higher than that for color reduction. .he presence of sulfate ions can interfere with coagulation for color reduction, whereas calcium and magnesium ions can improve the process and broaden the p1 range in which color may be reduced effectively. *onventional *lari i!ation E'$ipment .he coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation process re0uires three distinct unit processesU

high shear, rapid mi& for coagulation low shear, high retention time, moderate mi&ing for flocculation li0uid and solids separation

+ori;ontal Flo& *lari ier" <riginally, conventional clarification units consisted of large, rectangular, concrete basins divided into two or three sections. Each stage of the clarification process occurred in a single section of the basin. =ater movement was hori ontal with plug flow through these systems. 3ecause the design is suited to large!capacity basins, hori ontal flow units are still used in some large industrial plants and for clarifying municipal water. .he retention time is normally long (up to (!* hr), and is chiefly devoted to settling. 2apid mi& is typically designed for '!) min and slow mi& for #)!'5 min. .his design affords great fle&ibility in establishing proper chemical addition points. +lso, such units are relatively insensitive to sudden changes in water throughput. .he long retention also allows sufficient reaction time to make necessary adjustments in chemical and polymer feed if raw water conditions suddenly change. 1owever, for all but very large treated water demands, hori ontal units re0uire high construction costs and more land space per unit of water capacity. Up lo& *lari ier" -ompact and relatively economical, upflow clarifiers provide coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation in a single (usually circular) steel or concrete tank. .hese clarifiers are termed /upflow/ because the water flows up toward the effluent launders as the suspended solids settle. .hey are characteri ed by increased solids contact through internal sludge recirculation. .his is

a key feature in maintaining a high!clarity effluent and a major difference from hori ontal clarifiers. 3ecause retention time in an upflow unit is appro&imately #!% hr, upflow basins can be much smaller in si e than hori ontal basins of e0ual throughput capacity. + rise rate of 5.65!#.%) gpm/ftc of surface area is normal for clarification. -ombination softening!clarification units may operate at up to #.) gpm/ftc of surface area due to particle si e and densities of precipitated hardness. In order to achieve high throughput efficiency, upflow units are designed to ma&imi e the linear overflow weir length while minimi ing the opportunity for short!circuiting through the settling one. In addition, the two mi&ing stages for coagulation and flocculation take place within the same clarification tank. +lthough upflow units may provide more efficient sedimentation than hori ontal designs, many upflow clarifiers compromise on the rapid and slow mi& se0uences. >ome types provide rapid, mechanical mi&ing and rely on flow turbulence for flocculationH others eliminate the rapid mi& stage and provide only moderate turbulence for flocculation. 1owever, in most cases, users can overcome rapid mi& deficiencies by adding the primary coagulant further upstream of the clarifier. Digure )!# shows the rapid mi&, slow mi&, and settling ones of a typical upflow, solids!contact clarifier. Sl$#ge 2lan.et an# Soli#"-*onta!t *lari i!ation 7ost upflow designs are called either /sludge blanket/ or /solids!contact/ clarifiers. +fter coagulation and/or flocculation in the sludge blanket units, the incoming water passes through the suspended layer of previously formed floc. Digure )!% shows an upflow sludge blanket clarifier. 3ecause the centerwell in these units is often shaped like an inverted cone, the rise rate of the water decreases as it rises through the steadily enlarging cross section. =hen the rise rate decreases enough to e0ual the settling rate of the suspended floc e&actly, a distinct sludge/li0uid interface forms. >ludge blanket efficiency depends on the filtering action as the freshly coagulated or flocculated water passes through the suspended floc. 1igher sludge levels increase the filtration efficiency. In practice, the top sludge interface is carried at the highest safe level to prevent upsets that might result in large amounts of floc carryover into the overflow. E&cessive sludge withdrawal or blowdown should also be avoided. .he sludge blanket level is often highly sensitive to changes in throughput, coagulant addition, and changes in raw water chemistry and temperature. />olids!contact/ refers to units in which large volumes of sludge are circulated internally. .he term also describes the sludge blanket unit and simply means that prior to and during sedimentation the chemically treated water contacts previously coagulated solids. >olids! contact, slurry pool units do not rely on filtration as in sludge blanket designs. >olids!contact units often combine clarification and precipitation softening. 3ringing the incoming raw water into contact with recirculated sludge improves the efficiency of the softening reactions and increases the si e and density of the floc particles. Digure )!' illustrates a typical solids!contact unit.

In-Line *lari i!ation In!line clarification is the process of removing raw water turbidity through the addition of coagulant just prior to filtration. In!line clarification is generally limited to raw waters with typical turbidities of less than %5 ?.A, although upflow filters may tolerate higher loading. @olyelectrolytes and/or inorganic coagulants are used to improve filtration efficiency and run length. @olymers are favored because they do not create additional suspended solids loading, which can shorten filter run length. Dilter design may be downflow or upflow, depending on raw water turbidity and particle si e. .he downflow dual!media unit generally consists of layers of various grades of anthracite and sand supported on a gravel bed. +fter backwashing, the larger anthracite particles separate to the top of the bed, while the more dense, smaller sand particles are at the bottom. .he purpose is to allow bed penetration of the floc, which reduces the potential for e&cessive pressure drops due to blinding off the top portion of filter media. .hus, higher filtration rates are reali ed without a significant loss in effluent 0uality. ?ormal filtration rates are )!* gpm/ftc. *oag$lant Sele!tion an# Fee#ing or In-Line *lari i!ation .he choice of a polymer coagulant and feed rate depends on e0uipment design and influent water turbidity. Initially, in!line clarification was used in the treatment of low!turbidity waters, but it is now being used on many types of surface waters. Dor most waters, the use of a polymeric cationic coagulant alone is satisfactory. 1owever, the addition of a high!molecular! weight, anionic polymer may improve filtration efficiency. @olymer feed rates are usually lower than those used in conventional clarification, given the same raw water characteristics. -omplete charge neutrali ation and bridging are not necessary and should be avoided, because total coagulation or flocculation may promote e&cessive entrapment of suspended solids in the first portion of the filter media. .his can cause blinding of the media, high pressure drops, and short operating runs. >ufficient polymer is applied only to initiate neutrali ation, which allows attraction and adsorption of particles through the entire bed. <ften, polymer feed rates are regulated by trial and error on the actual units to minimi e effluent turbidity and ma&imi e service run length. 3ecause optimum flocculation is undesirable, polymers are injected just upstream of the units. ?ormally, a short mi&ing period is re0uired to achieve the degree of reaction most suitable for unit operation. ,ilution water may be recommended to disperse the polymer properly throughout the incoming water. 1owever, it may be necessary to move the polymer injection point several times to improve turbidity removal. ,ue to the nature of operation, a change of polymer feed rate will typically show a change in effluent turbidity in a relatively short period of time. *oag$lation Te"ting 2aw water analyses alone are not very useful in predicting coagulation conditions. -oagulation chemicals and appropriate feed rates must be selected according to operating e&perience with a given raw water or by simulation of the clarification step on a laboratory scale. :ar testing is the most effective way to simulate clarification chemistry and operation. + multiple!paddle, beaker arrangement (Digure )!() permits the comparison of various chemical

combinations, all of which are subjected to identical hydraulic conditions. .he effects of rapid and slow mi& intensity and duration may also be observed. In addition to determining the optimum chemical program, it is possible to establish the correct order of addition. .he most critical measurements in the jar test are coagulant and/or flocculant dosages, p1, floc si e and settling characteristics, floc!forming time, and finished water clarity. .o simulate sludge circulation, sludge formed in one series of jar tests (or a sludge sample from an operating clarifier) may be added to the ne&t jar test. 2esults of jar tests are only relative, and fre0uent adjustments are necessary in full!scale plant operation. 7onitoring and control units, such as a streaming current detector, can be used for on!line feedback control. Oeta potential measurements have been used e&perimentally to predict coagulant re0uirements and optimum p1 levels. 3ecause the measurement techni0ue re0uires special apparatus and a skilled technician, eta potential has never become practical for controlling industrial water clarification plants. +lso, because eta potential measures only one aspect of the entire process, it may not reflect all conditions leading to coagulation efficiency. *)emi!al A##ition" .he most efficient method for adding coagulation chemicals varies according to the type of water and system used, and must be checked by means of jar testing. 1owever, there is a usual se0uenceU #. %. '. (. ). chlorine bentonite (for low!turbidity waters) primary inorganic and/or polymer coagulant p1!adjusting chemicals coagulant aid =aters with a high organic content e&hibit an increased primary coagulant demand. -hlorine may be used to assist coagulation by o&idi ing organic contaminants which have dispersing properties. -hlorination prior to primary coagulant feed also reduces the coagulant dosage. =hen an inorganic coagulant is used, the addition of p1!adjusting chemicals prior to the coagulant establishes the proper p1 environment for the primary coagulant. +ll treatment chemicals, with the e&ception of coagulant aids, should be added during very turbulent mi&ing of the influent water. 2apid mi&ing while the aluminum and iron coagulants are added ensures uniform cation adsorption onto the suspended matter. 1igh shear mi&ing is especially important when cationic polymers are used as primary coagulants. In general, it is advisable to feed them as far ahead of the clarifier as possible. 1owever, when a coagulant aid is added, high shear mi&ing must be avoided to prevent interference with the polymer4s bridging function. <nly moderate turbulence is needed to generate floc growth. Diltration is used in addition to regular coagulation and sedimentation for removal of solids from surface water or wastewater. .his prepares the water for use as potable, boiler, or cooling make! up. =astewater filtration helps users meet more stringent effluent discharge permit re0uirements.

Diltration, usually considered a simple mechanical process, actually involves the mechanisms of adsorption (physical and chemical), straining, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and inertial compaction. Diltration does not remove dissolved solids, but may be used together with a softening process, which does reduce the concentration of dissolved solids. Dor e&ample, anthracite filtration is used to remove residual precipitated hardness salts remaining after clarification in precipitation softening. In most water clarification or softening processes where coagulation and precipitation occur, at least a portion of the clarified water is filtered. -larifier effluents of %!#5 ?.A may be improved to 5.#!#.5 ?.A by conventional sand filtration. Diltration ensures acceptable suspended solids concentrations in the finished water even when upsets occur in the clarification processes. TYPI*AL *ONSTRU*TION -onventional gravity and pressure rapid filters operate downflow. .he filter medium is usually a #)!'5 in. deep bed of sand or anthracite. >ingle or multiple grades of sand or anthracite may be used. + large particle bed supports the filter media to prevent fine sand or anthracite from escaping into the underdrain system. .he support bed also serves to distribute backwash water. .ypical support beds consist of # ;!# in. gravel or anthracite in graded layers to a depth of #%!#* in. TYPES OF MEDIA ^uart sand, silica sand, anthracite coal, garnet, magnetite, and other materials may be used as filtration media. >ilica sand and anthracite are the most commonly used types. =hen silica is not suitable (e.g., in filters following a hot process softener where the treated water is intended for boiler feed), anthracite is usually used. .he si e and shape of the filter media affect the efficiency of the solids removal. >harp, angular media form large voids and remove less fine material than rounded media of e0uivalent si e. .he media must be coarse enough to allow solids to penetrate the bed for %!( in. +lthough most suspended solids are trapped at the surface or in the first #!% in. of bed depth, some penetration is essential to prevent a rapid increase in pressure drop. >and and anthracite for filters are rated by effective particle si e and uniformity. .he effective si e is such that appro&imately #5E of the total grains by weight are smaller and 95E are larger. .herefore, the effective si e is the minimum si e of most of the particles. Aniformity is measured by comparison of effective si e to the si e at which *5E of the grains by weight are smaller and (5E are larger. .his latter si e, divided by the effective si e, is called the uniformity coefficient!the smaller the uniformity coefficient, the more uniform the media particle si es. Diner sands result in shallower ones for the retention of suspended matter. .he most desirable media si e depends on the suspended solids characteristics as well as the effluent 0uality re0uirements and the specific filter design. In general, rapid sand filters use sand with an effective si e of 5.')!5.*5 mm (5.5#(!5.5%( in.) and a ma&imum uniformity coefficient of #.6. -oarse media, often 5.*!#.5 mm (5.5%(!5.5( in.), are used for closely controlled coagulation and sedimentation.

MI<ED MEDIA FILTER 2EDS .he terms /multilayer,/ /in!depth,/ and /mi&ed media/ apply to a type of filter bed which is graded by si e and density. -oarse, less dense particles are at the top of the filter bed, and fine, more dense particles are at the bottom. ,ownflow filtration allows deep, uniform penetration by particulate matter and permits high filtration rates and long service runs. 3ecause small particles at the bottom are also more dense (less space between particles), they remain at the bottom. Even after high!rate backwashing, the layers remain in their proper location in the mi&ed media filter bed. .able *!# lists four media that are used in multilayer filtration. >everal other mi&ed media combinations have also been tested and used effectively. .he use of too many different media layers can cause severe backwashing difficulties. Dor e&ample, if all four materials listed in .able *!# were used in the same filter, a wash rate high enough to e&pand the magnetite layer might wash the anthracite from the filter. 1igh wash water re0uirements would also result. Table 6-1. ,edia used in multilayer filtration! Me#ia +nthracite >and Carnet 7agnetite E e!tive "i;e0 mm 9in(: 5.6!#.6 (5.5'!5.56) 5.'!5.6 (5.5#!5.5') 5.(!5.* (5.5#*!5.5%() 5.'!5.) (5.5#!5.5%) Spe!i i! gravit% #.( %.* '.; (.9

+nthracite/sand filter beds normally provide all of the advantages of single!media filtration but re0uire less backwash water than sand or anthracite alone. >imilar claims have been made for anthracite/sand/garnet mi&ed units. .he major advantages of dual!media filtration are higher rates and longer runs. +nthracite/sand/garnet beds have operated at normal rates of appro&imately ) gpm/ftc and peak rates as high as ; gpm/ftc without loss of effluent 0uality. *APPING OF SAND FILTERS 2apid sand filters can be converted for mi&ed media operation to increase capacity by #55E. .he cost of this conversion is much lower than that of installing additional rapid sand filters. -apping involves the replacement of a portion of the sand with anthracite. In this conversion, a %!* in. layer of 5.(!5.* mm (5.5#*!5.5%( in.) sand is removed from the surface of a bed and replaced with (!; in. of 5.9 mm (5.5') in.) anthracite. If an increase in capacity is desired, a larger amount of sand is replaced. @ilot tests should be run to ensure that a reduction in the depth of the finer sand does not reduce the 0uality of the effluent. GRA5ITY FILTERS Cravity filters (see Digure *!#) are open vessels that depend on system gravity head for operation. +part from the filter media, the essential components of a gravity filter include the followingU

.he filter shell, which is either concrete or steel and can be s0uare, rectangular, or circular. 2ectangular reinforced concrete units are most widely used. .he support bed, which prevents loss of fine sand or anthracite through the underdrain system. .he support bed, usually #!% ft deep, also distributes backwash water. +n underdrain system, which ensures uniform collection of filtered water and uniform distribution of backwash water. .he system may consist of a header and laterals, with perforations or strainers spaced suitably. Dalse tank bottoms with appropriately spaced strainers are also used for underdrain systems. =ash water troughs, large enough to collect backwash water without flooding. .he troughs are spaced so that the hori ontal travel of backwash water does not e&ceed '!' ft. In conventional sand bed units, wash troughs are placed appro&imately % ft above the filter surface. >ufficient freeboard must be provided to prevent loss of a portion of the filter media during operation at ma&imum backwash rates. -ontrol devices that ma&imi e filter operation efficiency. Dlow rate controllers, operated by venturi tubes in the effluent line, automatically maintain uniform delivery of filtered water. 3ackwash flow rate controllers are also used. Dlow rate and head loss gauges are essential for efficient operation.

PRESSURE FILTERS @ressure filters are typically used with hot process softeners to permit high!temperature operation and to prevent heat loss. .he use of pressure filters eliminates the need for repumping of filtered water. @ressure filters are similar to gravity filters in that they include filter media, supporting bed, underdrain system, and control deviceH however, the filter shell has no wash water troughs. @ressure filters, designed vertically or hori on!tally, have cylindrical steel shells and dished heads. Bertical pressure filters (see Digure *!%) range in diameter from # to #5 ft with capacities as great as '55 gpm at filtration rates of ' gpm/ftc. 1ori ontal pressure filters, usually ; ft in diameter, are #5!%) ft long with capacities from %55 to *55 gpm. .hese filters are separated into compartments to allow individual backwashing. 3ackwash water may be returned to the clarifier or softener for recovery. @ressure filters are usually operated at a service flow rate of ' gpm/ftc. ,ual or multimedia filters are designed for *!; gpm/ftc. +t ambient temperature, the recommended filter backwash rate is *!; gpm/ftc for anthracite and #'!#) gpm/ftc for sand. +nthracite filters associated with hot process softeners re0uire a backwash rate of #%!#) gpm/ftc because the water is less dense at elevated operating temperatures. -old water should not be used to backwash a hot process filter. .his would cause e&pansion and contraction of the system metallurgy, which would lead to metal fatigue. +lso, the o&ygen!laden cold water would accelerate corrosion. UPFLOW FILTERS Apflow units contain a single filter mediumLusually graded sand. .he finest sand is at the top of the bed with the coarsest sand below. Cravel is retained by grids in a fi&ed position at the bottom of the unit. .he function of the gravel is to ensure proper water distribution during the service cycle. +nother grid above the graded sand prevents fluidi ation of the media. +ir injection during cleaning (not considered backwash because the direction of flow is the same as when in!service) assists in the removal of solids and the reclassification of the filter media.

,uring operation, the larger, coarse solids are removed at the bottom of the bed, while smaller solids particles are allowed to penetrate further into the media. .ypical service flow rates are )! #5 gpm/ftc. +n e&ample of this unit is shown in Digure *!'. AUTOMATI* GRA5ITY FILTERS >everal manufacturers have developed gravity filters that are backwashed automatically at a preset head loss. 1ead loss (water level above the media) actuates a backwash siphon and draws wash water from storage up through the bed and out through the siphon pipe to waste. + low level in the backwash storage section breaks the siphon, and the filter returns to service. +utomatic gravity filters are available in diameters of up to #) ft. =hen e0uipped with a high! rate, multilayer media, a single large!diameter unit can filter as much as #,555 gpm. +n e&ample is shown in Digure *!(. *ONTINUOUS *LEANING FILTERS -ontinuous cleaning filter systems eliminate off!line backwash periods by backwashing sections of the filter or portions of the filter media continuously, on!line. Barious designs have been introduced. +n e&ample is shown in Digure *!). FILTER WAS+ING-GRA5ITY FILTERS @eriodic washing of filters is necessary for the removal of accumulated solids. Inade0uate cleaning permits the formation of permanent clumps, gradually decreasing filter capacity. If fouling is severe, the media must be cleaned chemically or replaced. Dor cleaning of rapid downflow filters, clean water is forced back up and through the media. In conventional gravity units, the backwash water lifts solids from the bed into wash troughs and carries them to waste. Either of two backwash techni0ues can be used, depending on the design of the media support structure and the accessory e0uipment availableU

1igh!rate backwash, which e&pands the media by at least #5E. 3ackwash rates of #%!#) gpm/ftc or higher are common for sand, and rates for anthracite may range from ; to #% gpm/ftc. 8ow!rate backwash, with no visible bed e&pansion, combined with air scouring.

=here only water is used for backwash, the backwash may be preceded by surface washing. In surface washing, strong jets of high!pressure water from fi&ed or revolving no les assist in breaking the filter surface crust. +fter the surface wash (when there is provision for surface washing), the unit is backwashed for appro&imately )!#5 min. Dollowing backwash, a small amount of rinse water is filtered to waste, and the filter is returned to service. 1igh!rate backwash can cause the formation of mud balls inside the filter bed. + high backwash rate and resulting bed e&pansion can produce random currents in which certain ones of the e&panded bed move upward or downward. Encrusted solids from the surface can be carried down to form mud balls. Efficient surface washing helps prevent this condition. +ir scouring with low!rate backwashing can break up the surface crust without producing random currents, if the underdrain system is de!signed to distribute air uniformly. >olids removed from the media collect in the layer of water between the media surface and wash

channels. +fter the air is stopped, this dirty water is nor!mally flushed out by increased backwash water flow rate or by surface draining. =ash water consumption is appro&imately the same whether water!only or air/water backwashing is employed. IN-LINE *LARIFI*ATION In!line clarification is the removal of suspended solids through the addition of in!line coagulant followed by rapid filtration. .his process is also referred to as in!line filtration, or contact filtration. .he process removes suspended solids without the use of sedimentation basins. -oagulation may be achieved in in!line clarification by either of two methodsU

an inorganic aluminum or iron salt used alone or with a high molecular weight polymeric coagulant a strongly cationic organic polyelectrolyte

3ecause metal hydro&ides form precipitates, only dual!media filters should be used with inorganic coagulant programs. Dloc particles must be handled in filters with coarse!to!fine graded media to prevent rapid blinding of the filter and eliminate backwashing difficulties. =here a high molecular weight polymeric coagulant is used, feed rates of less than 5.# ppm ma&imi e solids removal by increasing floc si e and promoting particle absorption within the filter. .his filtration techni0ue readily yields effluent turbidities of less than 5.) ?.A. .he second method of coagulant pretreatment involves the use of a single chemical, a strongly charged cationic polyelectrolyte. .his treatment forms no precipitation floc particles, and usually no floc formation is visible in the filter influent. >olids are removed within the bed by adsorption and by flocculation of colloidal matter directly onto the surface of the sand or anthracite media. .he process may be visuali ed as seeding of the filter bed surfaces with positive cationic charges to produce a strong pull on the negatively charged particles. 3ecause gelatinous hydro&ide precipitates are not present in this process, single! media or upflow filters are suitable for poly!electrolyte clarification. In!line clarification provides an e&cellent way to improve the efficiency of solids removal from turbid surface waters. Effluent turbidity levels of less than # ?.A are common with this method. PRE*OAT FILTRATION @recoat filtration is used to remove very small particulate matter, oil particles, and even bacteria from water. .his method is practical only for relatively small 0uantities of water which contain low concentrations of contaminants. @recoat filtration may be used following conventional clarification processes to produce water of very low suspended solids content for specific application re0uirements. Dor e&ample, precoat filters are often used to remove oil from contaminated condensate. In precoat filtration, the precoat media, typically diatomaceous earth, acts as the filter media and forms a cake on a permeable base or septum. .he base must prevent passage of the precoat media without restricting the flow of filtered water and must be capable of withstanding high pressure differentials. Dilter cloths, porous stone tubes, porous paper, wire screens, and wire! wound tubes are used as base materials.

.he supporting base material is first precoated with a slurry of precoat media. +dditional slurry (body feed) is usually added during the filter run. =hen the accumulation of matter removed by filtration generates a high pressure drop across the filter, the filter coating is sloughed off by backwashing. .he filter bed is then precoated and returned to service. -hemical coagulants are not usually needed but have been used where an ultrapure effluent is re0uired. >oftening @recipitation softening processes are used to reduce raw water hardness, alkalinity, silica, and other constituents. .his helps prepare water for direct use as cooling tower makeup or as a first! stage treatment followed by ion e&change for boiler makeup or process use. .he water is treated with lime or a combination of lime and soda ash (carbonate ion). .hese chemicals react with the hardness and natural alkalinity in the water to form insoluble compounds. .he compounds precipitate and are removed from the water by sedimentation and, usually, filtration. =aters with moderate to high hardness and alkalinity concentrations (#)5!)55 ppm as -a-<') are often treated in this fashion. *)emi"tr% o Pre!ipitation So tening In almost every raw water supply, hardness is present as calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, often referred to as carbonate hardness or temporary hardness. .hese compounds result from the action of acidic, carbon dio&ide laden rain water on naturally occurring minerals in the earth, such as limestone. Dor e&ampleU -<% carbon dio&ide 1%-<' carbonic acid R R 1%< water -a-<' d calcium carbonate ] 1%-<' carbonic acid ] -a(1-<')% calcium bicarbonate

1ardness may also be present as a sulfate or chloride salt, referred to as noncarbonate or permanent hardness. .hese salts are caused by mineral acids present in rain water or the solution of naturally occurring acidic minerals. .he significance of /carbonate/ or /temporary/ hardness as contrasted to /noncarbonate/ or /permanent/ hardness is that the former may be reduced in concentration simply by heating. In effect, heating reverses the solution reactionU

-a(1-<')% R 1eat ] calcium bicarbonate

-a-<' d calcium carbonate

R 1%< R wate r

-<% carbon dio&ide

2eduction of noncarbonate hardness, by contrast, re0uires chemical addition. + combination of lime and soda ash, along with coagulant and flocculant chemicals, is added to raw water to promote a precipitation reaction. .his allows softening to take place. *ol# Lime So tening @recipitation softening accomplished at ambient temperatures is referred to as cold lime softening. =hen hydrated lime, -a(<1)%, is added to the water being treated, the following reactions occurU -<% carbon dio&ide -a(1-<')% calcium bicarbonate 7g(1-<')% R magnesium bicarbonate R R -a(<1)% calcium hydro&id e -a(<1)% calcium hydro&id e %-a(<1)% calcium hydro&ide ] 7g(<1)% d magnesium hydro&ide ] -a-<' d calcium carbonate ] %-a-<' d calcium carbonate R %-a-<' d calcium carbonate R 1%< wate r R %1%< water R %1%< water

If the proper chemical control is maintained on lime feed, the calcium hardness may be reduced to ')!)5 ppm. 7agnesium reduction is a function of the amount of hydro&yl (<1!) alkalinity e&cess maintained. Digures 6!# and 6!% show these relationships. ?oncarbonate or permanent calcium hardness, if present, is not affected by treatment with lime alone. If noncarbonate magnesium hardness is present in an amount greater than 65 ppm and an e&cess hydro&yl alkalinity of about ) ppm is maintained, the magnesium will be reduced to about 65 ppm, but the calcium will increase in proportion to the magnesium reduction. Dor e&ample, in cold lime treatment of a water containing ##5 ppm of calcium, 9) ppm of magnesium, and at least ##5 ppm of alkalinity (all e&pressed as calcium carbonate), calcium could theoretically be reduced to ') ppm and the magnesium to about 65 ppm. 1owever, an additional %) ppm of calcium would be e&pected in the treated water due to the following reactionsU 7g><( magnesium sulfate 7g-l% magnesium chloride R R -a(<1)% calcium hydro&ide -a(<1)% calcium ] ] 7g(<1)% d magnesium hydro&ide 7g(<1)% d magnesium hydro&ide R -a><( calcium sulfate R -a-l% calcium chloride

.o improve magnesium reduction, which also improves silica reduction in cold process softening, sodium aluminate may be used. .he sodium aluminate provides hydro&yl ion (<1!) needed for improved magnesium reduction, without increasing calcium hardness in the treated water. In addition, the hydrolysis of sodium aluminate results in the formation of aluminum hydro&ide, which aids in floc formation, sludge blanket conditioning, and silica reduction. .he reactions are as followsU ?a%+l%<( sodium aluminate R (1%< ] %+l(<1)' d R %?a<1 water aluminum hydro&ide sodium hydro&ide

7g

"

><( -l%

$R

%?a<1 sodium hydro&ide

7g(<1)%d R " ?a%><( $ %?a-l magnesium hydro&ide sodium sulfate/ chloride

magnesium

sulfate/ chloride

>oda ash (?a%-<') may be used to improve hardness reduction. It reacts with noncarbonate calcium hardness according to the followingU -a><( calcium sulfate -a-l% calcium chloride R R ?a%-<' sodium carbonate ?a%-<' sodium carbonate ] ] -a-<' d calcium carbonate -a-<' d calcium carbonate R ?a%><( sodium sulfate R %?a-l sodium chloride

1owever, noncarbonate magnesium hardness reduction in cold process softening re0uires added lime. .he reactions are as followsU 7g><( magnesium su lfate R -a(<1)% calcium hydro &ide R ?a%-<' sodium carbo nate ] 7g(<1)% d magnesium hydr o&ide R -a-<' d calcium carbo nate R ?a%> <( sodiu m sulfat e R %?a-

7g-l%

R -a(<1)%

R ?a%-<'

] 7g(<1)%d

R -a-<' d

l magnesium chl oride calcium hydro &ide sodium carbo nate magnesium hydr o&ide calcium carbo nate sodiu m chlori de

In these reactions, dissolved solids are not reduced because a solution reaction product (sodium sulfate or sodium chloride) is formed. Warm Lime So tening .he warm lime softening process operates in the temperature range of #%5!#(5bD ((9!*5b-). .he solubilities of calcium, magnesium, and silica are reduced by increased temperature. .herefore, they are more effectively removed by warm lime softening than by cold lime softening. .his process is used for the following purposesU

$o recover waste heat as an energy conservation measure. .he water to be treated is heated by a waste stream, such as boiler blowdown or low!pressure e&haust steam, to recover the heat content. $o prepare feed to a deminerali-ation system. .he lower levels of calcium, magnesium, and especially silica reduce the ionic loading on the deminerali er when warm lime! softened water is used rather than cold lime!softened water. .his may reduce both the capital and operating costs of the deminerali er. 1owever, most strong base anion resins have a temperature limitation of #(5bD (*5b-)H therefore, additional increases in temperature are not acceptable for increasing the effectiveness of contaminant reduction. $o lower the blowdown discharge from cooling systems. -ooling tower blowdown may be treated with lime and soda ash or caustic to reduce calcium and magnesium levels so that much of the blowdown may be returned to the cooling system. >ilica levels in the recirculating cooling water are also controlled in this manner.

In any warm lime or warm lime!soda ash process, temperature control is critical because temperature variations of as little as (bD/hr (%b-/hr) can cause gross carryover of the softener pricipitates. +ot Pro!e"" So tening 1ot process softening is usually carried out under pressure at temperatures of %%6!%(5bD (#5;! ##*b-). +t the operating temperature, hot process softening reactions go essentially to completion. .his treatment method involves the same reactions described above, e&cept that raw water -<% is vented and does not participate in the lime reaction. .he use of lime and soda ash permits hardness reduction down to 5.) gr/gal, or about ; ppm, as calcium carbonate. 7agnesium is reduced to %!) ppm because of the lower solubility of magnesium hydro&ide at the elevated temperatures. Sili!a Re#$!tion

1ot process softening can also provide very good silica reduction. .he silica reduction is accomplished through adsorption of the silica on the magnesium hydro&ide precipitate. If there is insufficient magnesium present in the raw water to reduce silica to the desired level, magnesium compounds (such as magnesium o&ide, magnesium sulfate, magnesium carbonate, or dolomitic lime) may be used. Digure 6!' is a plot of magnesium o&ide vs. raw water silica (in ppm), which may be used to estimate the 0uantity of magnesium o&ide re0uired to reduce silica to the levels indicated . 7agnesium o&ide is the preferred chemical because it does not increase the dissolved solids concentration of the water. Cood sludge contact enhances silica reduction. .o ensure optimum contact, sludge is fre0uently recirculated back to the inlet of the unit. -old or warm process softening is not as effective as hot process softening for silica reduction. 1owever, added magnesium o&ide and good sludge contact will improve results. @redicted analyses of a typical raw water treated by various lime and lime!soda softening processes are presented in .able 6!#. Table 7-1. Typical softener effluent analyses. Removal o *al!i$m Al.alinit% *ol#-Lime #() Lime-"o#a So tening 9*ol#: ;# Lime-"o#a So tening 9+ot: %5 Lime So tening 9+ot: #%5

Ra& Water .otal 1ardness (as -a-<'), ppm -alcium 1ardness (as -a-<'), ppm 7agnesium 1ardness (as -a-<'), ppm /@/ +lkalinity (as -a-<'), ppm /7/ +lkalinity (as -a-<'), ppm >ilica (as >i<%), ppm p1 %)5

#)5

;)

')

#)

##)

#55

*5

(*

%6

'6

%'

#;

#)5 %5 6.)

(( #9 #5.'

)) #; #5.*

(5 #!% #5.)

%; #!% #5.(

Re#$!tion o Ot)er *ontaminant"

.reatment by lime precipitation reduces alkalinity. 1owever, if the raw water alkalinity e&ceeds the total hardness, sodium bicarbonate alkalinity is present. In such cases, it is usually necessary to reduce treated water alkalinity in order to reduce condensate system corrosion or permit increased cycles of concentration. .reatment by lime converts the sodium bicarbonate in the raw water to sodium carbonate as followsU %?a1-<' R -a(<1)% ] -a-<' d R sodium bicarbonate calcium hydro&ide calcium carbonate ?a%-<' sodium carbonate R %1%< water

-alcium sulfate (gypsum) may be added to reduce the carbonate to re0uired levels. .he reaction is as followsU ?a%-<' sodium carbonate R -a><( ] -a-<' d R calcium sulfate calcium carbonate ?a%><( sodiumsulfate

.his is the same reaction involved in the reduction of noncarbonate calcium hardness previously discussed. .able 6!% shows the treated water alkalinity relationships to be e&pected in lime!soda ash softened water. Table 7-2. Alkalinity relationships as determined by titrations. +%#ro1i#e *aro,nate @]< @]7 %@ ] 7 %@ Y 7 %@ e 7 < @ < < %@ ! 7 < < %@ %@ %(7 ! @) 2i!ar,onate 7 < < 7 ! %@ 7 ! %@

Re#$!tion o Ot)er *ontaminant" 8ime softening processes, with the usual filters, will reduce o&idi ed iron and manganese to about 5.5) and 5.5# ppm, respectively. 2aw water organics (color!contributing colloids) are also reduced. .urbidity, present in most surface supplies, is reduced to about #.5 ?.A with filtration following chemical treatment. 2aw water turbidity in e&cess of #55 ?.A may be tolerated in these systemsH however, it may be necessary to coagulate raw water solids with a cationic polymer before the water enters the softener vessel to assist li0uid!solids separation.

<il may also be removed by adsorption on the precipitates formed during treatment. 1owever, oil in concentrations above about '5 ppm should be reduced before lime treatment because higher concentrations of oil may e&ert a dispersing influence and cause floc carryover. Pre!ipitation Pro!e"" 9*)emi!al: *ontrol 8ime or lime!soda softener control is usually based on treated water alkalinity and hardness. >amples are tested to determine the alkalinity to the @ (phenolphthalein, p1 ;.') and 7 (methyl orange or methyl purple, p1 (.') end points. .he following relationships applyU @ (ppm as -a-<') ] <1! hydro&yl 7 (ppm -a-<') ] <1! hydro&yl R -<'%! carbonate R R f -<'%! carbonate 1-<'! bicarbonate

In the presence of hydro&yl ion (<1!), bicarbonate concentration is so low that it may be assumed to be ero. In the precipitation process, it is advisable to ensure that all of the bicarbonate has been converted to carbonate (the least soluble form of the calcium)H therefore, a slight e&cess of hydro&yl ion should be maintained in the treated water. =hen the e0uations above are combined, it can be shown that when %@ ! 7 is positive, hydro&yl ion is present. .he usual control range isU %@ L 7 ] )!#) ppm .his corresponds to a p1 of appro&imately #5.%. If soda ash is also used, the control is on the e&cess carbonate ion. +s shown in Digure 6!# (above), e&cess carbonate will depress the calcium to the level desired. .he usual control range for hot lime!soda units isU 7 (alkalinity) ! .1 (total hardness) ] %5!(5 ppm Dor cold lime!soda softening, where effluent magnesium hardness is significantly greater than in hot lime or soda, the control range above may be inappropriate. Dor cold limeVsoda units, soda ash can be controlled such thatU %(7 ! @) ! -alcium hardness ] %5!(5 ppm -are must be e&ercised in the specification of soda ash control ranges. If the softened water is to be used as boiler feedwater, hardness removal by the addition of soda ash may not be worth the cost of the resulting increase in steam condensate system corrosion. .his corrosion is caused by the higher levels of carbon dio&ide in the steam resulting from the higher carbonate alkalinity of the feedwater. *oag$lant"=Flo!!$lant"=Sl$#ge *on#itioner"

<rganic polymer flocculants and coagulants are preferred over inorganic salts of aluminum or iron. @olymers add minimal dissolved solids to the water and their use results in reduced sludge 0uantity compared to the use of inorganic coagulants. Inorganic coagulants must react with raw water alkalinity to form the metallic precipitate that aids in clarification and sludge bed conditioning. Dor e&ample, alum reacts as followsU '-a(1-<')% calcium bicarbonat e R +l%(><()' aluminum sulfate ] '-a><( calciumsulfate R %+l(<1)' d aluminum hydro&ide R *-<% carbon dio&ide

.he precipitated aluminum hydro&ide is incorporated within the sludge produced by the softening reactions. .his increases the fluidity of the softener sludge, which allows for increased solids contact, improving softening and effluent clarity. =aters producing high calcium!to!magnesium precipitation ratios usually need sludge bed conditioning chemical feed for proper operation. >peciali ed organic polymers are available for proper conditioning of the sludge bed without the use of inorganic salts. Dour potentially adverse effects of using inorganic salts may be notedU

$he inorganic salt reduces the al alinity! .his converts the hardness to noncarbonate hardness, which is not affected by lime. +s a result, inorganic salts increase hardness in water that is naturally deficient in bicarbonate alkalinity. .hen the water is to be treated further by ion e/change0 regenerant consumption is increased! .his is due to the higher hardness and the added soluble sulfate/chloride load. $he carbon dio/ide generated by the reaction has a lime demand which is twice that of the bicarbonate! .herefore, increased chemical addition is re0uired. Soluble aluminum in the softener effluent interferes with softened water al alinity titrations0 even when very low levels of soluble aluminum e/ist! .his interference, which necessitates an increase in lime feed, causes falsely low (%@ ! 7) readings and may be partly responsible for the additional removal of magnesium seen when aluminum salts are used.

E'$ipment Emplo%e# *ol# Pro!e"" .he first cold lime!soda softening was carried out in /batch/ fashion. +n e&cess of treating chemicals was mi&ed with the water in a large basin. +fter appro&imately ( hr, the treated water was decanted from the basin, leaving the settled precipitates in the basin. .oday, continuous sludge!contact softeners (see Digures 6!( and 6!) ) are used to provide a constant flow with effluent 0uality superior to that obtained through batch treatment. .reating chemicals are added as a function of flow rate and water 0uality to the rapid mi& one of the unit. >ludge, recirculated either internally or e&ternally to the unit, may be returned to this rapid mi& one for improved softening, softened water clarity, and silica reduction.

.he water then flows to the slow mi& one of the unit. 1ere, the precipitation reactions continue and the precipitates formed become large enough to begin settling. In the sludge!contact unit, the water flows through a bed of sludge for additional contact. .he sludge level is maintained by the proper combination of sludge bed conditioning chemicals, mechanical agitation, hydraulic suspension, and sludge blowdown. + discernible line of separation between clarified water and slurry pool should e&ist in a properly operated unit. Effluent turbidity is usually less than #5 ?.A. Dlow rate is usually limited to less than #.) gpm/ft% of settling area. + retention time of # hr is re0uired to allow the softening reactions to come as close to completion as possible. 3ecause the reactions in cold process softening are not complete, the water contaminant levels leaving the unit are unstable. =ith additional time and/or increased temperature, further precipitation will occur downstream of the unit. Dre0uently, acid or carbon dio&ide is added to stabili e the water. .he p1 is reduced from about #5.% to between ;.5 and 9.5, which converts the carbonate to the more soluble bicarbonate. Ionically, the reaction isU 1R hydrogen ion R -<'%! carbonateion ] 1-<'! bicarbonate ion

+ typical cold lime softener system is shown in Digure 6!* . +ot Pro!e"" .wo hot process softener designs are illustrated in Digures 6!6 and 6!; . .he former, the simplest in design and fabrication, is referred to as a /downflow/ unit. .he latter, which incorporates additional features, is referred to as an /upflow/ unit. 7any variations in design of both units e&ist, but the principle of operation is 0uite similar. In each unit, water is admitted to the top of the vessel designed to operate at )!#) psig saturated steam pressure (%%6!%(5bD, #5;!##*b-). +n inlet valve is used to control the inlet water flow as a function of the operating level of the vessel. .he water is sprayed into the steam space of the unit and is heated to within % or ' degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. 1eating reduces the noncondensible gas content of the water. <&ygen and carbon dio&ide are released and vented to the atmosphere with a controlled loss of heating steam. +lthough they are not deaerators, hot process units reduce o&ygen to about 5.' ppm (5.%# cmM/8) and carbon dio&ide to 5. .his residual o&ygen level in the high!temperature water is aggressive and will attack downstream e0uipment such as filters and eolites. .herefore, users should consider feeding a chemical o&ygen scavenger to the effluent of hot process softeners. .reatment chemicals are introduced into the top of the vessel as a function of flow and raw water analysis. +lthough the reactions go essentially to completion 0uite rapidly, a minimum of # hr of retention is designed into the unit. +lso, flow rate through the unit is limited to #.6!%.5 gpm/ftc. Dilter backwash water may be withdrawn from the outlet of the unit, from the filtered

water header, or from internal or e&ternal storage. Internal storage compartments are illustrated in Digure 6!;. Dilter backwash water is usually returned to the unit for recovery. In the downflow design, the water leaves the vessel after reversing direction and enters the internal hood. @recipitates separate from the water at the hood and continue downward into the cone for removal by blowdown. >ludge blowdown is proportioned to raw water flow. Dor improved silica reduction, sludge is recirculated from the cone back to the top of the unit. Dor optimum silica reduction, a sludge!contact unit (shown in Digure 6!;) is used. =ater and chemicals enter the top of the unit and flow to the bottom of the softener through a downcomer. .he sludge level is maintained in such a way that the downcomer always discharges into the sludge bed. .his ensures good contact with the sludge, which is rich in magnesium hydro&ide. +lso, the sludge bed acts as a filter, entrapping finer solids before the water e&its near the top of the vessel. >ludge recycle may also be used. .he upflow design also lends itself to easier incorporation of internal compartments for filter backwash storage and return, and condensate or treated water deaeration. Limitation" Civen proper consideration of raw water 0uality and ultimate end use of the treated water, the application of precipitation processes has few limitations. 1owever, operational difficulties may be encountered unless the following factors are controlledU

$emperature. -old and warm units are subject to carryover if the temperature varies more than (bD/hr (%b-/hr). 1ot process units are less sensitive to slight temperature variations. 1owever, a clogged or improper spray pattern can prevent proper heating of the water, and carryover can result. +ydraulics. In any system, steady!state operation within design limits optimi es the performance of the e0uipment. 2apid flow variations can cause severe system upsets. >uitable treated water storage capacity should be incorporated into the total system design to minimi e load swings on the softener. Chemical Control. .his should be as precise as possible to prevent poor water 0uality. 3ecause of the comparatively constant 0uality of most well waters, changes in chemical feed rates are largely a function of flow only. 1owever, surface water 0uality may vary hourly. .herefore, for proper control, it is imperative that users perform fre0uent testing of the raw water as well as the treated effluent, and adjust chemical feed accordingly.

Iron E&change 1istory -lassifications of ion e&change resins >odium eolite softening 1ot eolite softening ,eminerali ation ,ealkali ation -ounterflow and mi&ed bed deioni ation <ther deminerali ation processes -ondensate polishing

-ommon ion e&change system problems 2esin fouling and degradation 2esin testing and analysis +ll natural waters contain, in various concentrations, dissolved salts which dissociate in water to form charged ions. @ositively charged ions are called cationsH negatively charged ions are called anions. Ionic impurities can seriously affect the reliability and operating efficiency of a boiler or process system. <verheating caused by the buildup of scale or deposits formed by these impurities can lead to catastrophic tube failures, costly production losses, and unscheduled downtime. 1ardness ions, such as calcium and magnesium, must be removed from the water supply before it can be used as boiler feedwater. Dor high!pressure boiler feedwater systems and many process systems, nearly complete removal of all ions, including carbon dio&ide and silica, is re0uired. Ion e&change systems are used for efficient removal of dissolved ions from water. Ion e&changers e&change one ion for another, hold it temporarily, and then release it to a regenerant solution. In an ion e&change system, undesirable ions in the water supply are replaced with more acceptable ions. Dor e&ample, in a sodium eolite softener, scale!forming calcium and magnesium ions are replaced with sodium ions. +ISTORY In #95), Cans, a Cerman chemist, used synthetic aluminosilicate materials known as eolites in the first ion e&change water softeners. +lthough aluminosilicate materials are rarely used today, the term / eolite softener/ is commonly used to describe any cation e&change process. .he synthetic eolite e&change material was soon replaced by a naturally occurring material called Creensand. Creensand had a lower e&change capacity than the synthetic material, but its greater physical stability made it more suitable for industrial applications. -apacity is defined as the amount of e&changeable ions a unit 0uantity of resin will remove from a solution. It is usually e&pressed in kilograins per cubic foot as calcium carbonate. Digure ;!#. 7icroscopic view of cellular resin beads (%5!)5 mesh) of a sulfonated styrene! divinylben ene strong acid cation e&hcanger. (-ourtesy of 2ohm and 1aas -ompany.) .he development of a sulfonated coal cation e&change medium, referred to as carbonaceous eolite, e&tended the application of ion e&change to hydrogen cycle operation, allowing for the reduction of alkalinity as well as hardness. >oon, an anion e&change resin (a condensation product of polyamines and formaldehyde) was developed. .he new anion resin was used with the hydrogen cycle cation resin in an attempt to deminerali e (remove all dissolved salts from) water. 1owever, early anion e&changers were unstable and could not remove such weakly ioni ed acids as silicic and carbonic acid. In the middle #9(54s, ion e&change resins were developed based on the copolymeri ation of styrene cross!linked with divinylben ene. .hese resins were very stable and had much greater e&change capacities than their predecessors. .he polystyrene!divinylben ene!based anion e&chan!ger could remove all anions, including silicic and carbonic acids. .his innovation made the complete deminerali ation of water possible.

@olystyrene!divinylben ene resins are still used in the majority of ion e&change applications. +lthough the basic resin components are the same, the resins have been modified in many ways to meet the re0uirements of specific applications and provide a longer resin life. <ne of the most significant changes has been the development of the macroreticular, or macroporous, resin structure. >tandard gelular resins, such as those shown in Digure ;!#, have a permeable membrane structure. .his structure meets the chemical and physical re0uirements of most applications. 1owever, in some applications the physical strength and chemical resistance re0uired of the resin structure is beyond the capabilities of the typical gel structure. 7acroreticular resins feature discrete pores within a highly cross!linked polystyrene!divinylben ene matri&. .hese resins possess a higher physical strength than gels, as well as a greater resistance to thermal degradation and o&idi ing agents. 7acroreticular anion resins (Digure ;!%) are also more resistant to organic fouling due to their more porous structure. In addition to polystyrene!divinylben ene resins (Digure ;!'), there are newer resins with an acrylic structure, which increases their resistance to organic fouling. In addition to a plastic matri&, ion e&change resin contains ioni able functional groups. .hese functional groups consist of both positively charged cation elements and negatively charged anion elements. 1owever, only one of the ionic species is mobile. .he other ionic group is attached to the bead structure. Digure ;!( is a schematic illustration of a strong acid cation e&change resin bead, which has ionic sites consisting of immobile anionic (><'d) radicals and mobile sodium cations (?aR). Ion e&change occurs when raw water ions diffuse into the bead structure and e&change for the mobile portion of the functional group. Ions displaced from the bead diffuse back into the water solution. *LASSIFI*ATIONS OF ION E<*+ANGE RESINS Ioni able groups attached to the resin bead determine the functional capability of the resin. Industrial water treatment resins are classified into four basic categoriesU

>trong +cid -ation (>+-) =eak +cid -ation (=+-) >trong 3ase +nion (>3+) =eak 3ase +nion (=3+)

>+- resins can neutrali e strong bases and convert neutral salts into their corresponding acids. >3+ resins can neutrali e strong acids and convert neutral salts into their corresponding bases. .hese resins are utili ed in most softening and full deminerali ation applications. =+- and =3+ resins are able to neutrali e strong bases and acids, respectively. .hese resins are used for dealkali ation, partial deminerali ation, or (in combination with strong resins) full deminerali ation. >+- resins derive their functionality from sulfonic acid groups (1><'d). =hen used in deminerali ation, >+- resins remove nearly all raw water cations, replacing them with hydrogen ions, as shown belowU

.he e&change reaction is reversible. =hen its capacity is e&hausted, the resin can be regenerated with an e&cess of mineral acid. >trong acid cation e&changers function well at all p1 ranges. .hese resins have found a wide range of applications. Dor e&ample, they are used in the sodium cycle (sodium as the mobile ion) for softening and in the hydrogen cycle for decationi ation. =eak acid cation e&change resins derive their e&change activity from a carbo&ylic group (! -<<1). =hen operated in the hydrogen form, =+- resins remove cations that are associated with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid as shownU

.hese reactions are also reversible and permit the return of the e&hausted =+- resin to the regenerated form. =+- resins are not able to remove all of the cations in most water supplies. .heir primary asset is their high regeneration efficiency in comparison with >+- resins. .his high efficiency reduces the amount of acid re0uired to regenerate the resin, thereby reducing the waste acid and minimi ing disposal problems. =eak acid cation resins are used primarily for softening and dealkali ation of high!hardness, high!alkalinity waters, fre0uently in conjunction with >+- sodium cycle polishing systems. In full deminerali ation systems, the use of =+- and >+- resins in combination provides the economy of the more efficient =+- resin along with the full e&change capabilities of the >+resin. >3+ resins derive their functionality from 0uaternary ammonium functional groups. .wo types of 0uaternary ammonium groups, referred to as .ype I and .ype II, are used. .ype I sites have three methyl groupsU

In a .ype II resin one of the methyl groups is replaced with an ethanol group. .he .ype I resin has a greater stability than the .ype II resin and is able to remove more of the weakly ioni ed acids. .ype II resins provide a greater regeneration efficiency and a greater capacity for the same amount of regenerant chemical used. =hen in the hydro&ide form, >3+ resins remove all commonly encountered anions as shown belowU

+s with the cation resins, these reactions are reversible, allowing for the regeneration of the resin with a strong alkali, such as caustic soda, to return the resin to the hydro&ide form. =eak base resin functionality originates in primary (2!?1%), secondary (2!?124), or tertiary (2! ?24%) amine groups. =3+ resins readily re!move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, as represented by the following reactionU

SODIUM >EOLITE SOFTENING >odium eolite softening is the most widely applied use of ion e&change. In eolite softening, water containing scale!forming ions, such as calcium and magnesium, passes through a resin bed containing >+- resin in the sodium form. In the resin, the hardness ions are e&changed with the sodium, and the sodium diffuses into the bulk water solution. .he hardness!free water, termed soft water, can then be used for low to medium pressure boiler feedwater, reverse osmosis system makeup, some chemical processes, and commercial applications, such as laundries. Prin!iple" o >eolite So tening .he removal of hardness from water by a eolite softening process is described by the following reactionU

=ater from a properly operated eolite softener is nearly free from detectable hardness. 1ow! ever, some small amounts of hardness, known as leakage, are present in the treated water. .he level of hardness leakage is dependent on the hardness and sodium level in the influent water and the amount of salt used for regeneration. Digure ;!) is a typical profile of effluent hardness from a eolite softener during a service cycle. +fter final rinse, the softener produces a low, nearly constant level of hardness until the ion e&change resin nears e&haustion. +t e&haustion, the effluent hardness increases sharply, and regeneration is re0uired. +s illustrated by the softening reactions, >+- resin readily accepts calcium and magnesium ions in e&change for sodium ions. =hen e&hausted resin is regenerated, a high concentration of sodium ions is applied to the resin to replace calcium and magnesium. .he resin is treated with a

#5E sodium chloride solution, and regeneration proceeds according to the following e0uationU

,uring regeneration, a large e&cess of regenerant (appro&imately ' times the amount of calcium and magnesium in the resin) is used. .he eluted hardness is removed from the softening unit in the waste brine and by rinsing. +fter regeneration, small residual amounts of hardness remain in the resin. If resin is allowed to sit in a stagnant vessel of water, some hardness will diffuse into the bulk water. .herefore, at the initiation of flow, the water effluent from a eolite softener can contain hardness even if it has been regenerated recently. +fter a few minutes of flow, the hardness is rinsed from the softener, and the treated water is soft. .he duration of a service cycle depends on the rate of softener flow, the hardness level in the water, and the amount of salt used for regeneration. .able ;!# shows the effect of regenerant level on the softening capacity of a gelular strong cation resin. ?ote that the capacity of the resin increases as the regenerant dosage increases, but the increase is not proportional. .he regeneration is less efficient at the higher regenerant levels. .herefore, softener operating costs increase as the regenerant level increases. +s shown by the data in .able ;!#, a #)5E increase in regenerant salt provides only a *6E increase in operating capacity. .able ;!#. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity. Table 8-1. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity. Salt 9l,= t?: * ; #5 #) *apa!it% 9gr= t?: #;,555 %5,555 %(,555 '5,555

E'$ipment .he e0uipment used for sodium eolite softening consists of a softener e&change vessel, control valves and piping, and a system for brining, or regenerating, the resin. Asually, the softener tank is a vertical steel pressure vessel with dished heads as shown in Digure ;!*. 7ajor features of the softening vessel include an inlet distribution system, free!board space, a regenerant distribution system, ion e&change resin, and a resin!retaining underdrain collection system. .he inlet distribution system is usually located at the top of the tank. .he inlet system provides even distribution of influent water. .his prevents the water from hollowing out flow channels in the resin bed, which would reduce system capacity and effluent 0uality. .he inlet system also acts as a collector for backwash water. .he inlet distributor consists of a central header/hub with distributing laterals/radials or simple

baffle plates, which direct the flow of water evenly over the resin bed. If water is not prevented from flowing directly onto the bed or tank walls, channeling will result. .he volume between the inlet distributor and the top of the resin bed is called the free!board space. .he free!board allows for the e&pansion of the resin during the backwash portion of the regeneration without loss of resin. It should be a minimum of )5E of the resin volume (;5E preferred). .he regenerant distributor is usually a header!lateral system that evenly distributes the regenerant brine during regeneration. .he location of the distributor, * in. above the top of the resin bed, prevents the dilution of regenerant by water in the free!board space. It also reduces water and time re0uirements for displacement and fast rinse. .he regenerant distributor should be secured to the tank structure to prevent breakage and subse0uent channeling of the regenerant. =ater is softened by the bed of strong acid cation e&change resin in the sodium form. .he 0uantity of resin re0uired depends on the water flow, total hardness, and time desired between regeneration cycles. + minimum bed depth of %( in. is recommended for all systems. .he underdrain system, located at the bottom of the vessel, retains ion e&change resin in the tank, evenly collects the service flow, and evenly distributes the backwash flow. Aneven collection of water in service or uneven distribution of the backwash water can result in channeling, resin fouling, or resin loss. +lthough several underdrain designs are used, there are two primary typesLsubfill and resin! retaining. + subfill system consists of multiple layers of support media (such as graded gravel or anthracite) which support the resin, and a collection system incorporating drilled pipes or subfill strainers. +s long as the support layers remain intact, the resin will remain in place. If the supporting media becomes disturbed, usually due to improper backwash, the resin can move through the disrupted layers and e&it the vessel. + resin!retaining collector, such as a screened lateral or profile wire strainer, is more e&pensive than a subfill system but protects against resin loss. .he main valve and piping system directs the flow of water and regenerant to the proper locations. .he valve system consists of a valve nest or a single multiport valve. + valve nest includes si& main valvesU service inlet and outlet, backwash inlet and outlet, regenerant inlet, and regenerant/rinse drain. .he valves may be operated manually, or automatically controlled by air, electrical impulse, or water pressure. In some systems, a single multiport valve is used in place of the valve nest. +s the valve rotates through a series of fi&ed positions, ports in the valve direct flow in the same manner as a valve nest. 7ultiport valves can eliminate operational errors caused by opening of the incorrect valve but must be properly maintained to avoid leaks through the port seals. .he brining system consists of salt dissolving/brine measuring e0uipment, and dilution control e0uipment to provide the desired regenerant strength. .he dissolving/measuring e0uipment is designed to provide the correct amount of concentrated brine (appro&imately %*E ?a-l) for each regeneration, without allowing any undissolved salt into the resin. 7ost systems use a float! operated valve to control the fill and draw!down of the supply tank, thereby controlling the amount of salt used in the regeneration. Asually, the concentrated brine is removed from the tank by means of an eductor system, which also dilutes the brine to the optimum regenerant strength

(;!#5E ?a-l). .he brine can also be pumped from the concentrated salt tank and mi&ed with dilution water to provide the desired regenerant strength. So tener Operation + sodium eolite softener operates through two basic cyclesU the service cycle, which produces soft water for use, and the regeneration cycle, which restores resin capacity at e&haustion. In the service cycle, water enters the softener through the inlet distribution system and flows through the bed. .he hardness ions diffuse into the resin and e&change with sodium ions, which return to the bulk water. >oft water is collected in the underdrain system and discharged. >ervice water flow to the softener should be as constant as possible to prevent sudden surges and fre0uent on!off operation. ,ue to resin re0uirements and vessel designs, the softening operation is most efficient when a service flow rate between * and #% gpm per s0uare foot of resin surface area is maintained. 7ost e0uipment is designed to operate in this range, but some special designs utili e a deep resin bed to permit operation at #)!%5 gpm/ftc. -ontinuous operation above the manufacturer4s suggested limits can lead to bed compaction, channeling, premature hardness breakthrough, and hardness leakage. <perating well below the manufacturer4s recommended flow rates can also negatively affect softener performance. +t low flow rates, the water is not sufficiently distributed, and the optimum resin!water contact cannot take place. =hen a softener is e&hausted, the resin must be regenerated. 7onitoring of the effluent hardness reveals resin e&haustion. =hen hardness increases, the unit is e&hausted. +utomatic monitors pro!vide a more constant indication of the condition of the softener than periodic operator sampling and testing, but re0uire fre0uent maintenance to ensure accuracy. 7any facilities regenerate softeners before e&haustion, based on a predetermined time period or number of gallons processed. 7ost softening systems consist of more than one softener. .hey are often operated so that one softener is in regeneration or standby while the other units are in service. .his ensures an uninterrupted flow of soft water. @rior to placing a standby softener into service, the unit should be rinsed to remove any hardness that has entered the water during the standing time. So tener Regeneration .he regeneration cycle of a sodium eolite softener consists of four stepsU backwash, regeneration (brining), displacement (slow rinse), and fast rinse. 3ackwash. ,uring the service cycle, the downward flow of water causes suspended material to accumulate on the resin bed. 2esin is an e&cellent filter and can trap particulate matter that has passed through upstream filtration e0uipment. .he backwash step removes accumulated material and reclassifies the resin bed. In the backwash step, water flows from the underdrain distributor up through the resin bed and out the service distributor to waste. .he upward flow lifts and e&pands the resin, allowing for removal of particulate material and resin fines and the classification of the resin. 2esin classification brings the smaller beads to the top of the unit while the larger beads settle to the bottom. .his enhances the distribution of the regenerant chemical and service water. 3ackwashing should continue for a minimum of #5 min or until effluent from the backwash

outlet is clear. .he backwash flow should be sufficient to e&pand the resin bed volume by )5E or more, depending on the available free!board. Insufficient backwash can lead to bed fouling and channeling. E&cessive backwash flow rates result in the loss of resin. 3ackwash flow rates usually vary between (!; (ambient temperature) and #%!#) (hot service) gpm per s0uare foot of bed area, but each manufacturer4s recommendation should be followed. .he ability of water to e&pand the resin is greatly affected by temperature. 8ess flow is re0uired to e&pand the bed with cold water than with warm water. 2esin bed e&pansion should be checked regularly and the flow rate adjusted as needed to maintain proper bed e&pansion. Asually, the backwash water is filtered raw water. =ater leaving the backwash outlet is unchanged in chemistry but can contain suspended solids. In order to conserve water, the backwash effluent can be returned to the clarifier or filter influent for treatment. 2egeneration (3rining). +fter backwash, regenerant brine is applied. .he brine stream enters the unit through the regenerant distributor and flows down through the resin bed at a slow rate (usually between 5.) and # gpm per s0uare foot of resin). 3rine flow is collected through the underdrain and sent to waste. .he slow flow rate increases contact between the brine and resin. .o achieve optimum efficiency from the brine, the solution strength should be #5E during brine introduction. ,isplacement (>low 2inse). Dollowing the introduction of regenerant brine, a slow flow of water continues through the regenerant distribution system. .his water flow displaces the regenerant through the bed at the desired flow rate. .he displacement step completes the regeneration of the resin by ensuring proper contact of the regenerant with the bottom of the resin bed. .he flow rate for the displacement water is usually the same rate used for the dilution of the concentrated brine. .he duration of the displacement step should be sufficient to allow for appro&imately one resin bed volume of water to pass through the unit. .his provides a /plug/ of displacement water which gradually moves the brine completely through the bed. Dast 2inse. +fter completion of the displacement rinse, water is introduced through the inlet distributor at a high flow rate. .his rinse water removes the remaining brine as well as any residual hardness from the resin bed. .he fast rinse flow rate is normally between #.) and % gpm per s0uare foot of resin. >ometimes it is deter!mined by the service rate for the softener. Initially, the rinse effluent contains large amounts of hardness and sodium chloride. Asually, hardness is rinsed from the softener before e&cess sodium chloride. In many operations, the softener can be returned to service as soon as the hardness reaches a predetermined level, but some uses re0uire rinsing until the effluent chlorides or conductivity are near influent levels. +n effective fast rinse is important to ensure high effluent 0uality during the service run. If the softener has been in standby following a regeneration, a second fast rinse, known as a service rinse, can be used to remove any hardness that has entered the water during standby. +OT >EOLITE SOFTENING Oeolite softeners can be used to remove residual hardness in the effluent from a hot process lime or lime!soda softener. .he hot process effluent flows through filters and then through a bed of strong acid cation resin in the sodium form (Digure ;!6). .he e0uipment and operation of a hot eolite softener is identical to that of an ambient temperature softener, e&cept that the valves, piping, controllers, and instrumentation must be suitable for the high temperature (%%5!%)5bD).

>tandard strong cation resin can be used at temperatures of up to %65bD, but for a longer service life a premium gel or macroreticular resin is recommended. =hen operating a eolite system following a hot process softener, it is important to design the system to eliminate flow surges in the hot lime unit. -ommon designs include the use of backwash water storage tanks in the hot lime unit and e&tended slow rinses for the eolite in lieu of a standard fast rinse. Appli!ation" an# A#vantage" >cale and deposit buildup in boilers and the formation of insoluble soap curds in washing operations have created a large demand for softened water. 3ecause sodium eolite softeners are able to satisfy this demand economically, they are widely used in the preparation of water for low and medium pressure boilers, laundries, and chemical processes. >odium eolite softening also offers the following advantages over other softening methodsU

treated water has a very low scaling tendency because eolite softening reduces the hardness level of most water supplies to less than % ppm operation is simple and reliableH automatic and semiautomatic regeneration controls are available at a reasonable cost salt is ine&pensive and easy to handle no waste sludge is producedH usually, waste disposal is not a problem within certain limits, variations in water flow rate have little effect on treated water 0uality because efficient operation can be obtained in units of almost any si e, sodium eolite softeners are suitable for both large and small installations

Limitation" +lthough sodium eolite softeners efficiently re!duce the amount of dissolved hardness in a water supply, the total solids content, alkalinity, and silica in the water remain unaffected. + sodium eolite softener is not a direct replacement for a hot lime!soda softener. @lants that have replaced their hot process softeners with only eolite softeners have e&perienced problems with silica and alkalinity levels in their boilers. 3ecause the resin is such an efficient filter, sodium eolite softeners do not function efficiently on turbid waters. -ontinued operation with an influent turbidity in e&cess of #.5 :.A causes bed fouling, short service runs, and poor effluent 0uality. 7ost city and well waters are suitable, but many surface supplies must be clarified and filtered before use. .he resin can be fouled by heavy metal contaminants, such as iron and aluminum, which are not removed during the course of a normal regeneration. If e&cess iron or manganese is present in the water supply, the resin must be cleaned periodically. =henever aluminum coagulants are used ahead of eolite softeners, proper e0uipment operation and close control of clarifier p1 are essential to good softener performance. >trong o&idi ing agents in the raw water attack and degrade the resin. -hlorine, present in most municipal supplies, is a strong o&idant and should be removed prior to eolite softening by activated carbon filtration or reaction with sodium sulfite. DEMINERALI>ATION >oftening alone is insufficient for most high!pressure boiler feedwaters and for many process

streams, especially those used in the manufacture of electronics e0uipment. In addition to the removal of hardness, these processes re0uire removal of all dissolved solids, such as sodium, silica, alkalinity, and the mineral anions (-ld, ><(cd, ?<'d). ,eminerali ation of water is the removal of essentially all inorganic salts by ion e&change. In this process, strong acid cation resin in the hydrogen form converts dissolved salts into their corresponding acids, and strong base anion resin in the hydro&ide form removes these acids. ,eminerali ation produces water similar in 0uality to distillation at a lower cost for most fresh waters. Prin!iple" o Deminerali;ation + deminerali er system consists of one or more ion e&change resin columns, which include a strong acid cation unit and a strong base anion unit. .he cation resin e&changes hydrogen for the raw water cations as shown by the following reactionsU

+ measure of the total concentration of the strong acids in the cation effluent is the free mineral acidity (D7+). In a typical service run, the D7+ content is stable most of the time, as shown in Digure ;!;. If cation e&change were #55E efficient, the D7+ from the e&changer would be e0ual to the theoretical mineral acidity (.7+) of the water. .he D7+ is usually slightly lower than the .7+ because a small amount of sodium leaks through the cation e&changer. .he amount of sodium leakage depends on the regenerant level, the flow rate, and the proportion of sodium to the other cations in the raw water. In general, sodium leakage increases as the ratio of sodium to total cations increases. +s a cation e&change unit nears e&haustion, D7+ in the effluent drops sharply, indicating that the e&changer should be removed from service. +t this time the resin should be regenerated with an acid solution, which returns the e&change sites to the hydrogen form. >ulfuric acid is normally used due to its affordable cost and its availability. 1owever, improper use of sulfuric acid can cause irreversible fouling of the resin with calcium sulfate. .o prevent this occurrence, the sulfuric acid is usually applied at a high flow rate (# gpm per s0uare foot of resin) and an initial concentration of %E or less. .he acid concentration is gradually increased to *!;E to complete regeneration. >ome installations use hydrochloric acid for regeneration. .his necessitates the use of special materials of construction in the regenerant system. +s with a sodium eolite unit, an e&cess of regenerant (sulfuric or hydrochloric acid) is re0uired up to three times the theoretical dose. .o complete the deminerali ation process, water from the cation unit is passed through a strong base anion e&change resin in the hydro&ide form. .he resin e&changes hydrogen ions for both highly ioni ed mineral ions and the more weakly ioni ed carbonic and silicic acids, as shown belowU

.he above reactions indicate that deminerali ation completely removes the cations and anions from the water. In reality, because ion e&change reactions are e0uilibrium reactions, some leakage occurs. 7ost leakage from cation units is sodium. .his sodium leakage is converted to sodium hydro&ide in the anion units. .here!fore, the effluent p1 of a two bed cation!anion deminerali er system is slightly alkaline. .he caustic produced in the anions causes a small amount of silica leakage. .he e&tent of leakage from the anions depends on the chemistry of the water being processed and the regenerant dosage being used. ,eminerali ation using strong anion resins removes silica as well as other dissolved solids. Effluent silica and conductivity are important parameters to monitor during a deminerali er service run. 3oth silica and conductivity are low at the end of the fast rinse, as shown in Digure ;!9. =hen silica breakthrough occurs at the end of a service run, the treated water silica level increases sharply. <ften, the conductivity of the water decreases momentarily, then rises rapidly. .his temporary drop in conductivity is easily e&plained. ,uring the normal service run, most of the effluent conductivity is attributed to the small level of sodium hydro&ide produced in the anion e&changer. =hen silica breakthrough occurs, the hydro&ide is no longer available, and the sodium from the cation e&changer is converted to sodium silicate, which is much less conductive than sodium hydro&ide. +s anion resin e&haustion progresses, the more conductive mineral ions break through, causing a subse0uent increase in conductivity. =hen the end of a deminerali er run is detected, the unit must be removed from service immediately. If the deminerali er is allowed to remain in service past the breakpoint, the level of silica in the treated water can rise above that of the influent water, due to the concentrating of silica that takes place in the anion resin during the service run. >trong base anion e&changers are regenerated with a (E sodium hydro&ide solution. +s with cation regeneration, the relatively high concentration of hydro&ide drives the regeneration reaction. .o improve the removal of silica from the resin bed, the regenerant caustic is usually heated to #%5bD or to the temperature specified by the resin manufacturer. >ilica removal is also enhanced by a resin bed preheat step before the introduction of warm caustic. E'$ipment an# Operation .he e0uipment used for cation!anion deminerali ation is similar to that used in eolite softening. .he primary difference is that the vessels, valves, and piping must be made of (or lined with) corrosion!resistant materials. 2ubber and polyvinyl chloride (@B-) are commonly used for ion e&change vessel linings. .he controls and regenerant systems for deminerali ers are more comple&, to allow for such enhancements as stepwise acid and warm caustic regenerations. ,eminerali ers are similar in operation to eolite softeners. .he service flow rate guidelines for a deminerali er range from * to #5 gpm per s0uare foot of resin. Dlow rates of over #5 gpm per

s0uare foot of resin cause increased sodium and silica leakage with certain waters. +nion resin is much lighter than cation resin. .herefore, the backwash flow rates for anion e&change resins are much lower than those for cation resins, and anion resin e&pansion is affected by the temperature of the water more than cation resin e&pansion. .he water used for each step of anion resin regeneration should be free from hardness, to prevent precipitation of hardness salts in the alkaline anion resin bed. -ontinuous conductivity instruments and silica analy ers are commonly used to monitor anion effluent water 0uality and detect the need for regeneration. In some instances, conductivity probes are placed in the resin bed above the underdrain collectors to detect resin e&haustion before silica breakthrough into the treated water occurs. A#vantage" an# Limitation" ,eminerali ers can produce high!purity water for nearly every use. ,eminerali ed water is widely used for high pressure boiler feedwater and for many process waters. .he 0uality of water produced is comparable to distilled water, usually at a fraction of the cost. ,eminerali ers come in a wide variety of si es. >ystems range from laboratory columns that produce only a few gallons per hour to systems that produce thousands of gallons per minute. 8ike other ion e&change systems, deminerali ers re0uire filtered water in order to function efficiently. 2esin foulants and degrading agents, such as iron and chlorine, should be avoided or removed prior to deminerali ation. +nion resins are very susceptible to fouling and attack from the organic materials present in many surface water supplies. >ome forms of silica, known as colloidal, or non!reactive, are not removed by a deminerali er. 1ot, alkaline boiler water dissolves the colloidal material, forming simple silicates that are similar to those that enter the boiler in a soluble form. +s such, they can form deposits on tube surfaces and volatili e into the steam. DEAL-ALI>ATION <ften, boiler or process operating conditions re0uire the removal of hardness and the reduction of alkalinity but not the removal of the other solids. Oeolite softening does not reduce alkalinity, and deminerali ation is too costly. Dor these situations, a dealkali ation process is used. >odium eolite/hydrogen eolite (split stream) dealkali ation, chloride!anion dealkali ation, and weak acid cation dealkali ation are the most fre0uently used processes. So#i$m >eolite=+%#rogen >eolite 9Split Stream: Deal.ali;ation In a split stream dealkali er, a portion of the raw water flows through a sodium eolite softener. .he remainder flows through a hydrogen!form strong acid cation unit (hydrogen eolite). .he effluent from the sodium eolite is combined with the hydrogen eolite effluent. .he effluent from the hydrogen eolite unit contains carbonic acid, produced from the raw water alkalinity, and free mineral acids. =hen the two streams are combined, free mineral acidity in the hydrogen eolite effluent converts sodium carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity in the sodium eolite effluent to carbonic acid as shown belowU

-arbonic acid is unstable in water. It forms carbon dio&ide gas and water. .he blended effluents are sent to a decarbonator or degasser, where the carbon dio&ide is stripped from the water by a countercurrent stream of air. Digure ;!#5 shows a typical split stream dealkali ation system. .he desired level of blended water alkalinity can be maintained through control of the percentage of sodium eolite and hydrogen eolite water in the mi&ture. + higher percentage of sodium eolite water results in higher alkalinity, and an increased percentage of hydrogen eolite water reduces alkalinity. In addition to reducing alkalinity, a split stream dealkali er reduces the total dissolved solids of the water. .his is important in high alkalinity waters, because the conductivity of these waters affects the process and can limit boiler cycles of concentration. So#i$m >eolite=*)lori#e Anion Deal.ali;ation >trong base anion resin in the chloride form can be used to reduce the alkalinity of a water. =ater flows through a eolite softener and then an anion unit, which replaces the carbonate, bicarbonate, sulfate, and nitrate ions with chloride ions as shown in these reactionsU

.he chloride anion dealkali er reduces alkalinity by appro&imately 95E but does not reduce total solids. =hen the resin nears e&haustion, treated water alkalinity increases rapidly, signaling the need for regeneration. .he eolite softener is regenerated as previously described. In addition, the anion resin is also regenerated with a sodium chloride brine that returns the resin to the chloride form. Dre0uently, a small amount of caustic soda is added to the regenerant brine to enhance alkalinity removal. Wea. A!i# *ation Deal.ali;ation +nother method of dealkali ation uses weak acid cation resins. =eak acid resins are similar in operation to strong acid cation resins, but only e&change for cations that are associated with alkalinity, as shown by these reactionsU

where O represents the resin. .he carbonic acid (1%-<') formed is removed by a decarbonator or degasser as in a split stream system. .he ideal influent for a weak acid cation system has a hardness level e0ual to the alkalinity (both

e&pressed in ppm as -a-<'). In waters that are higher in alkalinity than hardness, the alkalinity is not removed to its lowest level. In waters containing more hardness than alkalinity, some hardness remains after treatment. Asually, these waters must be polished by a sodium eolite softener to remove hardness. ,uring the initial portion of a weak acid cation service run (the first (5!*5E) some cations associated with mineral anions e&change, producing small amounts of mineral acids in the effluent. +s the service cycle progresses, alkalinity appears in the effluent. =hen the alkalinity in the effluent e&ceeds #5E of the influent alkalinity, the unit is removed from service and regenerated with a 5.)E sulfuric acid solution. .he concentration of regenerant acid should be kept below 5.)!5.6E, to prevent calcium sulfate precipitation in the resin. =eak acid cation resin e&change is very efficient. .herefore, the amount of acid re0uired is virtually e0ual (chemically) to the amount of cations removed during the service cycle. If the materials of construction for the down!stream e0uipment or overall process cannot tolerate the mineral acidity present during the initial portions of the service cycle, a brine solution is passed through the regenerated weak acid resin prior to the final rinse. .his solution removes the mineral acidity without a significant impact on the 0uality or length of the subse0uent run. E0uipment used for a weak acid cation dealkali er is similar to that used for a strong acid cation e&changer, with the e&ception of the resin. <ne variation of the standard design uses a layer of weak acid resin on top of strong acid cation resin. 3ecause it is lighter, the weak acid resin remains on top. .he layered resin system is regenerated with sulfuric acid and then with sodium chloride brine. .he brine solution converts the strong acid resin to the sodium form. .his resin then acts as a polishing softener. Dire!t A!i# In3e!tion In the process of direct acid injection and decarbonation, acid is used to convert alkalinity to carbonic acid. .he carbonic acid dissociates to form carbon dio&ide and water and the carbon dio&ide is removed in a decarbonator. .he use of an acid injection system should be approached with caution, because an acid overfeed or a breakdown in the p1 control system can produce acidic feedwater, which corrodes the iron surfaces of feedwater systems and boilers. @roper p1 monitoring and controlled caustic feed after decarbonation are re0uired. A#vantage" an# Limitation" o Deal.ali;ation S%"tem" Ion e&change dealkali ation systems produce hardness!free, low!alkalinity water at a reasonable cost, and with a high degree of reliability. .hey are well suited for processing feedwater for medium!pressure boilers, and for process water for the beverage industry. >plit stream and weak acid cation systems also reduce the total dissolved solids. In addition to these advantages, the following disadvantages must be consideredU

dealkali ers do not remove all of the alkalinity and do not affect the silica content of a water dealkali ers re0uire the same influent purity as other ion e&change processesH filtered water that is low in potential foulants must be used the water produced by a dealkali ation system using a forced draft decarbonator becomes saturated with o&ygen, so it is potentially corrosive

*OUNTERFLOW AND MI<ED 2ED DEIONI>ATION

,ue to increasing boiler operating pressures and the manufacture of products re0uiring contaminant!free water, there is a growing need for higher water 0uality than cation!anion deminerali ers can produce. .herefore, it has become necessary to modify the standard deminerali ation process to increase the purity of the treated water. .he most significant improvements in deminerali ed water purity have been produced by counterflow cation e&changers and mi&ed bed e&changers. *o$nter lo& *ation E1!)anger" In a conventional deminerali er system, regenerant flow is in the same direction as the service flow, down through the resin bed. .his scheme is known as co!current operation and is the basis for most ion e&change system designs. ,uring the regeneration of a co!current unit, the contaminants are displaced through the resin bed during the regeneration. +t the end of the regeneration, some ions, predominately sodium ions, remain in the bottom of the resin bed. 3ecause the upper portion of the bed has been e&posed to fresh regenerant, it is highly regenerated. +s the water flows through the resin during service, cations are e&changed in the upper portion of the bed first, and then move down through the resin as the bed becomes e&hausted. >odium ions that remained in the bed during regeneration diffuse into the decationi ed water before it leaves the vessel. .his sodium leakage enters the anion unit where anion e&change produces caustic, raising the p1 and conductivity of the deminerali ed water. In a counterflow regenerated cation e&changer, the regenerant flows in the opposite direction of the service flow. Dor e&ample, if the service flow is downward through the bed, the regenerant acid flow is up through the bed. +s a result, the most highly regenerated resin is located where the service water leaves the vessel. .he highly regenerated resin removes the low level of contaminants that have escaped removal in the top of the bed. .his results in higher water purity than co!current designs can produce. .o ma&imi e contact between the acid and resin and to keep the most highly regenerated resin from mi&ing with the rest of the bed, the resin bed must stay compressed during the regenerant introduction. .his compression is usually achieved in one of two waysU

a blocking flow of water or air is used the acid flow is split, and acid is introduced at both the top and the bottom of the resin bed (Digure ;!##)

Mi1e# 2e# E1!)anger" + mi&ed bed e&changer has both cation and anion resin mi&ed together in a single vessel. +s water flows through the resin bed, the ion e&change process is repeated many times, /polishing/ the water to a very high purity. ,uring regeneration, the resin is separated into distinct cation and anion fractions as shown in Digure ;!#%. .he resin is separated by backwashing, with the lighter anion resin settling on top of the cation resin. 2egenerant acid is introduced through the bottom distributor, and caustic is introduced through distributors above the resin bed. .he regenerant streams meet at the boundary between the cation and anion resin and discharge through a collector located at the resin interface. Dollowing regenerant introduction and displacement rinse, air and water are used to mi& the resins. .hen the resins are rinsed, and the unit is ready for service. -ounterflow and mi&ed bed systems produce a purer water than conventional cation!anion

deminerali ers, but re0uire more sophisticated e0uipment and have a higher initial cost. .he more complicated regeneration se0uences re0uire closer operator attention than standard systems. .his is especially true for a mi&ed bed unit. OT+ER DEMINERALI>ATION PRO*ESSES .he standard cation!anion process has been modified in many systems to reduce the use of costly regenerants and the production of waste. 7odifications include the use of decarbonators and degassers, weak acid and weak base resins, strong base anion caustic waste (to regenerate weak base anion e&changers), and reclamation of a portion of spent caustic for subse0uent regeneration cycles. >everal different approaches to deminerali ation using these processes are shown in Digure ;!#'. De!ar,onator" an# Dega""er" ,ecarbonators and degassers are economically beneficial to many deminerali ation systems, because they reduce the amount of caustic re0uired for regeneration. =ater from a cation e&changer is broken into small droplets by sprays and trays or packing in a decarbonator. .he water then flows through a stream of air flowing in the opposite direction. -arbonic acid present in the cation effluent dissociates into carbon dio&ide and water. .he carbon dio&ide is stripped from the water by the air, reducing the load to the anion e&changers. .ypical forced draft decarbonators are capable of removing carbon dio&ide down to #5!#) ppm. 1owever, water effluent from a decarbonator is saturated with o&ygen. In a vacuum degasser, water droplets are introduced into a packed column that is operated under a vacuum. -arbon dio&ide is removed from the water due to its decreased partial pressure in a vacuum. + vacuum degasser usually reduces carbon dio&ide to less than % ppm and also removes most of the o&ygen from the water. 1owever, vacuum degassers are more e&pensive to purchase and operate than forced draft decarbonators. Wea. A!i# an# Wea. 2a"e Re"in" =eak functionality resins have a much higher regeneration efficiency than their strong function! ality counterparts. =eak acid cation resins, as described in the dealkali ation section, e&change with cations associated with alkalinity. =eak base resins e&change with the mineral acid anions (><(cd, -ld, ?<'d) in a strong acid solution. .he regeneration efficiency of weak resins is virtually stoichiometric, the removal of # kgr of ions (as -a-<') re0uires only slightly more than # kgr of the regenerant ion (as -a-<'). >trong resins re0uire three to four times the regenerant for the same contaminant removal. =eak base resins are so efficient that it is common practice to regenerate a weak base e&changer with a portion of the /spent/ caustic from regeneration of the strong base anion resin. .he first fraction of the caustic from the strong base unit is sent to waste to prevent silica fouling of the weak base resin. .he remaining caustic is used to regenerate the weak base resin. +n additional feature of weak base resins is their ability to hold natural organic materials that foul strong base resins and release them during the regeneration cycle. ,ue to this ability, weak base resins are commonly used to protect strong base resins from harmful organic fouling. Regenerant Re$"e ,ue to the high cost of caustic soda and the increasing problems of waste disposal, many

deminerali ation systems are now e0uipped with a caustic reclaim feature. .he reclaim system uses a portion of the spent caustic from the previous regeneration at the beginning of the ne&t regeneration cycle. .he reused caustic is followed by fresh caustic to complete the regeneration. .he new caustic is then reclaimed for use in the ne&t regeneration. .ypically, sulfuric acid is not reclaimed, because it is lower in cost and calcium sulfate precipitation is a potential problem. *ONDENSATE POLIS+ING Ion e&change uses are not limited to process and boiler water makeup. Ion e&change can be used to purify, or polish, returned condensate, removing corrosion products that could cause harmful deposits in boilers. .ypically, the contaminants in the condensate system are particulate iron and copper. 8ow levels of other contaminants may enter the system through condenser and pump seal leaks or carry!over of boiler water into the steam. -ondensate polishers filter out the particulates and remove soluble contaminants by ion e&change. 7ost paper mill condensate polishers operate at temperatures approaching %55bD, precluding the use of anion resin. -ation resin, which is stable up to temperatures of over %65bD, is used for deep bed condensate polishing in these applications. .he resin is regenerated with sodium chloride brine, as in a eolite softener. In situations where sodium leakage from the polisher adversely affects the boiler water internal chemical program or steam attemperating water purity, the resin can be regenerated with an ioni ed amine solution to prevent these problems. .he service flow rate for a deep bed polisher (%5!)5 gpm per s0uare foot of resin surface area) is very high compared to that of a conventional softener. 1igh flow rates are permissible because the level of soluble ions in the condensate can be usually very low. @articulate iron and copper are removed by filtration, while dissolved contaminants are reduced by e&change for the sodium or amine in the resin. .he deep bed cation resin condensate polisher is regenerated with #) lb of sodium chloride per cubic foot of resin, in a manner similar to that used for conventional sodium eolite regeneration. + solubili ing or reducing agent is often used to assist in the removal of iron. >ometimes, a supplemental backwash header is located just below the surface of the resin bed. .his subsurface distributor, used prior to backwashing, introduces water to break up the crust that forms on the resin surface between regenerations. +n important consideration is the selection of a resin for condensate polishing. 3ecause high pressure drops are generated by the high service flow rates and particulate loadings, and because many systems operate at high temperatures, considerable stress is imposed on the structure of the resin. + premium!grade gelular or macroreticular resin should be used in deep bed condensate polishing applications. In systems re0uiring total dissolved solids and particulate removal, a mi&ed bed condensate polisher may be used. .he temperature of the condensate should be below #(5bD, which is the ma&imum continuous operating temperature for the anion resin. +dditionally, the flow through the unit is generally reduced to appro&imately %5 gpm/ftc. Ion e&change resins are also used as part of a precoat filtration system, as shown in Digure ;!#(, for polishing condensate. .he resin is crushed and mi&ed into a slurry, which is used to coat

individual septums in a filter vessel. .he powdered resin is a very fine filtering medium that traps particulate matter and removes some soluble contaminants by ion e&change. =hen the filter media becomes clogged, the precoat material is disposed of, and the septums are coated with a fresh slurry of powdered resin. *OMMON ION E<*+ANGE SYSTEM PRO2LEMS +s in any dynamic operating system incorporating electrical and mechanical e0uipment and chemical operations, problems do occur in ion e&change systems. .he problems usually result in poor effluent 0uality, decreased service run lengths, or increased consumption of regenerant. .o keep the ion e&change system operating efficiently and reliably, changes in water 0uality, run lengths, or regenerant consumption should be considered whenever problems are detected. .he cause!effect diagrams for short runs (Digure ;!#)) and poor!0uality effluent (Digure ;! #*) show that there are many possible causes for reduced performance of a deminerali ation system. >ome of the more common problems are discussed below. Operational Pro,lem" -hanges in raw water 0uality have a significant impact on both the run length and the effluent 0uality produced by an ion e&change unit. +lthough most well waters have a consistent 0uality, most surface water compositions vary widely over time. + #5E increase in the hardness of the water to a sodium eolite softener causes a #5E decrease in the service run length. +n increase in the ratio of sodium to total cations causes increased sodium leakage from a deminerali er system. 2egular chemical analysis of the influent water to ion e&changers should be performed to reveal such variations. <ther causes of ion e&change operational problems includeU

Improper regenerations, caused by incorrect regenerant flows, times, or concentrations. 7anufacturer4s recommendations should be followed when regenerating ion e&change resins. -hanneling, resulting from either high or low flow rates, increased suspended solids loading or poor backwashing. .his causes premature e&haustion even when much of the bed is in a regenerated state. 2esin fouling or degradation, caused by poor!0uality regenerant. Dailure to remove silica from the resin, which can result from low regenerant caustic temperature. .his can lead to increased silica leakage and short service runs. E&cess contaminants in the resin, due to previous operation past e&haustion loads. 3ecause the resin becomes loaded with more contaminants than a normal regeneration is designed to remove, a double regeneration is re0uired following an e&tended service run.

Me!)ani!al Pro,lem" .ypical mechanical problems associated with ion e&change systems includeU

8eaking valves, which cause poor 0uality effluent and prolonged rinses. 3roken or clogged distributor, which leads to channeling. 2esin loss, due to e&cessive backwashing or failure in the underdrain screening or support media. -ation resin in the anion unit, causing e&tended rinse times and sodium leakage into the

deminerali ed water. Instrumentation problems, such as faulty totali ers or conductivity meters, which may indicate a problem when none e&ists, or may introduce poor 0uality water to service. Instrumentation in the deminerali er area should be checked regularly.

RESIN FOULING AND DEGRADATION 2esin can become fouled with contaminants that hinder the e&change process.Digure ;!#6 shows a resin fouled with iron. .he resin can also be attacked by chemicals that cause irreversible destruction. >ome materials, such as natural organics (Digure ;!#;), foul resins at first and then degrade the resin as time passes. .his is the most common cause of fouling and degradation in ion e&change systems, and is discussed under /<rganic Douling,/ later in this chapter. *a$"e" o Re"in Fo$ling Iron an# Mangane"e. Iron may e&ist in water as a ferrous or ferric inorganic salt or as a se0uestered organic comple&. Derrous iron e&changes in resin, but ferric iron is insoluble and does not. Derric iron coats cation resin, preventing e&change. +n acid or a strong reducing agent must be used to remove this iron. <rganically bound iron passes through a cation unit and fouls the anion resin. It must be removed along with the organic material. 7anganese, present in some well waters, fouls a resin in the same manner as iron. Al$min$m. +luminum is usually present as aluminum hydro&ide, resulting from alum or sodium aluminate use in clarification or precipitation softening. +luminum floc, if carried through filters, coats the resin in a sodium eolite softener. It is removed by cleaning with either acid or caustic. Asually, aluminum is not a foulant in a deminerali er system, because it is removed from the resin during a normal regeneration. +ar#ne"" Pre!ipitate". 1ardness precipitates carry through a filter from a precipitation softener or form after filtration by post!precipitation. .hese precipitates foul resins used for sodium eolite softening. .hey are removed with acid. >ulfate @recipitation. -alcium sulfate precipitation can occur in a strong acid cation unit operated in the hydrogen cycle. +t the end of a service cycle, the top of the resin bed is rich in calcium. If sulfuric acid is used as the regenerant, and it is introduced at too high a concentration or too low a flow rate, precipitation of calcium sulfate occurs, fouling the resin. +fter calcium sulfate has formed, it is very difficult to redissolveH therefore, resin fouled by calcium sulfate is usually discarded. 7ild cases of calcium sulfate fouling may be reversed with a prolonged soak in hydrochloric acid. 3arium sulfate is even less soluble than calcium sulfate. If a water source contains measurable amounts of barium, hydrochloric acid regeneration should be considered. Oil Fo$ling. <il coats resin, blocking the passage of ions to and from e&change sites. + surfactant can be used to remove oil. -are must be e&ercised to select a surfactant that does not foul resin. <il!fouled anion resins should be cleaned with nonionic surfactants only. 7icrobiological Douling. 7icrobiological fouling can occur in resin beds, especially beds that are allowed to sit without service flow. 7icrobiological fouling can lead to severe plugging of the resin bed, and even mechanical damage due to an e&cessive pressure drop across the fouled

resin. If microbiological fouling in standby units is a problem, a constant flow of recirculating water should be used to minimi e the problem. >evere conditions may re0uire the application of suitable sterili ation agents and surfactants. Sili!a Fo$ling. >ilica fouling can occur in strong base anion resins if the regenerant temperature is too low, or in weak base resins if the effluent caustic from the >3+ unit used to regenerate the weak base unit contains too much silica. +t low p1 levels, polymeri ation of the silica can occur in a weak base resin. It can also be a problem in an e&hausted strong base anion resin. >ilica fouling is removed by a prolonged soak in warm (#%5bD) caustic soda. *a$"e" o Irrever"i,le Re"in Degra#ation O1i#ation. <&idi ing agents, such as chlorine, degrade both cation and anion resins. <&idants attack the divinylben ene cross!links in a cation resin, reducing the overall strength of the resin bead. +s the attack continues, the cation resin begins to lose its spherical shape and rigidity, causing it to compact during service. .his compaction increases the pressure drop across the resin bed and leads to channeling, which reduces the effective capacity of the unit. In the case of raw water chlorine, the anion resin is not directly affected, because the chlorine is consumed by the cation resin. 1owever, downstream strong base anion resins are fouled by certain degradation products from o&idi ed cation resin. If chlorine is present in raw water, it should be removed prior to ion e&change with activated carbon filtration or sodium sulfite. +ppro&imately #.; ppm of sodium sulfite is re0uired to consume # ppm of chlorine. <&ygen!saturated water, such as that found following forced draft decarbonation, accelerates the destruction of strong base e&change sites that occurs naturally over time. It also accelerates degradation due to organic fouling. T)ermal Degra#ation. .hermal degradation occurs if the anion resin becomes overheated during the service or regeneration cycle. .his is especially true for acrylic resins, which have temperature limitations as low as #55bD, and .ype II strong base anion resins, which have a temperature limit of #5)bD when in the hydro&ide form. Organi! Fo$ling <rganic fouling is the most common and e&pensive form of resin fouling and degradation. Asually, only low levels of organic materials are found in well waters. 1owever, surface waters can contain hundreds of parts per million of natural and man!made organic matter. ?atural organics are derived from decaying vegetation. .hey are aromatic and acidic in nature, and can comple& heavy metals, such as iron. .hese contaminants include tannins, tannic acid, humic acid, and fulvic acid. Initially, organics block the strong base sites on a resin. .his blockage causes long final rinses and reduces salt splitting capacity. +s the foulant continues to remain on the resin, it begins to degrade the strong base sites, reducing the salt splitting capacity of the resin. .he functionality of the site changes from strong base to weak base, and finally to a nonactive site. .hus, a resin in the early stages of degradation e&hibits high total capacity, but reduced salt splitting capacity. +t this stage, cleaning of the resin can still return some, but not all, of the lost operating capacity. +

loss in salt splitting capacity reduces the ability of the resin to remove silica and carbonic acid. <rganic fouling of anion resin is evidenced by the color of the effluent from the anion unit dur! ing regeneration, which ranges from tea!colored to dark brown. ,uring operation, the treated water has higher conductivity and a lower p1. Prevention. .he following methods are used, either alone or in combination, to reduce organic foulingU

@rechlorination and clarification. =ater is prechlorinated at the source, and then clarified with an organic removal aid. Diltration through activated carbon. It should be noted that a carbon filter has a finite capacity for removal of organic material and that the removal performance of the carbon should be monitored fre0uently. 7acroporous and weak base resin ahead of strong base resin. .he weak base or macroporous resin absorbs the organic material and is eluted during regeneration. >pecialty resins. +crylic and other specialty resins that are less susceptible to organic fouling have been developed.

In"pe!tion an# *leaning. In addition to these preventive procedures, a program of regular inspection and cleaning of the ion e&change system helps to preserve the life of anion resin. 7ost cleaning procedures use one of the followingU

=arm (#%5bD) brine and caustic. 7ild o&idants or solubili ing agents can be added to improve the cleaning. 1ydrochloric acid. =hen resins are also fouled with significant amounts of iron, hydrochloric acids are used. >olutions of 5.%)!5.)E sodium hypochlorite. .his procedure destroys the organic material but also significantly degrades the resin. 1ypochlorite cleaning is considered a last resort.

It is important to clean an organically fouled resin before e&cessive permanent degradation of the strong base sites occurs. -leaning after permanent degradation has occurred removes significant amounts of organic material but does not improve unit performance. .he condition of the resin should be closely monitored to identify the optimum schedule for cleaning. RESIN TESTING AND ANALYSIS .o track the condition of ion e&change resin and determine the best time for cleaning it, the resin should be periodically sampled and analy ed for physical stability, foulant levels, and the ability to perform the re0uired ion e&change. >amples should be representative of the entire resin bed. .herefore, samples should be collected at different levels within the bed, or a grain thief or hollow pipe should be used to obtain a /core/ sample. ,uring sampling, the inlet and regenerant distributor should be e&amined, and the condition of the top of the resin bed should be noted. E&cessive hills or valleys in the resin bed are an indication of flow distribution problems. .he resin sample should be e&amined microscopically for signs of fouling and cracked or broken beads.It should also be tested for physical properties, such as density and moisture content (Digure ;!#9). .he level of organic and inorganic foulants in the resin should be determined and

compared to known standards and the previous condition of the resin. Dinally, the salt splitting and total capacity should be measured on anion resin samples to evaluate the rate of degradation or organic fouling. 7embrane systems 7embrane processes @retreatment >olids removal >cale control 7icrobiological fouling >ince the #9(54s, ion e&change resins have been used to remove dissolved salts from water. .hese resins e&change ions in the water for ions on the resin e&change sites and hold them until released by a regeneration solution (see -hapter ; for a more detailed discussion). 7any ion e&change processes e&ist for a variety of industrial water and wastewater applications. .he ion e&change process consumes large 0uantities of regeneration chemicals, such as brine, acid, and caustic materials that can present significant handling and disposal problems. In recent years, membrane processes have been used increasingly for the production of /pure/ waters from fresh water and seawater. 7embrane processes are also being applied in process and wastewater systems. +lthough typically thought to be e&pensive and relatively e&perimental, membrane technology is advancing 0uickly becoming less e&pensive, improving performance, and e&tending life e&pectancy. MEM2RANE PRO*ESSES -ommon membrane processes include ultrafiltration (AD), reverse osmosis (2<), electrodialysis (E,), and electrodialysis reversal (E,2). .hese processes (with the e&ception of AD) reduce most ionsH 2< and AD systems also provide efficient reduction of nonioni ed organics and particulates. 3ecause AD membrane porosity is too large for ion rejection, the AD process is used to reduce contaminants, such as oil and grease, and suspended solids. Rever"e O"mo"i" <smosis is the flow of solvent through a semi!permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution. .his flow results from the driving force created by the difference in pressure between the two solutions. <smotic pressure is the pressure that must be added to the concentrated solution side in order to stop the solvent flow through the membrane. 2everse osmosis is the process of reversing the flow, forcing water through a membrane from a concentrated solution to a dilute solution to produce filtered water. Digure 9!# illustrates the processes of osmosis and reverse osmosis. 2everse osmosis is created when sufficient pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to overcome the osmotic pressure. .his pressure is provided by feedwater pumps. -oncentrated contaminants (brine) are reduced from the high!pressure side of the 2< membrane, and filtered water (permeate) is reduced from the low!pressure side. Digure 9!% is a simplified schematic of an 2< process. 7embrane modules may be staged in various design configurations, producing

the highest!0uality permeate with the least amount of waste. +n e&ample of a multistage 2< configuration is shown in Digure 9!'. .ypically, 9)E of dissolved salts are reduced from the brine. +ll particulates are removed. 1owever, due to their molecular porosity, 2< membranes do not remove dissolved gases, such as -l%, -<%, and <%. 2< 7embranes. .he two most common 2< membranes used in industrial water treatment are cellulose acetate (-+) and polyamide (@+) composite. -urrently, most membranes are spiral woundH however, hollow fiber configurations are available. In the spiral wound configuration, a flat sheet membrane and spacers are wound around the permeate collection tube to produce flow channels for permeate and feed water. .his design ma&imi es flow while minimi ing the membrane module si e. 1ollow fiber systems are bundles of tiny, hair!like membrane tubes. Ions are rejected when the feedwater permeates the walls of these tubes, and permeate is collected through the hollow center of the fibers. -oncentrated brine is produced on the outside of the fibers contained by the module housing. Digure 9!( shows the construction and flow patterns in a spiral wound membrane configuration.Digure 9!) shows the construction and flow patterns in a hollow fiber membrane system. Ele!tro#ial%"i" Electrodialysis (E,) processes transfer ions of dissolved salts across membranes, leaving purified water behind. Ion movement is induced by direct current electrical fields. + negative elec!trode (cathode) attracts cations, and a positive electrode (anode) attracts anions. >ystems are compartmentali ed in stacks by alternating cation and anion transfer membranes. +lternating compartments carry concentrated brine and filtered permeate. .ypically, (5!*5E of dissolved ions are removed or rejected. Durther improvement in water 0uality is obtained by staging (operation of stacks in series). E, processes do not remove particulate contaminants or weakly ioni ed contaminants, such as silica. Digure 9!* is a simplified schematic of an E, process. Ele!tro#ial%"i" Rever"al Electrodialysis reversal (E,2) processes operate on the same principles as E,H however, E,2 operation reverses system polarity (typically '!( times per hour). .his reversal stops the buildup of concentrated solutions on the membrane and thereby reduces the accumulation of inorganic and organic deposition on the membrane surface. E,2 systems are similar to E, systems, designed with ade0uate chamber area to collect both product water and brine. E,2 produces water of the same 0uality as E,. Ultra iltration In many process and wastewater applications, reduction of dissolved ions is not re0uired but efficient reduction of colloidal inorganic or organic molecules is. Altrafiltration (AD) membrane configurations and system designs are similar to those used in the single!stage 2< process. 3ecause the large molecules removed by AD e&hibit negligible osmotic pressure, operating pressures are usually much lower than in 2< systems. Digure 9!6 illustrates the performance of ultrafiltration membranes. .ypical applications include reduction of oil and grease and recovery

of valuable contaminants in process waste streams. PRETREATMENT @rocesses that rely on microporous membranes must be protected from fouling. 7embrane foul! ing causes a loss of water production (flu&), reduced permeate 0uality, and increased trans! membrane pressure drop. 7embrane fouling is typically caused by precipitation of inorganic salts, particulates of metal o&ides, colloidal silt, and the accumulation or growth of microbiological organisms on the membrane surface. .hese fouling problems can lead to serious damage and necessitate more fre0uent replacement of membranes. SOLIDS REDU*TION 7embrane feedwater should be relatively free from colloidal particulates. .he most common particulates encountered in industrial membrane systems are silt, iron o&ides, and manganese o&ides. >ilt ,ensity Inde& (>,I) testing should be used to confirm sufficient water 0uality for the specific membrane system employed. >,I evaluates the potential of feedwater to foul a 5.() gm filter. Anacceptable >,I measurements can be produced even when water 0uality is relatively high by most industrial water treatment standards. =here pretreatment is inade0uate or ineffective, chemical dispersants may be used to permit operation at higher!than!recommended >,I values. 2< systems are highly susceptible to particulate fouling, E, and E,2 systems are more forgiving, and AD systems are designed to handle dirty waters. S*ALE *ONTROL 7embrane processes produce a concentration gradient of dissolved salts approaching the membrane surfaces. .he concentration at the membrane may e&ceed the solubility limits of certain species. -alcium carbonate (-a-<') and calcium sulfate (-a><() are typical precipitates formed. >ilica, barium, and strontium salts are also fre0uently identified in membrane deposits. 3ecause of their low solubility, very low levels of feedwater barium or strontium can cause membrane fouling. Barious saturation inde&es, such as the >tiff!,avis and 8angelier, should be maintained below precipitating values in the brine (through p1 control or deposit control agents) to prevent calcium carbonate fouling. <ther precipitates may be controlled by the proper application of deposit control agents. MI*RO2IOLOGI*AL FOULING -ellulose acetate membranes can be degraded by microbiological activity. @roper maintenance of chlorine residuals can prevent microbiological attack of these membranes. @olyacrylamide membranes are resistant to microbiological degradationH however, they are susceptible to chemical o&idation. .herefore, chlorination is not an acceptable treatment. If inoculation occurs, microbiological fouling can become a problem. ?ono&idi ing antimicrobials and biodispersants should be used if serious microbiological fouling potential e&ists.

UNIT-5 WATER DISTRI2UTION AND SUPPLY TO 2UILDINGS + &ater "$ppl% "%"tem or &ater "$ppl% net&or. is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. + water supply system typically includesU
1. + drainage %asin (see water purifi)ation # sour)es of drinking water )H

2. + raw (untreated) water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a lake, a ri+er, or groundwater from an underground a4uifer. Antreateddrinking water (usually water being transferred to the water purification facilities) may be transferred using uncovered ground!level a4uedu)ts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes. 3. Water purifi)ation facilities. .reated water is transferred using water pipes (usually underground). 4. =ater storage facilities such as reser+oirs, water tanks, or watertowers. >maller water systems may store the water in )isterns or pressure +essels. (.all buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure +essels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.) 6. +dditional water pressuri ing components such as pu!ping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is impractical) 8. + pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses or industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire $ydrants) 9. -onnections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground dit)$es in some developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system Water #i"tri,$tion net&or.

.he Central Ari7ona 0ro:e)t A4uedu)t transfers untreated water

7ost (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes

@ressuri ing the water is re0uired between the small water reserve and the end!user .he product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called fresh water if it receives little or no treatment, or drinking water if the treatment achieves thewater 0uality standards re0uired for human consumption.

<nce treated, chlorine is added to the water and it is distributed by the local supply network. .oday, water supply systems are typically constructed of plastic, ferrous, or concrete circular pipe. 1owever, other /pipe/ shapes and material may be used, such as s0uare or rectangular concrete bo&es, archedbrick pipe, or wood. ?ear the end point, the network of pipes through which the water is delivered is often referred to as the water mains. .he energy that the system needs to deliver the water is called pressure. .hat energy is transferred to the water, therefore becoming water pressure, in a number of waysU by a pump, by gravity feed from a water source (such as a water tower) at a higher elevation, or by compressed air."#$ .he water is often transferred from a water reserve such as a large communal reservoir before being transported to a more pressurised reserve as a watertower. In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressuri ing). .his eliminates the need of a water!tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure. .hese systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water privati ation). =ater supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. .heir planning and design re0uires the e&pertise of city planners and civil engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe si e, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. V using pipe network analysis and other tools. -onstructioncomparablesewage systems, was one of the great engineering advances that made urbani ation possible. Improvement in the 0uality of the water has been one of the great advances in public health. +s water passes through the distribution system, the water 0uality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. -orrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. 2elease of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of /red water/ at the tap . 2elease of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of /blue water/ and/or a metallic taste. 2elease of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or from brass fi&tures. -opper and lead levels at the consumer4s tap are regulated to protect consumer health. Atilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimi e its corrosiveness. .he simplest adjustment involves control of p1 andalkalinity to produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. -orrosion

inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. -ommon corrosion inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates. 7aintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. .ypically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochloriteor monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. 3ooster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have ade0uate sustained levels of disinfection. Topologie" o &ater #i"tri,$tion net&or." 8ike electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. .he piping networks are circular or rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting all users on the network. 7ost systems are divided into ones. Dactors determining the e&tent or si e of a one can include hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population density. >ometimes systems are designed for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. .errain affects hydraulics and some forms of telemetry. =hile each one may operate as a stand!alone system, there is usually some arrangement to interconnect ones in order to manage e0uipment failures or system failures. -<7@<?E?.> <D =+.E2 ,I>.2I3A.I<? >J>.E7 ,rainage basin Drom =ikipedia, the free encyclopedia

E&ample of a drainage basin. .he dashed line is the main water divide of the hydrographic basin + #rainage ,a"in is an e&tent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the e&it of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland,sea, or ocean. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost underground."#$ .he drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from adjacent basins by a drainage divide."%$ .he drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin and channelling it to a single point. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill ormountain. <ther terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are !at!)ment, !at!)ment area, !at!)ment ,a"in, #rainage area,river ,a"in, &ater ,a"in and &ater")e#."'$ In the technical sense, a watershed refers to a divide that separates one drainage area from another drainage area."($ 1owever, in the Anited >tates and -anada, the term is often used to mean a drainage basin or catchment area itself. ,rainage basins drain into other drainage basins in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller "$,-#rainage ,a"in" combining into larger drainage basins.")$ ,rainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi!level hierarchical drainage system. 1ydrologic units are designed to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins."#$ .he Anited >tates Environmental @rotection +gency launched the website =atershed -entral for the A> public to e&change information and locate resources needed to restore local drainage basins in that country.

#m$ortance o% drainage &asins

Geo$olitical &oundaries
5rainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important. @or e*ample, the Fnglish crown gave the DudsonAs Jay 6ompany a monopoly on the fur trade in the entire Dudson Jay basin, an area called 4upertAs &and.

Today, bioregional democracy can include agreements of states in a particular drainage basin to defend it. Kne e*ample of this is the Great &akes 6ommission.

0ydrology

5rainage basin of the Khio 4iver, part of the Iississippi 4iver drainage basin.

In hydrology, the drainage basin is a logical unit of focus for studying the movement of water within the hydrological cycle, because the ma,ority of water that discharges from the basin outlet originated as precipitation falling on the basin. " portion of the water that enters thegroundwater system beneath the drainage basin may flow towards the outlet of another drainage basin because groundwater flow directions do not always match those of their overlying drainage network. Ieasurement of the discharge of water from a basin may be made by a stream gauge located at the basinAs outlet. 4ain gauge data is used to measure total precipitation over a drainage basin, and there are different ways to interpret that data. If the gauges are many and evenly distributed over an area of uniform precipitation, using the arithmetic mean method will give good results. In the Thiessen polygon method, the watershed is divided into polygons with the rain gauge in the middle of each polygon assumed to be representative for the rainfall on the area of land included in its polygon. These polygons are made by drawing lines between gauges, then making perpendicular bisectors of those lines form the polygons. The isohyetal method involves contours of e-ual precipitation are drawn over the gauges on a map. 6alculating the area between these curves and adding up the volume of water is time consuming.

Geomor$hology
5rainage basins are the principal hydrologic unit considered in fluvial geomorphology. " drainage basin is the source for water and sedimentthat moves through the river system and reshapes the channel.

Ecology

The Iississippi 4iver drains the largest area of any B.S.river, much of it agricultural regions. "gricultural runoff and other water pollution that flows to the outlet is the cause of the dead Cone in the Gulf of Ie*ico.

5rainage basins are important elements to consider also in ecology. "s water flows over the ground and along rivers it can pick up nutrients, sediment, and pollutants. &ike the water, they get transported towards the outlet of the basin, and can affect the ecological processes along the way as well as in the receiving water source. Iodern usage of artificial fertiliCers, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, has affected the mouths of watersheds. The minerals will be carried by the watershed to the mouth and accumulate there, disturbing the natural mineral balance. This can cause eutrophication where plant growth is accelerated by the additional material.

Resource management
Further information: Watershed management Jecause drainage basins are coherent entities in a hydrological sense, it has become common to manage water resources on the basis of individual basins. In the B.S. state of Iinnesota, governmental entities that perform this function are calledwatershed districts. In ?ew Oealand, they are called catchment boards. 6omparable community groups based in Kntario, 6anada, are called conservation authorities. In ?orth "merica this function is referred to as watershed management. In JraCil, the ?ational Policy of +ater 4esources, regulated by "ct nV ;.877 of /;;<, establishes the drainage basin as territorial division of JraCilian water management.

Catchment %actors
The catchment is the most significant factor determining the amount or likelihood of flooding.

6atchment factors are. topography, shape, siCe, soil type and land use 'paved or roofed areas(. 6atchment topography and shape determine the time taken for rain to reach the river, while catchment siCe, soil type and development determine the amount of water to reach the river.

-o$ogra$hy
Topography determines the speed with which the runoff will reach a river. 6learly rain that falls in steep mountainous areas will reach the river faster than flat or gently sloping areas.

/ha$e
Shape will contribute to the speed with which the runoff reaches a river. " long thin catchment will take longer to drain than a circular catchment.

/iHe
SiCe will help determine the amount of water reaching the river, as the larger the catchment the greater the potential for flooding.

/oil ty$e
Soil type will help determine how much water reaches the river. 6ertain soil types such as sandy soils are very free draining and rainfall on sandy soil is likely to be absorbed by the ground. Dowever, soils containing clay can be almost impermeable and therefore rainfall on clay soils will run off and contribute to flood volumes. "fter prolonged rainfall even free draining soils can become saturated, meaning that any further rainfall will reach the river rather than being absorbed by the ground.

Land use
&and use can contribute to the volume of water reaching the river, in a similar way to clay soils. @or e*ample, rainfall on roofs, pavements and roads will be collected by rivers with almost no absorption into the groundwater.

4eservoir
@rom +ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
'4edirected from 4eservoirs(

This article is about an artificial body of water. For other uses, see Reservoir (disambiguation).

The Whonghua 5am on the 5ahan 4iver inTaoyuan 6ounty, Taiwan.

" reservoir 'etymology from @rench r servoir a Estorehouse L/M( or an arti%icial la+e is used to store water. 4eservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by e*cavation in the ground or by conventional construction techni-ues such as brickwork or cast concrete. The term reservoir may also be used to describe underground reservoirs such as an oil or water well.

-y$es
Ialley dammed reservoir

&ake Nyrnwy 4eservoir. The dam spans the Nyrnwy Nalley and was the first large stone dam built in the Bnited !ingdom.

Stocks 4eservoir in &ancashire, Fngland.

" dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. 5ams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as natural walls with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest practical cost of construction. In many reservoir construction pro,ects people have to be moved and re2housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments relocated. F*amples include the temples of "bu SimbelL1M ' which were moved before the construction of the "swan 5am to create &ake ?asser from the ?ile in Fgypt ( and the re2location of the village of 6apel 6elyn during the construction of &lyn 6elyn.L7M

6onstruction of a reservoir in a valley will usually necessitate the diversion of the river during part of the build often through a temporary tunnelor by2pass channel.L8M In hilly regions reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging e*isting lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs the new top water level e*ceeds the watershed height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at &lyn 6lywedog in Iid +ales.L9M In such cases additional side dams are re-uired to contain the reservoir. +here the topography is poorly suited to a single large reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs may be constructed in a chain such as in the4iver Taff valley where the three reservoirs &lwyn2on 4eservoir, 6antref 4eservoir and Jeacons 4eservoir form a chain up the valley.LHM

<an+4side reservoir
+here water is taken from a river of variable -uality or -uantity, bank2side reservoirs may be constructed to store the water pumped orsiphoned from the river. Such reservoirs are usually built partly by e*cavation and partly by the construction of a complete encircling bund orembankment which may e*ceed H km in circumference.L<M Joth the floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable lining or core, often made of puddled clay. The water stored in such reservoirs may have a residence time of several months during which time normal biological processes are able to substantially reduce many contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of bank2side reservoirs also allows a water abstraction to be closed down for e*tended period at times when the river is unacceptably polluted or when flow conditions are very low due to drought. The &ondon water supply system is one e*ample of the use of bank2side storage for all the water taken from the4iver Thames and 4iver &ee with many large reservoirs such as Gueen Iary 4eservoir visible along the approach to &ondon Deathrow "irport.L<M

/ervice reservoir
Service reservoirsL=M store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Iany service reservoirs are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is relatively flat. Kther service reservoirs are entirely underground, especially in more hilly or mountainous country. In the Bnited !ingdom, Thames +ater has many underground reservoirs built in the /=$$s by the Nictorians, most of which are lined with brick. Donor Kak 4eservoir, which was completed in /;$;, is believed to one of the largest of this type in Furope. The roof is supported on large brick pillars and arches and the outside surface is grassed over. L;M Service reservoirs perform several functions including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water distribution system and providing hydraulic capacitance in the system to even out peak demand from consumers enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. &arge service reservoirs can also be managed to so that energy costs in pumping are reduced by concentrating refilling activity at times of day when power costs are low.

0istory
@ive thousand years ago, the craters of e*tinct volcanoes in "rabia were used as reservoirs by farmers for their irrigation water.L/$M 5ry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of water management techni-ues, including the building of a reservoir at Girnar in 7$$$ J6.L//M "rtificial lakes dating to the 9th century J6 have been found in ancient Greece.L/1M "n artificial lake in present2day Iadhya Pradesh province of India, constructed in the //th century, covered H9$ s-uare metres '<,$$$ s- ft(.L//M In Sri &anka large reservoirs have been created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for irrigation. The famous Sri &ankan king ParXkramabXhu I of Sri &anka stated E do not let a drop of water seep into the ocean without benefiting mankind E. De created the reservoir named Parakrama Samudra'sea of !ing Parakrama(,L/7M which has astonished archaeologists.

6ses
Direct water su$$ly

Gibson 4eservoir, Iontana

Iany dammed river reservoirs and most bank2side reservoirs are used to provide the raw water feed to a water treatment plant which deliversdrinking water through water mains. The reservoir does not simply hold water until it is needed3 it can also be the first part of the water treatment process. The time the water is held for before it is released is known as the retention time. This is a design feature that allows particles and silts to settle out, as well as time for natural biological treatment using algae, bacteria and Cooplankton that naturally live within the water. Dowever natural limnological processes in temperate climate lakes produces temperature stratification in the water body which tends to partition some elements such as manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold ano*ic water during the summer months. In the autumn and winter the lake becomes fully mi*ed again. 5uring drought conditions, it is sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom water and the elevated levels of manganese in particular can cause problems in water treatment plants. L/8M

0ydroelectricity

Dydroelectric dam in cross section.

" reservoir generating hydroelectric includes turbines connected to the retained water body by large diameter pipes. These generating sets may be at the base of the dam or some distance away. Some reservoirs generating hydro2electricity use pumped re2charge in which a high level reservoir is filled with water using high performance electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low and then uses this stored water to generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a low level reservoir when electricity demand is high. Such systems are calledpump storage schemes.L/9M

Controlling watercourses
4eservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream waterways. Downstream water su$$ly : water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it can be abstracted for drinking water lower down the system, sometimes hundred of miles further down downstream #rrigation : water in an irrigation reservoir may be released into networks of canals for use in farmlands or secondary water systems. Irrigation may also be supported by reservoirs which maintain river flows allowing water to be abstracted for irrigation lower down the river. L/HM (lood control : also known as an EattenuationE or EbalancingE reservoir, flood control reservoirs collect water at times of very high rainfall, then release it slowly over the course of the following weeks or months. Some of these reservoirs are constructed across the river line with the onward flow controlled by an orifice plate. +hen river flow e*ceeds the capacity of the orifice plate water builds behind the dam but as soon as the flow rate reduces the water behind the dam slowly releases until the reservoir is empty again. In some cases such reservoirs only function a few times in a decade and the land behind the reservoir may be developed as community or recreational land. " new generation of balancing dams are being developed to combat the climatic conse-uences of climate change. They are called E@lood 5etention 4eservoirsE. Jecause these reservoirs will remain dry for long periods, there may be a risk of the clay core drying out

reducing its structural stability. 4ecent developments include the use of composite core fill made from recycled materials as an alternative to clay. Canals : +here a natural watercourseAs water is not available to be diverted into a canal, a reservoir may be built to guarantee the water level in the canal3 for e*ample, where a canal climbs to cross a range of hills through locks.L/<M

4ecreational2only !upferbach reservoir near "achen/Germany.

Recreation : water may be released from a reservoir to artificially create or supplement white2 water conditions for kayaking and other white2water sports.L/=M Kn salmonid rivers special releases 'in Jritain called freshets( are made to encourage natural migration behaviours in fish and to provide a variety of fishing conditions for anglers.

(low &alancing
4eservoirs can be used to balance the flow in highly managed systems, taking in water during high flows and releasing it again during low flows. In order for this to work without pumping re-uires careful control of water levels using ad,ustable sluices. "ccurate weather forecasts are essential so that dam operators can plan drawdowns prior to a high rainfall or snowmelt event. 5am operators blamed a faulty weather forecast on the 1$/$:1$// Gueensland floods. F*amples of highly managed 4eservoirs are JurrendongY5am in "ustralia and &lyn Tegid in ?orth +ales. &lyn Tegid is a natural lake whose level was raised by a low dam and into which the 4iver 5ee flows or discharges depending upon flow conditions at the time as part of the 4iver 5ee regulation system. This mode of operation is a form of hydraulic capacitance in the river system.

Recreation
The water bodies provided by many reservoirs often allow some recreational uses such as fishing, boating, and other activities. Special rules may apply for the safety of the public and to protect the -uality of the water and the ecology of the surrounding area. Iany reservoirs now support and encourage less informal and less structured recreation such as natural

history,bird watching, landscape painting, walking and hiking and often provide information boards and interpretation material to encourage responsible use.

1$eration
+ater falling as rain upstream of the reservoir together with any groundwater emerging as springs is stored in the reservoir. "ny e*cess water can be spilled via a specifically designed spillway. Stored water may be piped by gravity for use as drinking water, to generate hydro2electricity or to maintain river flows to support downstream uses. Kccasionally reservoirs can be managed to retain high rain2fall events to prevent or reduce downstream flooding. Some reservoirs support several uses and the operating rules may be comple*.

Spillway of &lyn Jrianne dam in+ales.

Iost modern reservoirs have a specially designed draw2off tower that can discharge water from the reservoir at different levels both to access water as the reservoir draws down but also to allow water of a specific -uality to be discharged into the downstream river as compensation water. The operators of many upland or in2river reservoirs have obligations to release water into the downstream river to maintain river -uality, support fisheries, maintain downstream industrial uses. maintain recreational use or for a range of other re-uirements. Such releases are known as com!ensation water.

-erminology

The terminology for reservoirs varies from country to country. In most of the world reservoir areas are e*pressed in km1 whilst in the BS" acres are commonly used. @or volume either m7 or km7 are widely used with acre feet used in the BS". The capacity, volume or storage of a reservoir is usually divided into distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storage refers to water in a reservoir that cannot be drained by gravity through a damAs outlet works, spillway or power plant intake and can only be pumped out. 5ead storage allows sediments to settle which improves water -uality and also creates hydraulic head along with an area for fish during low levels. "ctive or live storage is the portion of the reservoir that can be utiliCed for flood control, power production, navigation and downstream releases. In addition, a reservoirAs flood control ca!acity is the amount of water it can regulate during flooding. The surcharge ca!acity is the capacity of the reservoir above the spillway crest that cannot be regulated.L/;M In the Bnited States the water below the normal ma*imum level of a reservoir is called the conservation !ool.L1$M In the B! to! water level describes the reservoir full state whist fully drawn down describes the minimum retained volume.

Modelling reservoir management

There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the specialist 5am Safety Program Ianagement Tools '5SPIT( to the relatively simple +"@&FU, to integrated models like the +ater Fvaluation "nd Planning system '+F"P( that place reservoir operations in the conte*t of system2wide demands and supplies.

/a%ety
In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to try to prevent or minimise failures of containment.L1/ML11M +hilst much of the effort is directed at the dam and its associated structures as the weakest part of the overall structure, the aim of such controls is to prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. 4eservoir failures can generate huge increases in flow down a river valley with the potential to wash away towns and villages and cause considerable loss of life such as the

devastation following the failure of containment at &lyn Figiau which killed /< people.L17M'see also &ist of dam failures( " notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of +ar involved the Jritish 4oyal "ir @orce 5ambusters raid on Germany in +orld +ar II 'codenamed EKperation 6hastiseE L18M(, in which three German reservoir dams were selected to be breached in order to impact on German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the 4uhr and Fderrivers. The economic and social impact was derived from the enormous volumes of previously stored water that swept down the valleys wreaking destruction. This raid later became the basis for several films.

Environmental im$act
Whole li%e environmental im$act
"ll reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before construction to see if the pro,ect is worth proceeding with. L19M Dowever, such analysis can often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the reservoirs that they contain. Some impacts such as the greenhouse gas production associated with concrete manufacture are relatively easy to estimate. Kther impact on the natural environment and social and cultural effects can be more difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance but identification and -uantification of these issues are now commonly re-uired in ma,or construction pro,ects in the developed world
L1HM

Climate change
5epending upon the circumstances, a reservoir built for hydro2electricity generation can either reduce or increase the net production of greenhouse gases. "n increase can occur if plant material in the flooded areas decays in an anaerobic environment releasing 'methane and carbon dio*ide(. This apparently counterintuitive position arises because much carbon is released as methane which is appro*imately = time more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dio*ide
L1<M

" study for the ?ational Institute for 4esearch in the "maCon found that Dydroelectric reservoirs release a large pulse of carbon dio*ide from above2 water decay of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during the first decade after closing.L1=M This elevates the global warming impact of the dams

to levels much higher than would occur by generating the same power from fossil fuels.L1=M "ccording to the +orld 6ommission on 5ams report '5ams "nd 5evelopment(, when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of forest in the flooded area was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oil2fired thermal generation plant.L1;M @or instance, In /;;$, the impoundment behind the Jalbina 5am in JraCil 'inaugurated in /;=<( had over 1$ times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels, due to the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated. L1=M " decrease can occur if the dam is used in place of traditional power generation, since electricity produced from hydroelectric generation does not give rise to any flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion 'including sulfur dio*ide, nitric o*ide and carbon mono*ide from coal(. The Tucurui dam in JraCil 'closed in /;=8( had only $.8 times the impact on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels.L1=M

<iology
5ams can produce a block for migrating fish, trapping them in one area, producing food and a habitat for various water2birds. They can also flood various ecosystems on land and may cause e*tinctions.

0uman #m$act
5ams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching countries downstream of them, causing water stress between the countries, e.g. the Sudan and Fgypt, which damages farming businesses in the downstream countries, and reduces drinking water. @arms and villages, e.g. "shopton can be flooded by the creation of reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. @or this very reason, worldwide =$ million people have had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.

Limnology
The limnology of reservoirs has many similarities to that of lakes of e-uivalent siCe. There are however significant differences.L7$M Iany reservoirs e*perience considerable variations in level producing significant areas that are intermittently underwater or dried out. This greatly limits the productivity or the water margins and limits the number of species able to survive in these conditions.

Bpland reservoirs tend to have a much shorter residence time than natural lakes and this can lead to more rapid cycling of nutrients through the water body so that they are more -uickly lost to the system. This may be seen as a mismatch between water chemistry and water biology with a tendency for the biological component to be more oligotrophic than the chemistry would suggest. 6onversely, lowland reservoirs drawing water from nutrient rich rivers, may show e*aggerated eutrophic characteristics because the residence time in the reservoir is much greater than in the river and the biological systems have a much greater opportunity to utilise the available nutrients. 5eep reservoirs with multiple level draw off towers can discharge deep cold water into the downstream river greatly reducing the siCe of any hypolimnion. This in turn can reduce the concentrations of phosphorus released during any annual mi*ing event and may therefore reduce productivity. The 5ams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints2the energy of the water falling from them reduces and deposition is a result below the 5ams.

/eismicity
The filling 'impounding( of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir2 triggered seismicity '4TS( as seismic events have occurred near large dams or within their reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered by the filling or operation of the reservoir and are on a small scale when compared to the amount of reservoirs worldwide. Kf over /$$ recorded events, early e*amples include the H$ m '/;< ft( tall Iarathon 5am in Greece '/;1;(, the 11/ m '<19 ft( tall Doover 5am in the B.S. '/;79(. Iost events involve large dams and small amounts of seismicity. The only four recorded events above a H.$2 magnitude 'Iw( are the /$7 m '77= ft( tall !oyna 5am in India which registered a Iw of H.7 along with the /1$ m '7;8 ft( !remasta 5am in Greece which registered a H.72Iw as well. @ollowing those two, the ne*t largest were the /11 m '8$$ ft( high !ariba 5am in Oambia at H.192Iw and the /$9 m '788 ft( Uinfeng,iang 5am in 6hina at H./2Iw. 5isputes occur over when 4TS has occurred due to a lack of hydrogeological knowledge at the time of the event. It is accepted though that the infiltration of water into pores and the weight of the reservoir do contribute to 4TS patterns. @or 4TS to occur, there must be a seismic structure near the

dam or its reservoir and the seismic structure must be close to failure. "dditionally, water must be able to infiltrate the deep rock stratum as the weight of a /$$ m '71= ft( deep reservoir will have little impact when compared the deadweight of rock on a crustal stress field which may be located at a depth of /$ km 'H mi( or more.L7/M

Micro climate
4eservoirs may change the local micro2climate increasing humidity and reducing e*tremes of temperature. Such effects are claimed by some South "ustralian winerys as increasing the -uality of the wine production.

List o% reservoirs
#ain article: $ist of reservoirs

List o% reservoirs &y area

&ake Nolta from space '"pril /;;7(.

The following are the worldAs ten largest reservoirs by surface area.

1. &ake Nolta '=,8=1 km1 or 7,1<9 s- mi3 Ghana( L71M 2. Smallwood 4eservoir 'H,91< km1 or 1,91$ s- mi3 6anada(L77M 3. !uybyshev 4eservoir 'H,89$ km1 or 1,8;$ s- mi3 4ussia(L78M 4. &ake !ariba '9,9=$ km1 or 1,/9$ s- mi3 Oimbabwe, Oambia(L79M 6. Jukhtarma 4eservoir '9,8;$ km1 or 1,/1$ s- mi3 !aCakhstan( 8. Jratsk 4eservoir '9,81H km1 or 1,$;9 s- mi3 4ussia(L7HM 9. &ake ?asser '9,18= km1 or 1,$1H s- mi3 Fgypt, Sudan( L7<M ?. 4ybinsk 4eservoir '8,9=$ km1 or /,<<$ s- mi3 4ussia( A. 6aniapiscau 4eservoir '8,7/= km1 or /,HH< s- mi3 6anada(L7=M

1@. &ake Guri '8,19$ km1 or /,H8$ s- mi3 NeneCuela(

&ist of reservoirs by volume

&ake !ariba from space.

#ain article: $ist of reservoirs by volume

1. &ake !ariba '/=$ km7 or 87 cu mi3 Oimbabwe, Oambia( 2. Jratsk 4eservoir '/H; km7 or 8/ cu mi3 4ussia( 3. &ake ?asser '/9< km7 or 7= cu mi3 Fgypt, Sudan( 4. &ake Nolta '/8= km7 or 7H cu mi3 Ghana( 6. Ianicouagan 4eservoir '/81 km7 or 78 cu mi3 6anada(L7;M 8. &ake Guri '/79 km7 or 71 cu mi3 NeneCuela( 9. +illiston &ake '<8 km7 or /= cu mi3 6anada(L8$M ?. !rasnoyarsk 4eservoir '<7 km7 or /= cu mi3 4ussia( A. Oeya 4eservoir 'H= km7 or /H cu mi3 4ussia(

L7 /7/-EM artments ## Kperation Z Iaintenance

E8- 1( WA-ER /6''L7 /7/-EM -1 C0E88A# C#-7 )

er su$$ly source to Chennai DMadrasF )

, the people of 6hennai 'Iadras( were dependent on shallow wells situated in their own houses or on public wells and tanks in the neigh supply needs. There was no protected water supply at that time and these sources were not satisfactory.

ent o% organised water su$$ly system )

water supply to 6hennai was commenced in /=<1 which is the nucleus of the protected surface water supply system now in e*istence in nry "nicut 'weir( of /.= m height was constructed, across the !osathalaiyar 4iver at Tamaraipakkam about 1= km. north2west of 6hen r from this "nicut was brought to !ilpauk through 4edhills &ake by an open channel by gravity and distributed through 6ast Iron '6I( pip This initial gravity system consisted of Tamaraipakkam "nicut, Bpper Supply 6hannel of /7 km. length to convey the diverted water from t Tank, &ower Supply 6hannel of 8 km. length to convey water from 6holavaram to 4edhills &ake, an open channel of // km. length to conv ake to masonry Shaft at !ilpauk and cast iron mains to distribute the unfiltered water to the city.

g o% $rotected water su$$ly system )

milestone towards protected water supply using of filtration and pumping was achieved during the year /;/8. "n improved intake tower, n was constructed in /==/ at the deepest point in the 4edhills &ake. "n underground masonry conduit of siCe /.91m * /./1m and // km. convey raw water from 4edhills to !ilpauk, in the place of the open earthern channel, with conveying capacity of raw water at the rate of ow sand filters to purify the water 'H$ to <$ I&5(, four underground pure water storage tanks '1;.9$ I& capacity(, steam engine driven p overhead tank 'H.<9 I& capacity( and 8=E dia steel pumping main from !ilpauk Pumping Station to Shaft were installed. Subse-u tem was remodelled and e*tended to all areas of the city.

ent o% new sources )

oir 'later named as Sathyamoorthy Sagar( was constructed in /;88 across the !osathalaiyar 4iver with a capacity of 19<7 Icft and placed and storing !osathalaiyar 4iver water. Surplus water flows down the river which is again intercepted by Tamaraipakkam "nicut and d ake. '" lined canal known as Poondi 6anal was later constructed in /;<1 to convey water from Poondi 4eservoir to 6holavaram &a age of three lakes viC. Poondi, 6holavaram and 4edhills was 99;H Icft 'Poondi. 19<7 0 6holavaram. 9=7 4edhills. 188$(. The sy for a supply of //9 lpcd for an estimated population of $.HH million e*pected in /;H/.

ent wor+s carried out during 3;C@ to 3;@@ )

mmediate needs, various works for conveyance, treatment and distribution were carried out between /;8H and /;HH. 4apid gravity s ties with 89 I&5 capacity were completed in /;9;. 6onstruction of a second underground masonry conduit 'siCe /.;=m * /.11m( t ntity of /8H I&5 of raw water '71 Iillion Gallon per day( from 4edhills to !ilpauk, installations of Flectrical pumping units at !ilpauk replac driven pumpsets, second 8=E pumping main from !ilpauk Pumping Station to Shaft, 81E Trunk Iain to serve South 6hennai, 1 tered water tanks of ; I& capacity '1 Iillion Gallons( each at !ilpauk and e*pansion and improvement to distribution system are importa

ugmentation wor+s )

y, action was taken to augment the sources and improve the treatment and storage facilities. The construction of a lined channel from m for a length of /9 km. to convey water from Poondi to Tamaraipakkam was completed in /;<1 to reduce the transmission loss. The holavaram and 4edhills lakes were increased by <$$ Icft by raising the lake bunds. Thus, the combined storage capacity of Poondi, 6h

as increased to H1;H Icft 'Poondi. 19<7 0 6holavaram. ==/ 0 4edhills. 1=81(. The irrigation rights of 6holavaram lake and 4edhills H1 and the entire storage was made available for the 6ity supply.

l wor+s carried out during 3;@A to 3;BA )

I&5 capacity 4apid sand filter treatment facility was commissioned in /;H; at !ilpauk. " prestressed concrete overhead tank of H.= mi he <th underground clear water storage tank with /$ million litre capacity was constructed at !ilpauk +ater +orks. The city distribution sy Cones, each Cone to feed by a separate trunk main radially from !ilpauk +ater 5istribution Station. 5uring /;H1, a separate water d nstructed at "nna Poonga to serve the northern portion of the city and at Thiyagaraya ?agar, the Southern Dead +orks during /;<7 to s. The e*isting !ilpauk +ater 5istribution Station was serving the central portion of the ctiy.

on o% Ground water )

B?5P studies carried out during /;HH to /;H;, ground water a-uifer was identified at Tamaraipakkam, Pan,etty and Iin,ur in the Jasin '".!. Jasin( located north of 6hennai. These three +ell fields were developed for abstracting water at an estimated yield of /19 I&5 ed through bore wells from these well fields was supplied to Industries in Ianali from /;H; by the P+5 Ground +ater +ing, later on, af SJ in /;<=, this water was partly diverted to 6ityAs water supply system from /;=/.

LA8 (1R MA8AGEME8- 1( WA-ER /6''L7 )

nt water supply to 6hennai with conse-uential improvement and e*pansion of the e*isting water distribution system, a Iaster Plan was form ster Plan identified river !rishna as one of the viable sources for the 6hennai Ietropolitan "rea. 6I+SSJ implemented the improvemen ll /;;/ depending upon the funds availability.

re the important works e*ecuted .2

uction of =th underground clear water storage tank of /$ I& capacity at !ilpauk.

al of old and choked up water mains for a length of 87 km.

pment of new water distribution Cone '/7 th Cone( with 78 km. long pipeline network.

uction of third masonry conduit of siCe 1./7m * /.7<m with a conveying capacity of /;$ I&5 for a length of // km. completed in /;=H.

nar !arunanithi ?agar +ater 5istribution Station '!.!. ?agar(.

!. ?agar +ater Treatment Plant was constructed by T?DJ during the year /;<$ with a treatment capacity of 8.9 I&5 '/ IG5(. The sourc was from 8 ?os. of infiltration wells at Porur &ake and 9 ?os. of infiltration wells at Nirugambakkam &ake. +ater from these infiltration

onveyed through 89$mm dia ".6. pipes by gravity and supplied to !.!. ?agar after necessary treatment. This system was taken over by in the year /;<=. Till /;;1, water supply to !.!. ?agar has been made from the above said sources. "fter failure of infiltration wells at P mbakkam, the water from Porur &ake alone at 1.< I&5 is drawn, treated at !.!. ?agar water treatment plant and distributed in addition to th ed from 4edhills/Neeranam sources to the locations such as !.!. ?agar Fast Z +est, "shok ?agar, IG4 ?agar Fast Z +est, +est I ?esapakkam and Wai Jala,i ?agar.

ution system provided to unserved areas for a length of <$ km.

1 Panchayats around the periphery of the city i.e. !odungaiyur, Nyasarpadi, Frukkanchery, !olathur, Nillivakkam, Thirumangalam, Nirugam mam, !.!. ?agar, Nelachery, Tharamani and Thiruvanmiyur were added to 6ity limits in /;<= and 6I+SSJ took action to provide water su age services to these areas.

ern 6oastal "-uifer was developed along the coast of Jay of Jengal during /;<72<8 and e*tended for about 1$ km. between Thiruvanm ad during the year /;<92<< by T+"5 Joard. This was taken over by 6I+SSJ in Wune /;=8. The safe yield of this a-uifer is /$ I&5 and of Thiruvanmiyur area, T?S6J tenements at Kkkium Thuraipakkam and "avin at Sholinganallur. Dowever, in order to avoid sea water intr etion in water level, the present drawal has been restricted to only /.9 I&5.

/;=1 to /;=9, an B?5P/B?T"65 "ided Dydrogeological and "rtificial 4echarge studies were carried out which identified the pot ping three additional well fields 'Poondi, !osathalaiyar @lood Plains and !annigaiper( to abstract about 99 million litres per day of ground asin and transfer of flood water from "raniar river to !osathalaiyar river to realise 1< I&5 of water. These two schemes were completed u ai +orld Jank "ided Pro,ect in /;=<.

he three surface sources 'Poondi, 6holavaram and 4edhills( and H ground water well fields 'Iin,ur, Pan,etty, Tamaraipakkam, Poondi, @lo annigaiper(, about 7/= I&5 of water was abstracted of which 1<7 I&5 was supplied to 6hennai 6ity at an average of <$ lpcd and 89 I&5 stries in Ianali area till September 1=, /;;H. +ater distribution to the city from the 8 Dead works viC. !ilpauk, "nna Poonga, Southern De ?agar through the radial Conal trunk main/distribution mains were continued.

+ater Supply Source Iap '6lick here(

ion o% ;: MLD -reatment lant )

plement the mechanical treatment capacity at !ilpauk +ater +orks, an additional module of ;$ I&5 capacity was sanctioned by the Gover n the year /;=7. The works of construction of @ilter Douse, 6larifiers, 6hemical Douse and ; th filtered water underground tank were comp on /8th "pril /;;$. +ith this additional capacity, the total treatment capacity by Iechanical @ilters increased to 1<$ I&5 at !ilpauk which at uniform standards before distribution.

WA-ER /6''L7 /C0EME )

ment was signed ,ointly by Governments of Iaharashtra, !arnataka and "ndhra Pradesh on "pril /8, /;<H to spare /9 thousand million na water to 6hennai city. @ollowing this, an accord between "ndhra Pradesh Government and Tamil ?adu Government was signed on ng /9 TI6 of !rishna water to 6hennai 6ity from Sri Sailam 4eservoir to be conveyed through Somaseela and !andaleru 4eservoirs and of /1 TI6 'after loss of 7 TI6 enroute in evaporation and seepage( will reach the Tamil ?adu border.

s for supplying water under this scheme were completed in /;;H and from September /;;H, water is received at Poondi 4eservoir from ! ndhra Pradesh through /91 km. long open canal upto Tamil ?adu Jorder near Bthukottai. Then, the water is conveyed through 19 km. l i 4eservoir. @rom Poondi 4eservoir, water is transferred to 4edhills and 6hembarambakkam &akes through &ink/@eeder canals and suppl .

MA/-ER 'LA8 )

r Plan for water supply to 6hennai formulated in /;<=, was subse-uently updated in /;;/ on the following basis .2

supply to be augmented by a -uantity of ;7$ I&5 from !rishna 4iver.

demand for pro,ected population in 1$1/ and apportion the available -uantity among the beneficiaries.

ign the system components and install progressively, step by step, with augmentable -uantity so that allocated water could be supplied w orce the system to distribute 1$1/ water demand if additional sources could be identified.

aster Plan to be implemented in two stages. In Stage I, infrastructure re-uirements for supply of 8$$ I&5 of !rishna water would be cr II, infrastructures would be strengthened and e*panded to supply additional 97$ I&5 of !rishna water.

e Iaster Plan was taken up for implementation in phases using available sources of funds and also under +orld Jank "ided @irst 6henn anitation Pro,ect. This Pro,ect was implemented from 5ec. /;=< to Iarch /;;H. ?ew +ell @ields 'Poondi, !osathalaiyar @lood P o e*tract additional 99 I&5 of water from "! Jasin was developed in /;=<. 6onstruction of 7$$ I&5 capacity water treatment plant a and commissioned in /;;H. The transmission mains were laid from the treatment plant to ?orth 6hennai, 6entral 6hennai and South 6h ted water to 6ity 5istribution Station. "lso, old and choked up distribution mains were renewed.

n the storage ca$acity o% the La+es )

rks 5epartment e*ecuted the works for increasing the storage capacity of the Poondi, 4edhills and 6hembarambakkam &akes under the Pro,ect during /;;/2;1.

mbakkam &ake water is being used for the city water supply from the year 1$$$ during scarcity periods by conveying water to Porur &ake th and then by reverse pumping to conduit near 4edhills for onward transmission to !ilpauk +ater Treatment Plant for treatment and supply to

pacity of the &akes is as follows .

La+e

Ca$acity D#n Mc%t.F

Poondi

7,17/

6holavaram

==/

4edhills

7,7$$

-otal

B!C3>

6hembarambakkam

7,H89

Grand -otal

33!:5B

1( MA/-ER 'LA8 )

er Plan updated in /;;/ was revised in "ugust /;;< based on the updated water re-uirement and water allocation for each beneficiary a igure of /;;/. The updated '/;;H2;<( water re-uirement and water allocation for each beneficiary were assessed as follows .

WA-ER RE56#REME8D#8 MLDF AREA >::3 /. 6hennai 6ity >:>3

WA-ER ALL1CA-#18 D#8 MLDF

9R#/08A /-AGE # 9R#/08A /-AGE ##

</$

;81

919

<H$

1. Spl. Industries in Ianali

/<$

77$

/8$

7$$

7. "d,acent Brbanised "reas

777

9//

/7$

11=

8. 5istant Brbanised "reas

//8

/;<

71[

H;

-otal

32>B

3;A:

A>B

325B

ources

e 4evised Iaster Plan proposals, 6hennai 6ity water distribution system has been divided into /H Oones. @or this, /1 +ater distributio nstructed and improvements to the // water distribution systems were completed. &eak detection and rectification works were carried out measures by replacing the old and choked up water mains for a length of about 9=9 km. and /.;9 lakh house service connections were r mains for a length of 7H km. were laid to convey water to various water distribution stations. The !ilpauk water treatment plant has been re million litres of water daily. "lso, bulk meters were fi*ed in the water treatment plants and water distribution stations.

nformation System 'GIS( was developed in a pilot area. Information System Technology Planning 'ISTP( was implemented as a pilot p on the potential of "raniar2!osathalaiyar 4iver Jasin for the e*traction of ground water has been carried out during 1$$121$$8 and asse year during normal years and <$ mcm per year during drought years can be e*tracted from these a-uifers. These /H +ater 5istribution O separate water distribution station which is fed by a dedicated transmission main from the treatment plant. +ater 5istribution ?et +ork '6lick here(

M WA-ER /6''L7 'R1JEC- )

er Supply "ugmentation Pro,ect Source Iap '6lick here(

+ater Supply Pro,ect was implemented as additional source of water to 6hennai 6ity. The Pro,ect was commissioned in the year 1$$8 ater to 6hennai 6ity by drawing water from Neeranam &ake. This lake receives water from 6auvery 4iver system through !ollidam, &ow anal besides rainwater from its own catchment area. The capacity of the lake is /8H9 Icft. The lake water is treated at Nadakuthu +ater T ng raw water at a distance of 1$ km. from Sethiathope to Nadakuthu through /<<9 mm dia mild steel pipe. The treated water is then pum m. to Jreak Pressure Tank at !adampuliyur through /<9$ mm dia mild steel pipe and from there the water is conveyed to a distance of a e mild steel pipe of /=<9 mm and /9$$ mm dia by gravity to Porur +ater 5istribution Station near 6hennai. @rom this 5istribution Station stance of /.1 km. and distributed to 6hennai 6ity through Trunk mains and +ater 5istribution Stations.

'R#IA-E AGR#C6L-6RAL WELL/ )

so purchased water from the private agricultural wells in the "raniar2!osathalaiyar Jasin to augment the source. The water from th ls conveyed through the +ell @ields pipeline network to the 6hennai 6ity and other consumers. Till Wan 1$$=. 5uring poor storage in the se wells may be drawn based on the boards re-uirements.

A-ER -REA-ME8- 'LA8- A- C0EM<ARAM<A99AM )

$ I&5 +ater Treatment Plant at 6hembarambakkam '6lick here(

ater received from !rishna water source under the Telugu Ganga Pro,ect, construction of a 97$ I&5 water treatment plant at 6hembaram and transmission line was sanctioned by the Government during "ugust /;;H with an estimated cost of 4s.1;H.$$ crore. ?ow, the const een completed by the 6I+SS Joard. The trial operation of the plant began on =.8.1$$<. The plant has been inaugurated on /;.<.1$$<.

W-' )

ater treatment plant of /8 mld capacity was taken over from T+"5 Joard from $/.$=.1$$; for further Kperation and maintenance.

A-#18 'LA8- )

plant of /$$mld capacity has been commissioned on 7/.$<.1$/$ at !attupalli Nillage near Iin,ur. The plant was constructed by 5JKKT perate Z transfer( basis by I/s. 6hennai +ater 5esalination ltd '6+5&( and metro water has entered bulk water purchase arrangements s.

otal water treatment capacity for 6hennai 6ity is as follows . WA-ER -REA-ME8- 'LA8!ilpauk '/;/8 / 1$$9( CA'AC#-7 D#8 MLDF

1<$

PuChal '/;;H(

7$$

Nadakuthu 'Neeranam &ake Source( '1$$8(

/=$

6hemabarambakkam'1$$<(

97$

!.!.?agar'/;<1(

Surapet'1$$;(

/8

Iin,ur 5esalination Plant

/$$

-otal

3!2;A

R1(#LE )

s the growth profile in water supply since the formation of the Joard in /;<= to Wuly 1$/$.

DE-A#L/

3;BA

MARC0 >:3:

1'ERA-#18AL AREA

C#-7 3B@ /5.9M.

C#-7 G /6RR168D#8G AREA/

.his chapter focuses on the >@A water distribution system, the part of the .ransmission and ,istribution business area that involves delivery of water for retail use and for fire flow. >@AGs water distribution system consists of water mains, distribution storage facilities and pump stations, and related appurtenances such as valves, hydrants, service connections, and retail billing meters. .he supervisory control and data ac0uisition (>-+,+) system used to monitor and control the water system is also discussed in this chapter. @roper management of the distribution system ensures that >@A meets its service levels for retail customers. =+.E2 ,I>.2I3A.I<? >J>.E7 @<8I-IE> >@A developed the following new policy to describe >@AGs decision!making process and criteria for addressing redundancy in the distribution system.

,istribution >ystem 2edundancy @olicy 2edundancy in the distribution system is one way that >@A can increase the reliability of water delivery to its retail service customers. ,istribution system redundancy is provided by the network of water mains, appropriately spaced valves, stand!by pumps, and storage, all of which can help minimi e customer outages. Increasing redundancy, however, adds capital and operation and maintenance (<K7) costs that may not necessarily be justified. .his policy was developed to incorporate asset management principles, primarily life!cycle benefit and cost analysis, into >@AGs decision!making and clearly establish the criteria that >@A will use for adding or retiring redundancy in its water distribution system. .his policy ensures that service reliability is considered along with costs when considering retirement of e&isting redundant facilities or adding new redundancy. In developing this policy, >@A aimed to balance the conse0uences and costs of failure with the benefits of redundancy. It favors adding redundancy only when it is cost!justified ! meaning the benefits outweigh the costs. @olicy >tatement -onsider redundancy in the distribution system on a case!by!case basis, with decisions based on an evaluation of net present value. #. Dor new developments or redevelopments within the distribution system, re0uire developers to install looped systems, intermediate line valves, and/or additional shut!off valves for dead!end water mains when >@A determines that the improvement provides a positive net present value to the water system in the area. %. -onsider retiring e&isting redundant facilities within the distribution system when they are at the end of their economic life and the costs of a new facility e&ceeds the avoided risks costs. '. -onsider adding redundancy within the distribution system when replacing e&isting facilities that have reached the end of their economic life or when performing repairs on e&isting facilities that re0uire retail customer outages. (. .o increase redundancy, consider installing temporary or permanent looped systems, cross! over valves, intermediate line valves, and/or additional shut!off valves in the distribution system when the improvement provides positive net present value to the system. ). =hen evaluating net present value of options over the life of the project, include the capital costs of installing the redundancy improvement and all <K7 costs such as those to repair the

new facilities or to flush any dead!end mains. +lso include the benefits of any avoided risk costs, such as the costs of retail customer outages and temporary loss of fire flow. Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Pre""$re 7aintaining ade0uate distribution system pressure is critical to ensure both customer service and drinking water 0uality. +de0uate water pressure enables customers to have sufficient water flow from their household plumbing fi&tures and appliances. In addition, ade0uate pressure prevents contaminants from entering the distribution system through pipeline leaks and cross connections. In %55(, >@A developed a service level which meets =ashington >tate ,epartment of 1ealth (=,<1) re0uirements for pressure and provides a method for an economic analysis of supplying higher pressure levels in new and e&isting areas of the distribution system. .his service level establishes a minimum %5 pounds per s0uare inch (psi) service connection pressure standard for the e&isting distribution system during normal operations and a minimum '5!psi design standard for new distribution system construction, consistent with the =ashington +dministrative -ode (=+-). -urrent services with less than %5 psi of pressure will be brought up to at least %5 psi through system improvements. E&isting services with pressures less than '5 psi will be brought up to a higher pressure when it is economical to do so. Lea." =hile some level of leakage is unavoidable, it is important to >@A to keep leakage to a minimum because it represents a waste of valuable resources and may result in water damage to property. =,<1 is developing a re0uirement that would limit distribution system losses from all leaks to #5 percent of the total water delivered to the retail service area. >@A intends to meet the =,<1 re0uirements with this service level. >@AGs water system has had a history of low leakage rates. In %55), >@AGs total non!revenue water was 9.' million gallons per day (mgd), or 6 percent of the total #%; mgd produced. 8eakage is only one component of non! revenue waterH other components include seepage and evaporation from open reservoirs, water used for flushing and firefighting, as well as meter errors. -urrent leakage from >@AGs distribution and transmission system is estimated at between '.' mgd and (.; mgd, or between ) and 6 percent of the *6 mgd total produced e&cluding that sold to wholesale customers in %55). +ppro&imately #) percent of the leakage comes from transmission pipelines and water mains, and the remaining ;) percent comes from service connections on >@AGs side of the meter.

Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Water Storage Fa!ilitie" >@AGs distribution system includes eight in!city reservoirs and ten elevated tanks and standpipes to provide regulating and backup storage capacity to its retail customers. ,istribution >ystem 2eservoirs. .he -ity of >eattle owns and >@A operates and maintains eight reservoirs in the distribution system. 3itter 8ake was retrofitted with a liner and floating cover beginning in %55#, and 8incoln 2eservoir was reconstructed as a buried reservoir beginning in %55(. .he 3eacon and 7yrtle reservoir replacement projects began in %55*, when the e&isting reservoirs were taken out of service. >@A is investigating the possibility of retiring the last two open reservoirs, Bolunteer and 2oosevelt. -ondition assessment of in!town reservoirs follows the same procedure as described for the water transmission system reservoirs. 3ased on inspections, the structures are in good condition. 2ooseveltGs high!density polyethylene liner was replaced in #995 and, with an estimated life e&pectancy of %5 years, is not likely to need replacement before the reservoir is decommissioned. Bolunteer, Biew 2idge, and 7agnolia 2eservoirs are unlined. .he leakage rate from 3itter 8ake, 2oosevelt, and 7agnolia 2eservoirs is low, measured in %55'!%55( at under 5.* gallons per minute per million gallons (gpm/7C). .he %55'!%55( leakage rates for Bolunteer and Biew 2idge 2eservoirs were '.) and %.* gpm/7C respectively. 8eakage from 8incoln 2eservoir was tested during construction and found to be minimal and within acceptance criteria. ,istribution >ystem Elevated .anks and >tandpipes. In addition to its in!town reservoirs, the >@A water distribution system includes two elevated tanks and eight standpipes. .he elevated tanks and standpipes were constructed between #956 and #99*. .hey range in capacity from 5.;; mg to #.(5 mg. .his e&cludes the ^ueen +nne standpipes, which are both scheduled for demolition in early %556, and are planned to be replaced with a single %!mg tank. Di"tri,$tion S%"tem App$rtenan!e" .he >@A water distribution system includes a number of smaller appurtenances, such as valves, hydrants, service lines, and meters. .he paragraphs below summari e >@AGs inventory and replacement approach for each class of appurtenance. ,istribution >ystem Balves. >@AGs water distribution system includes more than %#,555 valves. 7ore than #*,*55 valves control the flow of water through the distribution system, but other valves regulate pressure, bypass other facilities, or allow air to escape the system. 7ost valves within the distribution system are gate valves. .he only significant modification to >@AGs valves planned since the %55# =ater >ystem @lan will be the valve chamber replacement program that will replace e&isting chamber

tops and access maintenance holes with larger diameter tops and new access ladders. .his program will provide >@A maintenance staff with safer valve chamber access and meet industry safety standards. >@A has an ongoing program to replace line valves when they fail beyond repair, when no replacement parts are available, or where the cost of repair e&ceeds the cost of replacement. .he determination of when a valve should be replaced instead of repaired is based on consultation among >@A staff e&perts.,istribution >ystem >ervice -onnections. >@A maintains appro&imately #;5,555 service connections, ;5 percent of which are h!inch diameter pipes. +lmost 65 percent of service connections are copper, and %5 percent are plastic. .he remaining #5 percent are galvani ed iron, ductile iron, and other materials. .he most significant change to >@AGs service connections since %55# is the initiation of a program to proactively replace noncopper service connections with copper connections. .his program is intended to reduce the high leakage and failure rate ofnon!copper service connections and is e&pected to be complete by %5#). .he most appropriate assessment of the condition of >@AGs service connections is their leakage rate. In %55), >@AGs leakage rate from its service connections was appro&imately %.; leaks per #,555 service connections. .his is lower than the I=+Gs target leakage rate of '.6) leaks per #,555 service connections for a well!run utility. .he current volume of leakage from >@AGs service connections is estimated between %.; to (.5 million gallons per day (mgd), or between #) to %% gallons per day per service connection. I=+Gs target leakage volume is appro&imately #) gallons per day per service connection. >@AGs non!copper service connections have leakage rates that are greater than ) leaks per #,555 service connections. 3y proactively replacing these non!copper service connections with copper connections, >@A e&pects to reduce the service connection leakage rate down to #.) leaks per #,555 service connections, well below the I=+ target. Dor all other copper services, >@AGs replacement program is a irun!to!failureT strategy, since the impacts of a failed copper service are typically minor, and the services can be 0uickly replaced. ,istribution >ystem 7eters. Each service line is fitted with water meters used to determine customer charges. 7ost of the meters (;6 percent) are for residential customers, and the remaining #' percent are for commercial customers. ?early 9% percent of >@A meters are small ('/(!inch and #!inch). >ince the %55# =ater >ystem @lan, the most significant change to distribution meters, other than routine meter replacements and repairs, has been the installation of radio fre0uency modules on difficult!to!read meters in the downtown area. +lso, radio fre0uency modules were installed in %55) at a group of multifamily residential meters to pilot!test a new technology to collect readings from a single pole!mounted collector

Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Maintenan!e @roper maintenance of distribution system components ensures that >@A will be able to deliver reliable water service, reduce the risk of une&pected failures, and provide safe drinking water 0uality to its customers. >@A has prepared a number of strategic asset management plans (>+7@s) for each major class of distribution system infrastructure components. .he >+7@s outline maintenance strategies for each asset. >ummaries of those maintenance strategies are provided below. Water Main" =ater mains located at idead!endsT or with low flows often accumulate sediment or have the potential for microbial growth. >@A crews flush low!flow or dead!end mains to maintain water 0uality. >@A has also begun a plot unidirectional flushing program, as described in the -hapter '. 2eservoirs and .anks >torage facility cleaning is also performed to remove sediment, debris, and/or microbial growth as described in -hapter '. =ater @ump >tations @ump stations in the distribution system are maintained in the same manner as described for the transmission system pump stations, as described in -hapter (. =ater +ppurtenances >@A also performs maintenance activities for its valves, hydrants, service lines, and meters to ensure their continuing operation. + brief description of each follows.Balves. >@A responds to an average of #55 valve!related problems per year. 7ost valve problems can be categori ed as leaks, casting failures, mechanical inoperability, and valves being buried by new pavement. ,eterioration of interior packing, broken and bent stems, and construction projects are usually the causes of valve problems. >@A is responsible for operating and e&ercising distribution line valves. 8arge valves, those #* inches or larger, were e&ercised and inspected by valve crews annually until %55'. ,ue to shifts in priorities, this routine operation work is performed less fre0uently. 1ydrants. Each fire service agency inspects hydrants located within its service area, generally on an annual basis. ,efects are reported to >@A for repair. ,uring a twelve month period in %55%!%55', >@A responded to appro&imately %,%*9 work orders to address fire hydrant defects. ,uring maintenance visits, >@A paints hydrants to prevent e&terior corrosion and improve their appearance. .he average hydrant painting interval is appro&imately five years. >ervice -onnections. >@A spends about I#.% million annually on reactive maintenance and repair of water service lines e&tending from the water main to a customerGs meter. >@A typically learns of water service failures through customer calls. >@AGs service connection maintenance program is almost entirely reactive since it is generally not economical to perform preventative

maintenance activities on water service lines. .he conse0uences of failure on water service lines are low, and therefore it is more economical to run them to failure.7eters. >@AGs retail water meters ensure proper billing of its drinking water sales, as well as wastewater disposal costs. 3illing system!generated meter problem reports may be generated under a variety of different conditionsU broken meter dialsH meters that have been inaccessible for reading for three attemptsH consumption that is much higher or lower than what is e&pected for the customer based on historical informationH meter registers that are stuckH and meters that show ero consumption. -ustomer!reported problems often arise from billing 0uestions. =hen these problems arise, >@A works with each customer to 0uickly resolve the issues. 7alfunctioning customer meters are much more likely to underregister than over!register. >@A maintains its distribution system water meters based on meter si e and customer type. >@A has a meter testing and maintenance program for its large meters, which represent less than three percent of all retail meters. >@AGs goal is to maintain accuracy of large meters to between 96 and #5' percent as per the guidelines of the +merican =ater =orks +ssociation. + large meter with an accuracy falling outside that range is either repaired to restore its performance or replaced. >@A does not typically perform maintenance activities for small meters since repairing small meters is not cost!effective and it is generally cheaper to replace a small meter than repair it. >@A replaces about ;55 small meters each year. 2ecord Feeping and 2eporting >@A uses its 7+WI7< work management system to capture asset failure, repair, and replacement history. Dailure history is not completely reliable because many of the failure codes that were originally developed did not ade0uately describe the nature of the failure. .his problem has since been resolved for all new data entered into the system. >@A uses a geographic information system (CI>) to record and display locations of physical assets and problems. .his tool is also utili ed to review hydrant spacing and identify hydrants that have deficient spacing. Ceneral, definitions, abbreviations, commonly used waterworks pipes fittings, responsibilities of water and consumers/agents, general principles for installing plumbing works, submissions of pluming proposals, general, submissions, plumbing proposals, format, licensed plumber, commencement of work, interim inspections and final inspections, completion of work, works of a minor nature, metering, general, meterposition, inside service, fresh water supply, flushing supply, fire service, metering re0uiremnt pipe materials, supply types and arrangements, storage cisterns, water pumps and other miscellaneous, water pumps, valve and taps, earthing, separate

metering ine&isting premises, authori ing private developers/authori ed persons to undertake water supply, connection works, maintenance. @lumbing installation that receives water supply from the =aterworks has to comply with the =aterworks re0uirements under the provision of the =aterworks <rdinance/2egulations and 1ong Fong =aterworks >tandard 2e0uirements for @lumbing Installation in 3uildings (1F=>2). +pproval from the =ater +uthority is re0uired in order to construct, install, alter or remove a plumbing installation. =orks of a 7inor ?ature =orks of a minor nature are works which can be completed without the involvement of speciali ed trade skill and those which do not change the general arrangement of the plumbing installation already approved by the =ater +uthority, or affect the flowconditions of the plumbing system thus causing possible supply problems. Fitting" an# A!!e""orie" -omplete range of fittings K accessories for @E @iping >olutions offered by ,ura!line includes compression fittings like couplers/elbows/end caps/tees etc. up to ##5 mm and fabricated K moulded fittings/accessories like bends, elbows, e0ual tees, flanges etc. up to #555 mm diameter. j -ompression fittings U -overing si es upto ##5 mm for water supply and house service connection, in accordance with international standards, duly certified by bodies like FI=+, ,BC= K =rc j 7olded K Dabricated fittings like e0ual/une0ual tees, bends, collars, flanges, capends, etc. covering the complete range. @rofessional .urnkey >upport for design, supply, installation, jointing and testing of @E piping systems. ,ura!line @ipes 8earning -enter at Coa for knowledge sharing K training on design, application, installation, jointing K testing techni0ues for @E piping systems

I 0ipe and Fittings

Product Features Capa%ility0la)e of origin-

As per t$e %uyerHs spe)ifi)ations India

,escriptionU >hreyas +gro >ervices (@) 8td. undertakes turnkey projects, which includes design, supply, installation, testing and commissioning of pipelines. =e are manufacturers and suppliers of @E pipes which consists ofU

@B- pipes ranging from %5 mm to )*5 mm <,, with pressure rating from %.) Fg/cm% to #* Fg/cm% ^uick fi& @B- pipes ranging from *' mm to (55 mm, with pressure rating!( Fg/cm% to #%.) Fg/cm% 3ore well casing and screen pipes ranging from (;mm to )(5 mm for a well depth up to ()5 meters @lumbing pipes ranging from f i to # f i 1,@E water pipes ranging from %5 mm to #*55 mm with pressure rating of %.) kg/cm% to #* Fg/cm% 7,@E pipes for house service connection, ranging from %5 mm to *' mm,