INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Two Concepts of International Organization

Jan Klabbers One: There is something of a debate going on about international organizations, with many people (politicians as well as academics) planning mechanisms to curtail the activities of international organizations !nd small wonder, with "# peace$eepers being routinely accused of involvement in se%ual abuse and other violations of human rights& with the 'ecurity (ouncil being regarded as the vehicle for "' grudges& with the )orld *an$ and the +,- being seen to somehow affect human rights& with the )TO being viewed as the hand maiden of global capitalism, and with the ."/s reluctance to ta$e human rights and democracy really seriously ,any of these attempts to curtail the activities of international organizations ta$e the form of insisting, along models developed within states, on some $ind of formal limits: where organizations e%ercise governmental tas$s, their activities, 0ust li$e those of governments under the 1ule of 2aw, ought to be sub0ect to standards Those standards may be internal to the organization (limits to their mandates), or e%ternal (they are e%pected to adhere to international law and human rights standards), and are often summarized under the heading of constitutionalism There is, 3uite obviously, much of value in this constitutionalism debate, but on occasion it would seem to miss the point +t is not 0ust the case that constitutionalism involves, eventually, a set of parado%es that undermine it in a fundamental way& it is also the case that constitutionalism may end up throwing out the baby with the bathwater, for it wor$s, as so much of the law on international organizations does, on a flat, one4dimensional picture of organizations +t presupposes, in other words, that there is but a single concept of international organization, and aims its arrows at that concept *ut in doing so it misses part of the picture: there is a second concept of international organizations Two:

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 5istorically, international organizations have often, perhaps always, been conceptualized as entities endowed with a single tas$: the management of common problems Organizations, so the standard story goes, are really the e%tensions of states, doing those things that states cannot do on their own +n other words, the concept that dominates in the literature is a concept of an international organization as endowed with tas$s& a concept of an entity created by states to do the sort of things states cannot do (or might be reluctant to do) on their own, for whatever reason: manage an international waterway, monitor human rights violations, provide loans so as to facilitate economic development, facilitate smooth industrial relations, et cetera .ven the management of peace and security can, on this view, be reduced to, indeed, a managerial tas$, something best left to e%perts This modernist image, presupposing the malleability of society, has perhaps never been more forcefully put forward than by "' peace activist and 6outstanding citizen/ (as his publisher called him) 7renville (lar$, in a brief but remar$able plea for global disarmament and a stronger "#, written on the occasion of the Korea )ar 5is words betray an eerie optimism for the possibilities of a world federation under "# auspices: 8,uch of the slowness in moving toward world order has been due to the difficulty of seeing 0ust how the machinery of a limited world government could operate !s the study of the application of -ederalism to the world problem proceeds, this mental bloc$ will tend to disappear 8 !nd a page later, he advocated the rise of a new body of political leaders& young leaders would be 8better trained in the techni3ue of framing a limited world government and less inhibited by old habits of mind 8 The first concept of international organization then is a 9 management4oriented, functionalist and progressive concept, built on the lines of modernism& + shall refer to it as the managerial concept +t presupposes two things: first, that institutionalized cooperation between independent states will contribute to the solution of common problems and second, that increased cooperation through international organizations will lead to a better world 2eave it to the e%perts, properly educated as they are, and shortsighted things such as sovereignty or the national interest will be overcome by pure reason !nd this is often the avowed aim )itness for instance the words of a former director4general

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS of the +2O, who held that 8 international organizations must remain constant in their fidelity to the principles of ob0ectivity and vigor in pursuing the goals of wor$ing for improved international understanding and for peace 8 The march towards heaven would be unstoppable& nothing less than the 6salvation of man$ind/ would depend on international organizations, to use #agendra 'ingh/s phrase +mportantly, this managerial concept is also 3uite intolerant: instrumental as it is, it cannot tolerate the thought of other concepts being e3ually useful !s an emanation of what ,ichael Oa$eshott refers to as rationalism, it has to insist that there cannot be any alternatives Or rather, that such alternative way of organizing as do e%ist are bound to be inferior This first, managerial, concept plays out in a variety of ways within international organizations +t results, e g , in depoliticization of political issues& it leads to deformalization of decision4ma$ing, and it results in the use of e%pert bodies and what in .urope is so characteristically called 6comitology/ Three: There is, however, and always has been, a second concept of international organization This is the concept of the international organization as a classical agora: a public realm in which international issues can be debated and, perhaps, : decided ,any have recognized, however implicitly perhaps, that there is this dimension as well to international organizations, and about as many tend to scorn it +ts discontents say that it leads to the organization being (no more than) a platform for discussion, where things cannot 0ust get done, and 0ust cannot get done ! recent )TO 1eport sums up the general mood well when it complains that 8;o<n a day4to4day basis, the )TO has become too much of a tal$ing shop 8 !ll tal$, and no action& surely this is anathema to the managerial concept The agora concept signifies a less progressive, less optimistic, less modernist vision on international organizations On this view, international organizations are not created to solve any particular problems, much less to save man$ind +nstead, they are created as fora where states can meet, e%change ideas, and discuss their common future, not necessarily with a view to solving problems, or indeed

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS even reaching an outcome, but merely for the sa$e of debate itself -our: To identify two concepts of international organization is, perhaps, not a terribly novel discovery 'omething along these lines clearly underlies the classic argument about 7!TT and )TO that they started out as debating clubs, and became more 0uridical and effective along the way: this argument presupposes that there is such a thing as linear progress in political matters The two concepts are also faintly reminiscent of the balance Joseph )eiler has observed between the political and 0uridical organs of the .uropean (ommunity and later, the )TO, or =avid Kennedy/s invocation of the law 4 politics dichotomy in the establishment of the 2eague of #ations, or the suggestion by ,artti Kos$enniemi that political organs may $eep each other in chec$ These are eminently more plausible than the idea of a linear progress, but not 3uite what + have in mind )hat + have in mind comes a lot closer to the distinction made by the *ritish political philosopher ,ichael Oa$eshott between societas and universitas Oa$eshott used these two notions to describe and analyze variations in the modern state since the >?th century -or Oa$eshott, societas referred to agents related to each other, usually on the basis of a pact or agreement, by bonds of loyalty The loyalty would not be loyalty to a common pro0ect, but rather to legality: the members of such a societas were 8related to one another in the continuous ac$nowledgement of the authority of rules of conduct indifferent to the pursuit or the achievement of any purpose 8 *y contrast, universitas denotes a purposive association of people, people banding together in order to achieve a common purpose, to attain an ac$nowledged end, or to promote a specific interest Oa$eshott/s contention is not so much that one concept evolves into another (and at any rate, it is clear where his sympathies lie), but rather that the tension between the two concepts 8is central to the understanding of the character of a modern .uropean state and the office of its government 8 Mutatis mutandis, + thin$ the same applies to the law of international organizations, much of which can be understood as the result of the interplay or tension between the two different concepts of international organization Thus, the

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS tension between the two concepts may help e%plain why we both chide the )TO for doing too much and for doing little& it may help e%plain why we can criticize the "# both having e%panded beyond its proper mandate, and for doing enough to redeem the world can too for not

The two concepts both a play a role in the life of international organizations, but it would seem fair to say that the managerial one tends to play first fiddle: action spea$s louder than words& actually getting things done is considered more important than tal$ing about those things, in particular when no conclusive answer can be e%pected This owes much to the western tradition of political theory of course, for which politics is usually a means to an end, and for which the end promises to dethrone politics: all great ideologies promise the end of politics -ive: !lready the language used by international lawyers suggests the predominance of the managerial concept +nternational lawyers spea$ of the 6personality/ or 6identity/ of organizations& they spea$ of organizations having powers and a 6volont@ distincte/ of their own& they spea$ of the organization e%ercising tas$s and functions& indeed, the dominant theory about organizations is one which focusses on their functions, and therewith is firmly grounded in the managerial concept There are sound reasons why this managerial, or functional, approach could dominate the scene The managerial approach suggests that organizations do only what their founders tell them to do& that they do not develop any initiatives of their own e%cept such as can be reconciled with their founders/ intentions& and that they do not have any rights, privileges or immunities that cannot be traced bac$ to the desires of the founders +n short, the managerial approach aims to $ill two birds with one stone, so to spea$: it suggests both that organizations can be active in the service of some defined good cause, while at the same time suggesting that there are clear limits to what e%actly the organization can do 5ence, for states, 0ealously guarding their sovereign prerogatives, the managerial concept proved a wonderful way of coming to terms with a new phenomenon !nd international lawyers embraced the epistemology because that is what international lawyers are trained to do: ta$e states

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS and their intentions seriously 'till, while the managerial concept may play first fiddle, the agora concept always shines through, e g in the oft4heard criti3ue of organizations being 6tal$ing clubs6 !nd it would seem that a tectonic shift is occurring: the managerial concept has proved deficient on a few counts, resulting in the agora concept gaining in prominence One drawbac$ of the managerial concept is, that it has singularly failed to $eep organizations in chec$ ,any organizations have been accused of ta$ing liberties, abusing their privileged status and, most of all perhaps, of becoming too active +t is a clich@ perhaps, but to some e%tent organizations have become the victims of their own success, for precisely by achieving results they have come to threaten the state 4 or, more accurately perhaps, they have come to be seen as threatening the state This may help e%plain why all the tal$ at present is about the responsibility and accountability of organizations, of remedies against international organizations, indeed of constitutionalism The relation between the two concepts, then, is fairly symbiotic They find themselves as two sides on a scale: too much action provo$es a cry for debate& too much debate provo$es a cry for action They need each other in order to achieve balance *ut there is more to it, in that the managerial concept is increasingly being used to 0ustify other, less formal, forms, of cooperation, ranging from /transgovernmentalism/ to 6unilateralism/ The spirit of 6getting things done/ is alive and $ic$ing 'i%: Thus, the most purely political, non4instrumental and non4 functional concept of international organization, the agora concept, is often snowed under by attempts to get things done& and where the agora concept does crop up, the managerial approach 3uic$ly ta$es its business elsewhere: out of formal organization with all its overtones of formalism but also of legitimacy and the rule of law, into informal networ$s, which have activism and results as their overtones, but come up short on things li$e transparency, democracy, accountability, and legitimacy Thus regarded, international organizations ris$ losing out on two counts: if they embrace the managerial approach all too eagerly, their very own member states may be $een on cutting them down to size, for

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS fear of losing control On the other hand, as soon as the agora concept ta$es over, states ta$e their business elsewhere: it is 0ust too attractive to get away from politics, and to thin$ in terms of 6getting things done/ and 6the end 0ustifies the means/ !nd that is, of course, thoroughly understandable: who would not wish to see their vision on the good life successfully e%ecuted, preferably in a legitimate manner but, if necessary, also by less than legitimate meansA 'even: The two concepts of international organization, then, are interrelated, and much of the law is shaped in the interplay between them, but together they do not form an airtight system of communicating barrels +nformal mechanisms may appear, unilateralism may appear, and vertical systems (governance by topic rather than by territory) may appear !nd all of those may appear simultaneously and vie for prominence& there is no a priori reason why, say, the !+=' medication crisis should be approached through the )TO rather than the )5O, some social welfare scheme set up under "# auspices, or even as a matter of human rights 2i$ewise, there is no a priori reason why public regulation should be given priority over private regulation: why not apply a code of conduct drawn up by the pharmaceutical industryA Or, conversely, a code of conduct drawn up by #7OsA Or by a body of e%perts from various national health ministries together with representatives from industry and othersA !nd who e%actly should apply those norms to begin withA !s the e%ample ma$es clear, all of these normative schemes may compete for the scarce resource of legitimate authority, and it can no longer be ta$en for granted that the ones representing public authority will carry the day +ndeed, it is not even clear which ones will represent public authority, and which of those that do represent public authority should be given preference 'till, in this competition, international organizations have a comparative advantage, and their comparative advantage is threefold -irst, the agora concept of international organizations suggests that organizations can be seen as the ideal playground of politics: an insulated place where the minds can meet, opinions be voiced, and temporary coalitions forged !s someone put it recently in a different conte%t and using a

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS stri$ing image, thus conceptualized an organization may act 8as the surface on which the search for 0ustice is conducted 8 'econd, and related, this holds true all the more so in a world where territorial4based government is losing in relative importance +t is not, of course, the case that the state is dead and buried: the state too is of value both as the repository of values and culture, and as a neutral platform for the conduct of politics& but it is to note that often enough, states alone are incapable of either getting things done, or of getting things done in a legitimate manner Organizations then can assist not 0ust in getting things done, but also in doing them legitimately Third, the formal international organization would have them advantage of being purposive )hat states do not have, and what private regimes do not have either (or have too much, perhaps) is the facility to be used for certain particular goals To the e%tent that the world is malleable, it is malleable through international organizations Those can be given assignments& those can be given tas$s and functions *y contrast, such authority over the private sector is eminently lac$ing +n the end, then, this once again underlines how societas and universitas hang together& it once again underlines that it is a mista$e to thin$ of international organizations as either one or the other )hile it may be strategically or normatively useful, on occasion, to highlight the managerial concept or instead to emphasize the agora concept, at the end of the day them so useful with a view to global governance and steering the global mar$et, is precisely the interaction between the two concepts of international organization

Why Do We Need a World Organization?

The men who forged the (harter of the "nited #ations had a solemn tas$ )hile the most destructive war in the world/s history was still going on, and in the $nowledge that any future conflict would be infinitely worse, they sought at 'an -rancisco a solution to the age4old problem how to prevent war The representatives who met in 'an -rancisco from !pril B? to June BC, >D:?4representatives of the ?E nations then at war

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS with 7ermany or Japan or both4were by no means brea$ing new ground -or centuries philosophers and $ings, diplomats and ordinary citizens have hunted for the $ey to lasting peace +n the course of time, every conceivable variety of general principle and detailed plan has been put forward *ut not until >D>D was a full4fledged organization established among the nations with the purpose of $eeping the peace The 2eague of #ations failed of that purpose The men who created it predicted that a recurrence of world conflict would be certain disaster for humanity *ut in the years that followed, men became less conscious of the costs of war and more preoccupied with the price of peace 'tatesmen and students discussed at length the economic and social measures necessary to relieve political unrest but little was done to solve the critical problems #ations, when the pinch came, hesitated to ta$e direct action against aggression +n ,anchuria, in .thiopia, at ,unich, and elsewhere, however, the world learned that aggression cannot be stopped by diplomatic protests, halfway economic penalties or appeasement +t will ta$e at least as much cooperation and determination to use 0oint force4if necessary4to $eep the peace as it has ta$en to win the victory !nother chance and another try The military developments of this war40et propulsion, roc$ets, atomic bombs4show what could be e%pected in a future war They ma$e the creation of a wor$able system to maintain world peace loo$ li$e plain common sense , )hatever peace may cost in the sacrifice of traditional ideas and policies would seem to be not merely worth while but indispensable !s 'enator Fandenberg said to the 'enate in his report on the 'an -rancisco (onference, 8+f )orld )ar +++ ever unhappily arrives, it will open laboratories of death too horrible to contemplate They must be closed all around the earth (for $eeps) because neither time nor space any longer promises to shield the victims of treacherous attac$ 8 !t 'an -rancisco the "nited #ations laid the foundation and erected the framewor$ of another world peace system +n some ways it resembles the 2eague of #ations +n other ways it is different *ut it faces the same basic difficulties and over

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS it hovers the same big 3uestion mar$: )ill it succeedA(harter of the "nited #ations Greamble )e the peoples of the "nited #ations determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to man$ind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the e3ual rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which 0ustice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, and for these ends to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims !ccordingly, our respective 7overnments, through representatives assembled in the city of 'an -rancisco, who have e%hibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present (harter of the "nited #ations and do hereby establish an international organization to be $nown as the "nited #ations

Futures Perspectives of International Organizations Proposed research uestions for a !N"#CO study
4 H 4 *ac$ground paper for a "#.'(O H "#+T!1 e%pert meeting on the role of international organizations in the contemporary world (7eneva, >?4>D ,arch, >DIC) +ntroduction

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS The purpose of this paper is to propose 8draft outline8 of Gart +F of the proposed "nesco 'tudy under the title future perspectives of international organizations 7iven the competence and interest of the author, this paper will focus primarily on the nongovernmental actors and international organizations in general but not on 3uestions specific to intergovernmental organizations These will presumably be a prime concern of others contributing to this meeting The sections of this outline are: (hanging meaning of international organization 1elationships and networ$s Juantitative description of future evolution of international organization (hanging nature of relationships between organizations (hanging nature of relationships between organizations and nation4states 'cenarios for the future of the international system -uture significance for the alleviation of world problems 1elevance of international bodies to developing countries ,a%imization of organization of organizational potential -uture policies of mobilizing resources in support of programme action -uture possibilities for facilitating achievement of full organizational potential Trends in organizational operations 1estrictions on organizational operations ! (hanging meaning of international organization +t is important to consider how 8organization8 in general and 8international organization8 (or variations on this term) in particular are becoming riches in meaning and diversity of structures denoted and the possibilities for new structures to which this given rise The following dimensions may be considered: > Organizations and their functional substitutes )hat range of meanings is usefully attached to 8organization8 which is of significance to the operation of the international systemA )hat range of meanings are natural to or emerging from and developing country cultures A

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS To what e%tent do other $inds of organization function increasingly as substitutes for a conventional international body, these obviating the necessity for its creation A -or e%ample: a regular conference series without a continuing committee, a multilateral treaty without a secretariat, an invisible college, an information system, a 0ournal readership, etc )hat new $inds of organization might emerge in the light of demands for greater fle%ibility, speed of response, and intersectoral coordination A B +nternational, etc as opposed to national )hat range of meanings may increasingly be given to 8international8 arc its relation to 8national8 A To what e%tent is the importance of some $inds of 8international8 body increasing and how is this associated with such terms as 8multinational8, and 8transnational8 A )ill the denotation of bodies acting world4wide by a term containing 8 national8 continue to be so meaningful A 9 #ongovernmental as opposed to governmental )hat range of meanings can be distinguished for bodies on the governmentalHnongovernmental dimension A To what e%tent are new $inds of governmentHnongovernmental mi%es emerging, particularly in non4western societies A : #onprofit as opposed to profit4ma$ing )hat range of meanings can be distinguished for bodies on the profitHnonprofit dimension A To what e%tent are new $inds of profitHnonprofit mi%es emerging, particularly in non4western societies A ? -unctional range )hat range of activities for international bodies can be distinguishedA -or e%ample: technical, regulation, standardization, legislation, mobilization of public opinion, e%change of information To what e%tent, for a given problem areas are these performed within the framewor$ of one organization or by different bodies 5ow is the bias changing, and how are the results $nitted togetherA

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS C 'alience To what e%tent are semi4secret organizations and organizational subsititutes of increasing importanceA -or e%ample: intelligence networ$s, international crime rings, international cartels, invisible colleges and secret societies I =uration To what e%tent is the importance of temporary international bodies increasing A -or e%ample: special committees, temporary coalitions, etc K ,embership To what e%tent will the importance of mass membership organizations increase and how will they blend into the range of less formal international movementsA * 1elationships and networ$s )hat $inds of relationships e%ist, are emerging, or may emerge between organizationsA )hat range of meanings can increasingly be attached to the concept of a networ$ of relationships, or an organizational networ$, of significance to the international system A 5ow are networ$s of relationships changing ans evolvingA )hat new characteristics of networ$s are emerging A 5ow does the e%istence of organizational networ$s increasingly binder or facilitate new activity A how will the operations networ$s (networ$ dynamics) be hindered or facilitated by the establishment of organizational systems which ta$e no account of their e%istenceA )hat new concepts are li$ely to emerge to describe the structure functioning end evolution of networ$s as networ$s A ( Juantitative description of future evolution of international organization Ta$ing into account the considerations of the previous sections: 5ow many organizations of what types may be e%pected to e%ist in different periods over the ne%t >EE years A +n order to give meaning to the above figures, how many e3uivalent bodies of what types are e%pected to e%ist at the national and subnational levels in different countries A

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 5ow will the geographical spread of membership in universal bodies, and creation of regional bodies, changeA To what e%tent will the degree of interrelationship between organizations increaseA 5ow will the e%istence of non4formal and non formal organizational = (hanging nature of relationships between organizations (onsideration can usefully be given to the changing nature of relationships between: "#H+7O and "#H+7O: namely the problems of communication and coordination between "# 'pecialized !gencies +7O and +7O: namely the problems of commincation between 8regional8 and 8universal8 bodies #7O and #7O: namely the problems of communication and liaison between #7Os of different types ,ultinational and multinational: namely the problems arising from communication and coordination between multinationals +7O and multinational: the e%pected evolution of the .(O'O( initiative +7O and #7O : the e%pected evolution of the consultative relationship #7O and multinational: the possible relations between multinationals and trade unions, professional societies, trade associations, etc . (hanging nature of relationships between organizations and nation4states (onsideration should be given to the evolution of relationships of the following type: )ith country of 'ecretariatH1egional Office: namely problems of legal status of the organization, its personnel, importHe%port of goods associated with the operations of the organization, of foreign visitors to the 'ecretariat )ith country of international meeting )ith country where there is (field4level) programme activity )ith country where there are members: including the problems of the members in relating to a distant organization 'cenarios for the development of the system of international organizations The following table lists a series of >C scenarios some of which might be considered singly or in groups

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 8L8 +ndicates much more organization, where as 848 +ndicates much less of the particular $ind of

-or each of the >C cases, it may be useful to distinguish the subcase of low entropy and high entropy systems, ma$ing 9B possibilities in all 2ow variety 1elatively centralized 5igh variety 1elatively centralized +7O ,ultinational corporation #7O +nformal 7 -uture significance for the alleviation of world problems

+t is important to consider whether the number and variety of organizations and the manner in which they function together (whether coordinated on by some process of mutual information), be will lead to improved containment of the e3uivalent networ$ of world problems To what e%tent will then be en increasing number of problem which no organization has an operational programme, or at least a mandate to recognize the problem A To what e%tent will the dynamics of the networ$ of problems such that, despite the e%stence of appropriate organizational networ$s, the problems will be uncontainable A To what e%tent will there be a de4emphasis on alleviating action trough international bodies in favour of decentralized activity through national or even subnational bodies A 5 1elevance of international bodies to developing countries 7iven that (>) the ma0ority of international head3uarters in developed countries bodies have their

(B) even when developing countries create their own regional bodies, the rate of creation of such bodies is less the rate of creation of e3uivalent bodies in developed countries

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS To what e%tent will the ma0ority of international bodies be decreasing relevant to developing countries and their problemsA To what e%tent will the need to create all varieties of regional bodies in developing countries (and the national and subnational organizational base from which to do so), come to be recognized as an integral problem of economic end social developmentA To what e%tent will a distinct group of #7Os emerge for the developing countries, 0ust as a distinct group emerged for the socialist countries in both cases with an important indirect relationship with the governmentA To what e%tent are there fundamental, cultural and semantic problems in developing countries of defining and distinguishing organizations similar to those which have emerged from the developed world, and particularly the western countries A )hat other $inds of body may be e%pected to emerge from within the cultures in 3uestion and to what new $inds of organization might they give rise internationallyA + ,a%imization of organization potential There already is a vast networ$ of organizations and groups in society e%tending from the community level to the international level Only little is $nown about this networ$ as a networ$, or of the number of bodies in it (possibly of the order of >E4>EE million) +t is not $nown what might be accomplished if the potential of this networ$ those touched by it were brought to bear on world problems #othing is $nown about its synergistic potential To the e%tent that ma%imization the ability of individuals, and e%isting organizational units (of whatever $ind) to: (>) 2in$ together into larger organizational units (B) channel resources to focal points from which they may be directed to the alleviation of problems (9) restructure e%isting organizational comple%es in response problem configurations and priorities is closely related to the ability of society to survive the emerging comple% of problems: To what degree will the organizational potential of society be utilize and what would be the overflow effect, from such

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS national and subnational achievement, onto the international levelA 5ow could the organizational potential of a society or culture be measured and what are the restrictions on ma%imum 3uantity and on ma%imum contract coordinationA J -uture policies of mobilizing resources in support of programme action 7iven the organizational potentialand the increasing criticality of world problems To what e%tent may e%isting policies of mobilizing public opinion and organizational support be e%pected to succeed in the futureA To what e%tent are individuals and organizations increasingly switching their focus to national and subnational problems, despite the increased criticality of some problems in other countries and the lac$ of resource thereA 5ow could networ$s of organizations be mobilized from central points which deny the e%istence of the networ$ as a networ$A K -uture possibilities for facilitating achievement of full organizational potential 7iven the recognized wea$ness of e%isting approaches to mobilizing individuals and organizations in support of action to alleviate world problems(c f "# 'ecretary 7eneral/s >DI9 report on the matter) To what e%tent will it be possible to facilitate organizational creation, development, action and restructuring as a means of providing a non4directive, , non4 e%hortative stimulus to increased achievement of full organizational potential (whether at the international level or through overflow effects from national and subnational activityA) )hat possibilities e%ist for facilitating such increased action and what may be the restrictions on their use A -or e%ample: subsidized telephone and postal communications, ta% relief (to organizations, staff, and funds suppliers), subsidized travel costs, subsidized office space, office management and administrative assistance alleviation of staff and operational legal restraints, assisted use of computers (for mailing and administration), etc 2 Trends in organizational operations

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 1eview of emerging trends in the way organizations operate with the emerge of mere sophisticated supportive technology, greater mobility, and a desire for more rapid change , 1estrictions on organizational operations 1eview of ma0or pressures which may very significantly diminish the ability of the ma0ority of organizational systems to function to effectively

$ilpin% & 'ealist Perspective International $overnance

on

7ilpin, 1 , BEEB ! 1ealist Gerspective on +nternational 7overnance 7overning 7lobalization: Gower, !uthority and 7lobal 7overnance, B9I4 B:K 1ealist believe that the territorial state continues to be the primary actor in both domestic and international affairs )hile there are other players, the state ma$es the most important decisions 1ealist re0ect the popular belief that economic and technological forces have eclipsed the nation state and are creating a global economy and society in which political boundaries and national loyalties are no longer relevant .ven in a highly integrated global economy, states continue to use their power and to implement policies to channel economic forces in ways favorable to their own national interests and the interests of their citizenry There is no evidence that a transformation in human affairs has yet occurred or is even occurring +t is unli$ely that, if the state does disappear, that it will be replaced by a global governance structure 7ilpin argues that, even though econ and tech advances lead to more world order, they do not overcome the fundamental anarchic nature of the intMl system Three views of global governance: -ocus on new medievalism *ased on the assumption that the state and the state system have been undermined by economic, technological and other developments& the state and state system are being eclipse by non4governmental actors and by the emergence of an intMl civil society They conclude that such changes erode hierarchical organizations and undermine centralized power structures The

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS once dominant hierarchic order of nation states is being supplanted by horizontal networ$s composed of states, non governmental organizations and international institutions (ounter with the fact that the nation state has been around for over three centuries and that #7O activity only begin heavily two decades ago #o one can $now the future nature of #7Os (ould be that there are bad #7Os that develop The *asel accord achieved much, but it does not prove that governance can replace government The "' used the *asel !ccords and drove them to their personal ends 7overnance without teeth is not effective

International organization (ritannica Concise "ncyclopedia% organization

international

'ponsored 2in$s +nternational (ompanies +ncorporation services in all ma0or Ta% -ree Offshore 0urisdictions www cmsh$ com 5ome N 2ibrary N ,iscellaneous N *ritannica (oncise .ncyclopedia +nstitution drawing membership from at least three states, having activities in several states, and whose members are held together by a formal agreement Only a few e%isted before >K?E& several thousand were active in the early B>st century 'ome are intergovernmental (e g , the "nited #ations), and some are nongovernmental (e g , !mnesty +nternational) 'ome have multiple worldwide or regional purposes (e g , the .uropean "nion), and some have single purposes (e g , the )orld +ntellectual Groperty Organization) One effect of their proliferation is a stronger sense of interdependence among states, which in turn has stimulated recognition of the need for cooperation to address international and global problems

!# Foreign Organization

Policy

"ncyclopedia%

International

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

)o*e + ,i-rary + )istory. Politics / #ociety + !# Foreign Policy "ncyclopedia

+nternational organizations (+Os) serve as crucial forces of coordination and cooperation on many political, economic, social, military and cultural issues !side from the traditional domination of international politics by established or recently codified nation4states, +Os are important participants of the international system The growth of transnational +Os was greatly facilitated by the rise of an increasing number of tenuous networ$s of nation4 states in political, economic, and financial affairs in early modern .urope They began to proliferate in the course of the nineteenth century !s will be seen, the "nited 'tates first participated in the development of +Os in a relatively minor way in the first two decades after the (ivil )ar and in a more important way when !merican statesmen attended the 5ague conferences of >KDD and >DEI -or much of the twentieth century the "nited 'tates remained a leading proponent of the formation and development of +Os )ashington was even instrumental in the creation of two of the most important +Os ever: the 2eague of #ations founded in >D>D after )orld )ar + and the "nited #ations established in >D:? at the end of )orld )ar ++ The brea$down of the international system in the >D>Es and late >D9Es and the global bloodshed, devastation, and unsurpassed misery brought about by two world wars convinced the international community, led by the "nited 'tates and *ritain, of the urgency for the establishment of a new universal and cooperative order +n the course of )orld )ar ++ traditional !merican political isolationism was marginalized to a considerable degree *eginning with the !tlantic (harter of >D:> and continuing with the >D:: =umbarton Oa$s and *retton )oods conferences, the establishment of the "nited #ations in >D:? and the formation of many other international political and economic institutions, the pillars for a new multilateral order were created The (old )ar soon added another dimension to this, which led to the shelving of the dream of a new cooperative world order for more than four decades: the politics and culture of bipolar containment 7enuine multilateralism was sidelined during much of the second half of the twentieth

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS century +nstead international institutions, in particular the 7eneral !ssembly of the "nited #ations, were fre3uently e%ploited as a mere tal$ing shop and a forum for ventilating hostile rhetoric -rom the mid4>DIEs, however, a cautious revival of multilateralism, in the form of the 5elsin$i process inaugurated in >DI?, may even have contributed to hastening the end of the (old )ar in >DKDO>DD> The dangers of an everincreasing nuclear arms race, as well as economic and financial globalization and, parado%ically, the simultaneous development of a politically and culturally ever more fragmented world, once again gave +Os a crucial role as a forum for consultation, mediation, and arbitration +n the late twentieth and early twenty4first centuries not only globalization and fragmentation but also the influence of more sophisticated means of transportation and communication and the increasingly transnational character of military, political, and environmental conflicts posed entirely new challenges =espite recurrent bouts of political isolationism, the "nited 'tatesPli$e most other countriesP recognized the impossibility of addressing contemporary problems merely on a nation4state basis !fter the end of the .ast4)est conflict and the gradual realignment of eastern and western .urope, this led to the formation of a host of new international organizations and institutions Qet in the postO(old )ar era the policies of the "nited 'tates toward international organizations remained ambiguous& a widespread revival of both isolationism and unilateralism could be observed 5owever, the unprecedented terrorist attac$ on the )orld Trade (enter and the Gentagon on >> 'eptember BEE> had a fundamental impact on !merican political strategy +n the immediate wa$e of the attac$ no one could say whether it would result in the abandonment of unilateralism, but many policy analysts believed that it might well lead to a much greater !merican reengagement with international organizations to fight global terrorism +ntellectually the development of +Os was rooted in +mmanuel Kant/s eighteenth4century insight that only the 8pacific federation8 of liberal democratic, interdependent, and lawful republics could overcome the inherent anarchy of the international system, as described by Thomas 5obbes, and

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS therefore the permanent danger of the outbrea$ of war )hile 5obbes believed that a strong authoritarian state and the balance of power among the world/s greatest powers could rectify this situation and provide lasting international security, Kant was not convinced 5e was in favor of the establishment of peace4creating confederations and thus, in effect, of bringing about the interdependence of nation4 states Over time these insights developed into the contemporary conviction that interdependent democratic states will hardly ever embar$ on military action against one another =emocracy and cooperative multilateralism within (but also outside) international organizations were thus seen as the best vehicles for the creation of a more stable and peaceful world

What &re International Organizations?

+n general international organizations are based on multilateral treaties between at least two sovereign nation4 states The formation of an initially fairly loose bond among the participants is generally fortified by the development of more or less stringent institutional structures and organs to pursue certain more or less clearly defined common aims in the international arena +Os can either have a global or a regional character, with the latter in general displaying a more centralized structure due to the limited number of regional state actors available )hile many +Os are singleissue organizations, others focus their attention on a multitude of issues +Os can either be open to new members or consist of a closed system On occasion +Os are established for a certain duration as specified in their respective charters, but more often than not no time restriction is applied +n some of the older literature +Os tend to be subdivided into political and apolitical organizations, the former referring to military and political alliances to further the power of their member states and the latter referring to organizations dealing with mere administrative and technical issues 5owever, in the last few decades of the twentieth century many of the allegedly technical and 8apolitical8 suborganizations of the "nited #ations (for e%ample, the !tomic .nergy (ommission and the )orld 5ealth Organization),

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS as well as such wideranging entities as the +nternational Olympic (ommittee, the +nternational ,onetary -und, and even many large multinational corporations, developed into highly politicized organizations with a multitude of political aims The differentiation between political and technical +Os is therefore unhelpful +t ma$es much more sense to differentiate between international governmental organizations (+7Os) li$e the "nited #ations, #!TO, the +,-, and the )orld *an$, to name some of the best4$nown ones, and international nongovernmental organizations (+#7Os) li$e !mnesty +nternational and the +nternational 1ed (ross !lthough estimates differ profoundly, at the turn of the twenty4first century at least five hundred +7Os and eleven thousand +#7Os were in e%istence They were organized in the "nion of +nternational Organizations (founded >DEI), which is based in *russels and publishes the annual Qearboo$ of +nternational Organizations )hile +#7Os help to clarify international rules and regulations that enable at least two societal actors (parties, issue groups, unions, associations, international businesses, and corporations) to cooperate in the coordination of certain specified transnational and cross4 border issues, +7Os, with which this essay is mostly concerned, are based on the cooperation of nation4states !n +7O is usually based on a multilateral treaty of two or more sovereign nation4states for the pursuit of certain common aims in the international arena +t is helpful to differentiate between supranational or semi4supranational +7Os, li$e the .uropean "nion, or looser confederations of states and no supranational +7Os, li$e the "nited #ations and #!TO )hile the former limit the sovereignty of the participating nations to a lesser or greater degree, the latter normally do not infringe on the sovereignty of their member states& they therefore tend to have only a limited degree of influence over their members =espite the e3uality of recognized nation4states in international law, in fact a hierarchy of power and influence e%ists even within nonsupranational +7Os The "# 'ecurity (ouncil, dominated by its five permanent members, as well as the +,-, the )orld *an$, and many other +Os, are all dominated by the established great powers, not least on account of their political and military influence and capabilities as well as

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS their financial and economic clout )ith the e%ception of (hina and 1ussia, the influential powers of the early twenty4 first century all come from the ran$s of the )est There are some institutionalized meetings and conferences that can easily be mista$en as +7Os !mong these are the increasingly controversial 7IH7K meetings of developed nations and the meetings of the )orld Trade Organization as well as summit meetings between heads of states and, for e%ample, the (onference on 'ecurity and (ooperation in .urope (('(.), which played such an important role in overcoming the (old )ar +n fact they are not +7Os& instead these loose organizational structures are only very temporary alliances of a hybrid nature *ut they are increasingly important and, in addition to the +7Os and +#7Os, must be characterized as a thirdPalbeit no less ambiguous and still largely une%ploredP actor in international diplomacy

Develop*ent of IOs and the 'ole of the !nited #tates

+nternational organizations began to appear during the nineteenth century in the predominantly .uropean state system ! considerable number of separate and limited4purpose agencies had accumulated by the outbrea$ of )orld )ar + The organization4creating tendency of this period was stimulated primarily by the interdependencies engendered by the +ndustrial 1evolution #ew forms of production and new methods of transport and communication created problems and opportunities that necessitated more elaborate and systematic responses than those traditionally associated with bilateral diplomacy +nternational organization was an outgrowth of the multilateral consultation that came into vogue +t was a short step, and sometimes an almost imperceptible one, from convening a meeting of the several or many states whose interests were involved in a given problem and whose cooperation was essential to solving it, to establishing permanent machinery for collecting information, preparing studies and proposals, arranging recurrent consultations, and administering schemes agreed upon by the participating states The nineteenth4century concern with the challenge of developing rational multilateral responses to the changes wrought by steam and electricity in the economic and social

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS spheres did not e%clude concern with either the perennial or the newly developing problems of the 8higher8 sphere of international relations: war and peace, politics and security, law and order +ndeed it was clear that changes in the former spheres contributed to difficulties in the latter, and it was hoped that organized collaboration in the first might contribute to improvement in the second !wareness of the increasing comple%ity of international politics, an%iety about the problems of preventing and limiting war, concern about the orderly balancing of stability and change, and hope for the strengthening of international law combined to inspire the ideal of applying international organization to the politico4legal realm The effort to do this at the end of the #apoleonic wars had yielded meager results, but the idea of giving firm institutional shape to the (oncert of .urope persisted and was supplemented during the nineteenth century by the ideal of developing 0udicial means for the resolution of international disputes +t remained for the 5ague (onferences of >KDD and >DEI to stimulate the hope, and for )orld )ar + to demonstrate the necessity, of e%tending the concept of international organization into the 8higher8 sphere of international relations The 2eague of #ations embodied that e%tension, represented an effort to provide a central focus for the varied organizational activities that had emerged in the preceding century, and accelerated the growth of the organizing process among states The collapse of the 2eague and the outbrea$ of )orld )ar ++ gave rise to the establishment of the "nited #ations and a networ$ of affiliated organizations +t also gave impetus to the institution4building disposition of statesmen, not least on the .uropean continent that has produced scores of agencies of almost every conceivable size and concern +f the nineteenth century was the period of the beginning of the movement toward international organization, the twentieth century has been the era of its multiplication +n the postO (old )ar world the landscape is dotted with international agencies: global and regional, single4purpose and multipurpose, technical and political, regulatory and promotional, consultative and operational, modest and ambitious !nd the habit of creating new ones and maintaining old ones remains well established among statesmen *y any

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS test of 3uantity and variety, international organization has become a ma0or phenomenon in international politics The beginning of the trend toward international organization in the nineteenth century and the proliferation of that trend in the ne%t substantially involved the "nited 'tates The well4$nown isolationist tradition of the "nited 'tates and the fact that it re0ected membership in the 2eague of #ations but 0oined the "nited #ations at its creation should not be ta$en as evidence that !merica is a latecomer to international organization On the contrary, !merican participation in the nineteenth4century organizing process was at least as active as might reasonably have been e%pected given the country/s geographic remoteness from the .uropean center of the movement and its modest standing among the powers !merican initiative contributed to the formation of such multilateral agencies as the "niversal Gostal "nion (>KI:) and, within the )estern 5emisphere, the Gan !merican "nion (>KDE) !lthough the determination of the dates of establishment of international organizations and of adherence by particular states is by no means an e%act science, one can ta$e it as appro%imately correct that by >DEE the "nited 'tates was a member of ten international bodies, and that by the outbrea$ of )orld )ar + it participated in twenty4seven, as against twenty4eight for 7reat *ritain and thirty4si% for -rance This record would seem to substantiate 5enry 1eiff/s assertion that 8The "nited 'tates R is a veteran, if not an inveterate, 0oiner of unions or leagues of nations,8 despite its failure to affiliate with the 2eague of #ations and the Germanent (ourt of +nternational Justice !merica/s record of interest and involvement in international organization made it less surprising that Gresident )oodrow )ilson too$ the lead in creating the 2eague of #ations than that the "nited 'tates refrained from 0oining it The !merican re0ection of the league, historically considered, was an aberration rather than a continuation of settled policy regarding international organization ,oreover, it did not presage a drastically altered policy !lthough the "nited 'tates never accepted membership, it gradually developed cooperative relationships with the league in many areas of activity and ultimately assumed a formal role in several of its component parts +n

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS the final analysis the "nited 'tates became a more active and more useful participant in the operation of the league than many of the states that were officially listed as members +n addition, between the world wars the "nited 'tates continued to 0oin organizations outside the league family to such an e%tent that by >D:E it held a greater number of organizational memberships than did *ritain and -rance, the leading powers in the league -ollowing )orld )ar ++ the "nited 'tates became the world/s unchallenged leader in promoting and supporting the development of international organizations of every sort

&*erican &*-iguity toward IOs

The attitude of the "nited 'tates toward international organization, however, has been very ambivalent Gresumably the "nited 'tates has gone along with, and has sometimes displayed enthusiasm for, the organizing process for essentially the same reasons that have moved other states: it has recognized the practical necessity, in its own interest, of developing and participating in systematic arrangements for dealing with the comple% problems of the modern world +t has also shared the ideal of creating a global mechanism better adapted to promoting and maintaining peace and human welfare .ven when it has been s$eptical of the utility or importance of particular multilateral institutions, the "nited 'tates, li$e most other states, has generally inclined to the view that it can ill afford to be unrepresented in their functioning or to give the appearance of being indifferent to the ideals they purport to serve !merica/s limited and informal engagement in the operation of the 2eague of #ations illustrated the first of these points The "nited 'tates could bring itself neither to 0oin nor to abstain entirely from the 2eague +ts enthusiastic adherence to the "nited #ations in >D:? can be interpreted as in part a symbolic act of repentance and reversal, a conscious repudiation of the !merican abandonment of the 2eague ,oreover, already during )orld )ar ++, !merican statesman had been very active in planning for the postwar world .ven though idealistic and 3uite unrealistic plans predominatedP such as -ran$lin 1oosevelt/s strong advocacy of a 8one world8 system including something approaching a world government,

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS the abolition of the balance4of4power concept and of geographical spheres of influence, and 'ecretary of 'tate (ordell 5ull/s enthusiasm for uninhibited global free tradeP this still compared favorably to the passivity of *ritain, the nation that had hitherto dominated the international system )hile the *ritish hesitated to embar$ on any postwar planning e%ercises for fear of undermining the war effort, )ashington began planning for the postwar world before the country had even become a belligerent power !fter Gearl 5arbor, and once 5itler had declared war on the "nited 'tates, it was unli$ely that a return to the political isolationism of the interwar years would occur despite the continuation of a strong isolationist strand in !merican thin$ing Thus, !merica/s 0oining the "nited #ations with #ew Qor$ as the new organization/s head3uarters and 'an -rancisco as the venue for the ceremonial signing of the "# (harter was much more than a mere symbolic denial of indifference to the high ideals enunciated in the charter +t was, more positively, a declaration of resolve to accept a position of leadership in world affairs, an affirmation of the intention to play a role that this country had never before assumed in international relations +n this sense !merican ratification of the "# (harter was a uni3ue act, a dramatization of an event of peculiar significance: the decision of the "nited 'tates to transform its approach to world affairs The country/s subse3uent role in the distribution of ,arshall Glan aid to western .urope and, above all, its adherence to the #orth !tlantic Treaty Organization in !pril >D:D, reaffirmed the same point and even strengthened it !fter all, #!TO membership carried more concrete obligations and more definite alliance commitments than did membership in the "nited #ations !rticle ? of the #!TO treaty pledged all member states to regard an attac$ on a member state as an attac$ on itself !lthough during the ratification process the " ' 'enate insisted that the last decision of how the "nited 'tates would react to any such emergency had to be left to (ongress, article ? imposed a firm obligation of some form of assistance on #!TO member states +n most cases decisions by the "nited 'tates to ta$e part in international agencies can be assumed to be motivated in much

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS the same way and can be assigned essentially the same meaning as such decisions by other states #either in the case of the "nited 'tates nor in other instances does it ma$e sense to regard acceptance or support of international organizations as in itself a demonstration of virtue comparable with the virtue sometimes attributed to the individual because he goes to church and pays his tithe +nternational agencies are not embodiments of a sacred cause but, rather, instruments of the purposes of their members, susceptible of use to promote both noble and ignoble causes 'tates 0oin them for mi%ed reasons, and the mere act of affiliation typically provides no solid information about the constructiveness, willingness to cooperate, or the peacefulness of the intentions of the state concerned !merica/s inhibitions and reservations concerning international organization are a blend of the typical and the peculiar =espite the vogue of creating new international organizations since the >DDEs and the strong trend toward economic and financial globalization, it is clear that all states maintain some measure of reluctance to become too encompassed, circumscribed, and absorbed by international bodies +t is perhaps unfair to accuse them of harboring the illogical desire to have their ca$e and eat it too, for in the relations between organization and sovereignty, 0ust as in the relations between national society and individualism, the real 3uestion is not which to choose but how much of each to include in the pac$age +n either the domestic or the international case, however, the perennial tension between control and autonomy remains, and it becomes especially acute when circumstances re3uire reconsideration of the necessary and proper balance between them The fact that states need and want international organizations does not eliminate their desire to retain as much as possible of the autonomy that the traditionally decentralized international system affords them The tension between the desire for effective and useful international organization and the urge to continue to en0oy and e%ploit the freewheeling possibilities of a simpler era profoundly affects the behavior of states in creating, 0oining, and operating multilateral agencies +n the )estern world both #!TO and in particular the .uropean "nion are prime e%amples of this

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

IOs in World

the

Cold

War

and

the

Post0cold

War

=uring the (old )ar the role of the "nited 'tates in creating, supporting, and operating the "nited #ations reflected the official abandonment of pre4occupation with legal system4building and of aversion to engagement in the political and military aspects of international affairs #evertheless the (old )ar record contains numerous indications of the survival of these sentiments The mood engendered by the Fietnam )ar was characterized by the revival of the tendency to conceive national virtue in terms of innocence rather than of responsibility -ighting for peace, the central motif of the twentieth4century ideal of collective security, tended to be regarded not as parado%ical but as inconsistent at best and hypocritical at worst 'elf4 critical !mericans are inclined to interpret the performance of the "nited 'tates in the early years of the "nited #ations as a record of shameful manipulation and abuse of the organization, not of constructive leadership and loyal support The image of the responsible defender of international order was overshadowed by the image of the irresponsible adventurer and imperialist +n the eyes of self4pitying !mericans, the national image was that of an overloaded and insufficiently appreciated bearer of international burdens Those who put the matter as the abdication of a discredited tyrant and those who put it as the retirement of a weary servant were advocating the same thing: the diminution of the !merican role in world affairs The appeal of this prescription was strengthened by the rise to dominance in the "nited #ations of political forces and factions that the "nited 'tates could neither lead nor control& !merica/s opportunity to e%ercise leadership declined as much as its inclination to do so Traditional !merican misgivings about involvement in international political organization was thus confirmed =iscounting the e%cesses of guilt and self4pity, it must nevertheless be concluded that participation in the "nited #ations entailed the disappointment of national hopes, the frustration of national efforts, and the dirtying of national hands +t re3uired that the lu%ury of pure adherence to

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS principle be sacrificed in favor of the more ambiguous and less satisfying morality of responsibility The glamour of sharing in the formulation of a grand design gave way to the never4finished wor$ of international house$eeping and the never4solved problem of managing the affairs of an almost unmanageable international system +t was not surprising that the "nited 'tates failed to find this wor$ inspiring or pleasant -rom the late >DCEs to the >DKEsPstrongly influenced by the disastrous involvement in Fietnam, the country/s subse3uent severe economic problems, and, due to .ast4)est d@tente, the diminishing 'oviet threatPthe shift from isolationism to international engagement that occurred during )orld )ar ++ was temporarily reversed +nstead attention was focused once more upon the dangers of over commitment and the advantages of unilateralism The pursuit of the national right to ma$e foreign policy decisions unfettered by promises to, or participation by, other states was vigorously asserted by the #i%on, (arter, and 1eagan administrations *ut widespread tal$ of 8!merican decline8 and the loss of will to preserve the standing of the "nited 'tates as one of two superpowers proved premature +nstead the crisis situation brought about by the end of the (old )ar and the subse3uent 7ulf )ar of >DDEO>DD> to liberate Kuwait from the +ra3i invasion saw impressive !merican leadership and the country/s constructive reengagement with +Os li$e #!TO, the .uropean "nion, and the "nited #ations !bove all, leading " ' involvement in the 8two4plus4four8 negotiations (the two 7erman states and the "nited 'tates, 'oviet "nion, *ritain, and -rance) for bringing about 7erman unification within the #!TO, .uropean "nion, and "nited #ations framewor$, along with constructive !merican engagement with the (onference on 'ecurity and (ooperation in .urope, did much to achieve a relatively peaceful and stable transition to the postO(old )ar era !fter the end of the (old )ar and the collapse and disappearance of the 'oviet "nion in =ecember >DD>, with the "nited 'tates remaining the only global superpower and by far the most powerful nation on earth, once again !merican suspicion of restrictive international commitments and !merican preference for unilateral activities increased dramatically The symbolic significance of !merican

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS membership in the "nited #ations and its many suborganizations was drastically reduced )ashington/s reluctance to pay its full dues to the "nited #ations was indicative of the "nited 'tates/s ambiguous position toward its involvement and responsibilities in international affairs )hile the !merican superpower was unwilling to pay its dues to the "nited #ations, the "# itself was in debt to some poor countries such as *angladesh, owing it S>? million *etween >DD: and >DDD the "nited 'tates built up a bill of SB 9 billion, arguing that it was as$ed to pay too much to the "nited #ations *y late BEE> )ashington still owed a substantial amount to the world organization& it was committed to pay the outstanding amount of S?KB million in BEE> and the remainder of SB:: million in BEEB +n >DDD and BEEE, after passage of the 5elms4*iden act, the "nited 'tates paid some of the S> billion it had promised to contribute belatedly to the "# coffers +n return the "nited 'tates had as$ed for and obtained various "# reforms and the elimination of the rest of the !merican debt and a reduction of its future annual dues (+nstead of B? percent, the "nited 'tates would now finance only BB percent of the "#/s regular budget& it would also reduce its contributions for "# peace$eeping missions from 9> to BI percent of the overall costs ) )hile the 'enate accepted this, the repayment of the remaining debt was controversial among 1epublican leaders in the 5ouse of 1epresentatives who wished to impose further conditions and as$ed for greater "# reforms The attitude of the 5ouse of 1epresentatives was partially also a reaction to the fact that the "nited 'tates was voted off the "# 5uman 1ights (ommission in ,ay BEE> by some "# members (including some of !merica/s .uropean allies) who were running out of patience with )ashington/s less than constructive role in the human rights body and the administration/s general lac$ of support for the "nited #ations )ashington/s manifold policy of suspicion toward the "nited #ations, -ran$lin 1oosevelt/s harbinger of hope, must serve as 0ust one e%ample for the claim that an increasing concentration on domestic affairs and a neglect of !merican involvement in +Os was indeed the dominant feature of !merican policy in the >DDEs The few years of renewed international activism at the end of the (old )arPGresident 7eorge 5 ) *ush/s somewhat rash announcement of a 8new

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS world order8 in >DDE and the occasional brief burst of peacema$ing activities that characterized the foreign policy of the (linton administration after >DD9Pmust be regarded as e%ceptions rather than the rule 'enate ma0ority leader and >DDC 1epublican presidential candidate 1obert =ole/s assessment in the mid4>DDEs reflected the deep and widespread !merican unease about +Os =ole believed that fre3uently +Os either 8reflect a consensus that opposes !merican interests or do not reflect !merican principles and ideas 8 Qet as 7 John +$enberry wrote in >DDC, while the bipolar order of the (old )ar years came to an end in >DKDO>DD>, the dense economic and political 8web of multilateralist institutions8 and thus the 8world order created in the >D:Es is still with us 8 =espite a tendency to focus on the domestic en0oyment of the prosperity and rising share values of the multiplying 8dot com8 companies of the (linton years, the "nited 'tates was unable and indeed unwilling to abdicate its global leadership +n fact globalization demanded the opposite, and the administration made sure that the "nited 'tates would continue to dominate the )orld *an$ and the increasingly important +nternational ,onetary -und The efforts the (linton administration made for the full implementation and e%pansion of the #orth !merican -ree Trade !greement (#!-T!) and for enabling (hina to become a member of the )orld Trade Organization, allowing it to en0oy most4 favorednation status, are further e%amples that indicate that the (linton administration had no intention to revert to economic isolationism The same applied to the political sphere The (linton administration was careful to denounce any tal$ of a new isolationism in the postO(old )ar world, including alleged !merican disinterest in .urope in favor of a Gacific4first policy +n fact, despite the administration/s ambiguous if not outright negative attitude to the "nited #ations and the many petty trade wars with the .uropean "nion, the postO(old )ar world at times saw a vigorous and often constructive reengagement of the "nited 'tates in many parts of the world 5owever, this became fre3uently mi%ed with a strong dose of !merican unilateralism (linton called this 8assertive multilateralism 8 -or e%ample, despite much international pressure, for largely domestic reasons the (linton

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS administration insisted on preventing a "# treaty controlling the trade in small arms The administration/s ambiguity toward the "nited #ations had disastrous conse3uences in the .ast Timor crisis of >DDDOBEEE, when the lac$ of " ' support induced a withdrawal of "# troops, which in turn led to the wholesale slaughter of many .ast Timorese people in the +ndonesian civil war (linton/s unsuccessful and unilateral bombing raids on buildings in 'udan and elsewhere in response to terrorist attac$s on !merican diplomatic and military targets abroad also turned out to be ill4advised& they may well have contributed to inflaming even more hatred of the "nited 'tates in the +slamic world 'till, !merican peacema$ing efforts in cooperation with +Os during the (linton era often added a constructive element to the fre3uently chaotic and very violent developments in such embattled regions as the ,iddle .ast and the *al$ans +t is unli$ely that the successful #!TO pursuit of the >DDD Kosovo war and the ousting and subse3uent handover of 'erbian president 'lobodan ,ilosevic to the +nternational )ar (rimes Tribunal in The 5ague in BEE> would have been achieved without strong !merican involvement The (linton administration/s attempts to act as a neutral arbiter in the 8Troubles8 in #orthern +reland and in the reconciliation between 'outh and #orth Korea were also relatively successful This e%plained the regret voiced in many parts of the world of (linton/s departure in January BEE> Garado%ically, despite (linton/s contempt for the "nited #ations and his many other unilateral activities, the president/s reputation as an international peacema$er far surpassed his embattled and scandal4ridden standing within the "nited 'tates Qet his years in office may well be primarily remembered for his administration/s ability to maintain and increase !merica/s prosperity and the achievement of a substantial budget surplus rather than for a farsighted foreign policy !fter the drama of the presidential election of BEEE, which was only narrowly decided by the 'upreme (ourt in =ecember, it was not Fice Gresident !l 7ore but Te%as governor 7eorge ) *ush who moved into the )hite 5ouse The new president immediately surrounded himself with many right4wing and unilateralist if not isolationist advisers ,any of these

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS people were very e%perienced policyma$ers who had already served under *ush/s father in the early >DDEs and even under Gresidents -ord and 1eagan in the >DIEs and >DKEs Qet his administration did not appear to consist of a vigorous modernizing team prepared to tac$le the international problems of globalization and fragmentation +n a >DDD article in -oreign !ffairs, (ondoleezza 1ice, who became *ush/s national security adviser in January BEE>, tellingly tal$ed at length about the importance of the pursuit of !merica/s 8national interest8 but rather less about !merican international involvement and engagement in +Os 'he wrote that a 1epublican administration would 8proceed from the firm ground of the national interest, not from the interest of an illusory international community 8 +ndeed, the *ush administration treated the "nited #ations with even greater disdain and suspicion than (linton had done =uring its first eight months in office the new administration wal$ed out of five international treaties (and withdrew from the conference on racism in protest at anti4+srael passages in the draft communi3u@ in 'outh !frica in early 'eptember BEE>) !mong the treaties the "nited 'tates opposed were the Kyoto Grotocol on climate change supported by much of the rest of the world and a treaty for the enforcement of the important *iological and To%in )eapons (onvention of >DIB The administration also withheld support from the establishment of the )orld (ourt to be based in The 5ague !lthough )ashington agreed with the principle of establishing such a court, it did not wish any of its nationals ever to appear before it The *ush administration also threatened to abandon several other contractual pillars of the postwar world, notably the >DIB !nti4*allistic ,issile (!*,) Treaty concluded between #i%on and 2eonid *rezhnev to contain the nuclear arms race !bove all, *ush/s insistence on implementing a national missile defense (#,=) to protect the "nited 'tates (and perhaps its #!TO allies) from nuclear attac$s from rogue states li$e #orth Korea and +ra3 caused great unease in the )estern world #ot even *ritain, traditionally !merica/s closest ally, was able to show much enthusiasm for a missile plan that had not been tested successfully and would cost billions of dollars and resembled 1eagan/s ill4fated 'trategic =efense +nitiative (8'tar )ars8), a plan that had

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS not been tested successfully and would cost billions of dollars !merica/s allies reasoned that not least for financial reasons the implementation of *ush/s missile shield scheme would in all li$elihood prevent the "nited 'tates from giving e3ual attention to the development of other defensive and military schemes that deserved greater priority ,oreover, the *ush administration showed scant regard for international institutions li$e #!TO by ma$ing clear that the missile shield decision had already been made )hile !merica/s allies would be consulted and informed and would hopefully participate in the pro0ect, any allied advice to abandon the pro0ect would not be heeded "nilateralism was triumphing ,ultilateralism and constructive open4minded engagement with +Os had been abandoned for good Or so it seemed Then, in 'eptember BEE>, the terrorist attac$s on the )orld Trade (enter and the Gentagon occurred This was not only a severe shoc$ to the !merican people, who for so long had felt secure on a continent that was geographically very distant from most of the world/s battlegrounds, it also shoo$ the *ush administration to its core !le%is de Toc3ueville/s statement in his famous =emocracy in !merica (>K9?) that the "nited 'tates was a nation without neighbors, securely enveloped in a huge continent and thus separate from the problems of the rest of the world, became out of date within a matter of hours =espite its superpower status, and probably even because of it, it was recognized that !merica was no longer invulnerable The .conomist wrote presciently that the "nited 'tates and the entire world realized that !merica was 8not merely vulnerable to terrorism, but more vulnerable than others +t is the most open and technologically dependent country in the world, and its power attracts the hatred of enemies of freedom everywhere The attac$s have shattered the illusions of post4cold war peace and replaced them with an uncertain world of /asymmetric threats /8 The value of !merican reengagement with +Os was recognized in many 3uarters almost immediately 'uddenly the "nited 'tates was not merely the provider of benefits to the international community but could also greatly benefit itself from a close cooperative engagement with +Os )ithin a matter of days the 'ecurity (ouncil of the "nited #ations had unanimously

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS condemned the attac$ in the strongest terms and pledged its support to the !merican intention to embar$ on a prolonged war against international terrorism The .uropean "nion and many other +Os followed suit #!TO went even further -or the first time in its history the #orth !tlantic !lliance invo$ed article ? of its charter, which obliged each member to ta$e 8such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force8 if a member state was attac$ed from abroad The terrorist attac$s in #ew Qor$ and )ashington were interpreted as a military attac$ on a #!TO member state, which obliged all #!TO members to come to the common defense of #!TO territory This was unprecedented& above all, it demonstrated the value of +Os to the hitherto unilateral *ush administration )hile it was unli$ely that the *ush administration would not resort to unilateralist activities in the fight against international terrorism, it was e3ually improbable that even a state as powerful as the "nited 'tates could win this fight by itself .ngagement with international organizations li$e #!TO and the "nited #ations and cooperative multilateralism appeared to be decisive Thus the occasional bouts of !merican neo4isolationism that could fre3uently be observed in the >DDEs were thought by many to be largely a thing of the past This, however, would also depend on whether or not the unity of #!TO and its member states could be upheld for a prolonged period of time Juite understandably, both the !merican people and the *ush administration were sufficiently enraged by the appalling attac$s that cost the lives of more than si% thousand people and caused damage in e%cess of S9E billion to 8go it alone8 if )estern and indeed international unity could not be preserved )hile the danger e%isted that the attac$s might have the opposite effect and induce !merica to withdraw from international engagement altogether, this is unli$ely& after all even an entirely isolationist !merica would continue to be e%posed to the threats posed by international terrorism ,ultilateralist engagement with international organizations and acting in concert with its allies appeared to be the best chance of reestablishing a degree of national and international security 5owever, it was thought abroad, at least, that this could well ta$e the form of the controversial !merican 8assertive

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS multilateralism8 that the world had to put up with during the (linton years 'till, after >> 'eptember it appeared that unilateralism and isolationism were no longer regarded as viable political concepts +n view of the *ush administration/s active engagement with the international community to fight the 8war against international terrorism,8 the -inancial Times concluded that multilateralism was 8no longer a dirty word 8 'imilarly, *ritish Grime ,inister Tony *lair e%pressed the belief that the answer to the unprecedented challenge confronting the world was 8not isolationism but the world coming together with !merica as a community 8 +t was generally recognized that the world had to loo$ beyond bombing !fghanistan, the country that hosted the terrorist networ$ responsible for planning the attac$s, and other military options !n !merican correspondent put it succinctly in a letter to the +nternational 5erald Tribune in early October BEE>: 8The *ush administration/s unilateralism has been revealed as hollow 1ather than infringe our sovereignty, international institutions enhance our ability to perform the functions of national government, including the ability to fight international crime 8

(i-liography
!bi4'aab, 7eorges, ed The (oncept of +nternational Organization Garis, >DK> !rmstrong, =avid The 1ise of +nternational Organization: ! 'hort 5istory 2ondon, >DKB !rcher, (live +nternational Organizations Bd ed 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DDB *aratta, Joseph G , comp The "nited #ations 'ystem O%ford and #ew *runswic$, # J , >DD? *ennett, ! 2eroy 5istorical =ictionary of the "nited #ations 2anham, ,d , >DD? PP +nternational Organizations: Grinciples and +ssues Cth ed .nglewood (liffs, # J , >DD? *utros47hali, *outros "nvan3uished: ! " ' O" # 'aga 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DDD (lar$, +an 7lobalization and -ragmentation: +nternational 1elations in the Twentieth (entury #ew Qor$, >DDI

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (laude, +nis 2 , Jr 'words into Glowshares: The Groblems and Grogress of +nternational Organizations :th ed #ew Qor$, >DI> (laude, +nis 2 , Jr , ed 'tates and the 7lobal 'ystem: Golitics, 2aw, and Organization *asingsto$e, " K , and #ew Qor$, >DKK =iehl, Gaul - , ed The Golitics of 7lobal 7overnance: +nternational Organizations in an +nterdependent )orld 2ondon and *oulder, (olo , >DDI -eld, )erner J , and 1obert ' Jordon +nternational +nstitutions: ! (omparative !pproach 9d ed )estport, (onn , >DD: -in$elstein, 2awrence ' , ed Golitics in the "nited #ations 'ystem =urham, # ( , >DKK -ranc$, Thomas , #ation !gainst #ation: )hat 5appened to the "# =ream and )hat the " ' (an =o !bout +t #ew Qor$, >DK? 5aas, .rnst * *eyond the #ation 'tate: -unctionalism and +nternational Organization 'tanford, (alif , >DC: +riye, !$ira 8! (entury of #7Os 8 =iplomatic 5istory B9, no 9 (summer >DDD): :B>O:9? Jacobson, 5arold K #etwor$s of +nterdependence: +nternational Organizations and the 7lobal Golitical 'ystem Bd ed #ew Qor$, >DK: Karns, ,argaret G , and Karen ! ,ingst, eds The "nited 'tates and ,ultilateral +nstitutions: Gatterns of (hanging +nstrumentality and +nfluence *oston, >DDE Krasner, 'tephen = +nternational 1egimes 2ondon and +thaca, # Q , >DK9 Kratochwil, -riedrich, and .dward = ,ansfield, eds +nternational Organization: ! 1eader #ew Qor$, >DD: 2uc$, .dward ( ,i%ed ,essages: !merican Golitics and +nternational Organizations, >D>DO>DDD )ashington, = ( , >DDD ,aynes, (harles )illiam, and 1ichard ' )illiamson, eds " ' -oreign Golicy and the "nited #ations 'ystem #ew Qor$, >DDC ,oore, John !llphin, Jr , and Jerry Gubantz To (reate a #ew )orldA !merican Gresidents and the "nited #ations #ew Qor$, >DDD Osma/nczy$, .dmund Jan .ncyclopedia of the "nited #ations and +nternational !greements Bd ed #ew Qor$, >DDE Ostrower, 7ary * The "nited #ations and the "nited 'tates #ew Qor$, >DDK

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS Garsons, !nthony -rom (old )ar to 5ot Geace: "# +nterventions, >D:CO>DD: 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DD? Taylor, Gaul +nternational Organization in the ,odern )orld: The 1egional and 7lobal Grocess 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DD9 Taylor, Gaul, and ! J 1 7room, eds +nternational +nstitutions at )or$ 2ondon and #ew Qor$, >DKK "nion of +nternational !ssociations Qearboo$ of +nternational Organizations *russels !nnual )eiss, Thomas 7 , and 2eon 7orden$er, eds #7Os, the "#, and 7lobal 7overnance 2ondon and *oulder, (olo , >DDC ! brief but useful compilation of essays on the role of #7Os )ells, 1obert # , ed Geace by Gieces: "nited #ations !gencies and Their 1oles ,etuchen, # J , >DD> )illiams, =ouglas The 'pecialized !gencies and the "nited #ations: The 'ystem in (risis #ew Qor$, >DKI

+nternational Organization .ncyclopedia !rticle

+ntroduction& Types of +nternational 5istorical =evelopment of +nternational +nternational Organizations Today Introduction +nternational Organization, membership group that operates across national borders for specific purposes 'cholars of international relations consider international organizations to have growing importance in world politics 'ome ma0or international organizations are the "nited #ations ("#), the )orld *an$ (see +nternational *an$ for 1econstruction and =evelopment), the +nternational (ommittee of the 1ed (ross, and 7reenpeace ,ost international organizations operate as part of one or more international regimes !n international regime is a set of rules, standards, and procedures that govern national behavior in a particular area .%amples of international Organizations& Organizations&

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS regimes include arms control, foreign trade, and !ntarctic e%ploration +nternational organizations are often central to the functioning of an international regime, giving structure and procedures to the Trules of the gameU by which nations must play -or e%ample, the )orld Trade Organization ()TO), the #orth !merican -ree Trade !greement (#!-T!), and the .uropean "nion (.") are $ey organizations that define the international trade regime (see -oreign Trade) Types of International Organizations +nternational organizations fall into two main categories: intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations +ntergovernmental organizations (+7Os) have national governments as members 5undreds of +7Os operate in all parts of the world ,ember nations have created each of these organizations to serve a purpose that those nations find useful ,embership can range from as few as two member nations to virtually all nations The "# and its various agencies are +7Os 'o are most of the worldMs economic coordinating institutions, such as the )orld *an$, the +nternational ,onetary -und (+,-), and the 7roup of .ight (74 K) The Organization of Getroleum .%porting (ountries (OG.() see$s to coordinate the production and pricing policies of its member states The +nternational !tomic .nergy !gency (+!.!) see$s to regulate the flow of nuclear technology to developing nations The )TO helps negotiate and monitor agreements among member nations to lower trade barriers ,ilitary alliances, such as the #orth !tlantic Treaty Organization (#!TO), and political groupings, such as the !rab 2eague and the !frican "nion, are also +7Os +n general, regional +7Os have e%perienced more success than global ones, and those with specific purposes have wor$ed better than those with broad aims #ongovernmental organizations (#7Os) are private organizations whose memberships and activities are international in scope #7Os do not possess the legal status of national governments 5owever, the "# and other international forums recognize many #7Os as important political institutions .%amples of #7Os include the 1oman (atholic (hurch, 7reenpeace, the +nternational Olympic (ommittee (see Olympic 7ames), and =octors )ithout *orders

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (see ,@decins 'ans -rontiVres) !lthough multinational corporations (,#(s) share many characteristics of #7Os, they are not international organizations because they do not coordinate the actions of members for mutual gain ,ore from .ncarta (ollege degrees and career training .%plore online and on4campus programs 2earn how to get that degreeW 1echarge your brain )e serve up a heady brew of .ncarta/s best (hec$ out (offee *rea$ !re you a somniphobeA -ear of sleep $eeps some people awa$e (hec$ out our list of BE things you didn/t $now about sleep )istorical Develop*ent of International Organizations 5istorically, international organizations and regimes have reflected the interests of the worldMs most powerful nations, or great powers ,any international organizations and regimes were established during times of global hegemonyPthat is, when one nation has predominated in international power These periods have often followed a ma0or war among the great powers TodayMs international organizationsPsuch as the "#, the Organization of !merican 'tates (O!'), and the )orld *an$ Pwere created after )orld )ar ++ ended in >D:?, when the "nited 'tates was powerful enough to create rules and institutions that other countries would follow !lthough rooted in power, international organizations and regimes generally serve the interests of most participating nations and usually endure even when hegemony wanes ,ost countries share mutual interests, yet find it hard to coordinate their actions for mutual benefit because of the lac$ of a central authority #ations also face the temptation to bend the rules in their own favor -or e%ample, it is in everyoneMs interest to halt production of chemicals that damage .arthMs ozone layer 5owever, a country can save money by continuing to use those chemicals The coordination of efforts to write new rules and monitor them re3uires an international organization -or e%ample, the "nited #ations .nvironment Grogram ("#.G) helped countries

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS negotiate a treaty to stop producing ozone4destroying chemicals Thus, nations find it useful to give international organizations some power to enforce rules +nternational organizations are also able to ma$e countries aware of the need to act on emerging issues -or e%ample, the )orld 5ealth Organization ()5O) and the "# were instrumental in focusing attention on ac3uired immunodeficiency syndrome (!+=') as a global crisis +n the >Kth century, 7erman philosopher +mmanuel Kant and -rench philosopher Jean4Jac3ues 1ousseau broadly outlined the concept of a global federation of countries resembling todayMs "nited #ations (ountries 0oined the first +7Os in the >Dth century These were practical organizations through which nations managed specific issues, such as international mail service and control of traffic on .uropean rivers 'uch organizations proliferated in the BEth century to cover a wide variety of specific issues !t the same time, the scope of international organizations e%panded, culminating with the creation of the 2eague of #ations in >DBE The development of .uropean regional organizations after )orld )ar ++ ended mirrored the growth of +7Os historically, in that narrowly focused organizations preceded broader and more encompassing international institutions The .uropean (oal and 'teel (ommunity, predecessor of the .uropean "nion, coordinated coal and steel production Today, the .uropean (ommission, e%ecutive agency of the .uropean "nion, enforces regulations concerning labor, the environment, agriculture, and a host of other issues that affect the daily lives of virtually every citizen in .urope #7Os similarly developed from the need to coordinate specific, narrowly defined activities across national borders *eginning in the >Dth century, churches and professional and scientific occupational groups formed the first #7Os The 1ed (ross was organized in >KC9 to establish and monitor the laws of warfare +t was one of the first #7Os to actively wor$ to change the behavior of states 'ome political partiesPnotably communist parties in the early BEth centuryPorganized internationally and began to function as

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS #7Os +n the BEth century, specialized #7Os also sprang up in such areas as sports, business, tourism, and communication *etween >D:? and >DD?, the number of international organizations increased fivefold, reaching about ?EE +7Os and ?,EEE #7Os *y BEE9, the number of international organizations increased fivefold again, to nearly B?,EEEP mostly due to the proliferation of #7Os made possible by new technologies such as the +nternet On average, a new #7O is created somewhere in the world every few days This trend reflects the growing importance of international coordination for both governmental and private institutions in an interdependent world International Organizations Today One sign of the important role of international organizations is how they have endured as international power relations shift +n >DD>, the 'oviet "nion dissolved and the (old )ar between the 'oviet "nion and the "nited 'tates ended 1ussia and other formerly (ommunist countries in .astern .urope ceased to pose a threat to the capitalist democracies of )estern .urope One might have e%pected #!TO, which defended )estern .uropean nations, to go out of business, but it did not 'imilarly, the creation of the )orld Trade Organization did not cause smaller free trade associations such as #!-T! to end +nstead, the mosaic of international organizations continues to e%pand, particularly as new communications and information4processing technologies ma$e international groups more practical and effective +nternational organizations have emerged as important actors in international relations The +nternational (ampaign to *an 2andmines won the #obel Geace Grize in >DDI for its wor$ coordinating the efforts of +7Os, #7Os, and states to write, sign, and ratify the international treaty banning the use of land mines +nternational organizations are now able to pressure states into adopting certain courses of action )hen a state will not act, international organizations can mobilize individuals to ta$e action +n some matters, such as disaster assistance or aid for refugees, states have come to rely on international organizations to provide essential services that states are unwilling or unable to offer

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INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS The interdependence of nations in the modern world means that no single nation can dictate the outcome of international conflicts #or can private groups and individuals rely on national governments to solve ma0or world problems Therefore, both governments and individuals will continue to turn to international organizations as an important way to address these problems and to protect their own interests

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