Mechanical Properties of Metals: 1. Ductility: enables to draw into thin wire. Tensile quality of metals. 2.

Malleability: ability to flatten into thin sheets without cracking. Compressi e quality of metals. workability and formability related to plastic deformation. !. "lasticity: the property by irtue of which the deformation caused in a metal by application of stress#load disappears on the remo al of stress# load. a. $roportional limit: Ma%imum stress under which &ook's law is obeyed. b. "lastic limit: (reatest stress that a material can endure with ha ing a permanent set. c. )ield point: the point on a stress* strain cur e beyond which materials starts flowing or ha e large permanent set without ha ing appreciable increase in stress#load d. )ield stress or strength: The stress# load at yield point. e. $roof stress: The amount of stress a material can withstand without taking more than a small amount of set+,.1 to ,.2-.. /. $lasticity: 0bility to ha e permanent deformation without failure# rupture. 1. 2trength: Capacity to resist deformation under load# stress. Materials may ha e different tensile3 compressi e3 shear or torsion. a. 4ltimate strength: Ma%imum stress#load that a material can withstand before failure# destruction. b. Tenacity: 4ltimate strength in tension. 4ltimate tensile strength. 5. 2tiffness 6 7le%ibility: 8esistance to elastic deformation or deflection. )oung's modulus is a measure of stiffness. 7le%ibility is opposite to stiffness. 7le%ibility is also a measure of ease of bending# fle%ure. 9. 8esilience: Capacity of materials to absorb energy elastically. :n remo al of load energy is gi en out e.g. in spring.

Ma%imum energy stored in a body up to the elastic limit is proof resilience. Modulus of resilience is defined as the amount of energy required to stress unit olume of a material to its proportional limit. ;. Toughness: measure of amount of energy can be absorbed before fracture. 0bility to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations. Toughness is also a measure of impact strength of a material. <. &ardness: 0bility to resist scratching3 abrasion3 cutting3 indentation or penetration. 1,. &ardenability: degree of hardness that can be imparted to a metal. 11. =rittleness: breaking without permanent distortion. 12. Machinability: >t signifies the power and force required to remo e stock from a metal surface. >t is the ease with which metal can be cut#remo ed in arious machine operations. >t is measured in terms of machinability inde%+M>.. 7ree cutting steel has been assigned M> 1,,. M> for carbon steel is /,*5, and for cast iron 1,*;,. 1!. Creep: The progressi e deformation of a material with time at a constant load is referred as creep. Time dependent strain occurring in a stressed material. The minimum stress at which creep occurs is referred as creep stress# strength. There are ! stages of creep. 1. material elongate rapidly but at a decreasing rate. 2 rate of elongation is constant. ! rate of elongation increases rapidly until material fails. 1/. 7atigue: Materials are not perfectly elastic. ?hen a cyclic load is applied on a material repeatedly3 in each cycle some of the energy# stress is retained# stored by the material which keep on increasing as the number of cycles increase. 0t a point the material will fail. 7atigue is the property of a material by irtue of which it fails on repeated cyclic load applications.

Metals & Alloys: 7errous metals @on ferrous metals 7errous metals: $ig iron Cast iron ?rought iron (al aniAed iron Carbon steel 0lloy steel Pig Iron: chemical reduction of iron ores in a blast furnace produce pig iron CB! to /-C 2iB,.1 to !.,-C MnB,.1 to 1.,-C 2B,.,2 to ,.1,-C $B,.,! to 2.,Cast Iron: refining of pig iron with definite amount of limestone in a cupola/ any other furnace produce cast iron. >t contains 2 to /- C3 small percentage of 2i3 23 $3 and Mn and certain amount of alloying element*@i3 Cr3 Mo3 Cu3 D etc. The quality of cast iron depends on of C and the conditions in which e%ist. Methods of >dentification Appearance: (rey with a granular surface Dropping: gi es out a dull note Grinding: (i es off a few dull sparks Effect of Heating: @o change 0$$E>C0T>:@2: * $iping 6 7ittings * :rnamental >ronwork * &ardware * =ase Metal for $orcelain "nameled $lumbing 7i%tures * 7loor 6 ?all =rackets for 8ailings * Circular 2tairs * Manhole Co er * (ratings Types of cast iron: (rey cast iron: obtained by allowing molten metal to cool and solidify slowly. MaFor part of C is present in the form of graphite flakes. ?hite cast iron: rapid cooling of molten metal. C is present in the form of cementite +7eCarbide.. Malleable cast iron: ?hite heart process* white cast iron is slowly heated to <1,*1,,,C and kept for /*1 days. $art of C is o%idiAed and remainder is dispersed in finely di ided form through out the structure. Then3 metal is cooled

at a ery slow rate + 9*1, days.. =lack heart $rocess* white cast iron is heated to 1,,,C for 2*! days in a neutral atmosphereC C is decomposed into temper C. @odular cast iron: addition of small amount of Mg3 Ce3 Ca3 =i3 Gn3 Cd3 Ti or = + inoculants. to cast iron result precipitation of C into spheroid form. Chilled cast iron: formed by fast#quick cooling of cast iron. 0lloy cast iron: 0ddition of @i3 Cr3 Mo3 >3 2i3 Cu and other alloying element to cast iron results into alloy cast iron. Meehanite cast iron: on treatment with Ca*2i+ calcium silicide.3 cast iron is referred as Meehanite+trade name.. Wrought Iron: >t is produced by two commercial processes* 1. $uddling process: $ig iron is refined to remo e 2i and $ completely Con erted to white iron by rapid cooling ?hite iron is fed to puddling furnace where C content is reduced to ,.,2 to ,.,! - and molten metal is con erted to blooms of 1, kgs. The hot blooms are passed to groo ed rollers which con ert blooms into puddle bars. $uddling bars are cut into short length3 fastened together into piles3 reheated to welding temperature and again rolled into bars of wrought iron. 0ston $rocess: The pig iron is melted in a cupola furnace 8efining is done in a =essemer con erter The refined iron is poured at predetermined rate into a ladle ha ing molten slag >ron and slag are taken to press where e%cess slag is remo ed and blooms are formed &ot blooms are passed through roller mills and wrought iron is prepared. ?rought iron is tough3 malleable3 readily soft iron that is easily forged 6 welded. 7atigue 6 corrosion resistant . Commercially pure iron3 containing only appro%imately ,.,2- carbon 0 fibrous material due to the slag inclusions3 that gi es it a HgrainH resembling wood3 which is isible when it is etched or bent to the point of failure APP ICA!I"#:

$iping 6 7ittings for $lumbing3 &eating 6 0ir*conditioning :rnamental >ronwork

1. "lements in 7errous Metals: C +,.,2 to /.,-. 2i +,.,1 to 2.1-. 2 +,.,2 to ,.!1-. $ +,.,2 to 2.,-. Mn +,.,2 to 1.,-.3 and Dery small amounts of @i3 Cr3 Mo3 Cu 6 D 2. "ffect of Carbon: C is present in either combined state as cementite +7eC. or free state in powder3 flakes3 spheroids3 nodular form. >n free state3 C gi es toughness3 easy machining and breaks with dark glistering fracture. >n combines state3 C pro ide hardness3 higher tensile strength3 difficult to machine and breaks with white fracture. !. "ffect of silicon: 2i in cast iron promotes formation of free C. >t makes iron soft and easy machinable. 2i inibites the pick up of C during melting of iron. 0 ery small 2i- in wrought iron makes it hard3 brittle and un* forgeable. /. "ffect of 2ulphur: $resence of 2 lowers iscosity and makes cast iron hard and brittle. 2 concentration should always be lower than ,.1-. 1. "ffect of phosphorous: $ in cast iron enhances fusibility and fluidity but induce brittleness. $ is useful for casting intricate designs in light engineering. ?rought iron become brittle and easy cracks in cold by the presence of $. 5. "ffect of Manganese: Mn helps in the formation of free C. >t controls harmful effect of 2 and $. 9. "ffect of @ickel: @i promotes free C3 refine the siAe of grains and flakes. 8esults into low e%pansion. &eat and corrosion resistance.

;. "ffect of Chromium: Cr is carbide stabiliAer. This intensify chilling3 increase strength3 hardness and wear resistance. &igh - of Cr results into corrosion resistance. <. "ffect of Molybdenum: Mo impro es tensile strength3 hardness3 hardenability3 machinability3 high temperature strength and shock resistance. 1,. "ffect of Copper: Cu promotes free C. 11. "ffect of Danadium: D enhances strength3 hardness and machinability. Car$on %teel: 1. Carbon content: Eow carbon steel: ,.,1 to ,.!,Medium carbon steel: ,.!, to ,.5, &igh carbon steel: ,.5, to 1.1, Tool steel: ,.<, to 1.1, 2. $rocess of Making 2teelC i. =essemer $rocess: 0ir ii. E*D $rocess: $ure o%ygen iii. :pen hearth $rocess: 0ir# wrought 7e i . Crucible $rocess: $ure iron# alloying elements. . "lectric $rocess: $ure iron# alloying elements. i. Duple% $rocess: $ure iron# alloying elements. !. "ffect of elements on steel: C increase strength3 elasticity3 and hardness and lowers ductility 6 impact strength. 2i pre ents porous structure and blowholes. Dery good deo%idiAer3 remo es gases and o%ides3 makes steel tough and hard. Mn adds ductility and bending3 ery good de%idiAer and purifying agent3 reduces harmful effect of 2 and $. 2 results into low melting and red* shortness. >ncreases brittleness. $ imparts cold shortness. >ncreases tensile strength but reduces impact strength and ductility. @i pro ides T3 C8 and Deep & Cr pro ides C83 T and &y Mn deo%y3 23 & 6 decrease CC8 2i deo%y3 23 & 6 raises CC8 Mo aids &y3 tensile 2 6 creep 2 + at Itemp. Cu increases C8 6 strengthening agent D deo%y3 promote fine grained struc +7(2. 0l do%y3 7(23 nitriding

= increases &y
+T*toughness3 C8*corrosion resistance3 & hardness3 &y hardenability3 2 strength3 CC8 critical cooling rate. #on &errous 'etals: Al( Cu( )n( %n( P$( #i 2uperior properties: 1. 8esistance to corrosion 2. 2pecial electrical and magnetic properties !. 2oftness and facility for cold working /. 7usibility and ease of casting 1. (ood formability 5. Eow density 9. 0ppearance 6 cost Al and Alloys: 0l can be alloyed with Cu3 2i3 Mg3 Mn and Gn Duralumin: Cu !.1 to /.1 Mn ,./ to ,.9 Mg ,./ to ,.9) alloy: Cu !.1 to /.1 @i 1.; to 2.! Mg ,./ to ,.9Cu Gn alloy: Cu 2.1 to !., Gn 12.1 to 1/.1 Mg ,./ to ,.90l alloy: Cu 2.2 +for aeroplane. Gn 1 Mg !@i 1Cu and Alloys: Cu can be alloyed with Gn3 2n3 2i3 $3 Mg3 =e3 $b =rass: Gn up to /1=ronAe: 2n < to 11:ther metals 1 to 2Cupronickel: @i 55-3 2i 2-C Cu !,Cuprosil er: 0g 2 to 2,#i and Alloys: >n ar: @i !1*1,-C 7e Jo ar: @i 2;-C Co 1;-C 7e "lin ar: @i !5-C Cr 12-C 7e $ermalloy: @i 9.;-C 7e $ermin ars: @i 2/-C Co 21-C 7e !,0lnico: @i 11*!,-C Co 1*!,-C 0l ;*1,>nconel: @i 95-3 Cr 15-C 7e @ichrome: @i ;,-3 Cr 2,Chromel: @i 5,-C Cr 15-C 7e @i !1-C Cr 2,-C 7e @i*Mo alloys: &astelloy 03 =3 C and K P$ Alloys: $b 2b alloys $b 2n alloys $b 2n 2b alloys + type metals. $b 2n 2b =i or Cd alloys %uper Alloys: @imonic 91 @imonic 111 >nconel 922 TD @ickel @i 91-C Cr 2,-C Ti ,./-C low C and 7e @i 19-C Cr 11-3 Co 11-C Ti 1-C 0l /- and Mo !.1@i 9/-C 7e 9-C Ti 2./Eow C and 0l @i <;- Thoria 2-