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Memory of Water
Maybe I should have thrown the data away Jacques Benveniste, 1935-2004 But being a scientist and believing in his data he could not.
Is water special?
The main evidence against water having a memory is that of the very short (~ps) lifetime of hydrogen bonds between the water molecules[4]. Clearly in the absence of other materials or surfaces (see later), the specific hydrogen bonding pattern surrounding a solute does not persist when the solute is removed any more than would a cluster around any specified water molecule, or else water would not know which of its myriad past solutes took preference. Indeed the atoms that make up the water molecule only remain together for about a millisecond in liquid water due to proton exchange (see water ionization). A recent NMR study shows no stable (>1 ms, >5 ?M) water clusters are found in homeopathic preparations[5]. It should, however, be noted that the lifetime of hydrogen bonds does not control the lifetime of clusters in the same way that a sea wave may cross an ocean, remaining as a wave and with dependence on its history, but with its molecular content continuously changing. Also, the equilibrium concentration of any clusters are governed by thermodynamics not kinetics. An extraordinary paper authored by Nobel prize-winning Luc Montagnier has shown memory effects in aqueous DNA solutions that depend on interactions with the background electromagnetic field. These effects require the prior processing and dilution of the solutions and are explained as resonance phenomena with nanostructures derived from the DNA and water[6]. As applied to homeopathy, the memory of water concept should also be extended to the memory of aqueous ethanol preparations, which are also used. Addition of ethanol to water adds an important further area of complexity. Ethanol forms solutions in water that are far from ideal and very slow to equilibrate[7]. Although usually considered a single phase, such solutions may contain several distinct phases[8] and more generally consist of a complex mixture dominated by water-water and ethanol-ethanol clusters, where hydrogen bonding is longer-lived than in water alone[9]. They also favor nanobubble (that is, nanocavity) formation[10]. Thus, the peculiar behavior of aqueous solutions (as mostly discussed on this page) is accentuated by the presence of ethanol.
Is gas important?
Water does store and transmit information, concerning solutes, by means of its hydrogen-bonded network. Changes to this clustering network brought about by solutes may take some time to re-equilibrate. Agitation (succussion) may also have an effect on the hydrogen bonded network (shear encouraging destructuring) and the gaseous solutes (with critical effect on structuring[13],[14] and possible important production of structuring nanobubbles (nanocavities)[15],[16], and such effects may well contribute to the altered heats of dilution with such materials[17]. Such mechanically induced hydrogen bond breakage may also give rise to increased (but low) hydrogen peroxide formation[18] [see equations] and such effects have been reported to last for weeks[19]. It may be relevant to note that the presence of hydrogen peroxide can take part in and catalyze further reactions with other reactive species such as molecular oxygen and dissolved ozone18,[20] (not often recognized but present in nanomolar amounts) which may well vary with the number of succussion steps and their sequence, which may offer an explanation for the changes in efficacy of homeopathic preparations with the number of dilutions[21]. Also of note are the known effects of low concentrations of reactive oxygen species on physiological processes such as the immune response; with the recent discovery of the importance of low levels of hydrogen peroxide being particularly relevant[22].
Natural water clustering Stabilized water clustering Ions, including from glassware Ethanol solution complexity
Footnotes
A related phenomenon may be the occurrence of conductivity oscillations (~ 0.5 Hz) at similar concentrations of salts at the low concentration limit of obedience to Kohlrauchs law (Onsagers formula) ?m = ?mo - ?c, where ?mo is the limiting molar conductivity, ? is a constant and c is the molar concentration33.
a
This example of pH memory was later explained briefly as the enzymes acidic and basic groups retaining their charge when in an anhydrous environment44. This explanation is accepted but remains unproven independently, is derived from a circular argument and does not inform on how the charge is retained. There remains some puzzle to the extent that a single group in a molecule can either be charged or not charged; it cannot be fractionally charged. Thus the enzyme might be expected to behave as containing a mixture of charged and uncharged groups rather than, as found, fractionally charged groups as in the hydrated enzyme. Perhaps there is sufficient hydration water retained to ensure this, but I do not believe that this has been shown. Whatever, the puzzle of the enzymes memory disappears with the appearance of an acceptable explanation.
b c
These papers are freely available on-line where they are followed by a mixed bag of comments.
This paper on autothixotropy has been criticized on two grounds[41]. (1) The structures arising in the water can be destroyed by shaking whilst the solution preparation involved much shaking. However, the described destruction is at the macroscopic level ( m) whereas the structuring could still arise on the microscopic level; (2) The autothixotropic effect requires the presence of some ions in the water. However, the distilled water used (in contrast to deionized water that does not show autothixotropy) contains ions.
d
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Martin Chaplin
Martin Chaplin graduated in Chemistry from the University of Birmingham, in 1967. Over the following three years he completed a PhD concerned with the structural and biological studies on the glycans in human follicle stimulating hormone. Since 1985 he has been at London South Bank University, where he is currently Professor of Applied Science and a University Director of Research. His current interests lie mainly with aqueous systems, and he has a particular interest concerning intracellular water.