Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 27 (1990), pp. 1-23 Published by: American Research Center in Egypt Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40000070 . Accessed: 13/02/2014 10:19
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I. Initiation and Egyptology of the unified vision Essentialcomponents of Egyptian restricted culture whichdiscounts that have oftenbeen assumptions knowledge exhibited no greatcomplexEgyptian thought or penetration, and thatthe ity,organization, intellectual or with its record, preserved possible the flaws, mightadequately represent spiritual and thespreadof itsideas.In thisview, society aspectsof whichmighthave appealedto some oftheancient whocould elite,thevastmajority were not have had access to written materials of no For want of or were account. ignored to it evidence, may proveimpossible say anyof thispaper, thingabout themin thecontext were excluded from that they except probably itsconcerns; but it wouldbe wrongto jump to therelated record thatthepreserved assumption the of of an range ideas gives adequatepicture and conceptsthatexisted, either among them of knowledge or in the elite. Discriminations as should be expectedamong the majority, areentirely shouldcomplexattitudes, but these It is also formostof the society. inaccessible know how elite and nonelite to far impossible shared thesameideology. of theunifying and minimizing Instances apin De la Posener's comment are proach Georges divinite du pharaon2 thatthe Egyptian people
and whichhe has sincemostkindly made delphiameeting in this available tomeappears issueofJARCEon pp. 43-52. Whereas Piccione is concerned withtexts that relate mainly tothenext he describes arealso life somepractices (although I focus on contexts in thislife. ofknowledge this-worldly), His widerconclusions about the game of senetrelateto in this life initiations andarevery relevant tothis paper. 2 (Cahiersde la SocieteAsiatique15, Paris, 1960),xiv. "Decouverte de Posener'sfinal programmatic summary,
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JARCE XXVII (1990) or a "ne pratiquaitpas l'espiritdu systeme" Title in the Rank and Baer's reviewof Klaus "The that which states Old Kingdom3 baldly werenotsystematic people."4Similar Egyptians in writings known are well views patronizing These on suchtopicsas mathematics.5 positions thatEgyptian involvea tacitassumption "syswould be like Western tem,"if it existed, "sysis readily identifiable, tem";sinceno suchsystem are limiting These attitudes no system existed. because they and tend to be self-confirming, for and complexity. thesearch system discourage The first is in a The examplesare revealing. ofEgypthecentral institution ofkingship, study a host whichgenerated tiansociety and culture, to have been thatare unlikely of conceptions butvery systematizing lackingin organization;6 theking'srolehave since alien texts describing The second attackswith an become known.7 which Baer's work, undocumented assumption - and fundamentally improvedunderstanding - by work8 stoodthetestof further has broadly in theelite was a system proposingthatthere of Thereis something administrative hierarchy. attacked the Orientalism by Edward Said9 in tend to rewhose premises theseapproaches, cultural inforce theinvestigator's position. This is not the only strandin the modern ofhierarchies of of specialknowledge dismissal on Egypwriters Less patronizing knowledge.
l'ancienne Egypte," BSFE 112 (1988), 11-22, elevates this point to a principle of the complexityof reality(see pp. 2122). While this is valid in itselfand all-enveloping systems are probably not to be sought, this insightis a problematic forstudy. starting-point 3 Rank and Title in the Old Kingdom: The Structure of the Egyptian Administration in the Fifthand Sixth Dynasties(Chicago, 1960). 4 T. G. H. James,JAOS 83 (1963), 120. 5 For a more positive assessment, see G. Robins and C. Shute, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: An Ancient Egyptian Text (London, 1987),62-63. 6 ContrastHornung's commentson system:Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many, trans. J. Baines (Ithaca, NY, 1982),239. 7 E.g., J. Assmann, Der Konig als Sonnenpriester:Ein zur kultischen Begleittext kosmographischer Sonnenhymnik in thebanischenTempeln und Grdbern (ADAIK 7, 1970). 8 See, forexample, N. Strudwick,The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders (London etc., 1985),4-5. 9 Orientalism(London and New York,1978).
a similar often maintain tianreligion position. and Morenz10 In verydifferent ways,Siegfried thatEgypErikHornung(n. 6 above)maintain tian religion was fundamentally open. This beenlittle in that there have couldbe true might knownfrom initiation of themystical mystery world(cf.nn. 95-96 cultsof theGraeco-Roman - althoughthistoo can be questioned ahead) thereis much evidence but in otherrespects Here,twofactors openness. againsttheassumed into come play. may of is the proliferation One of thesefactors initiation works on Egyptian bynon-Egyptolorunning gists.In a sense,theseprojectthreads modern back from freemasonry, pyramidology, Renaissance and more various esoterica, through to and attitudes hieroglyphs Egyptian antiquity, intoancientHermetic texts11 and moregeneral wisdomand mysancientimagesof Egyptian into and thence Egyptian pre-Classical tery,12 are genuine; Most of thesethreads antiquity. of whatis at stakeis thewriters' interpretation on whether theirsignificance, they dependent subscribeto the beliefsin question,and on whether theysee such thingsas havingbeen presentin ancientEgypt. Each of the areas mentioned is vastand eitherthe subjectof reof research, search or deserving perhaps not Many have returned alwaysby Egyptologists. but in a rather withintheir problempurview, aticway,becauseEgyptology beganat thedecithistradition. awayfrom pherment bybreaking what theyrejected are the title Encapsulating of a book of 1885: The Storeand dedication housesof theKing,or thePyramids of Egypt: WhatTheyAreand WhoBuiltThem,offered to of and Freemasons all nations."13 "Egyptologists An examplemayillustrate oflegitiproblems work on faced abstruse by topicsand mamacy de Lubiczused terials. ReneAdolpheSchwaller
10Agyptische 1960) = Egyptian ReliReligion (Stuttgart, A. E. and trans. Ithaca, NY, 1973). (London Keep gion, 11 See G. Fowden, The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to theLate Pagan Mind (Cambridge,1986). 12 Compare J. D. Ray, "Ancient Egypt," in Divination and Oracles, M. Loewe and C. Blacker,eds. (London, 1981), 175-78. I differfrom Ray in seeing the officialEgyptian of thecosmos in a less bland light than he does, presentation and thus in assumingmoreproblemsat thecenter. 13 By Jane van Gelder (nee Trill), London: W. H. Allen.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM methodsthat have not gained generalacceptanceto hypothesize an Egyptian anthropocentric mysticscience,14 and discipleslike John his views. West15 have disseminated Anthony The workof Westwas reviewed negatively by theclassicist Peter and West that Green, replied
14 See, for example, Rene Adolphe Schwaller de Lubicz, Le temple dans VHomme (Cairo: Imprimerie Schindler, B. V. Bothmer, JNES 11 (1952), 1949); Egyptologicalreviews: 151-52; A. Mekhitarian,CdE 25/50 (1950), 270-72; Rene Adolphe Schwaller de Lubicz, Du symbole et de la symbolique (Cairo: ImprimerieSchindler,1951; reprinted1978, et Symboles Sacres," Paris: 1983, Collection "Architecture Dervy-Livres; 1977, Brookline, MA: Autumn Press); AEB Suppl. (1960) 228: no reviews;R. A. Schwallerde Lubicz, Le temple de VHomme, Apet du Sud a Louxor, 3 vols. (Paris: Paris: Dervy-Livres, Caracteres,1958; reprinted 1985): [Author's own abstractAEB no. 58413]; Egyptologicalreviews: A. Mekhitarian, "A propos du 'Temple de l'Homme'," Cahiers du Sud 48 no. 358 (1960/61), 326-47 (part of a special section "Symbolique du temple egyptien,"pp. 32173); J. P. Mayer-Astruq,"A propos du papyrus mathematique Rhind," CdE 35/70 (1960), 120-39 (a critique of part of the mathematicalbasis of Schwaller's argument); R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, Le roi de la theocratiepharaonique (Homo Sapiens; Paris: Flammarion, 1961). The 1985 reprintof Le templede VHomme and the 1983 reprint of Du symbole et de la symbolique have complete lists of There are also various Schwaller's books on the fly-leaf. works of the author's wife, Isha Schwaller de Lubicz, for example Her-Bak, Egyptian Initiate, trans. Ronald Fraser (New York: Inner Traditions International,1978; abridged version firstpublished 1967). In addition to these books, Schwaller de Lubicz was the author of a posthumous work on Karnak, with Georges and Valentinede Mire and Lucie Lamy: Les templesde Karnak: Contributiona Vetudede la et pensee pharaonique, 2 vols. (Collection "Architecture Symboles Sacres," Paris: Dervy-Livres,1982). Despite its work,and is one of subtitle,this is a primarilydescriptive the most valuable collections of material about Karnak. Referencesto its plates are incorporatedin PM II2 (see the preface, p. xiv). For a comment on Schwaller de Lubicz's research in CdE 35/69 (1960), 120. Elevation Egypt, see Mayer-Astruq, drawings of the Luxor Temple prepared under him by Lucie Lamy were used in H. Brunneret al., Die sudlichen Rdume des Tempels von Luxor (AV 18, 1977), pis. 1-32. who Schwallerde Lubicz also influenced some Egyptologists workedin Luxor at the same timeas him, notablyAlexandre Varille and Clement Robichon. In a sense, the approach of Alexander Badawy, AncientEgyptian Architectural Design: of California A Study of the Harmonic System(University Publications, Near EasternStudies 4, 1965),is comparable to thatof Schwaller de Lubicz. So faras I know, no Egyptolouses similarmethods. gistpublishing at present 15 Serpent in the Sky: The High Wisdom of Ancient Egypt(New York,1978).
thereviewer did notknowthematerial.16 Green in theEgypresponded by sayingthatnothing tian textshe knew fitted with the views of de Lubicz; thisis true, but does not Schwaller did notenter answer thequestion. Egyptologists thisfray, but Schwaller de Lubicz knewmore his disciple aboutEgyptian thaneither temples or his critic. I agreewithGreenin beingsuspide Lubicz'smethod, but the cious of Schwaller onlypossiblea priorireasonforthissuspicion is thatSchwaller's of imposing images strategy on ground almost anything. planscan prove end de Lubiczcomes Schwaller at thecautious of suchapproaches, as whichrangeas farafield of an who was thereincarnation JoanGrant,17 - and Bulbul - royal, ancient ofcourse Egyptian The claims of Abdel Meguid or Umm Sety.18 oftheir subthese knowledge peopleto inspired ject bypassacademicendeavorand cannotbe it is with it. For different reasons, integrated of to incorporate the principles also difficult The Egyptian who Versluis, Mysteries byArthur that themodern world has losttheability regrets to think and peopledo notrealize analogically19 ancient thatthe Vedas are neededto interpret Yet uneasewithsuch a statement lies Egypt.20
16 "Tut-Tut-Tut," New York Review of Books 26 no. 15 (October 11, 1979), 15-32. Correspondence:"The Secretsof the Pyramids," ibid., 26 no. 20 (20 December 1979), 56. as "The Treasuresof Reprintedwithoutthecorrespondence, AncientHisEgypt," in id., Classical Bearings:Interpreting and Culture([London], 1989),77-90, 290-82. tory 17 WingedPharaoh (London, 1937;reprinted severaltimes, e.g., Dennis Wheatley Library of the Occult 22, London, 1974); Eyes of Horus (London, 1942); Lord of the Horizon (London, 1943); Many Lifetimes(London, 1968); I draw also on reminiscencesof someone who knew the author. The preface to Winged Pharaoh shows that Grant used conthe setting ventional Egyptological works in constructing forhernarrative. 18 Nee DorothyEadie. Her posthumous book, Omm Sety and Hanny el Zeini, Abydos: Holy City of Ancient Egypt (Los Angeles: L L Co., 1981), mostly representsthe less colorfulside of her activitiesaround the temple of SetyI at Abydos. In addition, she had significant narrowlyEgyptological accomplishments and worked for many years on material from excavations of the Egyptian Antiquities Organization. 19 (London and New York:Arkana, 1988),5. Arkana is an imprint of the same house as Kegan Paul International, which publishes theStudies in Egyptology series. 20 Among Egyptologists A. Varille, "La steledu mystique Beky (N 156 du Musee de Turin," BIFAO 54 (1954), 135,
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JARCEXXVII (1990) in not so muchin whatis said as in itscontext thebook as a whole;21 and comparative analogy method arefundamental tointellectual activity. whichsubSome of these works use concepts in Egyptology. respectability sequently reacquire The The title ofthebookofS[otirios] Mayassis,
Book of the Dead is a Book of Initiation,22is
similarto thatof an articleby Jan Assmann, "Death and Initiationin AncientEgypt/'23 concerned withtheBookofthe whichis largely to thispaper,yetthelatter Dead and is relevant does not cite the former. Reviewsof Mayassis' work (see n. 22) suggestthat Assmannmay in ignoring be correct it, but, as remarked by T. GeorgeAllen,it mightstill be a sourceof useful approaches. A secondfactor in scholarly uneasewithesoand habitsof tericarelatesto thecomposition In order to avoid theEgyptological community. theirrejection of approaches arguingthrough like thatof Schwaller de Lubicz,Egyptologists ofGreen.It is as to that adopta similar strategy if they intoa secret as initiates sciannounced, ofthatscience was thatit ence,thatthemessage held no secrets and thatantiquity had none. Because it closes offpossibleapproaches, this for it is paradoxical, butthemotivation position in methToo muchpluralism is comprehensible. within ods would leave no commondiscourse which research could continue.24 Scholarslike
followed a similar line in comparing macat to Chinese tao. Here, it may be relevantthathe was influenced by Schwaller de Lubicz (n. 14 above). 21 Its title is paralleled by Moret's Mysteresegyptiens (n. 96 ahead). 22 Full title:Le Livre des Morts est un livre d' initiation: Materiauxpour servira Vetude de la philosophie egyptienne (Bibliotheque d'Archeologie Orientale d'Athenes, Athens: B.A.O.A., 1955); reviews,T. G. Allen, JNES 17 (1958), 14748; Ph. Derchain,CdE 32/63(1957), 42-43; see also Mayassis, Mystereset initiations de I'Egypte ancienne (Bibliotheque d'Archeologie Orientale d'Athenes 2, Athens: B.A.O.A., 1957). I have not been able to consult this work while writingthis paper, and must cite an opinion fromAllen's review. 23 "Tod und Initiation im alten Agypten,"in Sehnsucht nach dem Urpsrung: Zu Mircea Eliade, H. P. Duerr, ed. in English, a. M., 1983), 336-59. Now reprinted (Frankfurt trans. M. Grauer and R. Meyer,in James P. Allen et al., Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt (Yale Egyptological Studies 3, New Haven, 1989), 135-59. 24 In another context, this is an essential argument of T. S. Kuhn, The Structure Revolutions,2nd ed. of Scientific (Chicago, 1969).
instinctive Morenz mayhavehad an additional such a view, because reason for maintaining theycould have associatedits opposite with of their oftheNazi Germany abhorrent features youth.25 a In attitudes to ancient restricted knowledge, been disalso division has Christian/agnostic and Join which EtienneDrioton26 cernible, thatthe zefVergote,27 forexample,maintained in monotheists but were knowledgeable Egypt while the rest did not publicizetheirbeliefs, The group who set up remainedpolytheists. in antiquity so small monuments was,however, that theymighthave been expectedto share themas such ideas,or at leastnot to separate wish. For similar these authors would as rigidly of the restriction reasons, expressed proposed textsis unideas to instruction monotheistic likely,especiallysince thesetextshad a wide distribution amongtheelite.This is not to say of knowledge thattherewerenot distinctions weresysbuttheidea thatthere within theelite, bedifferent fundamental religious tematically a liefsis implausible.28 Here, possibletypeof does not seem to fitits restricted knowledge ofDrioton and Views like those context. posited nonrare Catholic are Egyptoloamong Vergote gists.In arguingagainstthe quasi-apologetic Hornungadoptsthe positionof theseauthors, and concluHis approach.29 argument unifying but theunifying sionsare persuasive, approach hereas elsewhere.30 itself is problematic
25 ErhartGraeferemarks thata similarreactionto absolute rule, this time fromthe outside, seems to color William F. Edgerton's "The Government and the Governed in the EgyptianEmpire,"JNES 6 (1947), 152-60. 26 For example, in E. Drioton and J. Vandier,Les peuples de VOrient mediterraneen II: L'Egypte, 4th ed. (Paris, 1962), 63-64. 27 "La notion de Dieu dans les livresde sagesseegyptiens," in Les sagesses du Proche-Orientancien (Bibliotheque des Centresd'Etudes superieuresspecialises: Travaux du Centre d'Etudes superieuresspecialise d'Histoire des religions de Paris, 1963), 159-90. Strasbourg, 28 In some respects, Drioton and Vergote werefollowinga I pursue later in this paper. The point here is that strategy therewas no mass creationof monumentsand worksof art. 29 Conceptionsof God (n. 6 above), 50-60. 30 Another phenomenon Egyptologists find difficult to of the worksof E. A. Wallis accept is the repeatedreprinting is not that the books Budge. In that case, the difficulty contain hidden knowledge. Rather, scholars, who feel that Budge's works are below rather than outside the normal
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM of an intellectual No writer is independent theunimilieu.In presenting arguments against that view,I do notmeanto devalueworks fying and enlightened straightforward give an overof Egyptian and its knowledge; picture society different rather, approachesmay derivefrom different modern milieux.Howeverthemilieu aspects,of may change,it has some constant whichtwomaybe cited. is nearly closedand tends First, anydiscipline to seekclosure, boththata particular requiring be learnedand and methods body of material or "initiation" be acthatformal qualifications quired, oftenwith elaboraterituals.In their internalcompetition, scholarsoftensay (and about worktheydo not like regrettably print) or thattheauthordoes not knowthematerial - foreither methods has not learnedtheproper theprincipal ofwhichthereviewer is sometimes - and so forth.31 and arcane source Scholarship Academic conferareperilously similar. initiation ofesoteric to meetings encesshowresemblances initiates.Many major changesin scholarship and ideasare comewhensuchclosure is broken to be best these tend from but outside; imported whenproposed received accepted by internally practitioners.32 side of scholarship, Second,the legitimizing in citing I referred Said's Orientowhich Edward
canons of method, suspect the only explanation of the demand to be that theyare bought in the belief that they to say how far It is difficult give insightinto hidden matters. thissuspicion is justified. 31 Compare, for example, F. Junge on J.-C. Goyon's review of H. Sternberg, MythischeMotive und Mythenbildung in den dgyptischen Tempeln und Papyri der griechZeit: "Rezensionen. Oder: Uber das Blitzeisch-rdmischen to schleudernvon Olymp," GM 106 (1988), 47-50, referring BiOr 44 (1987), 117-21. This exchange illustrates these techniqueswell because it is explicit;less explicitones could be cited. For a reviewof Goyon with commentscomparable to his about Sternberg, see M. Smith,JEA 74 (1988), 282-83. Few are exemptfromsuch criticisms. 32 The study of Egyptology based on the sociology of knowledge by H.-J. Triimpener does not go into these aspects: "Ankiindigungeiner soziologischenArbeitiiberdie Agyptologie,"GM 9 (1974), 11-12; Die Existenzbedingungen einer Zwergwissenschaft: Eine Darstellung des ZusammenWandelund derInstitutionalhangs von wissenschaftlichem einer Disziplin am Beispiel der Agyptologie isierungsform 6, Bielefeld:B. Kleine Ver(Report Wissenschaftsforschung lag, 1981). A revealing feature of this work is its title, the subjecta "dwarfdiscipline," which implies that terming withinit. It is difficult special conditionsapply to orthodoxy
remains talism, important. People modeltheir what they after objectof studyto some extent reactagainst to be, or they would likea society was bruthatapproachand saythatthesociety The latter tal and repressive. approachinvolves ofwhatoriginally attracted somerejection peo- as ple to their subject,and in intellectual against psychological termsit is legitimized in thewider context of chiefly byplacingEgypt Bothviews moral other societies. imply complex positions. themwelldefend cannot Thus,Egyptologists knowlwhowouldseek arcane selves those against edge in the recordby sayingeitherthat the or thatEgyptologirecord has no suchfeatures cal methods are open and availableto all and modeofaccessto thetruth. are theonlycorrect in antiquity is ofinequality Since theexistence in the that one ofthefew subject generalizations is an can be termed and inequality facts, readily it is of the characteristic evidence, organizing of socially conto investigate thefield desirable like any otherimportant structed knowledge, for socialinstitution, Apart unequalpatterning. intrinsic whichit maynotbe from their worth, of foran Egyptologist to judge,theapproaches wishtoexclude whomEgyptologists thewriters in pointfrom them their grouparevaluablefor In parwithin to their discipline. ing problems that will overcome ticular, prejudices approaches mustbe and system complexity againstfinding welcomed. In one obviousrespect, writers these address a who would that is denied those exclude by point hiddenknowledge: such knowlby definition, not could be so that edge normally displayed, there evidence willbe no morethanfragmentary forit, or evidencefromspecial contexts. The of to claims can Green that such response things be identified in he 16 which cited (n. above),
to say whetherthis is correct beyond the obvious point that personal feelings may surface more than in a larger and moreanonymousgroup. will Practitioners may be concernedthat the fieldworker not understand discussion in their subject, but such a thought is no more relevant than asking if Egyptologists understand the ancient Egyptians, or if any study of a communityfromoutside understandsthat community.Alby his data is awkward, though criticismof the fieldworker s essay is based on limited it can be said that Triimpener' fieldwork.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) instruction is misleading. Instruction texts texts, werethemostwidely used literary texts ofantiquity,and mustbe a vehicleforpublic knowlnotfortheesoteric; also edgeand wisdom, they address a relatively widerange ofsocialgroups. II. Ancient Restrictions and Uses Knowledge: A. Preliminary A good point of departure forplacing evidenceforrestricted in knowledge a rudimentary model of the Egyptian eliteis thegeneralone thatknowledge is an instrument of power,is to and is a resource subsocialization, integral to for controls which the basic is ject premise that no one knows distribueverything. Unequal tionof knowledge is virtually occuruniversal, in of societies all Small, ring types. acephalous societies often have vitalritesof initiation, for at The in example puberty. knowledge imparted such contexts not seem distinctive or may very to theoutsider,33 but thisdoes not meaningful detractfromits significance, much of which in be social and stages may separating categories of life. Otherforms of learning, such as selfin the construction of an identity, knowledge in theseinitiations, can be important but are to the In accessible outsider. addition to hardly but restricted of this sort, widespread knowledge small-scale societies, many again including very secret societies or other ones,contain specialized own with their bodies of knowledge.34 groups modesofaccessto Theremaybe supplementary Alsuch as mystical knowledge, enlightenment. that these mostlydeny thoughEgyptologists
33 Numerous examples are cited by J. Goody, The Interface between the Writtenand the Oral (Cambridge, etc., 1987); see also, forexample, A. Forge, "Style and Meaning in Sepik Art," in PrimitiveArt and Society,A. Forge, ed. (London and New York, 1973), 169-92, esp. 189-91, where what is "seen" or known cannot be specified in otherterms. See further M. Douglas, "Dogon Culture- Arcane and Profane," Africa 38 (1968), 16-25 (with some ethnocentric assumptions); valuable discussion by F. Barth, Ritual and Knowledge among the Baktaman of New Guinea (Oslo and New Haven, 1975),223-31. 34 See previous note; also, for example, N. D. Munn, WalbiriIconography: Graphic Representation and Cultural 2nd ed. (Chicago, Symbolismin a CentralAustralianSociety, 1986).
in antiquity, existed theevidence forEgyptian and religious is insufficient to religion practice excludetheirhavingdone so, while analogies between texts and Hermetic material Egyptian thehypothesis ofsuchconceptions maysupport in earlier In thispaperI return times.35 to these in the case of possibilities only "mysticism."36 In a complex has a society, mostly knowledge distribution. There or can be formal complex substantive restrictions on secularknowledge; I return to thesein Section III. A majorfocusof thecomplexdistribution of knowledge is likely to be religious, becauseof the prominent and of in the institutions integral position religion ofmany societies. from thisgeneral restricconsideration, Apart tionofreligious in should be knowledge Egypt because access to expected, religiouspractice was restricted, at leastas regards into cult,entry thetemples, and related to the approaches gods: limitedphysicalor organizational access is a first basis forrestriction. It wouldbe surprising ifthere werenotsomehomology between access to religious centers and to religious knowledge. On thelevelofexperience rather thanofbodies of knowledge, people who could not enterthe would know that others coulddo so and temples had experiences thatwerenot generally shared. Sincein antiquity mosttemple offices wereheld is also an asymmetry between the bymen,there sexesin religious in as mostspheres knowledge, oflife.Yet,despite theexclusiveness ofreligious in theregular boththepractice practice temples, and its associatedknowledge may have been more distributed some than widely specialforms ofreligious I to which return ahead; knowledge, of people held temple relatively largenumbers office ofsomesort.37 Decorum (Section III) makes
35 See Fowden (n. 11 above). 36 For possible allusions to meditationin theCoffin Texts,
see Ph. Derchain, "De la magie a la meditation," in La magia in Egitto ai tempi dei faraoni, A. Roccati and A. Siliotti eds. Atti,Convegno internazionaledi studi, Milano . . . 1985,Milan (1987), 47-55. 37 Among exclusive social forms,cult associations, for which most evidence is of Graeco-Roman date, could be cited: F. de Cenival, Les associations religieusesen Egypte d'apres les documents demotiques (IFAO BE 46, 1972); P. Vernus,"Kultgenossenschaft," LA III, 848-50. These are professionalgroups ratherthan people broughttogether by
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM even normaltemple reliefs of kingoffering The restricted to whichsomepeoto knowledge of material, but ple haveaccesscan be passiveand "utilitarian," god into a restricted category secret texts and representations of withwhat is knownserving only forthe perdistinctively thesortI discussin Section II B hardly feature of dutiesor beinga necessary partook formance in that The general oftemple of one's position;or it can be active, so thatit restriction system. relief shouldbe seenin rather different as bringsbenefits, terms, notablyreligiousones, to the a precondition in thebackground too maybring to the most knower. Passiveknowledge presrestricted of knowledge will notbe in forms thatweretrans- tige.Muchdisplayof knowledge mitted in written or pictorial form. These then written form, althoughit will oftenrelateto form an innerlayerof restriction, what is When it is written, materials. presumably written thepreserve ofan inner whose shownmustnot revealwhat is known.What groupofinitiates in Egypt and seems it is notpossible to specify. has not been identified identity A second typeof restriction on whomight is a formal restriction has a different implausible which character. of literacy, Domains of knowledge include the acquire thebasic knowledge foraccessto themore needbe freely would be a prerequisite Neither spokenand thewritten. I discuss; is and Egyptian recondite material sucha restriction was limited toa available, writing In the of from Uruk.39 the This attested late initial tinyproportion Babylonian people.38 reduction evidence either is vital here,because the available absenceof strong way,it would evidenceis in written, or written and icono- be wrong toexclude sucha possibility. for ofhistory, accessible sources; graphic periods relevant restricted will sit B. Restricted oral any knowledge accessand knowledge religious withinwhat was written thanpointing rather I havesuggested elsewhere40 that an Old Kingelite beyondit. Both in the elite and between and others, oral forms ofrestriction were dom of example passivedisplayis in the inprobaof twoFifth and SixthDynasty also but not be high bly scriptions generally important, might includesome relatedto the material of Ptah, whose titularies thatis available to us. priests items based Untilwriting became and probably fabricated oralcommuni- unparalleled widespread, old cationwould have been theprimecontext which was for on a listofMemphite bythe gods therestriction ofknowledge. In theoralcontext, timewhenthey usedit. Earlierinstances might themeansofrestriction to identify. The example suggests is partly reduced social be difficult contact and selection amongsocial groupsand two main points.First,thereis an associated form for thechief that so that social and hierar- hypothesis hierarchies occasions, recording early matters was thetabular cultural chies ofknowledge arelikely homol- important tobe closely list, of whichdependson layoutand thusis a written of function, ogous, as are specializations the of genreratherthan an oral one, removing relevant and, in manysocieties, knowledge, from it contains socialsub-groups. generalcurrency. knowledge forlistingand groupingmay Between different elite, This preference groupsin theliterate transsome restrictions reinforced for probably hierarchy havefurther implications high-cultural text or afforded forcompetition and a field and display, mission, becauseitdevalues continuous were whileothers of relatprotective apotropaic, cosmosthatneeded ing to theviewof a fragile 39 P. -A. Beaulieu, "New Evidence for the Existence of within whichcertain reaffirmation, things might Secret Knowledge in First Millennium Babylonia," paper to stateor write be too portentous publicly(so presentedto the American Oriental Society meeting,New faras writing was a publicmedium). These two Orleans, March 1989; to be published in 1990. For a partial parallel, see the Graeco-Roman inscriptions discussed at cannot be separated entirely. aspects
initiation; connectionsbetween them and secretknowledge are generally rejected. 38 See J. Baines and C. J. Eyre,"Four Notes on Literacy," GM 61 (1983), 65-74. n. 85 ahead. 40 "An Abydos List of Gods and an Old Kingdom Use of Texts," in Pyramid Studies and Other Essays Presentedto I. E. S. Edwards, J. Baines et al. eds. (EES Occasional Publication 7, London, 1988), 124-33; one copy of the full list:KRI I, 173, 12-176,9.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) werepreserved narrative. Second,listslike these in some temples, and protected but not elseand wereprobably not available to all where, withinthe temple; displayed only high priests theirknowledge of thisone. The obviousmeand the dium forrecording themis papyrus, in of of the list the preserved temple copies in layoutwith I at Abydos are comparable Sety Old Kingdom papyri.41 It is difficult to assessthelist'ssignificance as a piece of knowledge. Because namesof gods it wereso important and potentially powerful, not one does to This appear might grant power. contain anything veryarcane,and seemsunefficacy. My likelyto have a special inherent view (n. 40 above) thatthedisplayof previous be the priestswas passive should, however, doesmore revised. Theiruse ofthelistprobably thansimply accessto it. Byclaimdisplaytheir of rare separableaspectsof ing "priesthoods" menasserted Ptah,these privispecialreligious weretheonly leges.So faras evidence goes,they the privileges (apartfrom peoplewho had those had them as of who would have probably king, both active this case contain Thus, may right). ofdisplay.42 and passive elements activemodelof knowltheother, Elsewhere, more is the Peoplelearnthings edge widespread. are intrinsically thatenable themto do things, or have both theseaspects. to them, beneficial thetemple Relevant actionsincludeperforming theMiddleofMeir,who stated cult.Pepycankh ofHathor intothepresence thathe had entered an ofCusae as herchief thereby priest, displayed also beneexclusive actionwhichwas probably ficial to his ultimatedestiny.43 Here, special
41 See, for example, P. Posener-Krieger, "Old Kingdom Papyrus: External Features," in Papyrus: Structure and Usage, M. L. Bierbrier ed. (British Museum Occasional Paper 60, London, 1986),25-41. 42 Sir Alan Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford, 1961), 93, seems to have linked the status as high priestof Sabu, the later of the two users of the list, with duties he in "exercising protection" (stp-zi) on a barque performed (Urk. I, 83, 7-11). Sabu's biography(Urk. I, 82-84) gives a very prominent position to royal rituals, and this detail could perhaps be related to the orientation of interests implied by his display of thelist. 43 Urk. I, 222-23; A. Roccati, La litterature historique sous VAncien Empire egyptien(Litteratures Anciennes du Proche-Orient, Paris, 1982), 235; for display of the title
and knowledgecome together, opportunities forming partof a person'sdisplayof religious and moralstature. This moralstature privilege fitswith the charitable and uprightqualities as enhancpeople claimedin their biographies status and aidingtheir ing their passageintothe hereafter. I assume that the possibilities displayedin from were available Pepycankh'sinscription to be claimed that it used times. Whereas early from theking ofreligion the' 'democratization" in theFirst Intereliteoccurred to thenonroyal mediatePeriod,this divisionis probablynot evidence thathas been identineat.The earlier forthe spreadof fied44 have implications may in official cult and their involvement people's in of such privileges display.In exploitation wider certain contexts, yet mightbe privileges instanceof theseis the available.The clearest in use of royal regalia in the object friezes of them most coffins, post-Old Kingdomin withaccess to date.45 This could be compared as the Amduat texts such (see ahead), special in thislife. and might haveanalogies The difference betweenroyal and nonroyal and dimenremains clearin theform potential sion of royalmortuary complexesand in the to the cult. But in the claim perform king's a is a and partly latter this case, partly fiction and someone feature of decorum (SectionIII), thatfact.Therefore like Pepycankh advertised and related restricted cult knowledge nonroyal but cannot be dated, probably practice precisely The material whichis attested early. originated as confined to theking(discussed ahead) could have been kept forhim alone. not in reality Increasedlater evidencefor thesetopics may in theuse of writing as relateto developments in knowledge itself. muchas tochanges without An exampleof knowledge displayed in the Eleventh of its is much nature revealing
"overseerof priests," see N. Kanawati, GovernmentalRe1980), 130. formsin Old Kingdom Egypt(Warminster, 44 E.g., the findof Old Kingdom "Coffin Texts" at Balat: M. Valloggia, Balat I: Le mastaba de Medou-nefer1: Texte (FIFAO31:1, 1986),72-76. 45 G. Jequier,Les frisesdes objets sur les sarcophages du use of Moyen Empire (MIFAO 47, 1921). Nonroyalmortuary otherroyal decorativemotifscan be establishedforthe Old Kingdom.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM stela of the sculptorIrtisen,46 whose Dynasty owner described someofhis artistic accomplishin allusiveform. ments Like thetreatise on the king'srolein thesolarcult(n. 7 above),thistext is organizedaround the idea of knowledge, whichhereincludestheability to makethings. It states first thatIrtisen of knowsthe"secret(s) this (ssto hieroglyphs nj mdw-ntr)" associating with festivals and magic and sayingthat he excelledthrough his knowledge/ability. It then moves to craftsmanship or artistry, and gives threeexamples of knowledge, in apparently reliefcarving, includingparticular poses (two and in themanufacture of inlaysand sections) similarsmall pieces.The textseemsto be obscure and allusive,but the lack of parallels makesthisobscurity hardto assess;someof the be clearer thanappearsto us. languagemight the Nonetheless, emphasison knowledgein with the ofwhatis recondite nature conjunction said demonstrates theprestige of specialskills, and mustalso be seenin thegeneral context of of which biographical inscriptions, hardly any containsuchdisplay statements. The overt connections madein thetext between hieroglyphs, relate secrecy, magic,and competitive prestige Irtisen' s achievements and his artto thefield of religion. A less extensive but comparable displayis in the titlesof the SixthDynasty master butcher Khnum. Thesebeginwith"keeper ofthesecrets of darkness nj kkw)"and are followed (hrj-sstS in cryptography, forwhich by a groupwritten HenryGeorgeFischerproposesthe rendering "Who Opens It (thedarkness) in Strangling the Birdof the DesertRegions."47 Here again, the of the inscription owneris privileged activity statedat the beginningto be secret, and its nature is in form. allusive precise given obscure, A muchmorewidespread of display "secrecy" is in thetitlehrj-sstj (also heldby thebutcher), whichis normally rendered ofsecrets." "keeper one of the users of the list of Sabu, Memphite of the secrets of all works," gods,was "keeper
46 Louvre C 14. W. Barta, Das Selbstzeugnis eines altdgyptischenKilnstlers{Stele Louvre C14) (MAS 22, 1970); AlexanderBadawy, "Stela C 14 of the Louvre reconsidered," BiOr 28 (1971), 174-76. 47 "Five Inscriptionsof the Old Kingdom: 4. Enigmatic Epithetsof a MasterButcher,"ZAS 105 (1978), 56-57.
of ofPtah,in control as highpriest presumably, The moregenor artistic construction activity. to assess, eral significance of hrj-sstj is difficult of low in the system because it fitsrelatively with titles.48 When combined specifying ranking thanby it might havemore extensions, meaning itself.If its rankingpositionis takenat face value, it could mean thatpeople of a certain rank had a generalaccess to "secret"matters, whichcould be either confidential (SectionIII) or secret in a religious have sense; might royalty in blurring besome interest this distinction, cause it would place extra sanctionson the information. Comoflessreligious confidentiality mon use and displayof thetitlemakesexplicit withpowerand the associationof knowledge was knownmight Whereas what competition. be secret, the factthatone knewit was made public. of the later,MiddleKingAs an illustration of dom use of hrj-sstj, it is worth citingtitles of theTwelfth nomarch Dynasty Djehutihotpe el-Barsha.One title stringmakes him "smof thelord'ssndwt-kih, lector controller priest, of of the secrets and chief,49 priest keeper god's . . . controller of words (hieroglyphic writing), he office."50 In other was every (divine) strings of seeingOne [ ] in the "keeperof the secrets ofthesecrets of houseofThoth,"51 and "keeper rituals(or perhaps 'divine property': jht)."52 becausethey These mustbe prestigious titles, ofhis region, wereborneby theleadingcitizen a colossal whoalso went so far as tocommission not to Scholarshave tended statueof himself. and takethewording ofhrj-sstj seriously, thisis a reasonable approach,because the interpretationof titles can be very misleadbyetymology Some should, however,be ing. significance becauseit to the meaningof hrj-sstj, attached and for with attitudes to ancient fits, example,
48 Baer,Rank and Title (n. 3 above), e.g., p. 35. 49 hrj-hjb hrj-tp. For this rendering,see J. Quaegebeur, "La designation (Pi-)hry-tp: Phritob," in Form und Mass . . . Festschrift fur Gerhard Fecht, J. Osing and G. Dreyer eds. (AAT 12, 1987),360-94. 50 Urk.VII, 45, 13-16 (correcting the textof Newberry). 51 Urk.VII, 45, 9. 52 Urk. VII, 52, 10; P. E. Newberry, El Bersheh I: (The Tomb of Tehutihetep) (ASE 3, n.d.), pl. 18, 3rd register down, middle.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) whichit does relateto themare in the use of magic,and in thenotionthatthetruenameof to and it wouldbe dangerous a god is concealed from comes revealit; butmuchof thisevidence and thusmustbe suspect within magicaltexts, While magic to magicaldiscourse. as internal with ofprestige and has associations was a focus this usage of stj/sstB and restriction, secrecy intotheorganization no decisive insight brings ofknowledge. C. The solarcultand cultinitiation of In the solarcult there are multiplelayers reof a more narrowly restricted knowledge, just discussed. ligious kind than the evidence has beentreated This material byJan repeatedly to the sun god The hourly Assmann.58 hymns about theking'srolein it and thetwotreatises in anypublicplace untillate werenotinscribed The sameappliesto the''framRamessid times. from another liturgical ing text"forthelitany from attested whichis first ofsolarhymns, cycle Assmann theTwenty-first Essentially, Dynasty.59 of as a safe-keeping thisconcealment interprets thatwas so seriousand important something that itcouldnotbe madepublic. in assumesthatthehourly Assmann hymns, are ancient,althoughhe does not particular, and give a precisedate forthem.The hymns fromthe templeof attested treatises are first somearchawhere at Deirel-Bahri, Hatshepsut are based in look as if they ismsin othertexts
58 See especially, Der Konig als Sonnenpriester(n. 7 Weltabove); Re und Amun: die Krise des polytheistischen bilds im Agyptender 18.-20. Dynastie (OBO 51, 1983), 2253. Some details in Assmann's discussions,such as his later view that the "Treatise" was deliberatelygarbled in the Luxor temple (Re und Amun, 25), are debatable, but his essentialposition can hardlybe questioned. The second treatise, accompanyingthepictureof the solar barque in the evening, has not been interpreted (see Assmann, Re und Amun, 27, n. 15), but preservedsections do not include the word rh "know," and it seems to have a different organization from the morning treatise.It also appears to be shorter.See Brunner,Die sudlichen Ra'ume (n. 14 above), pis. 12, 41, scene 69; R. A. Parker,J. Leclant and J.-C. Goyon, The Edifice of Taharqa by the Sacred Lake of Karnak (Brown Egyptological Studies 8, 1979), pl. 20, p. 42. 59 Assmann, Liturgische Lieder (n. 56 above), table on p. 18, textpp. 410-11.
obscurewritings, as in theThirteenth Dynasty where thekingis able ofNeferhotep, inscription thatthe to findand read textsin the archives officials cannotinterpret.53 Thus, the implicasimilar tionsof thistitleremained remarkably formanycenturies. They point in two directheseparation ofreligious toward rituals, tions, in principle performed bypeopleofhighstatus, of writing. Those and toward theexclusiveness who used thesetitlesaspiredto both kindsof An extra to thetitle overtone prestige. religious of the by the introduction may be suggested of Anubis,or witha figure of hrj-sstj writing in theMiddleKingdom.54 Anubison hischest, The titlehrj-sstj derives from therootstj/sstj or "difficult,"55 whichshouldbe evalu"secret" ated for its wider implications. Many usages or hidden,but describethingsthatare secret on thenextworld, focus whichthe these mainly statedcould not be knowndirectly. Egyptians This pointis encapsulated by theintroduction its to a hymnforthesetting sun,whichterms subject the stBwd,jt,"secretsof the underworld."56 Examplesof such usages have been thequestion collected Altenmuller;57 byHartwig in thisform is how farthenotionof "secrets" in of the living.Contexts relatesto the affairs
53 W. Helck,Historisch-biographische Texteder2. Zwischenzeit und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie (KAT, 1975), 21-29, und des esp. p. 22. R. Anthes,"Die Berichtedes Neferhotep Ichernofret iiber das Osirisfestin Abydos," in Festschrift zum 150jahrigen Bestehen des Berliner AgyptischenMuseums (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Mitteilungen aus der Agyptischen Sammlung 8, Berlin[East], 1974), 15-49. 54 Wb. IV, 298, 12: "seit m." See also W. A. Ward,Index of and Religious Titles of the Middle Egyptian Administrative Kingdom, with a Glossary of Words and Phrases Used (Beirut, 1982), nos. 1004-1040; H. G. Fischer, Egyptian Titles of the Middle Kingdom: A Supplement to Wm. Ward'sINDEX (New York,1985),nos. 1004a-1040a. See also nextnote. 55 Wb. IV, 296, end-300, 6 (sstl); 551, 3-556, 1 (stS) for roots of both forms). For further (inclusive references examples, see D. Meeks,L'annee lexicographique 1-3 (1977stl. 79, Paris, 1980-82),s.v. sStS, 56 J. Assmann, Liturgische Lieder an den Sonnengott: Untersuchungenzur altdgyptischen Hymnik 1 (MAS 19, 1969), 29-31. The root is exceptionally common in the Litany of Re; see E. Hornung, Das Buch der Anbetung des Re (Sonnenlitanei) nach den Versionen des Neuen Reiches,2 vols. (AH 2-3, 1975-76); for collections of examples, see Meeks,AL 1 (1977; n. 55 above), 348, 380-81. 57 "Geheimnis," LA II, 510-13.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM thehymns Old Kingdom models; might go back to sucha date.Otherevidence thatthe suggests of a group of solar initiates context necessary shouldbe positedfortheOld Kingdom, and so sucha hypothesis. indirectly supports TextsSpell456,60 whosecoreconsists Pyramid ofthree solarinvocations (butseen. 60), possibly muchin thestyle oftheBookof concludes, very theDead: "The one who knowsit- thisspellof Re- /theone who performs them-these magi- /hewill be an Acquaincal spellsofHarakhte tance (rhj) of Re, /he will be a Companion varied to (smr)ofHarakhte" (855).This is then is so will that the such a and be say king person, helped up to the skyinto the retinueof Re of sucha occurrence (856). This is theearliest forknowledge formula and theaccesswhichit grants.Since the main body of later special is solar(see ahead),it is noteworthy knowledge that the formula at the end of the spell uses solar names, and seems to be applied only
60 PT 852-56 (P, M and N); K. Sethe, und Ubersetzung Kommentar zu den altdgyptischenPyramidentextenIV (Gliickstadt,Hamburg and New York,n.d.), 110-20 (noting Book of the Dead parallels); E. Edel, Altdgyptische GrammatikII (AnOr 39, 1964),838; R. O. Faulkner,The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts Translated into English (Oxford, 1969), 151-52; J. P. Allen, The Inflectionof the Verbin the Pyramid Texts (Bibliotheca Aegyptia 2, 1984), 15, 29A4, 367B, 370B (discussionsof thepassage translated here);T. G. Allen, Occurrencesof Pyramid Texts with Cross Indexes of These and OtherEgyptianMortuaryTexts (SAOC 27, 1950), 86-87, lists no laterparallels forthis spell. Assmann,Liturgische Lieder (n. 56 above), 36, points out the analogy betweenthispassage and formulasin theBook of theDead. I am gratefulto Rolf Krauss fordiscussion of this spell. Krauss relates the text to the planet Mars, identified with Harakhte in the PyramidTexts (this would fitalso with the allusion to the "father"of Harakhte in 854b); the redness alluded to in the main part of the spell would thenbe that of Mars and not, as Faulkner suggested,of the settingsun. The textmay perhaps support stellar and solar interpretations. Since it appears to derive froma non-mortuary and non-royalsource, it may have been a solar spell taken over with stellar meaning in the Pyramid Texts. Such an inwould not imply that the solar conceptions terpretation wereolder than the stellar.Since solar beliefsare not attested fromthe beginning of Egyptian history, the opposite is as would assume likely to be the case. What the interpretation is that by the Old Kingdom solar beliefs were well establishedoutside the mortuary context,whereasstellarones mightbe appropriatewithin thatcontext.There could be a varietyof reasons for adapting a solar spell froma noncontextto stellarpurposes. mortuary
11
to theking.As KurtSetheremarked secondarily in his commentary, the Old Kingdomcourt thecircumstances a modelfor described; provides of this analogy is uncertain. the significance in the associations Thereare no clearmortuary The spell could threeprincipal invocations. derive from thesolarcult,so thatthe"knowlwould be thatof one who edge" it describes thatcult.The spell is unique in the performed itwas in part because perhaps published corpus, notspecifically royal. An exampleof whatcould be Old Kingdom restricted materialin a solar contextis the ofthechamber oftheseasons decoration unique This contains in thesolartemple ofNeuserrec.61 "encyclopaedic"knowledgein a contextto which hardlyanyonewould have access.The as exhibiting is presumably knowledge depicted theentire thesolarcreator's beneficence toward it may createdworld. In the templecontext, esoteric for offer a forerunner themore obviously in the collected of the underworld knowledge is inmaterial underworld books. Underworld related the for and only appropriate temples, known from are themore temples compositions Booksof and less"mythological" cosmographic The mixed and 119 ahead). picDay Night(n. decoform oftheNeuserrec torial and linguistic rationoffers a partial analogy to the list of Memphitegods, which may suggestthat the or model, before source decoration had an early written became continuous normal; language books but the laterparallelof theunderworld couldbe preserved showsthatsuchconventions for very longperiods.62 In another theexplicit formula socialcontext, tononroyal in thePyramid Textscan be related of the Old Kingdom.A common inscriptions on the deceased's"knowing" formulacenters certainthings,mostlymagical in character.63 The deceased is often said tobe a "lector priest,"
61 PM III2, 319-24; E. Edel and S. Wenig,Die Jahreszeitenreliefs aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Konigs Ne-user-Re (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Mitteilungenaus der AgyptischenSammlung 7, Berlin,1974). 62 For a possible veryearlydate forthe Amduat,see n. 68 ahead. 63 E. Edel, Untersuchungenzur Phraseologie der a'gypdes Alien Reiches (=MDAIK 13:1, 1944), tischenInschriften 19-26, 21-23; formulas quoted p. 23, e); p. 24, f).
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JARCE XXVII (1990) to thevery fewwho might readthetext(which do where it was setup in the could hardly they temple),but the outsideris told nothing.In of thetext's thecentral terms stanprogression, zas about knowledge lead to the finalones in on earthis which the king's generalfunction and it is natural to readtheformer as described, of thelatter. a precondition This maybe valid in terms of theking'slegitimation, but in the culthis knowledge further meanhas probably in to maintain the sun its course ings,serving hisconscious and awareinvolvement. through in thesamecontext Assmann65 this text places as the underworld whose significance books,66 for hidden knowledgeis partlysimilar and Like thetreatise and thehymns, broader. partly in were inscribed the most inaccessible they only were not disseminated until after the and places, The titleof the fullversion of New Kingdom. motif theAmduat concerns and this knowledge, in thecomposition. recurs elsewhere EdwardF. Wente67 has collectedthesepassages and has notedthatthey do not focuson thenextworld and are notspecifically theuse of royal, despite these to decorate tombs. Both compositions royal Wenteand Assmanndate the Amduat to the in New MiddleKingdom.68 Thus,itsinscription Kingdomroyal tombsis far fromwhat these and purpose. passages point to as its context The knowledge itcontains is saidtobe beneficial whoknowit.69 The Amduat on earth to those is
baboons, see H. te Velde, "Some Remarkson the Mysterious Language of the Baboons," in FunerarySymbols and ReliM. S. H. G. Heerma van gion: Essays Dedicated to Professor Voss . . . , J. H. Kamstraet al eds. (Kampen, 1988), 129-37. 65 Der Konig als Sonnenpriester (n. 7 above), esp. pp. 5657; Re und Amun (n. 58 above), 32-33. 66 E. Hornung, Agyptische Unterweltsbucher , 2nd ed. (Die Bibliothekder Alten Welt,Der Alte Orient,Zurich and Munich, 1984); id., Das Buck von den Pfortendes Jenseits, 2 vols. (AH 7-8, 1979-80); id., Texte zum Amduat 1 (AH 13, 1987). 67 "Mysticism in Pharaonic Egypt?" JNES 41 (1982), 161-79. 68 H. Altenmiiller,"Jenseitsbiicher, in Jenseitsfiihrer," Agyptologie 2: Literatur,2nd ed. (HdO 1, 1, 2, 1970), 72, suggests that the text could go back to the Fourth/Fifth Dynasty.There are, however,no clear linguisticpointersto redactionof textsinto later such an earlydate, and extensive forms of thelanguage was uncommon. 69 See also further parallels cited by Wente (n. 67 above), 161-62.
who wouldpresumably haveaccessto restricted One exampleruns"I have religious knowledge. learnedevery secret magical spell of the court secret formula (hkj nb stEnj hnw),every (sstB) throughwhich one becomesa spiritin the a parallelbetween necropolis," neatly drawing ' 'court" in thislifeand other forms that secrecy are effective forthehereafter. An inverted form is also known, in whichtheownerasserts that "no potentmagical spell was ever concealed from me (n zp StShkj nb jr.j jqr)" Thus, the in theword connections of knowledge, secrecy stj,and magicare madehereand are associated withtheinner withcultactivity, and with elite, writing. This material bothspecific appearstoprovide evidenceand the requisitesocial contextfor restricted in theOld solarand related knowledge It remains that other relevant Kingdom. unlikely such as the date to the Amduat, compositions, Old Kingdom(see ahead), but the FirstIntermediatePeriod is not an insuperable barrier before whichlaterphenomena could not have occurred. Sincethere wasno fundamental change in the positionof centralcults in relationto and thewiderpopulaking,elite,priesthoods, tionbetween theOld and MiddleKingdoms, it is best to assume thatthe typesof restriction whichare moreclearly attested from latertimes in the Old appliedalready Kingdom. The treatise on the king's role in the solar cult, which Assmannplausibly dates to the MiddleKingdom, intothe givesa fuller insight character and purpose ofknowledge in thesolar cult (only one of two treatises has been deIn its central the stanzas, kingis said ciphered). times to "know" eight particular things.The he form knows a things mythologized descriptionofsunrise. In thesmallcompass ofthetext, little explicitcould be said,but in fact nothing is revealed;it is like havingallusive titlesof books but no book. Whenit is statedthatthe king knows "that secretspeech which the Eastern Souls speak,"thecontent of thespeech is not indicated, and the souls are not identi- although fied thisis clarified in theaccompanyThe is displayed ingvignette.64 king's knowledge
64 For the relief context, see Brunner, Die sudlichen Rdume (n. 14 above), pis. 16, 66. On the conception of the
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM the nearest ancienttextto an academicbook: there is a fullversion and a short whose version, could almost be Egyptiandesignation shwj10 rendered and in the tombof Thut"abstract"; moseIII thereis an "index" in the form of a of all the divine The separate listing figures.71 "academic" presentation is appropriate for a textto whichaccessis restricted, but whichis studiedand used in different ways,while the form of copies,in whichlacunae in thearchewerenot alwaysrestored, a contypes suggests cernwith the exactwording.72 Wentesees the "initiation"vouchsafed to thoseknowingthe textas quasi-mystical, and entitles his article his term accordingly.73 Although may stretch theevidence ofthecomposition, itis valuablein how seemingly suggesting dryand "academic" have an which can knowledge application places iton an altogether different level. Problems withthe unifying view of ancient in thiscase. Horcan be illustrated knowledge nung74 acceptssome of Assmann'sarguments in theBook of theDead,75 about initiation but retains his earlier viewthatwhatis recorded in the Amduatand relatedcompositions is pure - even if it is eso"Wissenschaft" knowledgetericand fullyavailableonly to the king. He notes that Assmann doesnotpursue thequestion of who initiatedwhom; but that is in some becausein anycase theking respects secondary, alone could nothavebeenthecreator and transmitter of such knowledge: some circleof "initiates"musthave existed, and it is hardto see their as disinterested. knowledge
70 E. Hornung, Das Amduat: Die Kurzfassung; Nachtrdge (AgAbh 7, 1967), 1, 2; 27; 36; 55. 71 P. Bucher, Les textesdes tombes de ThoutmosisIII et AmenophisII 1 (MIFAO 60, 1932),pis. 14-22. 72 See Wente (n. 67 above), 164; see also H. Altenmuller, des Amduat,"JEOL 20 (1968), 27-42. "Zur Uberlieferung 73 For a negative view on the possibility of Egyptian see J. Assmann, Agypten:Theologie und From"mysticism," Hochkultur (Stuttgart, 1984), 183-87. migkeiteiner fru'hen Because the range of religious practicesis poorly known, I of its occurrence. would not wish to exclude the possibility 74 Geist der Pharaonenzeit (Zurich and Munich, 1989), 112-14,215-16. 75 "Tod und Initiation" (n. 23 above); see also id., "Die Verborgenheitdes Mythos in Agypten," GM 25 (1977), 34-36.
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The allegedexclusiveness oftheking'sknowlwider There is no evihas edge implications. dencethatkingsexploited it forpoliticalends, and sincethecontexts in whichit is revealed are so recondite, this might have been difficult, in thesensethat it legitimized anyking's except role.Buttheidea is powerful. thecircle Whereas of initiatesknew what the king knew,their was probably lesssignificant because knowledge in of theirdifferent The acted position. king the on the basis of cosmos that maintaining whilethey did not,or did so onlyby knowledge has a good Such a which distinction, delegation. in would enable the parallel priestly practice, his while to retain acking unique position from would instruction and alothers, cepting for transmission. low the necessary safeguards Text spell cited boththePyramid Nonetheless, in theAmduatsuggest above and thematerial in nonroyalsolar that therewas significance oftheking's so that the knowledge, presentation in the treatise on the solar cultshould position in full. notbe accepted cannotbe Whereasthis royal exclusiveness for traditional affirmed withoutqualification of a and mustbe seen in thecontext religion, his Akhenaten used unique groupof initiates, in argument76 and made it explicit knowledge in his Great Hymn (it was alreadyimplicit in his cartouche epithet"The Unique One of Rec"):77"You are in my heart.There is none who knows you /exceptforyour son NeferWacenrec. /Youcausehimtocomprekheprurec hend(ssdm) yourwaysand yourmight." This of unique knowledge parallelstheexclusivism Akhenaten's religiousand political position. is replaced The earlier concealed statement royal This alteration can be an declaration. by open in decorum setbeside numerous (Section changes
76 See D. B. Redford,"A Royal Speech fromtheBlocks of the 10thPylon," BES 3 (1981), 87-102. 77 M. Sandman, Textsfromthe Time of Akhenaten(BiAe 8, 1938), 95, 11. 16-17. Translations: M. Lichtheim,Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings II: The New etc., 1976), 99; J. Assmann,Agyptische Kingdom (Berkeley, Hymnen und Gebete (Zurich and Munich, 1975), 220. The form of the verb dj.k and the syntax of the passage as a whole are not clear. For generalinterpretation of thepassage, see J. Assmann, "Die 'Haresie' des Echnaton: Aspekte der Amarna-Religion,"Saeculum 23 (1972), 122-24.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) have earthly analogies,the obviousone being For Book of theDead of initiation. some form A Greek and is clearer. 125,theposition papyrus otherparallelssuggestthat the originalconis "initiaof innocence textof its declarations tion"intosomelevelofthepriesthood.83 Special doesnotseemtobe strongly implied, knowledge as wellas specialqualification butexclusiveness, withentry, are. and rituals associated certainly The textof Book of theDead 125 mayhave This transmission. been part of a restricted is suggested by the wide temporal possibility theone in sources, including spreadofrelevant which Greek,and by detailsof the textitself Periodor mayplace it in theFirstIntermediate Ifthisdating is correct, MiddleKingdom.84 early withsimilar or a forerunner thetext, organizabefore formanycenturies tion,was transmitted it was used in the Book of the Dead. The thematic temples85 parallelsin Graeco-Roman betweeninitiation make explicitconnections on theone hand, intothetemple and priesthood and generand moralqualitiesof uprightness In the forbid on the other. addition, they osity have reveal the to (sstS)they mysteries priests of thegodsand goddesses learned (Kom Ombo) do not make or in the temple (Edfu);but they This clear to whom thesemightbe revealed. the full circle of ideas typeof brings complex in accessand socialrolefound claimtoreligious in cited Secthelate Old Kingdom biographies texts have tionII B above.The Graeco-Roman
83 R. Grieshammer,"Zum 'Sitz im Leben' der negativen Siindenbekenntnis,"ZDMG Supplement 2 (1974), 19-25; und Beichten im R. Merkelbach,Die Unschuldserkldrungen dgyptischenTotenbuch, in der romischenElegie, und im antiken Rom (Kurzberichteaus den Giessener PapyrusSammlungen43, Giessen, 1987). 84 J. Yoyotte, "Le jugement des morts dans l'Egypte ancienne," in Le jugement des morts(Sources Orientales 4, texts that may be relevant Paris, 1961), 58-65. For further to in n. 75 above; here, see the studies of Assmann referred the initiations in question are in the next life, but could again be modeledon ones in thislife. 85 Most fully presented by A. Gutbub, Textes fondamentaux de la theologie de Kom Ombo (IFAO BE 47:1, 1973), 144-84, with references; hieroglyphictext:J. de Morgan et el., Catalogue des monumentsde l'Egypteantique 1:3 Kom Ombos 2 (Vienna, 1909), 245 no. 878. See also J.-C. biblioGrenier,Temples ptolemaiques et romains,repertoire graphique: Index des citations 1955-1914 (IFAO BE 75, 1979),92-93, 400-401.
thereign.78 WhileAkhenaten from III) attested from drewthe full conclusions thisroyalpreand his officials rogative displayedtheirtotal on him,79 his secularand religious dependence statement Sincehis shouldnotbe taken literally. differmorethanreligiously god was politically ent fromthatof the existing"new solar relithere gion" knownfroma numberof texts,80 was evidently a groupofpeoplewho developed The specialcharacter ofhis these conceptions.81 therefore has analogieswiththatof knowledge thetraditional buthe drew seemdifferent, king, conclusions from it. reductive ingly of initiation The association and knowledge can be paralleledamong the living,paradoxically,by Chapter125 of theBook of theDead, while similarimplications are commonin the notationsat the ends of spells in the Coffin Textsand Book of theDead (as well as occurMostpeople did ringin thebodiesof spells).82 not have access to thesetexts.The formulas, which start"As forthe man who knowsthis arepeoplewhowill spell. . . ," implythatthere not know them;knowledge of themgivesthe do thismeansfor to What capacity something. thehereafter buttheformat is notrelevant here, of manyspells,in whichone gainsentrance to one because knows is to places something, likely
78 See J. Baines, FecundityFigures: Egyptian Personification and theIconology ofa Genre(Warminster and Chicago, 1985),280 with p. vii. See also Section 3 ahead. 79 J. Assmann, "Die 'loyalistische Lehre' Echnatons," S^/s:8 (1980), 9-19. 80 See Assmann,Re und Amun (n. 58 above), 96-143, esp. 96-98. 81 Similarly,to suggestthatAkhenatencomposed his own Great Hymn (e.g., D. B. Redford,Akhenaten the Heretic King, Princeton,NJ, 1984, 177,234) is a littlelike assuming thatmodernpoliticians writetheirown speeches. 82 E.g., CT VII, 471c-g; translation:M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature:A Book of Readings I: The Old and Middle Kingdoms (Berkeley,etc., 1973), 131-33; T. G. Allen, The Book of the Dead or Going Forth by Day: Ideas of the Ancient Egyptians Concerning the Hereafteras Expressedin Their Own Terms(SAOC 37, 1974),6, T 1 (Sp. 1); 41, T 1 (Sp. 31); 58, T 2 (Sp. 64); 65, T 1 (Sp. 72); 113, T include precise citations of the (Sp. 136B); these references original sources. Several of these examples emphasize that the knowledge may be had on earth,although the context may limit its utilityto thenextworld. Veryoftenthecontext or dangerous. This aspect is said to be secret,mysterious, may be relatedas much to the magical characterof the texts as to any narrowly esotericqualities.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM rather but inhabit less privileged protagonists, thesamerestricted, initiated world. D. Other contexts: cosmic rituals order, magic, For theLate and Graeco-Roman eviperiods, dencefor initiation couldbe extended. Friedrich has suggested thattheinitiation intothe Junge in theIsis Book of RomanIsis cultfictionalized AlApuleiusgoes back to Egyptian practice.86 in deare unconvincing thoughhis arguments is notdistinctive tail,becausewhathe describes fora particular form his position of initiation, maybe strengthened by ReinholdMerkelbach's observation that declarations of innocencein Latin poetry are to be associated withthe Isis cult (n. 83 above).This would lead back to the ofBookoftheDead 125and show context living thattypically forms had traveled with Egyptian thecultto theGraeco-Roman world. Book of theDead 125also suggests a cosmic in whichthedeclarations, context and perhaps wideraspectsof religiousknowledge, can be sited.One declaration statesthatthe deceased does not know thatwhich is not.87 This has been glossedas meaningthathe has not overThe assertion is steppedthe orderof things.88 thusone of manycommitments to the fragile cosmic order and encroachagainst surrounding A disorder. similar has been givena ing point moral dimension E. in his Gerald Kadish by discussionof Coffin Text spells againsteating and walking headdown.89 faeces, urine, drinking These imaginea reversal forthe nextlife,but of asserting theysit in the context solidarity In theassumedpriestly withorder. situation of the Book of the Dead spell, commitment to order for who the acquiresmeaning living, say
86 "Isis und die agyptischenMysterien,"in Aspekte der spdtdgyptischen Religion, W. Westendorfed. (GOF 4:9, 1979),93-115. 87 See C. Maystre, Les declarationsd' innocence(Livre des Morts,chapitre125) (IFAO RAPH 8, 1937),25-26, phrase 4; translation, for example, Lichtheim, Literature II (n. 77 above), 125 withn. 5. 88 E.g., Hornung, Conceptions(n. 6 above), 181. 89 "The Scatophagous Egyptian,"JSSEA 9 (1978), 203-17. For the interpretationof shdhd as "head down," see P. Barguet,Le livredes mortsdes anciens egyptiens (LitteraturesAnciennes du Proche-Orient,Paris, 1967), 89, n. 1 to Ch. 51.
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of theboundaries havenotoverstepped that they Whereasthe averageperson the permissible. to pass these mightnot have the opportunity like thosewho acquiredknowledge boundaries, thatof thesolarcultcould runa risk, particularlyif theonlyone withthefullrightto the was the king. In such an area, the knowledge what was necessary divisionbetween knowing to maintain the proper order and knowing be fine, thatshouldnotbe knownmight things of access, and could dependmore on degrees or usage thanon whatwas known. initiation, since seemparadoxical, The spell'sdenialmight the knowledgewould logicallybe accessible for whichone thepriesthood entering onlyafter butin suchcontexts wasa candidate, "foresight" is compatithisinterpretation so that mayoccur, The candidate function. blewiththetext's might the from outside also havedangerous knowledge that of some such as magicalspells. temple, the proper of overstepping The possibility in magicalspellswherethe orderis illustrated to overturn the cosmosif threatens performer It is unknown his spell does not succeed.90 or use of thesespellsand use of them, whether such an themby thewrongpeople,constitute must do evoke but the effects they overstepping, so. This association evokes the question of whether restricted knowledge. magicconstitutes This is unlikelyto be trueof magic as such, in society, becauseit was widelydisseminated while the ideologythat magic was thereto that its "forestall theuntoward"91 shouldimply - as againsttheability benefits to enactspecific - were butparticuavailable; performances freely lar categories of magicare very recommonly The appeal of theexoticand obscure stricted. is in to texts other here,leading magical strong thecitation ofelaborate or languages, pedigrees for and so forth. This is a precedents spells, I different of exclusivism from what have type beendiscussing, becauseit advertises for secrecy effect rather thancreating absolute concealment.
90 See e.g., S. Sauneron, "Le monde du magicien egyptien," in Le monde du sorcier(Sources Orientales 7, Paris, 1966),40-41. 91 As the Instruction forMerikarecmay be freely rendered: W. Helck, Die Lehre fur Konig Merikare (KAT, 1977), 86; see, forexample, Lichtheim,LiteratureI (n. 82 above), 106.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) to it wouldsurely Access content. impermissible so it maynotbreaktherule havebeen limited, of Osiris'deathshouldnot be thata statement knowlthan rather access inscribed. Here, publicly stake. at the crucial be would point edge of Ikhernofnarrative The Twelfth Dynasty of the templeof ret95 about his refurbishing of and subsequent Osirisat Abydos performance to there is a publiccounterpart themainfestival Much oftheMemphite thestatement Theology. thanextextis allusiverather of Ikhernofret's much later From times, Francois very plicit. Daumas96 pointedto a Ptolemaicbiographical his devotion whoseownernarrated inscription of celebratory to his deityand performance - evidently but did not name the deity rituals, - or sayanything her.He about Hathor specific circle of a restricted that suggested membership Daumas used was beingdisplayed. of devotees in an inscription to interpret similar arguments at Tuna el-Gebel,where the tombof Petosiris ofLate is notcharacteristic theperverse writing in generalso muchas inPeriodhieroglyphic misleading.97 tentionally A muchearlier codeduse ofknowledge probain the storyof The Shipwrecked bly occurs
95 K. Sethe, Agyptische Lesestu'cke zum Gebrauch im akademischen Unterricht, 2nd ed. (Leipzig, 1928), 70-71, no. 14; W. K. Simpson, The Terraceof the GreatGod at Abydos: The Offering Chapels of Dynasties 12 and 13 (PublicaYale Expedition to Egypt5, New tions of the PennsylvaniaHaven and Philadelphia, 1974), pl. 1. Translation: LichI (n. 82 above), 123-25. theim,Literature 96 "Les propyleesdu templed'Hathor a Philae et le cult, de la deesse," ZAS 95 (1968), 16-17. See also id., "Y eut-ildes de VAtelierd'Alexanen Egypte?"Les Conferences mysteres dne (Alexandria, 1972), 37-52 (abstractby J. F. Borghouts, AEB 74143). The entry for this article in [M. Morfin], "Bibliographic de Francois Daumas," in Hommages a Francois Daumas I (Institut d'Egyptologie, Universite Paul Valery, Montpellier,1986)xiii, statesthatit is a resumeof an me that verykindlyinforms unpublished work.Mme Morfin such incomplete works of Daumas exist as collections of and that this material ratherthan consecutivemanuscripts, work seems not to have proceededbeyond such a collection, to the topic often in teaching. although Daumas referred Hornung, Geist (n. 74 above), 215-16, seems to allow for cults in Hellenistic Egypt,but it is not clear from mystery his brief statementwhether he considers that these were among thenativeor theethnicallyGreekpopulation. 97 "La scene de la resurrection au tombeau de Petosiris," BIFAO 59 (1960), 63-80. I have not included here the use of the word "mystery"to describe crucial rites of gods, especially Osiris. See, forexample, H. Schafer,Die Mysterien
The emphasis on knowledge in magicis comin to what is found the underworld parable booksand Book oftheDead, and further formal restrictions arepossible. Thesearealso suggested by the folkimage of the magicianas "lector and chief."Since thespellsstatethatthe priest in magic of extreme consequences knowledge can be so dire,limitations to its use are to be will also help to legitimize it by expected; they between is what minimizing discrepancies claimed and what happens. Nothinglike the edicts of the Roman Empire is anti-sorcery knownfrom nativeEgypt, but there is evidence thattheRomansconsidered to Egypt be a land withdangerous and associmagicalknowledge atedsuchknowledge withCheopsand theGreat Pyramid.92 Othertypes ofreligious evidence can be cited. I give some examples,but a full listing is case is thedeathof One potential impractical. in Egypis stated which Osiris, hardly explicitly not relate tian texts. This omission may closely torestricted that becausetexts allude knowledge, to his deathwouldmakelittle senseifthereader did not know about it. A partialexception to the death is that Hornung'sblanketstatement never mentioned93 is revealing.This is the whichsaysthathe was Theology," "Memphite "buried(?)" and, a little later, that he was "drowned."94 This text, whosedateis disputed between the laterNew Kingdomand the Late as beinga unique ancient Period,is presented its layout mimics early written manuscript; or text for It is nota conventional forms. hymn in diabut an exposition, performance, partly notbe subjectto As such,it might logue form. as normal inscriptional the same constraints material,so that it could include otherwise
92 See L. Kakosy,"Meg egyszer a Cheops-piramisfeltoreserol es lezarasarol,"[Once moreon theviolation and resealing of the pyramid of Cheops] Antik Tanulmdnyok 16 (1969), 195-98. Erhart Graefe very kindly made Eva Dombradi's of thisarticleavailable to me. German translation 93 Conceptions(n. 6 above), 152-53. 94 The contextis verybroken: H. Junker,Die politische AkadeLehre von Memphis (Abhandlungender Preussischen mie der Wissenschaften Berlin,1941),pl. 1, 11. 17c (the word for burial is a restorationfroma trace,see pp. 38-39), 19; I: (n. 82 above), Literature translation: convenient Lichtheim, 53; discussion of date and bibliography:H. A. Schlogl, Der Gott Tatenen nach Texten und Bildern des Neuen Reiches (OBO29, 1980), 110-17.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM toevoketwoimportant Sailor.98 The story seems the end of the cosmos, religiousconceptions, of the sun god inand the seventyfourforms in theLitanyof Re, but it does not corporated The Litanybelongsto themdirectly." present and thesamegroupoftexts as thehourly hymns form and thenon-continuous underworld books, of its initial enumeration could point to an ancientoriginwithotherlists.I suggestthat in The some of the reasonfor the treatment - apart fromthe narrative Sailor Shipwrecked - is in potentialof thingsthatare mysterious that making possible an allusion to matters so could nototherwise text, appearin a literary tensionbetweenthe that thereis a softened of the narrative and its conform pseudo-folk tent. The story has been read in varying ways, in as variously and might havebeenunderstood notall the that assumes antiquity. Myargument literate wouldhavehadaccesstosuchknowledge forms of the sun god (or as the seventy-four of those forms). Some perhaps the identities these but nothavecomprehended aspects, might so thatthestory other are meaningful, readings couldhavecirculated widely. relatively in thetomb ofPetosiris raises The inscription and its thequestion oflatehieroglyphic writing in comparison withthatof earlier complexity was almostcertainly This complexity times.100 in thesmallnumaccompanied by a reduction bers of those able to read inscriptions. Only the does the have charachowever, writing rarely, for ter ofconcealment rather thanofelaboration
des Osiris in Abydos unterKonig SesostrisHI (UGAA 4:2, 1904); A. Moret, Mysteresegyptiens,3rd ed. (Paris, 1927); K. Sethe,DramatischeTextezu altdgyptischen Mysterienspied' Osiris au len, UGAA 10 (1928); E. Chassinat, Le mystere mois de Khoiak, 2 vols. (Publications de 1'IFAO, Cairo, 1966-68); S. Cauville, "Les mysteresd'Osiris a Dendera: des chapelles osiriennes," BSFE 112 (1988), Interpretation 23-36. Some related phenomena may be relevant to the here.The studiesof presenttopic,but theycannot be treated Daumas are closer to mytheme. 98 See "Interpreting the Storyof the ShipwreckedSailor," JEA 76(1990, in press). 99 For the text,see Hornung, Buch der Anbetung (n. 56 see M.-T. Derchain-Urtel,"Die above). For interpretation, SAK 1 (1974), 83-104. Schlange des Schiffbruchigen," 100E.g., S. Sauneron, L'ecriturefigurativedans les textes d'Esna (Esna 8, 1982); D. Kurth,"Die Lautwerteder Hieroder griechisch-romischen glyphenin den Tempelinschriften ihrerHerleitungsprinzipien," ASAE 69 Zeit- Zur Systematik (1983), 287-309.
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and symbolism.101 thesakeofenhanced meaning here is case The extreme perhapstheNaukratis is one ofthemost which stelaofNectanebo I,102 to texts difficult read,but has the hieroglyphic be absurdto would of it public topic taxation; the see this as restricted, preserved although has moreto do withdisplayin copyprobably the templethan with practicaluse. The prethe was probably forthisdevelopment requisite hierofrom of cursive Late Period separation whichmeantthatthosewho glyphicwriting, used cursivewould have in any case to be The to read hieroglyphs. trainedadditionally in involved the innertrained groupwas largely may relate temples.Thus, this development of a group than to more to the exclusivism ofknowledge. specialrestrictions and Decorum III. The EliteMilieu;Hierarchy cases of restricted These suggested religious A needto be setin a social context. knowledge exampleis a good pointofdeparnonreligious of Weni ture.The Sixth Dynasty inscription services various howitsowner details performed Severalof as he ascendedtheofficial hierarchy. forhis thenrank. his actionswereexceptional or secret He hearda confidential (sstj)legalcase whose with a vizierwhile holding an office is lost,together withtherankof a designation z3b rj(?)-nhn.103 Later, he judged litigation sayingthatthiswas againsta queen in secret, ofthe for ofthehntj-sj an "overseer exceptional palace."104 Only the second of thesetitlesis title. whilez3brj-nhnis a ranking substantive, as This factmaygivethekeyto interpretation, is suggested moststriking by thetext's example
101Compare, for example, the comments of Daumas, BIFAO 59 (I960), 78. 102H. Brunner, Hieroglyphische Chrestomathie(Wiesbaden, 1965), pis. 23-24; translation:M. Lichtheim,Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings III: The Late Period (Berkeley, etc.,1980),86-89. 103Urk. I, 99, 2-8. Translations: Lichtheim,LiteratureI (n. 82 above), 18-23; Roccati, Litterature (n. 43 above), 18797. On the title see D. Franke, "Ursprung und Bedeutung der Titelsequenz ZBb RS-Nhn," SAK 11 (1984), 209-17. In Franke's interpretation, the titleitself would implyrestricted access to a space, in thiscase theroyalpalace. 104Urk. I, 101, 13-102, 7. hntj-sjwas relatedto the notion of elite by Ann Macy Roth in a paper presentedto the International Munich, 1985. Congressof Egyptology,
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ofrestricted whichwas madeavailable viewsof a hierarchy as simply exclusive and as material, to Weni laterwhen he was to lead a military somethingone climbs throughability. The thatofa bureaucracy that expedition.While he continuedto hold the secondviewis partly ' 'There was revealedto me same office, but in thepoliticalsphere (or: I aspiresto efficiency, the number of thesetroops; /it had the kingwould have an interest in promoting inspected) never beenrevealed ideas againstmoreformal ones,ifonlyto to/inspected byany'servant' these roomformaneuver. Whereas there (bjk)."105This statement mightseem almost givehimself needs to know mightbe a contradiction betweenknowledge absurd,because a commander how manytroopshe is to lead, but it becomes hierarchies and claimedmeritocracy in thereliif the qualifying bSkis takeninto gious sphere,the two may complement each meaningful account.Earlierin the text, classesof officials other outside it. are listedmorethanonce,apparently The official and displayof meriaccording acceptance to a formula, as sr, sch and bjk.106 The point tocracy here. may have additionalsignificance seemsto be thatsuchinformation wouldnotbe In the Old Kingdomin particular, religious available to a bSk.The othertwo designations matter was hardly on nonroyal monudisplayed are not necessarily in a vertical hier- ments, arranged especiallynot in relationto the king. kinds of Instead,displayfocused on individualbiograarchy,but could referto different suchas civiland religious;107 connected with the status, nonetheless, phies, which weremostly thevertical is thesimplest. Therecould king,or on general moralmatters, whichcould reading be threebroad, hierarchically organizedcate- relatealso to the next world. There was no ofofficials. in whichlinmonumental context gories independent It is not knownhow Weni'sthree or other status markers were categories eage centrifugal is of exhibited. Thus, meritocratic mightrelateto the principalpublic forms display partof in thesequences the of titles established institutionalization of the Fifth-Sixth ranking by Dybut the two are probablyconnected. nasty It reinforces thespecialposiBaer,108 bureaucracy. Weni'susage mayimplyaccessto increasingly tionof thekingand exploitstheexclusions of restricted as the title decorum to A best was counterknowledge (seeahead) hierarchy advantage. thispoint. One of the climbed,and there may have been threemain examplemay illustrate levelsofrestriction; butthiswill notbe theonly few Old Kingdom tonarrate a ritual inscriptions of the As with is the Fifth the one of other which Recwer, significance hierarchy. early Dynasty material reviewed a fateful incident the "Receivhere,it does not followthat describes during theknowledge wouldlook very of thegod's boat."110 to the ing of theprow-rope The profound - in thiscase it is normally outsider is inscribed in theform ofa royal confidential text document and "classified" information. because Yet,becausethere and notas a biography, partly perhaps wereparallelphenomena in elitecul- of itsexceptional elsewhere content and partly becauseof there could be extrasanctions and signifi- the favor shownby thekingin presenting the ture, cance attached thisconfidentiality and secrecy, document. The onlyreligious content Recwer's in anyadministrative whichoccurs had in their was the hierarchy. contemporaries inscriptions The "meritocracy" in Weni'snarrative, which display of priestly titles.The Sixth Dynasty is mostdistinctive wherehe saysthatwhenhe biography ofSabu (n. 40),however, doesrefer to tooka posthe replaced four ofrituals. holders,109 theperformance previous runs superficially counterto its restrictive asrelates to the conclusions of Meritocracy between Wolfgang Helck'sUntersuchungen zu denBeampects.Theremayseemto be a tension tentiteln desdgyptischen Alten Reiches111 and of 105Urk. I, 103, 2-5; see e.g., G. E. Kadish, "Old KlausBaer.Baerhardly studied theimplications Kingdom Activityin Nubia: Some Reconsiderations"JEA 52 (1966), of the ranking he discovered, system exceptto
26-28. 106Urk. I, 99, 7-8; 101,6-7. 107In laterperiods,sch mostlyreferred to thedead. 108Rank and Title (n. 3 above). 109Urk. I, 100,7-8. 110Urk,I, 232, 5; Roccati,Litterature 43 (n. above), 101-2. 111 AgFo 18, 1954; approach reviewedby Baer, Rank and Title (n. 3 above), 2-8.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM thesequenarguethatsuccessive kingschanged ces for their own, essentially political purif only This argument is incomplete, poses.112 becausedistinctions of rankin thestate existed frommuch earliertimesthan Baer's standard - mostprobably fromits beginning. sequences there was no cultural, DuringtheOld Kingdom, as against break that wouldcorrespond political, withtheintroduction of thenew system. That is therefore rather a refinement system probably thana radicalchange.Helck'sapproach, which is moreintuitively ofarchaism based,seescycles and development as occurring muchof through theOld Kingdom, that there was "magiarguing cal" value attachedto the titlesand thatadministration on the basis of developedfirst the king's to, and delegation from, proximity person.113 I suggest thatthese can be partly approaches under the broaderconceptof hierintegrated in diswhichI have used informally archy,114 is the more or less cussing Weni. Hierarchy formalized stratification ofpeoplein larger social Use of the groupsor withinorganizations.115 term valuesare attached to impliesthatstrong In rigorousapplicationsof the stratification. in ofhierarchy, hierarchies are organized theory
112 Rank and Title (n. 3 above), esp. 298-302; N. Kanawati,
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Evidence TheEgyptian Administration in theOld Kingdom: on its EconomicDecline (Warminster, 1977),uses comparable arguments. 113 ofa to remove theconcept UnlikeBaer,Helckwished to some that all titles title, assuming corresponded ranking is more often ceremonial. Baer'sposition function, plausible: titleand function seemsunlikely. fitbetween a complete LA VI, 596Morerecently Helck,"TitelundTitulaturen," title. the ofa ranking 601,hasreintroduced concept 114 seeL. Dumont, HomoHierarchicus: Fora classic work, trans. M. Sainsbury and itsImplications, The CasteSystem (London, 1970).See also R. H. Barnesand D. de Coppet on HierandLevels: Essays Anthropological (eds.),Contexts of Oxford, of theAnthropological Society archy(Journal Occasional Papers4, Oxford, 1986),withvaluableintroessay byBarnes, pp. 1-7. ductory 115 forexample,G. M. Britanand Generaldiscussion, of FormalOrganizaR. Cohen,"Towardan Anthropology in Hierarchy and Society: tions," Anthropological PerspecG. M. Britanand R. Cohen, eds. tiveson Bureaucracy, 1980), preesp. 23-24;foran Egyptological (Philadelphia, "Land Use,Social Organisation see R. H. Pierce, sentation, Institute and Temple Economy," Royal Anthropological 16. News15(1976),
"levels"- an aspectthatmayor maynot formal thepresence of in Egypt. For Egypt, be relevant central values is crucialin the largest context, The whereroyalideologycreates a hierarchy. consistsof hulowestlevel of this hierarchy thehighest in general; and thegodsform manity hierarchies level. Interlocking and subordinate between also existwithin thelevelofhumanity, elite and the administrative and title-holding theelite,in both therestof society, and within hierarchies. Material secular and religious official in thePyramid Texts,such as Spell 456 (n. 60 formed above), shows that elite hierarchies in thedivine too. world models for relations conand ranking are overlapping Hierarchy of titles could have cepts.The official ranking under as was donein beencategorized headings, theinscription of Weni.This possibility might to bothphasesof the common supplya context Old Kingdom.The change froma kinshipin particular oriented by hierarchy, symbolized of the pct," to one the titlejrj-pct"member basedmoreon administrative office, corresponds at thebeginning of withtheriseofBaer'ssystem the FifthDynasty, but would not involvea in hierarchy. the alteration Similarly, significant of the system post-OldKingdom disappearance of as a system, as against thelessformal ranking hiertheassumption thatit refines favors titles, themor creating archiesratherthan defining them. In relationto knowledge, the development Helck and can be seen as a Baer presented by of access to thecenter and gradualbroadening to restricted to and also privileges, perhaps In the this demost terms, knowledge. general held to haveculminated is normally velopment after theOld Kingdom. Forrestricted knowledge, it would then be paralleled by the kind of formulation seen in the Amduat,where the people who mightknow thingsare presented without restriction of anonymously, apparently titleor rank(whichcould hardly havebeenthe case in fact). the Theywouldbe a groupwithin literate elite. The PyramidText cited earlier thatalthoughnew forms of however, suggests, textand knowledge may have been introduced in the Middle Kingdom, a theoretically "neuin the tral"groupofinitiates haveexisted might Old Kingdomalso. The centraldomains of
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weredepicted withintemples and wouldthen havebeencom- Such figures religious knowledge in thelaterEarlyDynastic parablein the two periods.The groupof ini- begin to be attested to havebeenhomogeneous or Period. Detailed rules of decorumin art are tiatesis unlikely thatis, theydependon to havehad equal accessto thesameknowledge. narrowly hierarchical, and levels, rather thanon theabsolute More probably there werevariouslevelsof ac- positions withwhich they of the conventions cess. The display of the Old Kingdomhigh character ofPtahwouldsitwellin sucha context. work. priests The system of decorumwas devisedbefore hereis specialization of Whatis imponderable texts werewritten, and attributed a whichhas so far beenset continuous career and occupation, ofrecording and of the positive valuetoother methods aside. In earlierperiodsmostmembers on had oppositeeffects who display.This feature innerelite seem to have been generalists Brief ofmaterial. of held numerous and different secularand religioustitles speeches categories in continutexts but theirgroup was large enough to gods are theearliest offices, preserved and remained in knowledge and com- ous language,118 central, perhaps support specializations whilelonger continuThis knowl- becauseof their prestige, petitionto attainsuch positions. occurin templescenesbefore hardly edge could be secular,as in the case of what ous texts I at Abyor religious, at Deir el-Bahriand Sety as withthehigh Hatshepsut Wenidisplayed, these the exception; of dos, and alwaysremained Evidenceforreligiousspecialization priests. and contained of twotemples areunusualin design will be sparse, bothin thenature knowledge relief suchas abnormal the phenomenon and forreasonsof decorum: muchother decoration, Wenihimself couldhavehad,butnotdisplayed, solar textsand the Books of Day and Night thelistI disaccesstorestricted lists,including religious knowledge. (Deir el-Bahri),119 A hereto present thereligiously- cussed earlier, and cult statues(Abydos).120 It is desirable before later diverse decoration withcomparably focusedsystemof decorumseparately temple Another secularand reli- is thatof Hibis in el-Kharga oasis.121 comparingit with restricted characteristic whichis sharedby theothertwo gious knowledge,for which it providesan forsecular templesand the Luxor Temple, wherebirth analogy,as well as a widercontext and foremphasison scenes aboutthesolarcultwere and religiousrestrictions, and thetreatises on the monuon The decorum found focus the is a inscribed, king.122 hierarchy.116 from latepredynastic whichcan be traced ments, 118 "Abydoslist" (n. 40 above), 131-32. times,is a set of rules and practices defining 119Baines, por references, see Assmann,LiturgischeLieder (n. 56 withcapwhat maybe represented pictorially above), 113-64 (to be edited by E. Graefe); id., Konig als written and possibly down,in Sonnenpriester(n. 7 above), 10-14; J. Karkowski,"Studies tions,displayed, which contextand in what form.It can be on the Decoration of the Eastern Wall of the Vestibuleof on actionand reports Re-Horakhty in Hatshepsut's Temple at Deir el-Bahari," related toother constraints he killedhis Etudes et Travaux 9 (1976), 67-80; id., "Deir el-Bahari 1974on action, as whena kingsaysthat 1975 (Travaux egyptologiques)," Etudes et Travaux 11 whilehis follower saysthathe kept (1979), 217-20. opponents based them alive (see n. 116),and was probably 120A. Mariette, Abydos I: Ville antique- Temple de Seti of conduct and (Paris, 1869),e.g., pis. 37a, 38b, 39b, 40c. The centralreliefs on rulesor practices ultimately of spatial separationand religious in the seven main chapels (A. M. Calverley and M. F. etiquette, is in Broome, The Temple of King Sethos I at AbydosI- II, coreofthissystem The original avoidance. Chicago, 1933-35, passim) also show cult of thegodsin fullhumanform, London and representations and equipment,but theformof thisis much less distinctive, in early materials.117 widelyparalleled in othertemples. unknown whicharealmost
116See Baines, FecundityFigures (n. 78 above), 277-305; for extensions, see, for example, "The Stela of Emhab: Innovation, Tradition, Hierarchy," JEA 72 (1986), 44-49. This systemis a constructof mine and has received little comment. 117See J. Baines, "Communication and Display: The Integrationof Early Egyptian Art and Writing,"Antiquity 63(1989), 471-82. 121N. de G. Davies, The Temple of Hibis in el-Khargeh Oasis III: The Decoration (Publ. MetropolitanMuseum of ArtEgyptianExpedition 17, New York,1953); E. Cruz-Uribe, Hibis Temple Project I: Translations,Commentary, Discussions and Sign List (San Antonio,TX, 1989). 122L. Bell, "The Luxor Temple and the Cult of theRoyal of Ka," JNES 44 (1985), 251-94; compare also theoccurrence the Litany of Re in the temple of Ramesses II at Abydos: Hornung,Buch derAnbetungII (n. 56 above), 13.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM ofreligious is Thus,therestriction knowledge withtemple which decorum, closelyintegrated excludes themostsacred and significant largely texts from inscribed. these rulesare When being several of them tend to varied, changetogether, and the restricted materialdiscussedearlier comesto be inscribed, stillin very specialcontexts.Originally, the exclusion of textsmay have given primacy to oral forms and orally transmitted but later it seems to knowledge, have discriminated texts, many amongwritten - includingthe most serious - were of which in stone,even in temples. not inscribed This is analogousfora laterperiod positionof texts of gods in the withtheearlyabsenceof figures forms central todecorum. Decorumsupplies an analogy forrestricted and exa reason for restriction, knowledge, of The hypothesis amplesof thephenomenon. thesystem is important becauseitprovides here, an organizing whichwill tendto take principle on a life of its own. Temple decoration, for was transmitted as a complexof conexample, in whichvariations or ventions, maybe artistic internal to thesystem's owndevelopment, rather than the resultof political or otheroutside If decorumacquired thesecharintervention. in its widersphere acteristics of application, it ofdomains thedemarcation mayhavereinforced of knowlthatlies at the heartof restrictions of deedge. There was a gradual weakening whichcan be compared withthegradual corum, ofnewgroups ofrestricted but texts, inscription thispointshouldnotbe pressed, becauseof the wherethese special statusof the monuments texts first occur,and becauseearlierlost strucThe main turescould have had similartexts. can be seen in transitions changesin decorum in the early between major periods, especially in particular New Kingdom.They affect the ofgodson nonroyal monuments. representation Some changes, such as the introduction of figuresof thekingintononroyal are as tombs,123 muchpolitical as religious. Whenreligious texts in semi became more contexts widespread -public towardthe end of the New Kingdom,they in thesubject formed partofwider developments
123 Ali Radwan, Die Darstellungendes regierenden Konigs der 18. und seiner Familienangehorigen in Privatgrdbern Dynastie(MAS 21, 1969).
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in the whilechanges oftomb matter decoration, content of papyriburiedwithpriestly personof the relinel124 relateto a similarextension in a timeof of thenonroyal gious prerogatives that had hithcentral control. Material weakened overby was taken ertobeen "royal"knowledge extra a smallbutsignificant group. IV. Conclusion fromthe position that This paper started is tobe expected; restricted onlythen knowledge and its relationto other was it documented The materialcited is phenomenaconsidered. ofdomains; a possible intended tosuggest spread follows. a scheme for these forthe I proposetwo organizing principles ofthenear-universal restriction version Egyptian of knowledge: whichcan have relihierarchy, which and decorum, gious and secularaspects; is moretightly circumscribed and moreclosely on the monutied to religionin its contexts The twoprinciples distinct. ments. arenotfully is a variant ofnear-universal hierarchy Egyptian and evaluaof social differentiation principles tion. Decorum,while also havingwidespread to describe parallels(and beingused as a term in many and artistic societies similar phenomena is morecharacteristically Egyptian. traditions), the In official ideology,decorumdemarcates worldof thekingand thegodsfrom significant Berole of humanity.125 the merely supportive thedemarcaofthecosmos, causeofthefragility tionsofdecorum they acquireextra significance: order ofthings. Decorum is a upholdtheproper sacralized Thus, althoughin origin hierarchy. of decorumprobably relatedto widerspheres arein the manifestations itsmosttypical action, In the case of knowledge, -divinesphere. royal ofwhatis contained within little very although decorumwas shown publicly,it would have to keepwhatwas knownconbeen impossible addressed fined by thesystem. amongtheactors to incorIf the model of decorum is extended it becomes restricted possible knowledge, porate to seedecorum as solidly basedon demarcations
124See, for example, Assmann, Re und Amun (n. 58 above), 24 n. 3. See also n. 59 above. 125Convenientlysummarizedby Assmann, Saeculum 23 (1972), 111-16.
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JARCE XXVII (1990) withthepriesthood, was integrated though piety features that itmayhaveretained priestly escaped with that of control.This situationcontrasts and secular whenreligious earlier times, prestige went and exclusiveness together. eviFinally,it maybe usefulto summarize of dence for possible stages of development restricted knowledge. was that there evidence Old Kingdom suggests held restricted bynonroyal religious knowledge but is texts, people. This relatesto particular formula a also attested describing by general Restricted and its benefits. religious knowledge to nontexts includelistsand give precedence of continuous language.Speeches gods maybe the centralformof continuoustext,and they are other suchtexts wellbefore wereintroduced to the If textslike the hourlyhymns attested. written downon papyrus sun god were (butnot inscribedon stone) in the Old Kingdom,it to posit a continuing would not be necessary in this tradition of exclusiveoral knowledge with associated area. These writings, together could of their context and purpose, knowledge It havereplaced theoral tradition. is impossible or ifit was to saywhenthistransition occurred, forrebut mostlaterevidence evercompleted, Either thewritten fallswithin strictions sphere. could or secularrestricted knowledge religious oftheelite.In religious be displayed bymembers whenit has a is revealed, little cases,very except direct royalsanction.In secularcases the preand sentation Hierarchy maybe moredetailed. when seen in rank acquire extrasignificance ofreligious knowlparallelwiththerestriction which is and chiefly by display, governed edge decorum. Middle Kingdomevidenceis Little relevant to the due partly This preserved. gap is probably lack of findsfromthe capitalsof the period, whichresultin the innerelite's being poorly known.There is reasonto suppose thatthere of reweremajorchangesin the transmission in because this several stricted period, knowledge of the textscited are thoughtto have been are notavailable then, they although composed The in pre-New introduction Kingdom copies. will haveopenedup new ofwritten belleslettres
enactedin society, and not just as an imposed classification. There conies to be a homology between theclosehierarchies ofdecorum, which are elaborated mostfully in thecrucialcontext oftemple and thewider hierarchies ofthe relief, society. Within the human sphere,as against the -divineone,thepremise thatknowledge is royal in diverse remains valuable, powerspheresand can be related to the evolutionof the sources.Restricted is sociallycomknowledge or divisive, petitive enhancing competition within a socialgroupand accentuating divisions to is between which available groups knowledge and others to whichit is not.The character of the knowledgeis not as significant as is the ofwhoknows it.Somerestricted knowlquestion in a be instrumentally significant edge may or informanarrowsense,givingthe technical administrative or artistic tionalbasisfor activity. Most religiousknowledge, is not of however, whatthe"Eastern thistype.It does not matter whatis important is that Souls" singat sunrise; thekingknows it (andothers do not). Such knowledgesets the king apart, as a knower and as an actor.Amongthewider elite, of the displayand is a dimension knowledge forprestige thatcan be seenin so much seeking material. Restricted Egyptian religiousknowlbecause it divisive, edge may be particularly some can the approach meaning implies that and support of lifemoreclosely and better than reeither becausetheyshoulder others, greater hence have more merit and (essponsibility orbecausethey can do things peciallytheking), thatare not generally possiblefor themselves can thisinequality, and for others. They display moral role allot to themselves the they extending in providing forothers.Pietyis a movement and thatseeksto breakdownthisexclusiveness, in New the later becomes Kingdom, prominent - butdid not whenthesystem beganto weaken that It may, be significant therefore, disappear.126 visible after a becomes professional piety openly becausepriesthoods nahad formed, priesthood to access claim religion.Alturally privileged
126Cf. "Practical Religion and Piety," JEA 73 (1987), 79-98.
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RESTRICTED KNOWLEDGE, HIERARCHY, AND DECORUM Material possible domains of transmission.127 ascribedto the Middle Kingdomincludesthe fulleststatements of the king's position and exclusiveknowledge. These conceptions may have existedin the Old Kingdomand been in writing in thefolformulated systematically lowingperiod. FromtheNew Kingdom, for sources restricted material are manytimesmoreabundantthan earlier butthisvolumeneednotnecesmaterial, to a widerspreadof availability. sarilypoint I from would discount thetexts Thus, temples and theunderworld a greater booksas showing spread of restricted knowledge.These derive from contexts thatare not preserved forearlier so that cannot establish disseminatimes, they tion.In thecase ofBook oftheDead 125,sucha dissemination but thattext mayhave occurred, or comparableones werenot made public in in temples. their hypothetical originalcontexts Two developments more that be significant may of decorum are theweakening visiblefrom the the nonof the onward and beginning period royal annexationof materialrelatingto the itsend.These are partofvery solarculttoward in therecord broadchanges that relate probably to similarly social but broad, poorlyknown, also exchanges.The annexationof material hibitsa loss of controlby the centralpower
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which was the principalsourceor restriction. treatment of his exclusive knowlAkhenaten's of of the his edge god displays centrality access to knowledge at the timeof crisisin thesolar which themostsignificant elements around cult, in thisknowledge clustered. of One implication thisfocusmaybe thatothers claimeddifferent - thatis, thatcompeting central beknowledge If evolve. is to liefs to secret knowledge be began must be aboutwhatit there cohesive, agreement is thatis known.By the laterNew Kingdom, there havebeensuchagreement. mayno longer ofpowerand ofdisplayed This diversification at the end of the New Kingdom knowledge Late whoseheritage of that the Period, suggests than traditions ofknowledge was more complex thatof earliertimes,should be studiedsepaa few I havedoneno morethanmention rately. traditions Late Periodexamples. SinceEgyptian and the unbroken into Roman times remained at least roleof thekingwas maintained, central of as an organizingfiction, the demarcation not have domainsof knowledge may changed ofdomains into much.Butthearticulation very formal has its clearest which hierarchies, analogy as in the system of decorum, is as important while theircontent their separateidentities, from distinct could changein a process change All of these in thehierarchies. need phenomena An for later consideration. perianalysis separate 127 Forthisdating see,for "Schrift, ods would example, J.Assmann, of enrichinterpretations probably Tod und Identitat: Das Grabals Vorschule derLiteratur im too. earlier material alten in und Geddchtnis: der
Agypten," Schrift Archdologie literarischen Kommunikation I, A. Assmannet al. eds. 64-93. (Munich, 1983),
ofOxford University
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