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Chap 1 - 3

CHAPTER 1: SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 Introduction Frame of reference Transformation laws Newtonian Relativity The Galilean transformations The speed of light and the Ether The Michelson-Morley experiment Einsteins principle of relativity The Lorentz transformations The length contraction The time dilation The relativity of simultaneity The combination of velocities Relativistic dynamics Relativistic energy The equivalence of energy and mass

1.1 Introduction (II)

Relativistic mechanics:
Deals with the motions of bodies travelling at velocity of light (c) or v c. The space, time and mass are becomes state-of-motion dependent (via ). The speed of light in free space is constant.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

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1.1 Introduction (I)

Classical or Newtonian mechanics:
Deals with the motions of bodies travelling at velocities that are very much less than the velocity of light. Three fundamental concepts of Physics, i.e., space, time and mass are all absolute and invariant.
1. 2. 3. The length of an object is independent of the conditions under which it is measured, such as the motion of the object or the experimenter. The interval of time between two events has the same value for all observers, irrespective of their state of motion. If two events are simultaneous for an observer, they are simultaneous for all observers, irrespective of their state of motion, i.e., simultaneity is absolute. The mass of a body does not depend on the velocity of its motion. The mass of an isolated system of bodies does not change with any processes occurring within the system (law of conservation of mass).

1.1 Introduction (III)

Space is 3-D in the sense that it is possible to describe the position of a point by 3 coordinates numbers. In special theory of relativity (STR), the space and time coordinates cannot be treated separately.
E.g., LT, time dilation, length contraction formula.

4. 5.

A convenient way to express the results of STR is to regard events as occurring in a 4-D space-time in which the usual 3 coordinates x, y, z refer to space and a 4th coordinate ict refers to time, where i2 = -1. In general, we cannot visualize space-time (i.e., just an imaginary).

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1.1 Introduction (IV)

We choose ict as the time coordinate instead of just t because the quantity (length squared): s2 = x2 + y2 + z2 - (ct)2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation. (Do it as an exercise). In this case, the quantity of s has the dimension of length and is called the space-time. It is analogous to distance in classical mechanics. Minkowki diagrams can be used to classify the entire universe of space-time and clarify whether or not one event could be the cause of another.
Pls. refer to Arthur Beiser, Concepts of Modern physics, Appendix 2.

1.2 Frame of reference

A system of coordinate axes which defines the position of a particle in 2D or 3D space is called a frame of reference.
E.g.: Cartesian system of coordinates. y

A reference frames in uniform motion of translation relative to one another are Galilean frames or inertial frames.
All the Newtons laws are valid in that frame.

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Space-time diagram and Causality

1.3 Transformation laws

Measurements done by any observers from all frame of reference are equally valid, and are all equivalent. Transformation laws such as Lorentz transformation can be used to relate the measurements done in one frame to another. In other words, once you know the values of a measurement in one frame, you can calculate the equivalent values as would be measured in other frames.

Classification of one-dimensional spacetime into past, future, and elsewhere regions. A particle with world line passing through O cannot reach regions marked elsewhere.

Three pairs of events in space-time: V,W; A,B; C,D. V could cause W. A could cause B. C could not cause D.

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Example
Consider a stone is thrown into the air making a projectile motion. If the trajectory of the stone is considered in the frame of Earth (the so-called Lab frame, in which the ground is made as a stationary reference), the trajectory of the stone is a parabolic curve. The trajectory of the stone can also be analysed in a moving frame traveling at velocity vx along the same horizontal direction as the stone. In this frame (the socalled rocket frame), the trajectory of the stone is not a parabolic curve but a vertical line.

EVERYTHING IS RELATIVE NOTHING IS ABSOLUTE 2nd Initial Frame Constant vx1

Rocket frame (Moving frame) 3rd Initial Frame Initial Frame Constant vx2 Rocket frame (Moving frame)

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1st

Lab frame (stationary frame)

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Chap 1 - 12

View from different frames

In the Lab frame, the observer on the ground sees a parabolic trajectory In the Rocket frame, the pilot sees the projectile to follow a vertically straight line downwards

Transformation law for the coordinates

In Lab frame y = (gt2)/2 + H x = vxt In rocket frame y = (gt2)/2 x = 0

Transformation law relating the coordinates of projectile in both frames is y = y - H , x = x - vxt

y = 0 y H y

y=0

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1.4 Newtonian Relativity

If Newtons laws are valid in one reference frame, then they are also valid in another reference frame moving at a uniform velocity relative to the first system. This means that the fundamental physical laws and principles are identical in all inertial frames of reference. This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of relativity or Galilean invariance.

1.5 The Galilean transformations (II)

Since there is no relative motion between S and S along the axes of Y and Z, we have: y = y and z = z Let the time proceed at the same rate in both frames. The distance moved by S in the positive X direction in time t is = vt. So the X coordinates of the two frames differ by vt. Then, the Galilean Transformation equations from S to S are given by:

x = x-vt

y = y

z = z

t = t

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1.5 The Galilean transformations (I)

S and S are two inertial frames. S at rest and S move with uniform velocity v along the positive X direction. Assume that v << c. Let the origins of the two frames coincide at t = 0. Suppose one event occurs at the point P.

The Inverse transformation from S to S

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Step 1. Replace -v with +v. Step 2. Replace primed quantities with unprimed and unprimed with primed.

x= x + vt

y= y

z= z

t= t

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In other words
Galilean Transformation equations from S to S
The quantities (x, y, z, t) are KNOWN in system S. The quantities (x, y, z, t ) are UNKNOWN in system S.

Example 1.1:
Two cars are traveling at constant speed along a road in the same direction. Car A moves at 60 km/h and car B moves at 40 km/h, each measured relative to an observer on the ground (Figure 1.0a). What is the speed of car A relative to car B?

Galilean Transformation equations from S to S

The quantities (x, y, z, t ) are KNOWN in system S. The quantities (x, y, z, t) are UNKNOWN in system S.

FIGURE 1.0a As observed by O at rest on the ground.

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Galilean addition law for velocities - Galilean transformations (in terms of velocities)
Galilean Transformation equations from S to S are given by:

Solution:
Let O be the observer on the ground, who observes car A to move at vx = 60 km/h. Assume O' to be moving with car B at u = 40 km/h. Then vx = vx - u = 60 km/h - 40 km/h = 20 km/h Figure 1.0b shows the situation as observed by O'.

vx = vx-V
Here

vy = vy

vz = vz

t = t

vx vx V

= velocity measured in system S = velocity measured in system S = velocity of system S relative to system S

FIGURE 1.0 (b) As observed by O' in car B.

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Example 1.2:
A swimmer capable of swimming at a speed c in still water is swimming in a stream in which the current is u (which assume to be less than c). Suppose the swimmer swims upstream a distance L and then returns downstream to the starting point. Find the time necessary to make the round trip, and compare it with the time to swim across the stream a distance L and returns. (Krane, p. 23)

Solution:
In order to swim directly across the stream, the swimmer's efforts must be directed somewhat upstream in order to counter the effect of the current (Figure 2.5b). That is, in the frame of reference of O we would like to have vx = 0, which requires vx ' = - u. Since the speed relative to the water is always c, thus 2 2 2 vy = c 2 v c2 u 2 v x = x + vy = c The round-trip time is:

ttotal = 2t across = = 2L c u2
2

FIGURE 2.0 The motion of a swimmer as seen by observer O at rest on the bank of the stream. Observer O' moves with the stream at speed u.

2L 1 2 2 c 1 u c

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Solution:
Let the frame of reference of O be the ground and the frame of reference of O' be the water, moving at speed u (Figure 2.5a). The swimmer always moves at speed c relative to the water (Let u always defines the positive x direction.):
For the upstream swim: For the downstream swim: v'x = - c. v'x = c.

1.6 The speed of light and the Ether

The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial reference frames. Naturally, it is assume that the laws of electricity and magnetism also are the same in all inertial reference frames.
This assumption leads to a paradox concerning the velocity of light.

From the Maxwells theory, the speed of light was given by:
c =1

Therefore, the velocity relative to the ground (or as measure by the observer O):
For the upstream swim: vx = v'x + u = u - c. The velocity relative to the ground has magnitude smaller than c; it is also negative, since the swimmer is swimming in the negative x direction, so | vx | = c - u. For the downstream swim: vx = v'x - u = u + c. ttotal = tup + t down
L L + cu c +u 2L 1 = 2 2 c 1 u c =

0 0

Total time to make the round trip,

i.e., the velocity of light is a constant ( c 3.00 108 m s-1.) This deduction stands in contradiction to the Galilean addition law for velocities (will be taught later), according to which the velocity of light ought not to be the same in all reference frames. Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system in which the speed of light was a constant and from which other measurements could be made. As an direct analogy to mechanical wave propagating in elastic medium such as sound wave in air
light is thought to be propagating in a medium called ether.

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1.7 The Michelson-Morley experiment (I)

The Michelson-Morley (MM) experiment was an attempt to show the existence of ether.

1.7 The MM experiment (III)

If light requires a medium, then its velocity depends on the velocity of the medium. Velocity vectors add.
Parallel velocities Anti-parallel velocities

r r v light v ether r v total v total = v light + v ether

Perpendicular velocity to mirror

r r v ether v total r v light v total = v light - v ether

Perpendicular velocity after mirror

Albert Michelson (1852-1931)

Edward Morley (1838-1923)

In the other arm of the interferometer, the total velocity must be perpendicular, so light must propagate at an angle.

r v ether

r v light

r v total

r v light

r v total

r v ether
2 light

vtotal = v

2 ether

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1.7 The MM experiment (II)

Michelson and Morley realized that the earth could not always be stationary with respect to the ether. And light would have a different path length and phase shift depending on whether it propagated parallel and antiparallel or perpendicular to the ether.
Parallel and antiparallel propagation Mirror Beamsplitter Mirror Supposed velocity of earth through the ether Perpendicular propagation

1.7 The MM experiment (IV)

Let c be the speed of light, and v be the velocity of the ether.
t|| = L L + cv c+v L(c + v) L(c v) = 2 + 2 c v2 c v2 2 Lc = 2 c v2 2L 1 = c [1 v 2 / c 2 ]
Parallel and antiparallel propagation

r v ether
Perpendicular propagation

t =

2L
2

The delays for the two arms depend differently on the velocity of the ether!

c v2 2L 1 = c 1 v2 / c2

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1.7 The MM experiment (V)

Because we dont know the direction of the ether velocity, Michelson and Morley did the measurement twice, the second time after rotating the apparatus by 90. The delay reverses, and any fringe shift seen in this second experiment will be opposite that of the first. Upon rotating the apparatus by 90, the optical path lengths are interchanged producing the opposite change in time. Thus the time difference between path differences is given by:
2L 1 1 2 ( t|| t ) = 2 2 2 c 1 v v2 / c2 1v / c
r v ether

MM experiment results
MM expected a fringe shift of about 0.4 in their apparatus when it was rotated through 90 and their believed that they could detect a shift as small as 0.01 of a fringe. But no displacement of the fringes was observed. They repeated the experiment at different points on the earths surface and at different seasons of the year without detecting any measurable shift in fringes. This negative result suggests that it is impossible to measure the speed of the earth relative to the ether. Thus, ether seems not to exist! All attempts to make ether as a fixed frame of reference failed.
Their apparatus

By assuming v << c:

2 2 ( t t ) 2 L v3 || c

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MM Experimental Prediction:
The phase shift is w times this relative delay: L v2 v2 2 L 3 or: 4 c2 c The Earths orbital speed is: v = 3 104 m/s and the interferometer size is: L = 1.2 m So the time difference becomes: 8 1017 s

v2 2 ( t t ) 2 L v3 || c

Explanations for MMs null result (I)

The negative result of the MM experiment can be explained by the following three explanations:
(a) Ether drag hypothesis. (b) Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction. (c) Principle of constancy of the speed of light.

1. Ether drag hypothesis:

This hypothesis suggested that the Earth dragged the ether along as it rotates on its axis and revolves about the sun. This was contradicted by stellar abberation wherein telescopes had to be tilted to observe starlight due to the Earths motion. If ether were dragged along, this tilting would not occur.

which, for visible light, is a phase shift of: 0.2 rad = 0.03 periods Although the time difference was a very small number, it was well within the experimental range of measurement for visible light in the Michelson interferometer, especially with a folded path.

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Explanations for MMs null result (II)

2. Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction:
Proposed independently by Lorentz and FitzGerald. It was suggested that there was contraction of bodies along the direction of their motion through the ether.

1.8 Einsteins principle of relativity

Two postulates of special theory of relativity (STP):
(1)

The principle of relativity:

Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928)

George F. FitzGerald (1851-1901)

If a body is moving with a speed v parallel to its length, then the new length will be contracted by a factor of:

All the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. There is no way to detect absolute motion, and no preferred inertial frame of reference exists. The speed of light in free space is constant. It is independent of the relative motion of the source and the observer.

(2)

The constancy of the speed of light:

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

1 v / c
2

velocity of frame

velocity of light

Consequently, there will be no time difference expected. But there was no insight as to why such a contraction should occur.

The STP eliminates the Galilean-Newtonian concept of absolute space and time, and considers both as being relative to the observer.

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Explanations for MMs null result (III)

3. Principle of constancy of the speed of light:
Proposed independently by Albert Einstein. He concluded that the velocity of light in space is a universal constant. Hence, the speed of light is c rather than |(c + v)| in any frame. Consequently, ether hypothesis is not true and can be disposed.

Inertial frame
An inertial frame is one in which a free body, subject to no forces, travels in a straight line at constant velocity, i.e., Newtons 1st law holds. Any reference frame moving with constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame. Example:
Earth is an inertial frame. A train moving at constant velocity with respect to the ground (earth) is also an inertial frame.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

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1.9 The Lorentz transformations (I)

The constancy of the speed of light is not compatible with Galilean transformations. Hence, a new transformation equations is introduced. This new transformation equations is known as Lorentz transformations (LT). It was discovered by Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928, Dutch physicist). It is consistent with the new concept of the invariance of light velocity in free space. Although the LT was discovered by Lorentz, but its real significance in physics theory transcending electromagnetism was first recognized by Einstein.

1.8 The Lorentz transformations (III)

After a time t (t), the origin of the wave centred at O (O) has a radius r = ct (r = ct) , where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 (r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2).
Spherical wave-front in S: Spherical wave-front in S:

x2 + y2 + z 2 = c2t 2 x + y + z = c t
2 2 2 2 2

(1) (2)

Since there is no motion in the Y and Z directions, y = y = 0, and z = z = 0, Eqs. (1) and (2) become:
x2 c2t 2 = 0 x2 c2t2 = 0
(3) x2 c2t 2 = x2 c2t2 Subsequently: Note that this cannot occur in Galilean transformations, because by substituting x = x + vt, there are a couple of extra terms (2xvt + v2t2) in the primed frame.

x2 c2t 2 = (x2 + 2xvt+ v2t 2 ) c2t2 x2 c2t2

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1.8 The Lorentz transformations (II)

Consider two observers O and O in two systems S and S. S at rest and S is moving with a constant velocity v relative to system S along the positive X axis. Let the origins of the two frames coincide at t = 0. Suppose a light pulse is emitted when t = 0. The light signal travels as a spherical wave at a constant speed c in both frames.

1.8 The Lorentz transformations (IV)

Clearly, a different transformation is required if the postulates of STP are to be satisfied.
i.e., the spherical wave-fronts in both frames are conserved.

A reasonable guess about the dependence of x on x and t is: x = k(x vt) (4) Here k is a dimensionless factor that does not depend on x or t but is some function of v/c. Eq. (4) reduces to Galilean transformation (i.e., v/c 0, and k = 1) for low speed (v << c). Similarly, let assume that: t = a(t bx) (5) where a and b are constants. By substituting Eqs. (4) and (5) into Eq. (3), and then solving the equations, the LT equations will be obtained (do it as an exercise).

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1.8 The Lorentz transformations (V)

The solutions for constants k, a and b are:
k =a= b = v c2 1 v2 c2

LT vs GT
In the LT, t depends on both t and x. Like wise, t depends on both t and x. In GT, t = t . Space and time now becomes state-of-motion dependent (via )
the length and time interval measured become dependent of the state of motion (in terms of ) in contrast to Newtons classical viewpoint LT from S to S
x = y = y z = z t = x vt 1 v c
2

(6)

The constant k is known as the Lorentz factor, : The complete LT from S to S are:
x = y = y z = z t = x vt 1 v2 c2

LT from S to S
Length contraction

)
(7)

x=

x + vt 1 v2 c2

) ) )

t vx c
2

t vx c2
2

( ) 1 (v c )
2

( ) 1 (v c )
2 2

Simultaneity problems Time dilation

y = y z = z t=

t + vx c 2 1 v2 c2

( (

LT reduces to GT when v << c, i.e., LT GT in the limit v << c. Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.

The inverse LT from S to S

Step 1: Step 2:

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Properties of
Recall that = v / c < 1 for all observers.
equals 1 only when v = 0. In general:
(8)

Replace -v with +v. Replace primed quantities with unprimed and unprimed with primed.
x= x + vt 1 v2 c2

y = y z = z t=

t + vx c2
2

( ) 1 (v c )
2

Graph of vs. : (note v < c)

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Example 1.3:
Show that for values of v << c, Lorentz transformations [Eq. (7)] reduce to the Galilean transformations.

1.9 Length contraction (I)

Consider two inertial frames S and S with their X-axes coinciding at time t = 0. S is moving with a uniform velocity v along the positive X direction with respect to S. Assume that a rod (AB) is at rest relative to S .

Solution:
When v << c,
v 0; c

1 v2 c2

=1

Then Eq. (7) becomes:

x = x-vt y = y z = z t = t

Which are the Galilean transformations.

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Consequences of the LT
The most interesting consequences of the LT:
(a) Length Contraction:
Faster means shorter.

1.9 Length contraction (II)

The lengths of the rod measured at any instant of time in frames S and S are:

Frame S : Frame S :

L0 = x2 x1 L = x2 x1

(proper length) (improper length)

(9) (10)

(b)Time Dilation:
Moving clocks run slow. A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest.

Based on the LT, the length of the rod measured in frame S can be deduced as followed:

L0 = x2 - x1 = [(x2 - x1)]

or

L0 = L =

1 v2 c2

(11)

(c) Simultaneity
The simultaneity is relative. The simultaneity of two events depends on the reference frame.

Consequently, the length of the rod measured in frame S is:

L = (1/) L0
According to the observer in S, the length of the rod (in S ) has contracted by the factor of .

(12)

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1.9 Length contraction (III)

Notes: The proper length of an object is the length determined by an observer at rest with respect to the object. The shortening or contraction in the length of an object along its direction of motion is known as the Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction. There is no contraction in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion. The contraction becomes appreciable only when v c. The contraction is reciprocal, i.e., if two identical rods are at rest one in S and the other in S, each of the observers finds that the other is shorter than the rod of his own system.

1.9 Length contraction (V)

The contraction is reciprocal, i.e., if two identical rods are at rest one in S and the other in S, each of the observers finds that the other is shorter than the rod of his own system.

(a) The Earth views the passing contracted rocket.

(b) From the rocket's frame of reference, the Earth appears contracted.

Final remark: Length contraction suggests that objects in motion are measured to have a shorter length than they do at rest.

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1.9 Length contraction (IV)

A body which appears to be spherical to an observer at rest relative to it, will appear to be an oblate spheroid to a moving observer. Similarly, a square and a circle in one appear to the observer in the other to be a rectangle and an ellipse respectively.

Example 1.4 :
A spaceship in the form of a triangle flies by an observer at 0.95c. When the ship is measured by an observer at rest with respect to the ship (see fig (a)), the distance x and y are found to be 50.0 m and 25.0 m, respectively. What is the shape of the ship as seen by an observer who sees the ship in motion along the direction shown in fig (b)?

In conclusion: Length contraction only happens along the direction of motion.

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Solution:
The observer sees the horizontal length of the ship to be contracted to a length of L = Lp/ = 50 m(1 0.9502) = 15.6 m The 25 m vertical height is unchanged because it is perpendicular to the direction of relative motion between the observer and the spaceship.

Example E2:
A rod 1 m long is moving along its length with a velocity 0.6c. Calculate its length as it appears to an observer (a) on the earth and (b) moving with the rod itself.

Solution:

Here, 1 m is the proper length (L0) of the rod in its moving frame of reference.
(a) Let L be the length of the rod as it appears to an observer in the stationary reference frame of the earth. Here, L0 = 1 m, v = 0.60c; L = ?
v2 L = (1 )L0 = L0 1 2 c
2 = 1 1 (0.6c ) 2 c

= 0.8 m

Hence, the observer on the earth will estimate the length of the rod to be 0.8 m. (b) For an observer moving with the rod itself, the length of the rod is 1 m.

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Example E1:
How fast would a rocket have to go relative to an observer for its length to be contracted to 99% of its length at rest?

1.10 The time dilation (I)

Solution:

Here, L = 0.99 L0; v = ? From the length contraction formula,

v2 L = (1 )L0 = L0 1 2 c 2 v L2 = L2 0 1 2 c

By solving the above equation for v, we have v = 0.1416c = 4.245107 m s-1

A gun is placed at the position (x, y, z) in S. Suppose it fires two shots at times t1 and t2 measured with respect to S . In S the clock is at rest relative to the observer and the moving clock is always at x = 0. The time interval measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer is called the proper time interval. Hence, t0 = t2 - t1 is the time interval between the two shots for the observer in S. Since the gun is fixed in S, it has a velocity v with respect to S in the direction of the positive X-axis. Let t = t2 - t1 represent the time interval between the two shots as measured by an observer in S. (t = improper time) From the inverse LT: t + x v c2 t + x v c2 t1 = 1 t2 = 2 and 1 v2 c2 1 v2 c 2

1 v2 c2

( ) ( )
or

( ) ( )

Hence,

t 2 t1 =

t1 t2 1 v2 c2

t =

t0 1 v2 c2

= t0 (13)

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1.10 The time dilation (II)

Since the is > 1, then t > t0 moving clocks run slow. Thus, the time interval, between two events occurring at a given point in the moving frame S appears to be longer to the observer in the stationary frame S;
i.e, a stationary clock measures a longer time interval between events occurring in a moving frame of reference than does a clock in the moving frame. This effect is called time dilation.

Solution:
Consider the arrival of the ship at the star to be an event with coordinates: (x, t) in frame S and (x, t) in frame S (a) According to an observer on earth, x = 12 ly, t = x/v = (12 ly)/(0.6 c) = 20 years (b) According to an observer on the ship, x = 0. Because he is still at his origin when he arrives at the star. Or x = (x vt) = 0 where = 1.25

The time dilation is reciprocal:

observers in S see time travel faster than for those in S. And vice versa! Proper Time (or proper time interval): The time measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer. Or time measured with a clock that stays at one place in its reference frame. Example: If you observe your wristwatch while you are walking around, you are measuring??? proper time intervals

t = t / = (20 y)/(1.25) = 16 years Or

0.6c( x )12ly vx t = t- 2 = (1.25)20 y = 16 years c2 c

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Example E4:
Suppose that a space ship (S) moves past the earth (S) at speed 0.6 c. Clocks on the earth and on the ship are synchronized at that instant, i.e., t = 0, t = 0. The space ship continues on to a star 12 ly away. Clocks at the star are synchronized with those on earth? (a) According to an observer on earth, how far did the ship travel and how long did it take? (b) According to an observer on the ship, how far did he travel and how long did it take?
Note:

Example 1.5:
A clock in a space ship emits signals at intervals of 1 second as observed by an astronaut in the space ship. If the space ship travels with a speed of 3 107 ms-1, what is the interval between successive signals as seen by an observer at the control centre on the ground?

Solution:
Here, t0 = 1 s; v = 3 107 ms-1;
t= 1 v c
2

and c = 3 108 ms-1; t = ?

1 ly = 1 light year = the distance light travels in vacuum in 1 year. 1 ly = 9.46 1015 m

t0
2

(3 10 ) 1 (3 10 )

7 2 8 2

= 1.005 s

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Example E5:
A particle with a proper lifetime of 1 s moves through the laboratory at 2.7108 m s-1. (a) What is its lifetime, as measured by observers in the laboratory? (b) What will be the distance traversed by its before disintegrating?

What happens at high and low speed???

t = ,
At low speed (v << c):

1 v 1 c
2

Solution:
Here, t0 = 1 s = 110-6 s; v = 2.7108 m s-1; t = ? From the time dilation formula,
t = t0 = t0 v 1 2 c
2

= 1

110 6

(2.7 10 ) (3.0 10 )

8 2

= 2.3 10 6 s = 2.3s

, 1, and t. Not much different, and we cant feel their difference in practice

At high speed (v c):

Proper time interval () becomes much SMALLER than improper time interval (t) in comparison, i.e. = t/ << t.

8 2

The average distance moved by the particle before disintegrating is given by: d = vt = (2.7108) (2.310-6) = 620 m

Chap 1 - 62

Chap 1 - 64

1.10 Time dilation (Extra)

Time dilation equation
t = v 1 c
2

Space travel with time-dilation

=

Gives the value of time between two events occur at time t apart in some reference frame. Lorentz factor
=
1 v 1 c
2

Note that as v << c, 1; as v c, Appears frequently in SR as a measure of relativistic effect: 1 means little SR effect; >> 1 is the ultrarelativistic regime where SR is most pronounce.

To an observer on the Earth frame, the person in a rocket frame traveling near the light speed appears to be in a slow motion mode. This is because, according to the Earth observer, the rate of time flow in the rocket frame appear to be slower as compared to the Earths frame rate of time flow. A journey that takes, say, 10 years to complete, according to a traveler on board (this is his proper time), looks like as if they take 10 yr according to Earth observers.

16

Chap 1 - 65

Chap 1 - 67

Space travel with time-dilation - Example

A spaceship traveling at speed v = 0.995c is sent to planet 100 light-year away from Earth How long will it takes, according to a Earths observer? t = 100 ly/0.995c = 100.05yr But, due to time-dilation effect, according to the traveler on board, the time taken is only = t/ = t(1-0.9952) = 9.992 yr, not 100.05 yr as the Earthly think So it is still possible to travel a very far distance within ones lifetime ( 50 yr) as long as (or equivalently, v) is large enough

Simultaneity
The simultaneity is relative. The simultaneity of two events depends on the reference frame.

Chap 1 - 66

Chap 1 - 68

Natures Speed Limit

Imagine one in the lab measures the speed of a rocket v to be larger than c. 2 v As a consequence, according to = t 1
c

Disagreement on simultaneity
Two events that are simultaneous in one frame are not necessarily simultaneous in a second frame in uniform relative motion.
No, I dont agree. These two lightning does not strike simultaneously

The proper time interval measurement in the rocket frame would be proportional to an imaginary number, i =(-1) This is unphysical (and impossible) as no real time can be proportional to an imaginary number Conclusion:
no object can be accelerated to a speed greater than the speed of light in vacuum, c Or more generally, no information can propagate faster than the light speed in vacuum, c Such limit is the consequence required by the logical consistency of SR

The two lightning strikes simultaneously

17

Chap 1 - 69

Chap 1 - 71

1.11 The relativity of simultaneity (I)

Consider two events the explosion of a pair of time bombs that occur at the same time to an observer O in a reference frame S. Let the two events occur at different locations x1 and x2. Consider another observer O in S moving with a uniform relative speed v with respect to S in the positive X-direction. To O , the explosion at x1 and t0 occurs at the time:
= t1 t0 x1 v c2
2 2

Example E6:
At 6.00pm, the street lights in New York and Boston are switched on simultaneously in the reference frame of the Earth. What is the time difference as reckoned in the reference frame of a spaceship traveling in the direction New York Boston at a speed of 0.9c? The distance between New York and Boston is 290 km.

Solution:
With the X-axis along the direction New York Boston, the displacement is 290 km. Consequently, x1 x2 = 290 km; v = 0.9c; t = ? By using the time interval formula [Eq. (16)],
t =

( ) 1 (v c )

(14)

and the explosion at x2 and t0 occurs at the time:

= t2 t0 x2 v c2
2 2

( ) 1 (v c )

(x1 x2 ) v c 2
1 v c2
2

( ) = (290 10 )(0.9c c ) = 8.7 s

3 2

(15)

(0.9c ) (c )2

Chap 1 - 70

Chap 1 - 72

1.11 The relativity of simultaneity (II)

The time interval between the two events as observed by the observer O is:
t1 = t = t 2

Example 1.6: Principle of Relativity Applied

Divide the following items into two lists, On one list, labeled SAME, place items that name properties and laws that are always the same in every frame. On the second list, labeled MAY BE DIFFERENT. place items that name properties that can be different in different frames:
a. the time between two given events b. the distance between two given events c. the numerical value of Plancks constant h d. the numerical value of the speed of light c e. the numerical value of the charge e on the electron f. the mass of an electron (measured at rest) g. the elapsed time on the wristwatch of a person moving between two given events h. the order of elements in the periodic table i. Newtons First Law of Motion (A particle initially at rest remains at rest, and ) j. Maxwells equations that describe electromagnetic fields in a vacuum k. the distance between two simultaneous events

(x1 x 2 )(v

1 v c
2

c2
2

(16)

This is not zero. This indicates that two events at x1 and x2, which are simultaneous to the observer in S, do not appear so to the observer in S. Therefore, the concept of simultaneity has only a relative and not an absolute meaning.

18

Chap 1 - 73

Chap 1 - 75

Solution
MAY BE DIFFERENT IN THE SAME IN ALL FRAMES DIFFERENT FRAMES c. numerical value of h a. time between two given d. numerical value of c events e. numerical value of e b. distance between two give events f. mass of electron (at rest) g. wristwatch time between two event (this is the proper time interval between two event) h. order of elements in the periodic table i. Newtons First Law of Motion j. Maxwells equations k. distance between two simultaneous events

1.12 The combination of velocities (II)

Thus,
dx = dt dx dt v v 1 2 dx dt c vx v v x = v 1 2 v x c

(18)

The components of the velocity perpendicular to the motion of the reference frame (y- and z-components) are given by:
v y = vy
(19)

v 1 2 v x c vz v z = v 1 2 v x c

(20)

Chap 1 - 74

Chap 1 - 76

1.12 The combination of velocities (I)

The Galilean addition law for velocities is a consequence of the absolute properties of length and time in Newtonian Physics. The relativistic combination law for velocities is a consequence of the relativistic properties of length and time contained in the LT equations. By definition, vx = dx/dt, and

1.12 The combination of velocities (III)

v For Galilean addition law: x = vx v The difference lies in the denominator, which has a drastic effect if the speeds are large. Suppose that v is the velocity of a light signal (c) along the X-axis in the reference S. Then, vx = c, and Eq. (17) gives:
v x = cv =c v 1 2 c c
(21)

vx = dx/dt

The velocity in the S frame can be obtained by taking the differentials of the LT equations:
dx = (dx vdt ) v dt = dt 2 dx c
(17)

Thus, the addition of any velocity to the velocity of light c merely reproduces the velocity of light. Hence, the velocity of light is the maximum attainable velocity.

19

Chap 1 - 77

Chap 1 - 79

1.12 The combination of velocities (IV)

The inverse combination laws of velocities:
v x +v vx = v 1 + 2 v x c v y
(22)

If applied to light, GT of velocity contradicts the STR Postulate

Consider a photon (a massless particle and its velocity = c ) observed from different frames. When observed in O frame, this particle move at speed ux = c. When observed in O frame, the photon move at a lower speed of ux = ux v = c v. (According to Galilean velocity addition law: ux = ux v).
This is a contradiction to the constancy of light speed in STR
I see the photon is moving with a velocity ux = c

vy =

1 +

v v 2 x c

v y 1 v 2 c 2 v x 1 + c 2 v

) )

(23)

photon ux = c(as seen by O); ux = c v (as seen by O)

v 1 v 2 c 2 v z = z vz = v v 1 2 v x x 1 c 2 v c

+v

(24)

I see the photon is moving with a velocity ux = c v, this couldn couldnt be right

Chap 1 - 78

Chap 1 - 80

Comparing the LT of velocity with that of GT

Lorentz transformation of velocity:

LT is consistent with the constancy of speed of light

In either O or O frame, the speed of light seen must be the same, c. LT is consistent with this requirement. Say object M is moving with speed of light as seen by O, i.e. ux = c According to LT, the speed of M as seen by O is
u 'x = ux v c v cu cv = = = =c ux v cv v 1 1 2 1 2 1 (c v) c c c c

dx ' u v u 'x = = x dt ' 1 uxv c2

Galilean transformation of velocity:

u 'x = ux v
LT reduces to GT in the limit:

u x v << c 2

That is, in either frame, both observers agree that the speed of light they measure is the same, c = 3 108 m s-1

20

Chap 1 - 81

Chap 1 - 83

Example 1.7:
A spaceship moving away from the Earth at a speed of 0.80c fires a missile parallel to its direction of motion (Figure 2.0). The missile moves at a speed of 0.60c relative to the ship. What is the speed of the missile as measured by an observer on the Earth?

Example E5:
In the laboratory, electrons from two accelerators are projected with the same speed of 2 108 m s-1 but in opposite directions. What is the relative velocity of the two sets of electrons?

Solution:
Let the electron moving in the positive direction of x axis is e1 and the one moving in the negative direction of x axis is e2. With respect to the laboratory, the speed of the e1 = 2 108 m s-1; the speed of the e2 = -2 108 m s-1.
2 x 108 m s-1 -2 x 108 m s-1

e1
Laboratory (at rest)

e2

FIGURE 2.0. A spaceship moves away from Earth at a speed of 0.80c. An observer O' on the spaceship fires a missile and measures its speed to be 0.60c relative to the ship.

Chap 1 - 82

Chap 1 - 84

Solution:
Here O' is on the ship and O is on Earth; O' moves with a speed of u = 0.80c relative to O. The missile moves at speed v' = 0.60c relative to O', and we seek its speed v relative to 0. From the Lorentz transformation of velocity,

Solution (cont.):
Now, consider the e2 is at rest (system S). Then, we may assume that the laboratory (system S) is moving with velocity 2 108 m s-1 relative to e2 (system S).
2 x 108 m s-1 -2 x 108 m s-1

vx =

v + u 0.60c + 0.80c 1.40c = = 0.95c = 2 1.48 v 1 + (0.60c )(0.80c ) c 1 + 2 v c

? e1
Laboratory (is moving)

2 x 108 m s-1

e1
Laboratory (at rest)

e2

e2 (at rest)

According to classical kinematics (the Galilean addition law for velocities ), an observer on the Earth would see the missile moving at 0.60c + 0.80c =1.40c, thereby exceeding the maximum relative speed of c permitted by relativity.

Consequently, v = 2 108 m s-1, ux = 2 108 m s-1, ux = ?. From the Lorentz transformation of velocity,
ux = 2 108 + 2 108 4 108 u x +v = 2.77 108 m s 1 = = v 2 108 4 1016 8 1 + 2 u x 1 + 1+ 2 10 16 2 c 9 10 3 108

) ( )

21

Chap 1 - 85

Chap 1 - 87

Example E6:
Two rockets are leaving their space station along perpendicular paths, as measured by an observer on the space station. Rocket 1 moves at 0.6c and rocket 2 moves at 0.8c, both measured relative to the space station. What is the velocity of rocket 2 as observed by rocket 1?

Classical linear momentum

Classically, one defines linear momentum as mass velocity Consider, in a particular reference frame where the object with a mass m0 is moving with velocity v, then the momentum is defined (according to classical mechanics) as

Solution:
Let observer O is the space station and observer O is rocket 1. Since rocket 1 and rocket 2 are leaving their space station along perpendicular paths, we take these to be the X and Y direction of the reference frame of O, respectively. Thus O observes rocket 2 to have velocity components vx = 0, and vy = 0.8c, as shown in Fig. (a).

p = m0v.
If v = 0, the mass m0 is called the rest mass. Similarly, in the other frame, (say the O frame), p = mv According to Newtons mechanics,
the mass m (as seen in frame O) is the same as the mass m0 (as seen in O frame). There is no distinction between the two. In particular, there is no distinction between the rest mass and the moving mass.

Chap 1 - 86

Chap 1 - 88

Solution (cont.):
Consequently,

Relativistic linear momentum

However, simple analysis will reveal that in order to preserve the consistency between conservation of momentum and the LT, the definition of momentum has to be modified to

ux = 0, uy = 0.8c, v = 0.6c, ux = ?, uy = ? From the Lorentz transformation of velocity,

u x = ux v 0 0.6c = = 0.6c v 0.6c 1 2 u x 1 2 0 c c u y 1 (v 2 c 2 )
v 1 2 c u x =

prelativistic = m0v where m0 is the rest mass (an invariant quantity).

2

u y =

0.8c 1 (0.6c c ) = 0.64c 0.6c 1 2 0 c

Thus, according to O , the situation looks like Fig. (b). Finally, the speed of rocket 2 according to O is
u =

A popular interpretation of the above re-definition of linear momentum holds that the mass of an moving object, m, is different from its value when its at rest, m0, by a factor of , i.e

m = m0
This m is called the relativistic mass.

(u x )2 + (u y )2

(0.6c )2 + (0.64c )2

= 0.88c

22

Chap 1 - 89

Chap 1 - 91

In other words
In order to preserve the consistency between LT of velocity and conservation of linear momentum, the definition of 1-D linear momentum, classically defined as

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (I)

Consider two systems S and S. S is moving with a constant velocity v relative to the system S, in the positive X-direction. Suppose that in the system S, two exactly similar elastic balls A and B approach each other at equal speeds (i.e., u and -u). Let the mass of each ball be m in S. They collide with each other. After collision, they coalesce into one body.

pclassical = rest mass velocity, has to be modified to pclassical prelativistic= relativistic mass velocity = mv = m0v where the relativistic mass m = m0 is not the same the rest mass, m0

Chap 1 - 90

Chap 1 - 92

Two kinds of mass

Differentiate two kinds of mass: rest mass m0 = rest mass = mass measured in a frame where the object is at rest.
The rest mass of an object must be the same in all frames (not only in its rest frame).

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (II)

According to the law of conservation of momentum:
Momentum of ball A + Momentum of ball B = Momentum of coalesced mass p A + p B = p(A+ B ) (25)

relativistic mass

Here, Since, Thus,

p A = m A u A = mu

and

p B = m B u B = m ( u )

p A + p B = mu + m(u ) = 0

Relativistic mass m = m0.

The relativistic mass is speed-dependent

p A + p B = p (A+ B ) = 0

(26)

Consequently, the coalesced mass must be at rest in S system.

23

Chap 1 - 93

Chap 1 - 95

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (III)

Let us now consider the collision with reference to the system S. Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the balls relative to S. Then,

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (V)

Consequently,
u 2 v 2 2 1 c 2 1 2 uv c 1+ 2 = 2 c u1 2 1 c
1

u1 =

u +v v 1+ u 2 c

and

u2 =

u + v v 1 u 2 c

(27)

and

u 2 v 2 2 1 c 2 1 2 uv c 1 2 = 2 c u2 1 c2 (31)

After collision, velocity of the coalesced mass is v relative to the system S. Let mass of the ball A traveling with velocity u1 be m1 and that of B with velocity u2 be m2 in the system S. Total momentum of the balls is conserved. Therefore,
m1u1 + m2 u 2 = (m1 + m2 )v
(28)

From Eqs. (25) and (30),

2 u2 2 m1 c = m2 u12 1 2 c

or

m1 1

u12 u2 = m2 1 2 2 c c2

(32)

Chap 1 - 94

Chap 1 - 96

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (IV)

Substituting for u1 and u2, and simplify the equation, then we have: Also,
u12 1 u+v = 1 1 c2 c2 v 1 + u 2 c u 2 v 2 1 2 1 2 u c c = 1 2 c uv 1 + 2 c
2 1 2 2

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (VI)

uv 1+ 2 c uv 1 2 c
(29)

m1 = m2

Since the L.H.S. and R.H.S. of Eq. (32) are independent of one another, the above results can be truth only if each is a constant. Therefore,
m1 1
2 u12 u2 = m 1 = constant = m0 2 c2 c2

and

2 u2 1 u +v = 1 1 c2 c2 v 1 u 2 c u 2 v 2 1 2 1 2 u c c 1 = 2 c uv 1 2 c
2 2 2

(33)

The constant denoted by m0 is called the rest mass (or proper mass) of the body and corresponds to zero velocity.
The mass measured by an observer at rest with respect to the mass.

(30)

In general, if m denotes the mass of a body when it is moving with a velocity v, then: m0 m= = m0 (34) v2 1 2 c

24

Chap 1 - 97

Chap 1 - 99

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (VII)

Eq. (34) is known as the relativistic mass formula:
m= m0 v2 1 2 c = m0
(35)

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (IX)

Relativistic linear momentum: At low velocity (u << c): At high velocity (u c):
the relativistic and nonrelativistic (classical) formulas for p differ drastically. The relativistic momentum becomes infinite as the velocity of the particle approaches the velocity of light.
p relativistic = mv = m0 v 1 u2 c2 = m0 v

this new relativistic equation for p reduces to the classical expression.

If v c, then m ,
i.e., an object travelling at the speed of light would have infinite mass.

Chap 1 - 98

Chap 1 - 100

1.13 Relativistic dynamics (VIII)

The relativistic form of linear momentum:
p relativistic = mv = m0 v u2 1 2 c = m0 v
(36)

Relativistic Vs Nonrelativistic
Relativistically,
no material body can have a velocity equal to, or greater than the velocity of light. The upper limit of the speed of a particle of mass m is the speed of light. A massless particle must always travel at the speed of light.

Note that this has the same functional form as the in the LT, but here contains u, the particle speed, while in the LT, contains v, the relative speed of the two frames. By this new definition of momentum, the momentum is conserved in both S and S (and indeed in all inertial frames).

Nonrelativistically,
the velocity of a particle can increase without limit.

Note: There are three particles with zero mass: the photon (a particle of light), the neutrino, and the graviton (not yet observed). These particles all travel at the speed of light.

25

Chap 1 - 101

Chap 1 - 103

Example 1.8:

1.14 Relativistic kinetic energy (I)

In classical mechanics, mechanical energy (kinetic + potential) of
an object is closely related to its momentum and mass. Since in STR we have redefined the classical mass and momentum to that of relativistic version: mclass(cosnt, = m0) pclass = mclassv

The rest mass of an electron is m0 = 9.11 x 10-31kg.

m0

mSTR = m0 pSTR = (m0)v

If it moves with v = 0.75 c, what is its relativistic momentum? p = m 0 u Compare the relativistic p with that calculated with classical definition.

We must also modify the relation between work and energy so that
the law conservation of energy is consistent with STR.

E.g, in classical mechanics, Kclass = p2/2m =mv2/2. However,

this relationship has to be supplanted by the relativistic version:
Kclass = mv2/2

KSTR = E m0c2 = m0c2 - m0c2

We shall derive K in STR in the following slides.

Chap 1 - 102

Chap 1 - 104

Solution:
The Lorentz factor is = [1-(v/c)2] -1/2 = [1-(0.75c/c)2] -1/2=1.51 Hence the relativistic momentum is simply p = m0 0.75c = 1.51 9.11 10-31kg 0.75 3 108 m/s = 3.1 10-22 Ns In comparison, classical momentum gives pclassical = m0 0.75c = 2.5 10-22 Ns about 34% lesser than the relativistic value

1.14 Relativistic kinetic energy (II)

Force, work and kinetic energy (KE): When a force is acting on an object with rest mass m0, it will get accelerated (say from rest) to some speed (say v) and increase in KE from 0 to K. K as a function of v can be derived from first principle based on the definition of: (a) work done, (37) W = F dx, (b)conservation of mechanical energy, (38) K = W

26

Chap 1 - 105

Chap 1 - 107

Derivation of relativistic KE (I)

Force = rate change of momentum
2 dp dp dx W = F dx = dx = dx dt dx dt x1 = 0 x1 = 0 x1 = 0

1.14 Relativistic kinetic energy (III)

The relativistic KE of an object of rest mass m0 travelling at speed v: 2
K = m0c ( 1) u2 = m0c2 1 2 1 c
(39)

x2

x2

For v << c, we can always expand in terms of (v/c)2 as:

= 1 2
v2 c
1/2

Chain rule in calculus

=1+

dp dp dp dv vdx = vdx = vdv dx dv dx dv x1 = 0 x1 = 0 0

x2

x2

v2 v4 + terms of order 4 and higher 2 2c c

Binomial expansion

Therefore,

K = mc 2 m0 c 2 = m0 c 2 ( 1) 1 v 2 = m0 c 2 + K 2 1 + 1 2 c the relativistic KE reduces to 1 2 classical expression in the v << = m0 v c limit. 2

where, by definition, v =

dx dt

is the velocity of the object.

Chap 1 - 106

Chap 1 - 108

Derivation of relativistic KE (II)

Explicitly, Hence,
p = m0v dp/dv = d/dv (m0v) = m0 [v (d/dv) + ] = m0 [ + (v2/c2) 3] = m0 (1-v2/c2)-3/2

1.14 Relativistic kinetic energy (IV)

A comparison between the classical and relativistic formulas for the ratio between KE of a moving body and its rest energy m0c2.

In which we have inserted the relation

v 1 v = 3 c 2 v 2 3/ 2 c 2 1 2 c 3 2 2 v Then, W = m 0 v 1 c 2 dv = m0 c 2 m0 c 2 v2 1 2 c = d d = dv dv 1

Thus,

K =W = m0 c 2 m0 c 2 = mc 2 m0 c 2

= mc 2 m0 c 2

According to relativistic mechanics, a body would need an infinite KE to travel with the speed of light, whereas in classical mechanics it would need only a KE of half its rest energy to have this speed.

27

Chap 1 - 109

Chap 1 - 111

Total relativistic Energy and Rest Energy

From the relativistic KE:

Example 1.9: Energy of Fast Particle A particle of rest mass m0 moves so fast that its total (relativistic) energy is equal to 1.1 times its rest energy.
(a) What is the speed v of the particle? (b) What is the kinetic energy of the particle?

K = m0c2 ( 1) = m0c2 m0c2

This equation may be written as:

m0c 2 = m0c 2 + K
E = E0 + K
(40)

Here,
E0 E = m0c2 = mc2

= m0c2 is called the rest energy of the object. = total relativistic energy or total energy of an moving object

The (relativistic) mass of an moving object m is larger than its rest

mass m0 due to the contribution from its relativistic KE this is a pure relativistic effect not possible in classical mechanics

Chap 1 - 110

Chap 1 - 112

Pictorially
Object at rest: Total relativistic energy = rest energy only (no kinetic energy) E=E0=m0c2 A moving object: Total relativistic energy = kinetic energy + rest energy E=mc2=K+E0 K=mc2 - E0 = mc2 m m0 m0
m=m0+m

Solution:
(a) Rest energy E0 = m0c2 We are looking for a speed such that the energy is 1.1 times the rest energy. We know how the relativistic energy is related to the rest energy via E = E0 = 1.1E0 1/ 2 = 1/1.12 = 1/1.21 = 0.8264 1- v2/c2 = 0.8264 v2/c2 = 1- 0.8264 = 0.1736 v = 0.4166 2c (b) Kinetic energy is K = E E0 = 1.1E0 - E0 = 0.1E0 =0.1 m0c2

28

Chap 1 - 113

Chap 1 - 115

1.15 The equivalence of energy and mass

The total relativistic energy or total energy: E = m0c2 = mc2, is the
most famous relationship Einstein obtained from the postulates of special relativity.

Invariance in relativistic dynamics

Note that E2 - p2c2 is an invariant:

2 4 E 2 p 2 c 2 = m0 c

This relation is known as Einsteins mass-energy equivalence. This relation states a universal
equivalence between mass and energy. It means that the mass may appear as energy and energy as mass the principle of conservation of massenergy. Mass can be created or destroyed, but when this happens, an equivalent amount of energy simultaneously vanishes or comes into being, and vice versa.

It depends only on the rest mass of the particle and the speed of light. It does not depend on the velocity of the particle.

Consequently,
In any dynamical process, it must remain unchanged. Or in other words, it must be invariant in all inertial frames.

Example: 10 kg of mass, if converted into pure energy, it will be equivalent to E = mc2 = 10 (3108) 2 J = 9 1017J equivalent to a few tons of TNT explosion

Such invariance greatly simplify the calculations in relativistic dynamics.

Chap 1 - 114

Chap 1 - 116

Relativistic energy, momentum and rest energy

The relationship among the total energy, momentum and rest energy can be obtained from the relativistic mass formula. Square the relativistic mass formula and multiply by c4:

Massless particles
In classical mechanics, a particle must have rest mass in order to have energy and momentum, but in relativistic mechanics this requirement does not hold. For massless particles (m = 0): (a) If v << c, it is clear that E = p = 0.
A massless particle with a speed less than that of light can have neither energy nor momentum.

m2c4 m2v2c2 = m0c4

equation, we find that:

(41)

Substituting for p = mv, E0 = m0c2 , E = mc2. Then, rearranges the

2 4 2 E2 = p2c2 + m0 c = p2c2 + E0

(42)

(b) If v = c, E = 0/0 and p = 0/0, which are indeterminate: E and p can have any values.
Thus both equations of E and p are consistent with the existence of massless particles that possess energy and momentum provided that they travel with the speed of light. In general, the relationship between E and p for a massless particle is:

Conservation of energy-momentum This equation relates the total energy of a particle with its momentum.

When the particle is at rest, p = 0, and also we see that E = mc2.

that is, the total energy equals the rest energy.

E = pc

(43)

29

Chap 1 - 117

Chap 1 - 119

Example E7: Find the momentum of an electron whose speed is 0.6c? Solution:
For classical mechanics, The relativistic mass is given by:
p classical = me v
m = m0 = m0 1 v2 c2 m0 v 1
8

The Electron Volt (eV)

The work done in accelerating a charge through a potential difference is given by

W = qV.
For a proton, with the charge e = 1.602 1019 C and a potential difference of 1 V, the work done is:

As an direct analogy, the relativistic momentum can be written as: Consequently,

p relativistic =
31 31

p relativistic = m0 v =

v2 c2

W = (1.602 1019 C)(1 V) = 1.602 1019 J The work done to accelerate the proton across a potential difference of 1 V could also be written as: W = (1 e)(1 V) = 1 eV
Thus eV, pronounced electron volt, is also a unit of energy. Its related to the SI (Systme International) unit joule by:

(9.1 10 ) 0.6c = (9.1 10 ) 0.6 (3.0 10 ) = 2.048 10

1

22

(0.6c )
c2

1 0.36

kg m s 1

1 eV = 1.602 1019 J

Chap 1 - 118

Chap 1 - 120

Computations in Modern Physics

We were taught in introductory physics that the international system of units is preferable when doing calculations in science and engineering. In modern physics, a somewhat different, more convenient set of units is often used. The smallness of quantities often used in modern physics suggests some practical changes.

Rest Energy

Rest energy of a particle (E0 = mc2): Example: E0 (proton)

Atomic mass unit (amu): ~the number of nucleons in the nucleus:

Example: carbon 12 Mass (12C atom)

Mass (12C atom)

30

Chap 1 - 121

Chap 1 - 123

Example 1.10:
A microscopic particle such as a proton can be accelerated to extremely high speed of v = 0.85c in the Tevatron at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, US. Find its total energy and kinetic energy in eV.

Solution: Part II
First, find the Lorentz factor, = 1.89 The rest energy of proton, m0c2, is 939 MeV Hence the total energy is E = mc2 = (m0c2)= 1.89 939 MeV = 1774 MeV Kinetic energy is the difference between the total relativistic energy and the rest mass, K = E - m0c2= (1774 939) MeV = 835 MeV

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Chap 1 - 124

Solution: Part I
Due to mass-energy equivalence, sometimes we express the mass of an object in unit of energy. Proton has rest mass mp = 1.67 10-27kg The rest mass of the proton can be expressed as energy equivalent, via mpc2 = 1.6710-31kg (3 108m/s)2 = 1.510-10 J = 1.5 10-10 (1.6x10-19)-1 eV = 939,375,000 eV = 939 MeV

Example E8: Find the speed of an electron when it is moving with a KE of 1 MeV? Solution: Part I
Since,
1 eV = 1.602 1019 J 1 MeV = 1 106 (1.602 1019 J) = 1.602 1013 J

For classical mechanics,

KE classical = v = 1 me v 2 2

2 KE classical = me

2 1.602 10 13 = 5.934 10 8 m s 1 > the speed of light 9.1 10 31

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Chap 1 - 125

Chap 1 - 127

Solution: Part II
For relativistic mechanics,
1.602 10 13 = ( 1)m0 c 2 KE relativistic = E E 0 = mc 2 m0 c 2 = m0 c 2 m0 c 2 = ( 1)m0 c 2 1 = 1m0 c 2 2 1 v c2

Example E10:
Find the speed and momentum of an electron (E0 = 0.511 MeV) with a kinetic energy of 10 MeV?

Solution:

The total energy is: E = KE + E0 = 10 MeV + 0.511 MeV = 10.51 MeV 2 4 The relativistic energy-momentum is given by: E = c 2 p 2 + m0 c Hence, 2 1 1
p= c 1 = c
2 4 E 2 m0 c =

E 2 m0 c 2

(10.51 MeV )2 (0.511 MeV )2

= 10.5 MeV/c

The speed of the electron can be found by solving the relativistic total energy formula for v.
E = mc 2 = m0 c 2 = m0 c 2 1 m0 c 2 v = c 1 E
2

By solving the above equation for v, the speed of the electron is v = 0.94c = 2.82 108 m s-1

v2 c2
2

0.511 MeV = c 1 = 0.9988c 10.51 MeV

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Example E9: Find the momentum of a photon whose total energy is 2 MeV? Solution:
The relativistic energy-momentum is given by:
2 4 E = c 2 p 2 + m0 c

Since the photon is a massless particle, E = cp Hence, p = E/c = 2 MeV/c.

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