PFManual 14 1 en Ed1 Vol II PDF

DIgSILENT PowerFactory
Version 14.1
Users Manual
Volume II
Edition 1
DIgSILENT GmbH
Gomaringen, Germany
May 2011
Publisher:
DIgSILENT GmbH
Heinrich-Hertz-Strae 9
72810 Gomaringen / Germany
Tel.: +49 (0) 7072 - 9168-0
Fax: +49 (0) 7072 - 9168-88
Please visit our homepage at:
http://www.digsilent.de
Copyright DIgSILENT GmbH
All rights reserved. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form without per-
mission of the publisher.
May 2011
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Users Manual
i
Contents of Volume I
General Information

About this Guide 1-1
1.1 Contents of the Users Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1
1.2 Used Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-2

Contact 2-1

Documentation and Help System 3-1

PowerFactory Overview 4-1
4.1 General Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-2
4.2 PowerFactory Simulation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-3
4.3 General Design of PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-4
4.4 Data Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-6
4.5 User Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-8
4.5.1 Menu Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4.5.2 Main Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4.5.3 The Output Window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4.6 Getting Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

The PowerFactory Data Model 5-1
5.1 Database, Objects and Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1
5.2 PowerFactory Project Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2
5.2.1 The Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-3
5.2.2 The Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5
5.2.3 Operation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-5
5.2.4 Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-6
5.2.5 Changed Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-6
5.3 The Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-7
5.3.1 Network Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-8
5.3.2 Network Topology Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5.3.3 Network Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
5.3.4 Variations and Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
5.3.5 Switching Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19
5.4 The Equipment Type Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21
5.5 The Operational Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
5.5.1 Circuit Breaker Ratings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
5.5.2 Demand Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24
5.5.3 Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
5.5.4 Capability Curves for Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
ii
5.5.5 Outages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29
5.5.6 Running Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
5.5.7 Thermal Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
5.6 Parameter Characteristics and Parametric Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
5.7 DIgSILENT Programming Language (DPL) Scripts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33
Administration

Program Administration 6-1
6.1 Program Installation and Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 The Log-on Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2.1 Log On Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
6.2.2 License Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.2.3 Network Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6.2.4 Database Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6.2.5 Advanced Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
6.2.6 Appearance Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

User Accounts and User Groups 7-1
7.1 PowerFactory Database Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 The Database Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.3 Creating and Managing User Accounts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.4 Creating User Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.5 The Demo Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4

User Settings 8-1
8.1 General Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Graphic Windows Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.3 Data Manager Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
8.4 Output Window Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
8.5 Functions Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
8.6 Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
8.7 Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
8.8 StationWare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Handling

Executing Power System Analyses 9-1
9.1 Defining or Activating a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2 Creating of a Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.3 Calculation Commands in PowerFactory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.4 Edit relevant Objects for Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
9.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3

Basic Project Definition 10-1
10.1 Defining and Configuring a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
iii
10.1.1 The Project Edit Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3
10.1.2 Project Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
10.1.3 Activating and Deactivating Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-5
10.1.4 Exporting and Importing of Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6
10.2 Creating New Grids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6

Network Graphics (Single Line Diagrams) 11-1
11.1 Defining Network Models with the Graphical Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
11.1.1 Adding New Power System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
11.1.2 Drawing Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.1.3 Drawing Branch Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.1.4 Marking and Editing Power System Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5
11.1.5 Interconnecting Power Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
11.1.6 Working with Substations in the Graphical Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-9
11.1.7 Working with Branches in the Graphical Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
11.1.8 Working with Templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
11.1.9 Defining and Working with Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
11.1.10 Working with Single Phase Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15
11.2 Graphic Windows and Database Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-15
11.2.1 Network Diagrams and Graphical Pages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
11.2.2 Active Graphics, Graphics Board and Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-16
11.2.3 Single Line Graphics and Data Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
11.2.4 Editing and Selecting Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-18
11.2.5 Creating New Graphic Windows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-21
11.3 Basic Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
11.3.1 The Page Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22
11.3.2 The Drawing Toolboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
11.3.3 The Active Grid Folder (Target Folder) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
11.4 Drawing Diagrams with already existing Network Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
11.4.1 Drawing Existing Terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24
11.4.2 Drawing Existing Lines, Switch Gears and Transformers. . . . . . . . . 11-25
11.4.3 Building Single line Diagram from Imported Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-25
11.4.4 Creating a new substation in an Overview Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . 11-28
11.4.5 Show Detailed Substation Graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-29
11.5 Drawing of Network Components from Templates or Predefined Objects . . 11-29
11.6 Graphic Commands, Options and Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
11.6.1 General Commands and Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-30
11.6.2 Commands and Settings for Block Diagrams and Single Line Graphics11-37
11.6.3 Commands and Settings for Single Line Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-38
11.6.4 Graphic Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-41
11.6.5 Diagram Colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-45
11.6.6 Colour Legend Block On/Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-46
11.6.7 The Title Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-46
11.6.8 The Legend Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-47
11.6.9 Editing and Changing Symbols of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-47
11.7 Result Boxes, Text Boxes and Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-47
11.7.1 General Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-47
11.7.2 Editing Result Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-49
11.7.3 Formatting Result Boxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-51
11.7.4 Text Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-51
11.7.5 Labels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-52

iv
Data Manager 12-1
12.1 Using the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
12.1.1 Moving Around in the Database Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3
12.1.2 Adding New Items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
12.1.3 Deleting an Item. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6
12.1.4 Cut, Copy, Paste and Move Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6
12.1.5 The Data Manager Message Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7
12.1.6 Additional Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7
12.2 Defining Network Models with the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
12.2.1 Defining New Network Components in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . 12-9
12.2.2 Connecting Network Components in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . 12-9
12.2.3 Defining Substations in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9
12.2.4 Defining Branches in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
12.2.5 Defining Sites in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-11
12.2.6 Editing Network Components using the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . 12-11
12.3 Searching for Objects in the Data Manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12
12.3.1 Sorting Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-12
12.3.2 Searching by Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13
12.3.3 Using Filters for Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13
12.4 Editing Data Objects in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-16
12.4.1 Editing in Object Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17
12.4.2 Editing in "Detail'' Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17
12.4.3 Copy and Paste while Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-19
12.5 The Flexible Data Page Tab in the Data Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-20
12.5.1 Customizing the Flexible Data Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-21
12.6 The Input Window in the Data Manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-22
12.6.1 Input Window Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-22
12.7 Save and Restore Parts of the Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-23
12.7.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-24
12.8 Spreadsheet Format Data Import/Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-25
12.8.1 Export to Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-25
12.8.2 Import from Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL) . . . . . . . . . . 12-26

Study Cases 13-1
13.1 Creating and Using Study Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
13.2 Summary Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.3 Study Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.4 The Study Case Edit Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
13.5 Variation Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6
13.6 Operation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6
13.7 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6
13.8 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-7
13.8.1 Switch Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
13.8.2 Set Parameter Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
13.8.3 Short-Circuit Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
13.8.4 Intercircuit Fault Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
13.8.5 Events of Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
13.8.6 Events of Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
13.8.7 Outage of Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
13.8.8 Save Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
13.9 Results Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
13.10 Variable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
v
13.11 Triggers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
13.12 Graphic Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12

Project Library 14-1
14.1 Equipment Type Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.2 Operational Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2
14.2.1 Circuit Breaker Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3
14.2.2 Demand Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4
14.2.3 Fault Cases and Fault Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
14.2.4 Capability Curves (MVAr Limit Curves) for Generators . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
14.2.5 Element Outages and Generator Deratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-7
14.2.6 Running Arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-9
14.2.7 Thermal Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-12
14.3 Templates Library. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-13
14.4 Global Template Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-14

Grouping Objects 15-1
15.1 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.2 Virtual Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.2.1 Defining and Editing a New Virtual Power Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2
15.2.2 Applying a Virtual Power Plant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.2.3 Inserting a Generator into a Virtual Power Plant and Defining its Virtual Power
Plant Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.3 Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
15.4 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
15.5 Feeders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6
15.6 Network Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9
15.7 Network Owners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9
15.8 Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10
15.9 Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10

Operation Scenarios 16-1
16.1 Operation Scenarios Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.2 How to use Operation Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.2.1 How to create an Operation Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.2.2 How to save an Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4
16.2.3 How to activate an existing Operation Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5
16.2.4 How to deactivate an Operation Scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5
16.2.5 How to identify operational data parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6
16.3 Administering Operation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-7
16.3.1 How to view objects missing from the Operation Scenario data . . . . 16-7
16.3.2 How to compare the data in two operation scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8
16.3.3 How to view the non-default Running Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8
16.3.4 How to transfer data from one Operation Scenario to another . . . . . 16-8
16.3.5 How to update the default data with operation scenario data. . . . . . 16-9
16.3.6 How exclude a grid from the Operation Scenario data . . . . . . . . . . . 16-9
16.3.7 How to create a time based Operation Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-10
16.4 Advanced Configuration of Operation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12
16.4.1 How to change the automatic save settings for Operation Scenarios16-12
16.4.2 How to modify the data stored in Operation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . 16-12

vi
Network Variations and Expansion Stages 17-1
17.1 Basic Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.2 Creating New Variations and Expansion Stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2
17.3 Activating Variations and Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-3
17.4 Conflicts During Activation of Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4
17.5 Deleting an Expansion Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.6 Displaying the Activation Times of Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.7 Editing the Activation Times of Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.8 The Recording Expansion Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.9 Setting a Expansion Stage as the Recording Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
17.10 Displaying the Recording Expansion Stage in the Status Bar. . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
17.11 Checking/Editing the Study Time (Date/Time of the Calculation Case). . . . 17-6
17.12 The Variation Scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
17.13 Comparing Variations and Expansion Stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-8
17.14 Splitting Expansion Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-9
17.15 Applying Expansion Stages Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-10
17.16 Consolidation of Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-10
17.17 Colouring Variations and their Changes from within the Single Line Graphic17-10
17.18 Converting System Stages into Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-11

Parameter Characteristics 18-1
18.1 Defining Scalar Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.2 Defining Discrete Time Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.3 Defining Discrete Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3
18.4 Defining Continuous Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5
18.5 Defining Frequency Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7
18.6 Defining Time Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7
18.7 Defining Two-dimensional Parameter Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8
18.8 Importing Parameter Characteristics from Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-10
18.9 Handling Scales and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-11

Reporting and Visualizing Results 19-1
19.1 Results, Graphs and Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1.1 Editing Result Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1.2 Output of Device Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
19.1.3 Output of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7
19.1.4 Result Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-8
19.2 Comparisons Between Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12
19.2.1 Editing a Set Of Comparison Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-12
19.2.2 Update Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-13
19.3 Variable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-14
19.3.1 The Variable Set Monitor Dialogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-14
19.3.2 Searching the Variables to Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-16
19.3.3 Examples of Variable Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-17
19.3.4 Selecting the Bus to be Monitored. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-23
19.4 Virtual Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-23
19.4.1 Virtual Instrument Panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-25
19.4.2 Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-31
19.4.3 The Vector Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-41
19.4.4 The Voltage Profile Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-44
19.4.5 Schematic Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-48
vii
19.4.6 The Waveform Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-49
19.4.7 The Curve-Input Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-51
19.4.8 Embedded Graphic Windows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-54
19.4.9 Tools for Virtual Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-56
19.4.10 User-Defined Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-66

Data Management 20-1
20.1 Project Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.1.1 What is a Version? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.1.2 How to Create a Version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2
20.1.3 How to Rollback a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
20.1.4 How to Check if a Version is the base for a derived Project . . . . . . . 20-4
20.1.5 How to Delete a Version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-4
20.2 Derived Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5
20.2.1 Derived Projects Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5
20.2.2 How to Create a Derived Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-8
20.3 Comparing and Merging Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-9
20.3.1 Compare and Merge Tool Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-9
20.3.2 How to Merge or Compare two projects using the Compare and Merge Tool
20-9
20.3.3 How to Merge or Compare three projects using the Compare and Merge Tool
20-11
20.3.4 Compare and Merge Tool Advanced Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-12
20.3.5 Compare and Merge Tool 'diff browser' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-14
20.4 How to update a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
20.4.1 Updating a Derived Project from a new Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
20.4.2 Updating a base project from a Derived Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22
20.4.3 Tips for working with the Compare and Merge Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . 20-22
20.5 Sharing Projects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-24

The DIgSILENT Programming Language - DPL 21-1
21.1 The Principle Structure of a DPL Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.2 The DPL Command Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.2.1 Creating a new DPL Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-3
21.2.2 Defining a DPL Commands Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-3
21.2.3 Executing a DPL Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
21.2.4 DPL Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-4
21.2.5 DPL Script Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5
21.3 The DPL Script Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-5
21.4 The DPL Script Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-6
21.4.1 Variable Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-6
21.4.2 Constant parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7
21.4.3 Assignments and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7
21.4.4 Standard Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7
21.4.5 Program Flow Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-9
21.4.6 Input and Output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
21.5 Access to Other Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-11
21.5.1 Object Variables and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-12
21.6 Access to Locally Stored Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-12
21.7 Accessing the General Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-13
21.8 Accessing External Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-14
viii
21.9 Remote Scripts and DPL Command Libraries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-15
21.9.1 Subroutines and Calling Conventions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-16
21.10 DPL Functions and Subroutines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17

PowerFactory Interfaces 22-1
22.1 DGS Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.1.1 DGS Interface Typical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
22.1.2 DGS Structure (Database Schemas and File Formats) . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2
22.1.3 DGS Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
22.1.4 DGS Export. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
22.2 PSS/E File Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-6
22.2.1 Importing PSS/E Steady-State Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-6
22.2.2 Import of PSS/E file (Dynamic Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11
22.2.3 Exporting a project to a PSS/E file. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-12
22.3 NEPLAN Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-15
22.3.1 Importing NEPLAN Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-15
22.4 UCTE-DEF Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
22.4.1 Importing UCTE-DEF Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-17
22.4.2 Exporting UCTE-DEF Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-19
22.5 CIM Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-20
22.5.1 Importing CIM Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-20
22.5.2 Exporting CIM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-22
22.6 MATLAB Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-23
22.7 OPC Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-23
22.7.1 OPC Interface Typical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-24
22.7.2 OPC Server Setup and PowerFactory Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . 22-24
22.8 StationWare Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-24
22.8.1 About StationWare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-25
22.8.2 Component Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-25
22.8.3 Fundamental Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-27
22.8.4 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-32
22.8.5 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-33
22.8.6 Reference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-42
22.8.7 Technical Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-47
22.9 API (Application Programming Interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-51
ix
Contents of Volume II
Power System Analysis Functions

Load Flow Analysis 23-1
23.1 Technical Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-4
23.1.1 Network Representation and Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5
23.1.2 Active and Reactive Power Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-8
23.1.3 Advanced Load Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-12
23.1.4 Temperature Dependency of Lines and Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-17
23.2 Executing Load Flow Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-19
23.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-19
23.2.2 Active Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-21
23.2.3 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-24
23.2.4 Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-26
23.2.5 Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-27
23.2.6 Low Voltage Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-28
23.2.7 Advanced Simulation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-29
23.3 Result Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-30
23.3.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-30
23.3.2 Flexible Data Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-31
23.3.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-31
23.3.4 Diagram Colouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-31
23.3.5 Load Flow Sign Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-32
23.4 Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-33
23.4.1 General Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-34
23.4.2 Data Model Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-35
23.4.3 Some Load Flow Calculation Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-36
23.4.4 Too many Inner Loop Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-36
23.4.5 Too Many Outer Loop Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-37
23.5 Load Flow Sensitivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-40
23.5.1 Load Flow Sensitivities Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-41
23.5.2 Load Flow Sensitivities Execution and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-42
23.5.3 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-43

Short-Circuit Analysis 24-1
24.1.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
24.1.2 The ANSI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-9
24.1.3 The Complete Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-11
24.1.4 The IEC 61363 Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-13
24.2 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-14
24.2.1 Toolbar/Main Menu Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-14
24.2.2 Context-Sensitive Menu Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-15
x
24.2.3 Faults on Busbars/Terminals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-15
24.2.4 Faults on Lines and Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-16
24.2.5 Multiple Faults Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-17
24.3 Short-Circuit Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
24.3.1 Basic Options (All Methods) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-19
24.3.2 Verification (Except for IEC 61363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-22
24.3.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-23
24.3.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-24
24.3.5 Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-27
24.3.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-29
24.3.7 Basic Options (Complete Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-31
24.3.8 Advanced Options (Complete Method). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-33
24.3.9 Basic Options (IEC 61363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-35
24.3.10 Advanced Options (IEC 61363) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-36
24.4 Result Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-37
24.4.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-37
24.4.2 Flexible Data Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-38
24.4.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-38
24.4.4 Diagram Colouring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-38

Harmonics Analysis 25-1
25.1 Harmonic Load Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
25.1.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
25.1.2 IEC 61000-3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
25.1.3 Advanced Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
25.2 Frequency Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5
25.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-6
25.3 Filter Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-7
25.4 Modelling Harmonic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-9
25.4.1 Definition of Harmonic Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-9
25.4.2 Assignment of Harmonic Injections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-16
25.4.3 Harmonic Distortion Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-17
25.4.4 Frequency Dependent Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-19
25.4.5 Waveform Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-21
25.5 Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-22
25.5.1 Continuous Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-22
25.5.2 Switching Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-23
25.5.3 Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbine Generator Models . . . . . . . . . 25-25
25.5.4 Definition of Flicker Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-25
25.5.5 Assignment of Flicker Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-26
25.5.6 Flicker Result Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-27
25.6 Definition of Result Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-27
25.6.1 Definition of Variable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-28
25.6.2 Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-29
25.7 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30

Flickermeter 26-1
26.1 Flickermeter (IEC 61000-4-15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.1.1 Calculation of Short-Term Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.1.2 Calculation of Long-Term Flicker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
xi
26.2 Flickermeter Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-3
26.2.1 Flickermeter Command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-3
26.2.2 Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
26.2.3 Signal Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-5
26.2.5 Input File Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-8
26.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-12

Stability and EMT Simulations 27-1
27.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.2 Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.2.1 Balanced RMS Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.2.2 Three-Phase RMS Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.2.3 Three-Phase EMT Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4
27.3 Setting Up a Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4
27.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
27.3.2 Step Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-7
27.3.3 Step Size Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-8
27.3.5 Noise Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-12
27.3.6 Advanced Simulation Options - Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-12
27.4 Result Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-13
27.4.1 Saving Results from Previous Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-14
27.5 Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-15
27.5.1 Switch Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-18
27.5.2 Parameter Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-18
27.5.3 Short-Circuit Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-18
27.5.4 Intercircuit Fault Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19
27.5.5 Events of Synchronous Machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19
27.5.6 Events of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19
27.5.7 Outage of Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19
27.5.8 Save Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
27.5.9 Set Integration Step Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
27.5.10 Tap Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
27.6 Running a Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-20
27.7 Models for Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-21
27.7.1 System Modelling Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-21
27.7.2 The Composite Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-26
27.7.3 The Composite Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-29
27.7.4 The Common Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-32
27.7.5 The Composite Block Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-36
27.7.6 Drawing Composite Block Diagrams and Composite Frames . . . . . . 27-37
27.8 User Defined (DSL) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-43
27.8.1 Modeling and Simulation Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-46
27.8.2 DSL Implementation: an Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-46
27.8.3 Defining DSL Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-50
27.9 The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-54
27.9.1 Terms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-54
27.9.2 General DSL Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-55
27.9.3 DSL Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-56
27.9.4 DSL Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-56
27.9.5 Definition Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-57
xii
27.9.6 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-58
27.9.7 Equation Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-61
27.9.8 Equation Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-61
27.9.9 DSL Macros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-62
27.9.10 Events and Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-63
27.9.11 Example of a Complete DSL Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-64
27.10 Matlab Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-65
27.10.1 Implementation of Voltage Controller - Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-65
27.10.2 Implementation with Built-In Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-66
27.10.3 Implementation with Matlab Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-67
27.10.4 The Matlab File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-70
27.10.5 Additional notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-71

Modal Analysis / Eigenvalue Calculation 28-1
28.1 Theory of Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1
28.2 How to Complete a Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
28.2.1 Completing a Modal Analysis with the Default Options . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
28.2.2 Explanation of Modal Analysis Command Basic Options (ComMod) . . 28-6
28.3 Viewing Modal Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-9
28.3.1 Viewing Modal Analysis Reports in the Output Window . . . . . . . . . . 28-9
28.3.2 Viewing Modal Analysis Results using the built-in Plots . . . . . . . . . 28-11
28.3.3 Viewing Modal Analysis Results using the Modal Data Browser. . . . 28-18
28.3.4 Viewing Results in the Data Manager Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-20
28.4 Troubleshooting Modal Analysis Calculation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-22
28.4.1 Models not supported by the QR method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-23
28.4.2 The Arnoldi/Lanczos Method is slow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-23

Model Parameter Identification 29-1
29.1 Target Functions and Composite Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.1.1 The Measurement File Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-3
29.1.2 Power System Element Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-3
29.1.3 Comparison Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4
29.2 Creating The Composite Identification Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-4
29.2.1 The Comparison Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-5
29.3 Performing a Parameter Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-6
29.4 Identifying Primary Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-8

Contingency Analysis 30-1
30.1 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.1.1 Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4
30.1.2 Multiple Time Phases Contingency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4
30.1.3 Time Sweep Option (Single Time Phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.1.4 Consideration of Predefined Switching Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.1.5 Parallel Computing Option (Single Time Phase) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.2 Executing Contingency Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-6
30.3 The Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-7
30.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-9
30.3.2 Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-11
30.3.3 Multiple Time Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-12
30.3.4 Time Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-14
xiii
30.3.6 Parallel Computing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-16
30.3.7 Calculating an Individual Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-18
30.3.8 Representing Contingency Situations - Contingency Cases . . . . . . . 30-18
30.4 The Multiple Time Phases Contingency Analysis Command. . . . . . . . . . . . 30-21
30.4.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-21
30.4.2 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-22
30.4.3 Multiple Time Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-22
30.4.4 Time Sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-24
30.4.6 Parallel Computing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-24
30.4.7 Defining Time Phases for Contingency Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-24
30.4.8 Representing Contingency Situations with Post-Fault Actions . . . . . 30-26
30.5 Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . 30-28
30.5.1 Browsing Fault Cases and Fault Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-29
30.5.2 Defining a Fault Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-30
30.5.3 Defining a Fault Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-31
30.6 Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command. . 30-32
30.7 Comparing Contingency Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-35
30.8 Result Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-37
30.8.1 Predefined Report Formats (Tabular and ASCII Reports) . . . . . . . . 30-37

Reliability Assessment 31-1
31.1 Probabilistic Reliability Assessment - Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.1.1 Reliability Assessment Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.1.2 Stochastic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.1.3 Calculated Results for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-6
31.1.4 System State Enumeration in Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 31-11
31.1.5 Failure Effect Analysis in Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-12
31.2 Setting up the Network Model for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-17
31.2.1 How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair models . . . . . . . . . . . 31-18
31.2.2 How to Create Feeders for Reliability Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-22
31.2.3 How to Configure Switches for the Reliability Calculation . . . . . . . . 31-22
31.2.4 Load Modeling for Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-23
31.2.5 Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location. . . . . . . . . . . 31-29
31.2.6 How to Consider Planned Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-29
31.2.7 Specifying Individual Component Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-29
31.3 Running The Reliability Assessment Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-30
31.3.1 How to run the Reliability Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-30
31.3.2 Viewing the FEA results for a Specific Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-36
31.3.3 Viewing the Load Point Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-36
31.3.4 Viewing the System Reliability Indices (Spreadsheet format) . . . . . 31-37
31.3.5 Printing ASCII Reliability Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-38
31.3.6 Using the Colouring modes to aid Reliability Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . 31-39
31.3.7 Using the Contribution to Reliability Indices Script. . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-40
31.4 Voltage Sag Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-41
31.4.1 Calculation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-41
31.4.2 Performing a Voltage Sag Table Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-43
31.5 Compact Reliability Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-47

xiv
Generation Adequacy Analysis 32-1
32.1 Technical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1
32.2 Database Objects and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4
32.2.1 Stochastic Model for Generation Object (StoGen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4
32.2.2 Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
32.2.3 Meteorological Station (ElmMeteostat). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-6
32.3 Assignment of Stochastic Model for Generation Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-7
32.3.1 Definition of a Stochastic Multi-State Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-7
32.3.2 Stochastic Wind Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-8
32.3.3 Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-9
32.4 Demand definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-11
32.5 Generation Adequacy Analysis Toolbar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-11
32.6 Generation Adequacy Initialisation Command (ComGenrelinc) . . . . . . . . . 32-12
32.7 Run Generation Adequacy Command (ComGenrel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-15
32.8 Generation Adequacy Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-16
32.8.1 Draws (Iterations) Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-16
32.8.2 Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-17
32.8.3 Convergence Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-19
32.8.4 Summary of variables calculated during the Generation Adequacy Analysis
32-21

Optimal Power Flow 33-1
33.1 AC Optimization (Interior Point Method). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1
33.1.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1
33.1.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-14
33.1.5 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-17
33.2 DC Optimization (Linear Programming) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-20
33.2.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-21
33.2.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-26
33.3 Contingency Constrained DC Optimization (LP Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-31
33.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-32
33.3.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-37
33.3.5 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-37

Optimization Tools for Distribution Networks 34-1
34.1 Optimal Capacitor Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1
34.1.1 OCP Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
34.1.2 OCP Optimization Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4
34.1.3 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5
34.1.4 Available Capacitors Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-7
34.1.5 Load Characteristics Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-8
34.1.6 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-11
34.1.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-12
34.2 Tie Open Point Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-13
34.2.1 How to Access the Tie Open Point Optimization Tool . . . . . . . . . . 34-14
xv
34.2.2 Tie Open Point Optimization Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-14
34.2.3 How to run a Tie Open Point Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-15
34.3 Cable Size Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17
34.3.1 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-17
34.3.2 Optimization Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
34.3.3 Basic Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-18
34.3.4 Advanced Options Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-21

Protection 35-1
35.1 Using Protection Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1
35.1.1 The Relay Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-2
35.1.2 The Fuse Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-3
35.2 Basic Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-5
35.2.1 The Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-5
35.2.2 The Voltage Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-7
35.2.3 The Measurement Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-11
35.2.4 The Frequency Measurement Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-12
35.2.5 The Directional and Polarizing Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-12
35.2.6 The Starting Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-15
35.2.7 The Instantaneous Overcurrent Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-15
35.2.8 The Time Overcurrent Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-17
35.2.9 The Distance Polygon Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-19
35.2.10 The Timer Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-20
35.2.11 The Frequency Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-21
35.2.12 The Under-/Overvoltage Block. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-21
35.2.13 The Logic Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-22
35.3 Time-Overcurrent Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-23
35.3.1 Changing Tripping Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-24
35.4 The Time-Distance Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-31
35.4.1 Path Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-32
35.4.2 The Time-Distance Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-33
35.4.3 Time-Distance Plot Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-34
35.4.4 Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-37
35.5 Relay Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-37
35.5.1 Modifying the Relay Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-39
35.6 Protection Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
35.7 Modelling Protection Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
35.7.1 The Modelling Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-42
35.7.2 The Relay Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44
35.7.3 The Block Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-44
35.7.4 The Block Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-45

Network Reduction 36-1
36.1.1 Network Reduction for Load Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
36.1.2 Network Reduction for Short-Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
36.2 How to Complete a Network Reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
36.2.1 How to Backup the Project (optional). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-3
36.2.2 How to run the Network Reduction tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-3
36.2.3 Expected Output of the Network Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-4
36.3 Network Reduction Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-5
xvi
36.3.1 Basic Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6
36.3.2 Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-7
36.3.4 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-10
36.4 Network Reduction Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-10
36.5 Tips for using the Network Reduction Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-13
36.5.1 Station Controller Busbar is Reduced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-13
36.5.2 Network Reduction doesnt Reduce Isolated Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-13
36.5.3 The Reference Machine is not Reduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-13

State Estimation 37-1
37.1 Objective Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-2
37.2 Components of the PowerFactory State Estimator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-2
37.2.1 Plausibility Check. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-4
37.2.2 Observability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-4
37.2.3 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
37.3 State Estimator Data Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
37.3.1 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-6
37.3.2 Activating the State Estimator Display Option. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-11
37.3.3 Editing the Element Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-12
37.4 Running SE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-14
37.4.1 Basic Setup Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-14
37.4.2 Advanced Setup Options for the Plausibility Check . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-18
37.4.3 Advanced Setup Options for the Observability Check . . . . . . . . . . 37-18
37.4.4 Advanced Setup Options for Bad Data Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-18
37.4.5 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-19
37.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-21
37.5.1 Output Window Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-21
37.5.2 External Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-22
37.5.3 Estimated States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-24
37.5.4 Colour Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-25
Appendix

Glossary A-1

Hotkeys Reference B-1
B.1 Graphic Windows Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
B.2 Data Manager Hotkeys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B.3 Dialogue Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5
B.4 Output Window Hotkeys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
B.5 Editor Hotkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8

The DIgSILENT Output Language C-1

Element Symbol Definition D-1
D.1 General Symbol Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .D-1
D.2 Geometrical Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .D-2
xvii
D.3 Including Graphic Files as Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4

Index E-1
xviii
Power System Analysis Functions
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Load Flow Analysis
23 - 1
Chapter 23
Load Flow Analysis
Whenever evaluating the operation and control of power systems, the electrical engineer
is typically encountered with questions such as:
Are the voltages of every busbar in the power system acceptable?
What is the loading of the different equipment in the power system? (transformers,
transmission lines, generators, etc.)
How can I achieve the best operation of the power system?
Does the power system have a weakness (or weaknesses)? If so, where are they
located and how can I countermeasure them?
Although we may consider that the above questioning would arise only when analyzing
the behavior of ''existing'' power systems; the same interrogations can be formulated
when the task relates to the analysis of "future" systems or "expansion stages" of an
already existing power system; such as evaluating the impact of commissioning a trans-
mission line or a power plant, or the impact of refurbishment or decommissioning of
equipment (for example shutting down a power plant because it has reached its life
expectancy).
Fig. 23.1: Power System Analysis: System Operation and System Planning
Taking into account these two aspects: 1) Present operation and 2) Future operation, is
23 - 2
how power should be analyzed. From one side, an operation or control engineer requires
relevant information to be available to him almost immediately, meaning he must be able
to obtain somehow the behavior of the power system under different configurations that
can occur (for example by opening or closing breakers in a substation); on the other side,
a planning engineer requires obtaining the behavior of the system reflecting reinforce-
ments that have not yet been built while considering the corresponding yearly and/or
monthly load increase. Regardless of the perspective, the engineer must be able to
determine beforehand the behavior of the power system in order to establish, for
example, the most suitable operation configuration or to detect possible weakness and
suggest solutions and alternatives. Figures 23.2 and 23.3 illustrate the system operation
and planning aspects.
Fig. 23.2: Power System Operation Example
Fig. 23.3: Power System Planning Example
Load flow calculations are used to analyze power systems under steady-state non-faulted
(short-circuit-free) conditions. Where steady-state is defined as a condition in which all
the variables and parameters are assumed to be constant during the period of obser-
23 - 3
vation. We can think of this as ''taking a picture'' of the power system at a given point in
time. To achieve a better understanding let us refer to Figure 23.4. Here a 24 hour load
demand profile is depicted. The user can imagine this varying demand to be the demand
of a specific area or region, or the demand of a whole network. In this particular case the
load is seen as increasing from early in the morning until it reaches its maximum at
around 18:00 hrs. After this point in time, the total load then begins to decrease. A load
flow calculation is stated to be a steady-state analysis because it reflects the system
conditions for a certain point in time, such as for instance at 18:00 hrs (maximum
demand). As an example, if we require determining the behavior of the system for every
hour of the day, then 24 load flows need to be performed; if the behavior for every second
is required then the number of load flow calculations needed would amount to 86 400. In
PowerFactory, the active power (and/or reactive power) of the loads can be set with a
Characteristic so they follow a certain profile (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.). By doing so,
the active power will change automatically according to the date ant time specified. For
more information please refer to Chapters 5 (5.6) and 18.
Fig. 23.4: Example of a Load Demand Curve
A load flow calculation will determine the active and reactive power flows for all branches,
and the voltage magnitude and phase for all nodes.
The main areas for the application of load flow calculations can be divided in normal and
abnormal (Contingency) system conditions as follows:
Normal System Conditions
Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.
Optimization tasks, such as minimizing system losses, minimizing generation costs,
open tie optimization in distributed networks, etc.
Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit
calculations using the complete superposition method.
Abnormal System Conditions
Calculation of branch loadings, system losses and voltage profiles.
Contingency analysis, network security assessment.
Optimization tasks, such as minimizing system losses, minimizing generation costs,
open tie optimization in distributed networks, etc.
Verification of system conditions during reliability calculations.
Automatic determination of optimal system resupplying strategies.
23 - 4
Optimization of load-shedding.
Calculation of steady-state initial conditions for stability simulations or short-circuit
calculations using the complete superposition method (special cases).
Regarding the above definitions of ''normal'' and ''abnormal'' system conditions, a
distinction should be made in terms of the manner simulations should be performed:
Simulation of normal operating conditions: Here, the generators dispatch as well as
the loads are known, and it is therefore sufficient for the load flow calculation to represent
these generators dispatch and to provide the active and reactive power of all loads. The
results of the load flow calculation should represent a system condition in which none of
the branch or generator limits are exceeded.
Simulation of abnormal operating conditions: Here a higher degree of accuracy
from the models is needed. It can no longer be assumed that the entire system is
operating within limits. The models must be able to correctly simulate conditions which
deviate from the normal operating point. Hence the reactive power limits of generators or
the voltage dependency of loads must be modelled. Additionally, in many applications, the
active power balance cannot be established with a single slack bus (or machine). Instead,
a more realistic representation of the active and reactive power control mechanisms have
to be considered to determine the correct sharing of the active and reactive power gener-
ation.
Besides the considerations regarding abnormal conditions presented above, the
assumption of balanced systems may be inappropriate for certain distribution networks.
State of the art computational tools for power systems analysis must be therefore able to
represent unbalanced networks for load flow calculations as well.
The calculation methods and the options provided by PowerFactorys load flow analysis
function allow the accurate representation of any combination of meshed 1-, 2-, and 3-
phase AC and/or DC systems. The load flow tool accurately represents unbalanced loads,
generation, grids with variable neutral potentials, HVDC systems, DC loads, adjustable
speed drives, SVSs, and FACTS devices, etc., for all AC and DC voltage levels. With a more
realistic representation of the active and reactive power balance mechanisms, the tradi-
tional requirement of a slack generator is left optional to the user.
The most considerable effect of the resistance of transmission lines and cables is the
generation of losses. The conductor resistance will at the same time depend on the
conductor operating temperature, which is practically linear over the normal range of
operation. In order to carry out such type of analysis, PowerFactory offers a Temper-
ature Dependency option, so that the conductor resistance is corrected according to the
specified temperature value.
For very fast and reliable analysis of complex transmission networks, where only the flow
of active power through the branches is considered, PowerFactory offers an additional
load flow method, namely ''DC load flow (linear)'', which determines the active power
flows and the voltage angles within the network.
The following sections introduce the calculation methods and the options provided with
PowerFactorys load flow tool. This information is a guide to the configuration of the
PowerFactory load flow analysis command ( ).
23.1 Technical Background
This section presents the general aspects of the implementation of PowerFactorys load
23 - 5
flow calculation tool. An understanding of the concepts introduced here should be suffi-
cient background to manage the options presented in the load flow analysis command
dialogue. Further technical details related to the models (Network Components) imple-
mented in PowerFactory for load flow calculations are provided in the Technical Refer-
ences.
23.1.1 Network Representation and Calculation Methods
A load flow calculation determines the voltage magnitude (V) and the voltage angle (0)
of the nodes, as well as the active (P) and reactive (Q) power flow on branches. Usually,
the network nodes are represented by specifying two of these four quantities. Depending
on the quantities specified, nodes can be classified as:
PV nodes: here the active power and voltage magnitude are specified. This type of
node is used to represent generators and synchronous condensers whose active
power and voltage magnitude are controlled (synchronous condensers P=0). In order
to consider equipment limits under abnormal conditions (as mentioned in the previous
section), reactive power limits for the corresponding network components are also
used as input information.
PQ nodes: here the active and reactive power are specified. This type of node is used
to represent loads and machines with fixed values. Loads can also be set to change
(from their original Po and Qo values at nominal voltage) as a function of the voltage
of the node to which the load itself is connected. Elements specified as PQ (for
example synchronous machines, static generator's PWM converters or SVS's) can be
''forced'' by the algorithm so that the P and Q resulting from the load flow are always
within limits.
Slack node: here the voltage magnitude and angle are fixed. In traditional load flow
calculations the slack node (associated with a synchronous generator or an external
network) carries out the balancing of power in the system.
Device nodes: special nodes used to represent devices such as HVDC converters,
SVSs, etc., with specific control conditions (for example the control of active power
flow at a certain MW threshold in a HVDC converter, or the control of the voltage of a
busbar by an SVS).
Note: In traditional load flow calculations, asynchronous machines are
represented by PQ nodes, assuming that the machine operates at
a certain power factor, independent of the busbar voltage. Besides
this traditional representation, PowerFactory offers a more accu-
rate " slip iteration" (AS) representation based on the model equiv-
alent circuit diagrams. For further information please refer to the
corresponding Technical Reference.
In contrast to other power system calculation programs, PowerFactory does not directly
define the node characteristic of each busbar. Instead, more realistic control conditions
for the network elements connected to these nodes are defined (see the Load Flow tab
of each elements dialogue). For example, synchronous machines are modelled by
defining one of the following control characteristics:
Controlled power factor (cos(0)), constant active and reactive power (PQ);
Constant voltage, constant active power (PV) on the connected bus;
23 - 6
Secondary (frequency) controller ('slack', SL).
It is also important to note that in PowerFactory the active and reactive power balance
of the analyzed networks is not only possible through a slack generator (or external
network). The load flow calculation tool allows the definition of more realistic mechanisms
to control both active and reactive power. For further information please refer to Section
23.1.2.
AC Load Flow Method
In PowerFactory the nodal equations used to represent the analyzed networks are
implemented using two different formulations:
Newton-Raphson (Current Equations).
Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical).
In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved by an
iterative method. PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear
equation solver. The selection of the method used to formulate the nodal equations is
user-defined, and should be selected based on the type of network to be calculated. For
large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded, the standard Newton-
Raphson algorithm using the "Power Equations" formulation usually converges best.
Distribution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better
using the "Current Equations" formulation.
In addition to the Newton-Raphson iterations, which solve the network nodal equations,
PowerFactory applies an outer loop when the control characteristic of automatic trans-
former tap changers and/or switchable shunts is considered. Once the Newton-Raphson
iterations converge to a solution within the defined tolerance (without considering the
setpoint values of load flow quantities defined in the control characteristic of the tap
changers/switchable shunts (see Figure 23.5)), the outer loop is applied in order to reach
these target values. The actions taken by the outer iterative loop are:
Increasing/decreasing discrete taps;
Increasing/decreasing switchable shunts; and
Limiting/releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive power limits.
Once the above-listed actions are taken, a new Newton-Raphson load flow iteration takes
place in order to determine the new network operating point.
23 - 7
Fig. 23.5: Setting of the Control Mode for an Automatic Tap Changer
In the classical load flow calculation approach, the unbalances between phases are
neglected. For the analysis of transmission networks this assumption is generally admis-
sible. In distribution networks this assumption may be inappropriate depending on the
characteristics of the network. PowerFactory allows for the calculation of both balanced
(AC Load Flow, balanced positive sequence) and unbalanced (AC Load Flow Unbalanced,
3-phase (ABC)) load flows according to the descriptions above.
DC Load Flow Method
In addition to the ''AC'' load flow calculations presented in this section, PowerFactory
offers a so-called ''DC'' load flow calculation method. The DC load flow should not be inter-
preted as a method to be used in case of DC systems given that it basically applies to AC
systems.
Some occasions we may require performing fast analysis in complex transmission
networks where only a reasonable approximation of the active power flow of the system
is needed. For such situations the DC load flow can be used. Other applications of the DC
load flow method include situations where the AC load flow has trouble converging (see
Section 23.4: Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems).
In this particular method, the non-linear system resulting from the nodal equations is
simplified due to the dominant relation that exists between voltage angle and active
power flow in high voltage networks. By doing so a set of linear equations is thereby
obtained, where the voltage angles of the buses are directly related to the active power
flow through the reactances of the individual components. The DC load flow does not
require an iterative process and the calculation speed is therefore considerably increased.
Only active power flow without losses is considered. Summarizing, the DC load flow
Control
Mode
Settings of
the Control
Mode
23 - 8
method has the following characteristics:
The calculation requires the solving of a set of linear equations.
No iterations required, therefore fast, and also no convergence problems.
Approximate solution:
- All node voltage magnitudes fixed at 1.0 per unit.
- Only active power and voltage angles calculated.
- Losses are neglected.
23.1.2 Active and Reactive Power Control
Active Power Control
Besides the traditional approach of using a slack generator to establish the power balance
within the system, PowerFactorys load flow calculation tool provides other active power
balancing mechanisms which more closely represent the reality of transmission networks
(see selection in the Active Power Control tab of the load flow command). These mecha-
nisms are implemented in the steady-state according to the control processes that follow
the loss of large power stations:
As Dispatched: As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the conventional
approach in load flow calculations consists assigning a slack generator, which will
establish the power balance within the system. Besides this traditional approach,
PowerFactory offers the option of balancing by means of a single or a group of
loads (Distributed Slack by Loads). Under such assumptions, the active power of the
selected group of loads will be modified so that the power balance is once again met;
while leaving the scheduled active power of each generator unchanged. Other
methods of balancing include considering the participation of all synchronous
generators according to their scheduled active power (Distributed Slack by
Generation).
According to Secondary Control: If an unbalance occurs between the scheduled
active power values of each generation unit and the loads plus losses, primary control
will adapt (increase/decrease) the active power production of each unit, leading to an
over- or under-frequency situation. The secondary frequency control will then bring
the frequency back to its nominal value, re-establishing cost-efficient generation
delivered by each unit. Secondary control is represented in PowerFactorys load flow
calculations by network components called 'Power Frequency Controllers'
(ElmSecctrl). If the Active Power Control option According to Secondary Control is
selected, the generators considered by the Power Frequency Controllers establish the
active power balance according to their assigned participation factors (for further
information, please refer to the corresponding Technical Reference).
According to Primary Control: Shortly following a disturbance, the governors of
the units participating in primary control will increase/decrease their turbine power
and drive the frequency close to its nominal value. The change in the generator power
is proportional to the frequency deviation and is divided among participating units
according to the gain (K
pf
) of their primary controllers and which is depicted in Figure
23.6. If the Active Power Control option According to Primary Control is selected in
PowerFactorys load flow command, the power balance is established by all
generators (synchronous generators, static generators and external grids) having a
23 - 9
primary controller gain value different than zero (parameter Prim. Frequency Bias in
the Load Flow tab page - Figure 23.7). The modified active power of each generator is
then calculated according to the following equation:

where,
is the modified active power of generator i,
is the initial active power dispatch of generator i and
is the active power change in generator i.
The active power change of each generator ( ) will be determined by its
corresponding primary controller gain value (K
pf-i
) and the total frequency deviation.
where,
K
pf-i
is the primary controller gain parameter of generator i and
is the total frequency deviation.
The total frequency deviation ( ) can be obtained according to:
where corresponds to the active power change sum of every generator:
Fig. 23.6: Primary Frequency Bias
P
i
P
i-dispatch
AP
i
+ =
P
i
P
i-dispatch
AP
i
AP
i
AP
i
K
pf-i
Af =
Af
Af
Af
AP
Tot
K
pf
--------------- =
AP
Tot
AP
Tot
AP
j
j 1 =
n
=
23 - 10
Fig. 23.7: Primary Frequency Bias (K
pf
) Setting in the Load Flow Tab Page of the
Synchronous Machine Element (ElmSym)
According to Inertias: Immediately following a disturbance, the missing/excess
power is delivered from the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of the turbines.
This leads to a deceleration/acceleration and thus to a decrease/increase in the
system frequency. The contribution of each individual generator towards the total
additional power required is proportional to its inertia. If the Active Power Control
option According to Inertias is selected in PowerFactorys load flow command, the
power balance is established by all generators. Individual contributions to the balance
are proportional to the inertia/acceleration time constant of each generator (defined
on the RMS-Simulation tab of the synchronous generator types dialogue and depicted
in Figure 23.8). This relation can be mathematically described as follows:

where,
is the modified active power of generator i,
is the initial active power dispatch of generator i and
is the active power change in generator i.
The active power change of each generator ( ) will be determined by its
corresponding inertia gain (K
pf-i
) and the total frequency deviation, as follows:
K
pf
P
i
P
i-dispatch
AP
i
+ =
P
i
P
i-dispatch
AP
i
AP
i
23 - 11
where,
is the total frequency deviation and
K
pf-i
is the inertia gain parameter of generator i, which can be calculated as:
with
where,
is the moment of Inertia,
is the rated angular velocity,
is the generator nominal apparent power and
is the acceleration time constant rated to
Fig. 23.8: Inertia/Acceleration Time Constant Parameter of the Synchronous Machine
Type (TypSym). RMS-Simulation Tab Page
Figure 23.9 illustrates the different type of active power control.
AP
i
K
pf-i
Af =
Af
K
pf-i
J e
n
2t =
J S
n
T
ags
e
n
2
---------- =
J
e
n
S
n
T
ags
S
n
T
ags
23 - 12
Fig. 23.9: Frequency Deviation Following an Unbalance in Active Power
Note The Secondary Control option will take into account the participa-
tion factors of the machines defined within a 'Power-Frequency
Controller' (ElmSecctrl) in order to compensate for the frequency
deviation. In such a case, the final steady state frequency is con-
sidered to be the nominal value (number 1 in Figure 23.9). The Pri-
mary Control option will take into account the frequency droop
(MW/Hz) stated in every machine in order to determine the active
power contribution. Depending on the power unbalance, the
steady state frequency will deviate from the nominal value (num-
ber 2 in Figure 23.9). The According to Inertias option will take into
account the inertia/acceleration time constant stated in every ma-
chine in order to determine its active power contribution. In this
case, depending on the power unbalance, the steady state fre-
quency will deviate from the nominal value (number 3 in Figure
23.9).
Reactive Power Control
The reactive power reserves of synchronous generators in transmission networks are used
to control the voltages at specific nodes in the system and/or to control the reactive power
exchange with neighboring network zones. In PowerFactorys load flow calculation, the
voltage regulator of the generators has a voltage setpoint which can be set manually
(defining a PV bus type as introduced in Section 23.1.1), or from an Automatic Station
Controller (ElmStactrl). This Automatic Station Controller combines several sources of
reactive power to control the voltage at a given bus. In this case the relative contribution
of each reactive power source (such as generators and SVSs) is defined in the Station
Controller dialogue. For further details about the use and definition of Automatic Station
Controllers please refer to Appendix C.4.4 (Station Controller (ElmStactrl)).
23.1.3 Advanced Load Options
Voltage Dependency of Loads
All non-motor loads, as well as groups of non-motor loads that conform a sub-system, for
23 - 13
example, a low-voltage system viewed from a medium voltage system, can be modelled
as a "general load".
Under "normal conditions" it is permissible to represent such loads as constant PQ loads.
However under "abnormal conditions", for example during voltage collapse situations the
voltage-dependency of the loads should be taken into account.
Under such assumptions, PowerFactory uses a potential approach, as indicated by
Equations (23.1) and (23.2). In these equations, the subscript 0 indicates the initial
operating condition as defined in the input dialogue box of the Load Type.
Eqn 23.1:
where,
Eqn 23.2:
where,
By specifying the particular exponents (e_aP, e_bP, e_cP and e_aQ, e_bQ, e_cQ) the
inherent load behavior can be modelled. For example, in order to consider a constant
power, constant current or constant impedance behavior, the exponent value should be
set to 0, 1 or 2 respectively. In addition, the relative proportion of each coefficient can be
freely defined using the coefficients aP, bP, cP and aQ, bQ, cQ. For further information,
please refer to the General Load technical reference.
Note These factors are only considered if the "Consider Voltage Depen-
dency of Loads" is checked in the Load-flow Command window. If
no Load Type (TypLod) is assigned to a load, and the load flow is
performed considering voltage dependency then the load will be
considered as Constant Impedance.
Feeder Load Scaling
In radially operated distribution systems the problem often arises that very little is known
about the actual loading of the loads connected at each substation. The only information
sometimes available is the total power flowing into a radial feeder. To be able to still
estimate the voltage profile along the feeder a load scaling tool is used. In the simplest
case the distribution loads are scaled according to the nominal power ratings of the trans-
formers in the substations. Of course, more precise results are obtained by using an
average daily, monthly or annual load.
The previous is explained in Figure 23.10. Here, the measured value at the beginning of
the feeder is stated to be 50 MW. Throughout the feeder there are three loads defined,
of which only for one of them the load is precisely known (20 MW). The other two loads
P P
0
aP
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_aP
bP
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_bP
1 aP bP ( )
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_cP
+ +
\ .
| |
=
cP 1 aP bP ( ) =
Q Q
0
aQ
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_aQ
bQ
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_bQ
1 aQ bQ ( )
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_cQ
+ +
\ .
| |
=
cQ 1 aQ bQ ( ) =
23 - 14
are estimated to be at around 10 MW each. PowerFactorys load flow analysis tool offers
a special Feeder Load Scaling option so that the selected groups of loads (scalable loads)
are scaled accordingly in order to meet the measured value.
Fig. 23.10: Radial Feeder. Feeder Load Scaling Option
In PowerFactory the following options for Feeder Load Scaling are available:
No scaling.
Scaling to measured apparent power.
Scaling to active power.
Scaling to measured current.
Scaling Manually.
Scaling to measured reactive power.
Scaling to measured power factor.
Furthermore, the previous options can be combined; for example, scaling a selected
groups of loads in order to meet a measured active power and power factor.
Note Loads that are to be scaled must be marked as such (Adjusted by
Load Scaling), also the load scaling must be enabled in the load
flow command option (Feeder Load Scaling).
The feeder load scaling process also can take into account the different type of load
behavior represented. Figure 23.11 illustrates just this. Here, a radial feeder consisting of
three different type of loads is depicted (constant power, constant current and constant
impedance). Under such assumptions, performing a load flow calculation with the option
Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads (see previous Section), will result in calculated
base quantities according to the type of load specified; for example, Ibase for the constant
current load and Zbase for the constant impedance load. If in addition to the voltage
dependency of loads, the Feeder Load Scaling option is enabled, the calculated scaling
factor k is applied according to the type of load defined in the feeder.
23 - 15
Fig. 23.11: Feeder Load Scaling Factor Considering Different Behavior of Loads
In PowerFactory, the amount of Feeder definitions is not limited to the amount of radial
paths represented in the model. This means that the user can define more than one
feeder element (ElmFeeder) along the same radial path, as indicated in Figure 23.12. In
this particular example, both Feeder 1 and 2 have the same specified orientation (--
>Branch). While Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the radial path, Feeder 2 is
defined after load L2. This particular type of feeder representation is termed as Nested
Feeders. Since Feeder 1 is defined from the beginning of the radial path, every load (L1,
L2, L3 and L4), as well as every feeder (Feeder 2) along this path will be considered as
part of its definition. Since Feeder 2 is along the path defined for Feeder 1; Feeder 2 is
nested in Feeder 1.
In such cases, executing the load flow (with the option Feeder Load Scaling) will treat the
two feeders as independent. Although nested, Feeder 1 will only try to scale loads L1 and
L2 according to its setting, while Feeder 2 will scale loads L3 and L4. If Feeder 2 is placed
Out of Service, then Feeder 1 will scale all the loads along the radial path (L1, L2, L3 and
L4).
Fig. 23.12: Nested Feeder Definition
For further information on Feeder definitions please refer to Chapter 15.5 (Feeders).
Load Scaling Factors
Loads can be scaled individually by adjusting the Scaling Factor parameter located in the
23 - 16
Load Flow tab page of the Load Element.Together with the scaling factor, the actual load
is calculated as follows:
If voltage dependency of loads is considered then Equations (23.1) and (23.2) become;
Eqn 23.3:
Eqn 23.4:
Note: In order to consider a load in the feeder-load-scaling process, the
option Adjusted by Load Scaling has to be enabled. In this case,
the individual Scaling Factor of the load is not taken into account
but overwritten by the feeder-scaling factor.
Additionally, loads can be grouped in zones, areas or boundaries so the scaling factor can
be easily edited. In case of zones, there will be an additional Zone Scaling Factor.
Coincidence of Low Voltage Loads
In a low voltage system every load may consist of a fixed component with a deterministic
amount of power demand plus a variable component comprising many different, small
loads, such as lights, refrigerators, televisions, etc., whose power varies stochastically
between zero and a maximum value. Under such conditions, PowerFactory uses a
probabilistic load flow calculation, which is able to calculate both maximum and average
currents as well as the average losses and maximum voltage drops. The probabilistic load
flow calculation used by PowerFactory can be applied to any system topology, including
meshed low-voltage systems.
PowerFactorys probabilistic load flow calculation uses low voltage loads comprised of
several customers with fixed and variable (stochastic) demand components. The
maximum value of the variable component (which is dependent upon the number of
customers, n) is described by the following formula:
Where Smax is the maximum variable load per connection (customer) and the function
g(n) describes the maximum coincidence of loads, dependent upon the number of
connections, n. If a Gaussian distribution is assumed, the coincidence function is:
P Scale P
0
=
Q Scale Q
0
=
P Scale P
0
aP
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_aP
bP
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_bP
1 aP bP ( )
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_cP
+ +
\ .
| |
=
Q Scale Q
0
aQ
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_aQ
bQ
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_bQ
1 aQ bQ ( )
v
v
0
-----
\ .
| |
e_cQ
+ +
\ .
| |
=
S
max
n ( ) n g n ( ) S
max
=
23 - 17
The average value of the variable component is:

Note: Low voltage loads can be represented in PowerFactory by Low
Voltage Load (ElmLodlv) elements which can be directly connect-
ed to terminals or by Partial Low Voltage Loads (ElmLodlvp)
which are defined along transmission lines/cables (see the Defini-
tion of Line Loads section on the Load Flow tab of transmission
line/cable elements - ElmLne).
23.1.4 Temperature Dependency of Lines and Cables
The most important effect of the resistance of transmission line and cable conductors is
the generation of losses (IR). Resistance will also affect the voltage regulation of the line
due to voltage drop (IR).
The resistance of a conductor is mainly affected by the operating temperature, and its
variation can be considered practically linear over the normal range of operation (an
increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance). In PowerFactory, the load
flow calculation has two options for considering the Temperature Dependency of resis-
tance for lines and cables:
at 20C: When this option is selected, the load flow calculation uses the resistances
(lines and cables) stated in the Basic Data tab page of the corresponding component
(TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).
Fig. 23.13: Specification of the Resistance at 20C in the Basic Data tab page of the
line type (TypLne)
at Maximum Operational Temperature: When this option is selected, the load
flow calculation uses the corrected value of resistance, which is obtained with the
following equation:
g n ( ) g
1 g
n
--------------- + =
S
av
g
S
max
=
Resistance
23 - 18
Eqn 23.5:
where,
R
20
is the resistance at temperature 20C (Basic Data tab of the corresponding type)
o is the temperature coefficient in K
-1
T
max
is the maximum operational temperature (Load Flow tab of the corresponding type)
R
max
is the resistance at temperature T
max
Fig. 23.14: Temperature Dependency Option Setting in the Load Flow tab page of the
line type (TypLne)
Additionally, the resistance temperature dependency can be defined by specifying either
the resistance at maximum operational temperature, the temperature coefficient (1/K) or
the conductor material (Aluminium, Copper or Aldrey).
Table 23.1 indicates the electrical resistivities and temperature coefficients of metals used
in conductors and cables referred at 20C/68F (taken from IEC 60287-1 standard).
Table 23.1:Electrical Resistivities and Temperature
coefficients of Aluminium and Copper
Material Resistivity
(Om)
Temperature
coefficient [K
-1
]
Aluminium
2.8264x10
-8
4.03x10
-3
Copper
1.7241x10
-8
3.93x10
-3
R
max
R
20
1 o T
max
20
o
C ( ) + | | =
T
max
Specification of the
Temperature dependency
23 - 19
23.2 Executing Load Flow Calculations
A load flow calculation may be initiated by:
Pressing the icon on the main toolbar;
Selecting the Calculation > Load Flow ... option from the main menu.
An example of the load flow command dialogue is shown in Figure 23.15.

Fig. 23.15: Load Flow Command (ComLdf) Dialogue
The following pages explain the load flow command options. Following this, some hints
are given regarding what to do if your load flow cannot be solved.
The following pages describe the different load flow command (ComLdf) options. for
more detail technical background regarding the options presented here, please refer to
Section 23.1.
23.2.1 Basic Options
Calculation Method
AC Load Flow, balanced, positive sequence
Performs load flow calculations for a single-phase, positive sequence
network representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A
23 - 20
balanced representation of unbalanced objects is used (for further
details please refer to Section 23.1.1).
AC Load Flow, unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC)
Performs load flow calculations for a multi-phase network
representation. It can be used for analyzing unbalances of 3-phase
systems, e.g. introduced by unbalanced loads or non-transposed lines,
or for analyzing all kinds of unbalanced system technologies, such as
single-phase- or two-phase systems (with or without neutral return).
For further details please refer to Section 23.1.1.
DC Load Flow (linear)
Performs a DC load flow based on a set of linear equations, where the
voltage angles of the buses are strongly related to the active power
flow through the reactances of the individual components (for further
details please refer to Section 23.1.1).
Reactive Power Control
This option is available only for AC load flow calculations.
Automatic Tap Adjust of Transformers
Adjusts the taps of all transformers which have the option Automatic
Tap Changing enabled on the Load Flow tab of their element dialogues.
The tap adjustment is carried out according to the control settings
defined in the transformer element's dialogue (for further information
please refer to the corresponding Technical Reference ).
Automatic Shunt Adjustment
Adjusts the steps of all switchable shunts that have the option
Switchable enabled on the Load Flow tab of the shunts element
dialogue (for further information please refer to corresponding
Technical Reference).
Consider Reactive Power Limits
Considers the reactive power limits defined by generators and SVSs. If
the load flow cannot be solved without exceeding the specified limits, a
convergence error is generated. If this option is not enabled,
PowerFactory will print a warning message if any of the specified
limits are exceeded.
Consider Reactive Power Limits Scaling Factor
This option is only available if Consider Reactive Power Limits is
enabled. If selected, the reactive power limits of generators are scaled
by the relaxation factors: Scaling factor (min) and Scaling factor (max)
which are set on the Load Flow tab of the generator element's
dialogue. Note that the reactive power limits of generators are also
defined on the Load Flow tab of the generator element's dialogue by
one of the following: maximum/minimum values, 5.5.4, or according to
the generators assigned type.
Load Options
Consider Voltage Dependency of Loads
The voltage dependency of loads with defined voltage dependency
23 - 21
factors (Load Flow tab of the general- and complex load types) will be
considered.
Feeder Load Scaling
Scales loads with the option Adjusted by Feeder Load Scaling enabled
on the Load Flow tab of their element dialogue by the Scaling Factor
specified in the Load Scaling section of the feeder element (for
information about feeder elements please refer to Section 5.3.3
(Network Data)). In this case, the Scaling Factor specified on the Load
Flow tab of load element dialogue is disregarded.
Consider Coincidence of Low-Voltage Loads
Calculates a 'low voltage load flow' as described in Sections 23.1.3 and
23.2.6, where load coincidence factors are considered (for C.2.6 and
C.2.7 objects), so as to produce maximum branch currents and
maximum voltage drops. Since coincidence factors are used, the result
of low voltage analysis will not obey Kirchhoff's current law.
After the load flow has been successfully executed, maximum currents
(Imax), maximum voltage drops (dumax) and minimum voltages
(umin, Umin) are displayed in every branch element and at every
busbar. The usual currents and voltages represent here average values
of voltages and currents. Losses are calculated based on average
values, and maximum circuit loading is calculated using maximum
currents.
Scaling Factor for Night Storage Heaters
This is the factor by which the night storage heater power (as found in
Low Voltage Load elements) is multiplied for all low voltage loads.
Temperature Dependency: Line/Cable Resistances
...at 20C
The resistance of each line, conductor and cable will be according to
the value stated in the Basic Data tab page of their corresponding type
(at 20C).
...at Maximum Operational Temperature
The resistance of each line, conductor and cable will be adjusted
according to the equation (23.5) described in Section 23.1.4 and the
Temperature Dependency option stated in its corresponding type
(TypLne, TypCon, TypCab).
23.2.2 Active Power Control
Active Power Control
As explained in Section 23.1.2, PowerFactorys load flow calculation offers several
options for maintaining power balance within the system under analysis. These options
are:
as Dispatched:
If this option is selected and no busbar is assigned to the Reference
Busbar (Reference Bus and Balancing section of the Active Power
23 - 22
Control tab), the total power balance is established by one reference
generator/external grid ("slack"-generator). The slack generator can be
directly defined by the user on the Load Flow tab of the target element.
The program automatically sets a slack if one has not been already
defined by the user.
according to Secondary Control:
Power balance is established by all generators which are considered by
a "Secondary Controller" as explained in Section 23.1.2. Active power
contribution is according to the secondary controller participation
factors.
according to Primary Control:
Power balance is established by all generators having a Kpf-setting
defined (on the Load Flow tab of a synchronous machine element
dialogue), as explained in Section 23.1.2. Active power contribution is
according to the droop of every generator.
according to Inertias:
Power balance is established by all generators, and the contribution of
each is according to the inertia (acceleration time constant) as
explained in Section 23.1.2.
Consider Active Power Limits:
Active power limits for generators (as defined on the elements Load
Flow tab) participating in active power balance, will be applied. If this
option is disabled, the active power output limits may be violated, in
which case a warning is issued. This option is not available when the
Active Power Control option is set to either as Dispatched or according
to Inertias.
Reference Bus and Balancing
If as Dispatched is selected in the Active Power Control section of the tab, further options
regarding the location of the reference busbar and the power balancing method are
available:
Balancing by Reference Machine:
For each isolated area, the reference machine will balance the active
power.
Balancing by Load at Reference Busbar:
This option is valid only when the reference bus bar has been defined.
The load with highest active power injection at the reference bus will
be selected as the slack (such as to balance the losses).
Balancing by Static Generator at Reference Bus:
As in the case of Balancing by Load, this option is valid only when the
reference bus bar has been defined. The static generator with the
highest nominal apparent power at the reference bus will be selected
as the slack (i.e. to balance the losses).
Distributed Slack by Loads:
When this option is selected, only the loads which have the option
Adjusted by Load Scaling in the isolated area will contribute to the
balancing. The distribution factor calculated for a load is determined by
the following equation:
23 - 23

where,
P
ini
is the initial active power of the load.
Fig. 23.16: Adjusted by Load Scaling option in the Load Flow tab page of the Load
element (ElmLod)
Distributed Slack by Generation (Synchronous Generators):
All the synchronous generators in the isolated area will contribute to
the balancing. As in the Distributed Slack by Loads option, the
distribution factor calculated for a generator is determined by the
following equation:

where,
P
ini
is the initial dispatched active power of the generator.
Interchange Schedule:
This option is available only when the Distributed Slack by Loads or
Distributed Slack by Generation is selected. It allows the loads or
generation in a region to be scaled up or down to control the
interchange of this region. The type of the region could be:
Grids: Available for both distributed load slack and distributed
generation.
Zones: Available for both distributed load slack and distributed
generation.
Boundaries: Only available for distributed load slack.
K
i
P
ini i ,
P
i ni j ,
j 1 =
N
--------------------- =
K
i
P
ini i ,
P
i ni j ,
j 1 =
N
--------------------- =
23 - 24

In the load flow page of the grid, zone or boundary elements, the
following operational parameters are available:
Consider Interchange Schedule: Enables or disables the
Interchange Schedule for this region. By default this option is not
selected.
Scheduled active power interchange: States the expected
interchange of the grid, zone or boundary.
Fig. 23.17: Consider Interchange Schedule option in the Load Flow tab page of the
Grid element (ElmNet)
Reference Busbar:
A different busbar to the one connecting the slack machine (or
network) can be selected as a reference for the voltage angle. In this
case the user must specify the value of the voltage angle at this
selected reference bus, which will be remotely controlled by the
assigned slack machine (or network).
Angle:
User-defined voltage angle for the selected reference busbar. The value
will be remotely controlled by the slack machine (external network).
Only available if a Reference Busbar has been selected.
23.2.3 Advanced Options
Load Flow Method
As explained in Section 23.1.1, the nodal equations used to represent the analyzed
networks are implemented using two different formulations:
Newton-Raphson (Current Equations)
Newton-Raphson (Power Equations, classical)
In both formulations, the resulting non-linear equation systems must be solved using an
iterative method. PowerFactory uses the Newton-Raphson method as its non-linear
equation solver. The selection of the method used to formulate the nodal equations is
user-defined, and should be selected based on the type of network to be calculated. For
large transmission systems, especially when heavily loaded, the classical Newton-
Raphson algorithm using the Power Equations formulation usually converges best. Distri-
bution systems, especially unbalanced distribution systems, usually converge better using
the Current Equations formulation.
23 - 25
Load Flow Initialisation
No Topology Rebuild
Will speed up large sets of consecutive load flow calculations. Enabling
this option means that the topology of the system will not be rebuilt
when calculating the next load flow. If no topological changes will be
made to the system between these consecutive load flow calculations,
then this option may be enabled.
No Initialisation (no flat-start)
Initializes a load flow from a previously convergent solution (no flat-
start).
Consideration of transformer winding ratio
Sets the manner in which voltage initialisation takes place at nodes.
Reducing the relaxation factor results in an increased number of
iterations, but yields greater numerical robustness.
Tap Adjustment
Method
The direct method will include the tap controller models in the load flow
calculation (i.e. in the internal loop involving the Newton-Raphson
iterations). The new tap positions will then be calculated directly as a
variable and are therefore known following a single load flow
calculation.
The stepped method will calculate a load flow with fixed tap positions,
after which the required tap changes are calculated from the observed
voltage deviations and the tap controller time constants. The load flow
calculation is then repeated with the new tap positions, until no further
changes are required. These tap adjustments take place in the outer
loop of the calculation.
Min. Controller Relaxation Factor
The tap controller time constants are used in the automatic tap
changer calculations to determine the relative speed of the various tap
controllers during the load flow iterations. The relaxation factor can be
used to slow down the overall controller speeds (in case of
convergence problems, set a factor of less than 1.0), or to speed them
up (for a faster load flow, set a factor of greater than 1.0).
Station Controller
Available on the second page ( ) of the Advanced Options tab. The options presented
in this field determine the reactive power flow from generators participating in station
controllers (ElmStactrl). Please refer to Appendix C.4.4 (Station Controller (ElmStactrl))
for information on station controllers and their control modes.
23 - 26
Modeling Method of Towers
with in/output signals
The equations of the lines are modelled in the tower. It should be noted
that selecting this option will result in slower performance.
ignore couplings
Inter-circuit couplings are ignored.
equations in lines
The constant impedance and admittance matrices are calculated by the
tower and used to develop the equations of the lines. The equations
involving coupling are modeled in the lines; consequently, using this
option results in faster performance than using option with in/output
signals.
Use this load flow for initialization of OPF
The results of this load flow calculation are used to initialize the OPF calculation.
23.2.4 Iteration Control
The options on this tab relate to the non-linear equation solver and are therefore only
available for PowerFactorys AC load flow calculation methods.
Max. Number of Iterations for
The load flow calculation comprises an inner loop involving the Newton-Raphson method
(see Section 23.1.1), and an outer loop to determine changes to tap settings and to
consider generator reactive power limits. Default values for the maximum number of
iterations for these two loops are 25 iterations for the inner loop, and 20 iterations for the
outer loop.
Newton-Raphson Iteration - itrlx
The inner loop of the load flow involves the Newton-Raphson iterations.
This parameter defines the maximum number of iterations (typically
25).
Outer Loop - ictrlx
The outer loop of the load flow calculation will determine changes to
the tap changer (depending on the tap adjustment method selected),
and considers reactive power limits of generators, etc. These are
adjusted in the outer loop and then a new iteration of the inner loop is
started again (see Section 23.1.1). The maximum number of outer loop
iterations (typically 20) is set by this parameter.
Number of Steps - nsteps
Problematic load flows with slow convergence may be improved by
starting a load flow calculation for a low load level, and then increasing
the load level in a number of steps. This is achieved by setting the
Number of Stairs to a value greater than one. For example, nsteps =3
begins a load flow at a load/generation level of 1/3 and the increases
the power to 100% over two further steps.
23 - 27
Max. Acceptable Load Flow Error for
A higher precision or a faster calculation can be obtained by changing the maximum
allowable error (i.e. tolerance). The values of the calculated absolute error for nodes, or
the calculated relative errors in the model equations, e.g. voltage error of voltage
controlled generators, are specified here.
Nodes - errlf Maximum Iteration Error of Nodal Equations (typical value: 1 kVA).
Model Equations - erreq Maximum Error of Model Equations (typical value: 0.1%).
Convergence Options
Relaxation Factor
A Newton-Raphson relaxation factor smaller than 1.0 will slow down
the convergence speed of the load flow calculation, but may result in
an increased likelihood of convergence for systems which are otherwise
difficult to solve.
Automatic Model Adaptation for Convergency
The PowerFactory load flow calculation will always first try to find a
solution using non-linear mathematical power system models. If a
solution cannot be found, and this option is enabled, an adaptive
algorithm will change these models slightly to make them more linear,
until a solution is found. Any model adaptations are reported in the
output window.
23.2.5 Outputs
Show 'Outer Loop' messages
Will print a report concerning the outer loop iterations, which may be
used to solve convergence problems.
Show Convergence Progress Report
Will print a detailed report throughout the load flow calculation. When
enabling this option the Number of reported buses/models per iteration
can be stated. As a result, the required number of buses and models
with the largest error will be reported (e.g. by stating 3, the 3 buses
and models with the largest error will be printed out in the output
window). As in the case of 'Outer Loop' messages, this information can
be useful in solving convergence problems.
Show Verification Report
Produces a table in the output window with a list of overloaded power system elements
and voltage violations, according to the following values:
Max. Loading of Edge Element
Reference value of the maximum loading used by the 'Verification
Report'.
Lower Limit of Allowed Voltage
Reference value for the minimum allowed voltage used by the
'Verification Report'.
23 - 28
Upper Limit of Allowed Voltage
Reference value for the maximum allowed voltage used by the
'Verification Report'.
Output
Displays the report format definition that will be used. The arrow
button ( ) can be pressed to edit or inspect the report settings. This
option is only available if Show Verification Report is selected.
23.2.6 Low Voltage Analysis
As explained in Sections 23.1.3 and 23.2.1, low voltage loads (ElmLodlv and ElmLodvp)
are modelled in PowerFactory with fixed and variable (stochastic) components. The
parameters which define these fixed and variable components are set in both the load
flow command dialogue (i.e. globally), and in the load types dialogues (i.e. locally)
according to the settings defined below.
Definition of Fixed Load per Customer
The fixed load is the non-stochastic component of the load, which is not subject to coinci-
dence factors. The active and reactive power defined in this field, multiplied by the
number of customers (defined in the load element itself), are added to the fixed load
component defined for each low voltage load (ElmLodlv and ElmLodvp). For further
information about LV loads please refer to the corresponding technical references: C.2.6
and C.2.7.
Definition of Variable Load per Customer
The variable component of low voltage loads can be globally defined using the parameters
in this section or by specifically defining LV load types for the target loads.
The Max. Power per Customer is the independent maximum kVA per customer. This value,
multiplied by the Coincidence Factor (ginf) (see Section 23.1.3), gives the "Average
Power" per customer, which is used in load flow calculations.
The 'total' maximum variable power per load is calculated using the Max. Power per
Customer, the Coincidence Factor (ginf), and the number of customers (defined in the
load element itself) as described in Section 23.1.3.
For further information about LV loads please refer to the corresponding technical refer-
ences: C.2.6 and C.2.7.
Note The factors defined in the section 'Definition of Variable Load
per Customer' are used as global data for the load flow calcula-
tion. If specific LV load types are defined, the locally-defined data
in the type is used by the corresponding loads. For all other LV
loads with no type assigned, the global data from the load flow
command is used.
23 - 29
Voltage Drop Analysis
For the consideration of the stochastic nature of loads, PowerFactory offers two calcu-
lation methods:
Stochastic Evaluation
Maximum Current Estimation
The Stochastic Evaluation method is the more theoretical approach, and can also be
applied to meshed network topologies. The Maximum Current Estimation method applies
stochastic rules only for the estimation of maximum branch flows. Based on the maximum
current flow in each branch element, maximum voltage drops are calculated and added
along the feeder. Obviously, this method has its limitations in case of meshed LV networks.
23.2.7 Advanced Simulation Options
This page, as shown in Figure 23.18, is not only important for load flow but also for other
calculation functions such as transient simulation. Utilizing the options on this page can
result in improved performance; i.e. the speed of a transient simulation may improved
when protection devices are neglected in the calculation.

Fig. 23.18: Advanced Simulation Options in the load flow command dialogue
Consider Protection Devices
Calculates the tripping times for all modeled relays and fuses. This will
also show the load currents in the overcurrent plots and/or the
measured impedance in the R-X diagrams. Disabling this option will
speed up the calculations.
Ignore Composite Elements
Disables all controller models. The panes Models Considered and
Models Ignored are used to disable specific groups of controller
models. Model names can be moved between these panes by either
23 - 30
double-clicking on them or by selecting them and using the arrow
buttons. Enabling this option may result in faster convergence, or an
increased likelihood of convergence for systems which are otherwise
difficult to solve.
23.3 Result Analysis
In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in
tabular form or by using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram
colouring options in other to have a "quick" overview of the results.
23.3.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram
Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in
the single-line diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each "side"
of an element. So for example a load has one result box, a line two result boxes, and a
three-winding transformer three result boxes. In PowerFactory these elements are
collectively called edge elements. In addition, there are result boxes for nodes or buses.
The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is
associated. There are a few predefined formats for edge elements and a few predefined
formats for buses. In order to see the selection, first perform a load flow, then, from the
main menu, select Output > Results for Edge Elements or Output > Results for Buses.
These menu options will show the list of available result box formats. Alternatively, you
can select (click) inside a result box on the single-line diagram, then right-click and from
the context sensitive menu choose Format for Edge Elements or in case of a node Format
for Nodes. Figure 23.19 serves as an example.
Fig. 23.19: Selecting the Result Box from the Single Line Diagram.
Besides these predefined formats the result boxes can be formatted in order to display
selected variables.
23 - 31
By right-clicking on one of the result boxes and selecting the option Edit Format for Edge
Elements and afterwards pressing the "Input Mode" button three options will be available:
"Predefined Variables", "User Selection" or "Text Editor". The "User Selection" option will
allow the selection of any of the available variables.
23.3.2 Flexible Data Page
Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the "Edit Relevant
Objects for Calculation" button ( ) located on the main menu will prompt a submenu
with icons for all classes that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any of the
class-icons will open a browser with all elements of that class that are currently used in
the calculation. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of the browser is the "Flexible Data"
tab page. Click on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change the columns in the
flexible page, press the "Define Flexible Data" button ( ). This will bring a selection
window where the set of variables can be edited. In the left pane the available variables
will be shown while the right pane will list the selected variables. Pressing the << or >>
buttons will move the selected variable from the one pane to the other pane.
23.3.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)
In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available
to the user. These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the "Output Calculation
Analysis" button ( ) located on the main menu (a load flow must be calculated first).
This will bring a selection window in which the user can select a specific type of report.
Some reports like the "Complete System Report" will have various options which the user
can set. The report selection window also shows the report definition which will be used
for the selected report. Pressing Execute will write the report to the output window.
Although the reports are already predefined, the user has the possibility of modifying the
reports if required (by clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right of the "used format"
definition).
A Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a load flow calcu-
lation is executed (see Section 23.2.5).
23.3.4 Diagram Colouring
When performing load flow calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-diagram
in order to have a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a loading
above 90% or if the voltages of the busbars are outside the specified limits. In Power-
Factory there is the option of selecting different colouring modes according to the calcu-
lation performed. If a specific calculation is valid, then the selected colouring for this
calculation is displayed. As an example, if the user selects the colouring mode "Zones" for
"No Calculation" and "Low and High Voltage/Loadings" for the load flow calculation, then
the initial colouring will be according to "Zones". However, as soon as the load flow is
calculated, the diagram will be coloured according to "Low and High Voltage/Loadings".
If the load flow calculation is reset or invalid, the colouring mode switches back to
"Zones".
The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme also implemented,
23 - 32
allowing colouring elements according to the following criteria: 1
st
Energizing status, 2
nd
Alarm and 3
rd
"Normal" (Other) colouring.
Energizing Status
If this check box is enabled "De-energized" or "Out of Calculation"
elements are coloured according to the settings in the "Project Colour
Settings". The settings of the "De-energized" or "Out of Calculation"
mode can be edited by clicking on the "Colour Settings" button.
Alarm
If this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes
will be available. It is important to note here that only alarm modes
available for the current calculation page will be listed. If an alarm
mode is selected, elements "exceeding" the corresponding a limit are
coloured. Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the "Colour
Settings" button.
"Normal" (Other) Colouring
Here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contains all available
colouring modes. The second list will contain all sub modes of the
selected colouring mode. The settings of the different colouring modes
can be edited by clicking on the "Colour Settings" button.
Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion
is optional and will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all
three criterions, the hierarchy taken account will be the following:
- "Energizing Status" overrules the "Alarm" and "Normal Colouring" mode. The
"Alarm" mode overrules the "Normal Colouring" mode.
23.3.5 Load Flow Sign Convention
By default, PowerFactory has the following load flow sign convention (Mixed Mode):
Branches:
Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the
busbar is negative.
Loads:
Power Flow going out of the Busbar is positive while going into the
busbar is negative. Here, the term load considers "General Loads",
"Low-Voltage Loads", "Motors", "Shunts/Filters" and "SVS". A
synchronous machine stated as a "Motor" will have also this sign
convention.
Generation:
Power Flow going out of the Busbar is negative while going into the
busbar is positive. Here, the term Generation considers "Generators",
"External Grids", "Static Generators" and "Current and Voltage
Sources". An asynchronous machine stated as a "Generator" will have
also this sign convention.
In PowerFactory there is the option of choosing between the following sign conven-
tions:
23 - 33
Mixed Mode (Default).
Load Oriented (all the flows directions will be according to the load definition).
Generator Oriented (all the flows directions will be according to the generator
definition).
In order to change the sign convention, select Edit > Project... from the main menu. In
the dialogue window that pops-up, go to the Basic Data tab page and click on the Project
Settings button. In the Advanced Calculation Parameters tab page of the Project Settings
window (Figure 23.20) click on the Flow Orientation drop down window and select the
required option.
Fig. 23.20: Flow Orientation Setting
23.4 Troubleshooting Load Flow Calculation Problems
In general, if a solution can be found (in other words, the network is mathematically
solvable), PowerFactory will find a solution. In some cases the user may have made an
error which will not allow a solution to be found; such as a large load causing a voltage
drop so large that a voltage collapse results. In a real-world power system the same
problem would be found.
When creating a network for the first time it is best to enter the data for only a small part
or 'path' of the network and solve the network by calculating a load flow. PowerFactory
has a data verification process in which certain checks are performed, such as whether a
line is connected between nodes of the same voltage; and the correct voltage orientation
of transformers, etc.
Typical reasons for non-convergence in the load flow are:
Data model problem.
Too many inner loop iterations.
Too many outer loop iterations.
Excessive mismatch.
23 - 34
Tap hunting.
Clearly this is not an exhaustive list of problems, but these are the main causes of non-
convergence and that will be discussed in this section.
23.4.1 General Troubleshooting
The place to search for the causes of the non-convergence problem is in the Power-
Factory output window. Here, there can be three different types of messages printed out,
which are the following:
Info messages (green/blue):
Information detailing the load flow convergence (inner and outer loop iterations).
Information of generators with reactive power compensation at output limit.
Information on the total number of isolated areas (see 23.4.3).
Warning messages (dark red):
Warning messages do not need to be corrected for the load flow to solve, however
they could give you an indication of where the problem is.
Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in terms of your system.
Important warnings, such as ''Exceeding Mvar limit range'' may not be acceptable.
''Unsupplied Areas'' messages indicate that an isolated area with ''Consumers''
(such as loads and motors) is without a generator, power source or external supply.
Error messages (red):
Error messages must be corrected for a load flow to solve.
Error messages could be generated by PowerFactory's data checking function,
which include messages such as DIgSI/err - missing type! In most cases
the messages have links to the data base and graphic. The following options can be
performed in order to trace errors:
Use the data-verification tool ( ).
Once errors have been detected, open the problematic element
dialogue window by double clicking on the name directely from the
output window. Or alternatevely, right mouse button over the name
and select 'edit', or 'edit and browse', or 'mark in graphic'.
The amount of information being printed to the PowerFactory output window can be
changed by the user. Once error messages have been analyzed and corrected and the
load flow still does not solve, the user may want to print more detailed information on the
convergence progress.
Tick the Show Convergence Progress Report option found in the Outputs tab of the load
flow dialogue (refer to Section 23.2.5).
This will print messages to the output window that can provide clues as to where the
convergence problems may lie.
The single line graphic can also be colored to show low and high voltages and
overloadings. This will also provide a good indication of possible problems. Look at the
undervoltage nodes and overloaded elements and investigate why they are overloaded;
look at load setpoints, line lengths and line type data (the impedances may be too high,
for example).
Note As explained above, there are 3 different types of messages that
23 - 35
are printed to the output window: warning, error and information
messages. Only error messages must be corrected for a load flow
to solve. Take note of the warning messages and evaluate them in
terms of your system, however these do not need to be corrected
for the load flow to solve. "Unsupplied Areas" means that unsup-
plied areas with ''Consumers'' is without a generator, power source
or external supply.
If there is still no convergence then set the option Out of Service for most of the elements
(see each elements Basic Data tab). Following this, bring these elements back into
service, one at a time, from the source element 'downwards', performing a load flow
calculation each time.
When experiencing large unbalances, such as when there are a number of single or dual
phase elements, or when using power electronics elements, select the Newton-Raphson
(Current Iteration) option on the Advanced tab of the load flow dialogue.
23.4.2 Data Model Problem
In PowerFactory, there are three different levels of data verification implemented:
Parameter Level:
Checks the consistency of the parameter being inputted; for example, inputting a
negative value in the length of the line will prompt an error message. Other
verifications implemented include checking if the parameter inputted is within
certain limits.
Object Level:
Checks the consistency of the data being inputted from the component itself; for
example, checking if the magnetizing losses of a transformers are less that the total
magnetizing apparent power (i.e. magnetizing current), checking if the inputting of
the manufactures data results in a feasible torque-slip characteristic, etc.
System Level:
Checks the consistency of the data being inputted from a system point of view; for
example, checking if lines/cables are connected between the same voltage levels,
checking if the HV/MV/LV side of transformers is compatible with the voltage level
of busbars, checking if there are missing types, etc.
Data model problems can normally be fixed easily as the output window message refers
directly to the element causing the problem.
Typical cases of data model problems are:
DIgSI/err - missing type!:
It indicates that input data (electrical data defined in types) is missing. In most
cases the messages have links to the data base and graphic.
DIgSI/err - Check control conditions!:
It normally appears when more than one controller (for example a station
controller) is set to control the same element, such as the same busbar.
PowerFactory will print the name of the controlled element to the output window.
Starting from the controlled element, access the controllers to fix the problem.
DIgSI/err - Line connected between different voltage levels!
23 - 36
23.4.3 Some Load Flow Calculation Messages
DIgSI/info - Grid split into 182 isolated areas
An ''isolated area'' indicates that a busbar or a group of busbars are not connected
to the slack busbar. An isolated generator or an isolated external grid forms an
isolated area. An isolated area refers basically to nodes.
Each isolated area is assigned an index (Parameter name b:ipat under
ElmTerm\Basic) and needs a load flow reference (slack) of its own.
These busbars can be found colouring the single line graphic according to isolated
grids.
DIgSI/wrng - 2 area(s) are unsupplied
An ''unsupplied area'' is an isolated area with ''Consumers'' (such as loads and
motors) without a generator, power source or external supply. That is U=0 and
I=0. Unsupplied areas belong to the group of isolated areas. The unsupplied areas
can be identified by displaying the following parameter in the ''Consumers''
components (loads, synchronous/asynchronous motors):
r:bus1b:ipat. Gives the Index of the isolated area
r:bus1:b:imode= 0. Indicates there is no slack in the isolated area
therefore indicating its unsupplied.
r:bus1:b:imode> 0. Indicates the area is supplied.
DIgSI/err - Outer loop did not converge. Maximum number of
iterations reached
Fore some hints on this type of error please refer to Section 23.4.5.
23.4.4 Too many Inner Loop Iterations
Too many inner loop iterations are ''normally'' related to voltage stability (voltage collapse)
problems. For example, a large load causing voltage drops so high that a voltage collapse
results. Also very weak connections resulting from faults or outages may lead to voltage
collapse during contingency analysis.
The problem will not only be found in the simulation but would be found in the real world
as well!
The main causes leading to a voltage stability problem can be summarized as follows:
- Excessive active power demand leading to a high voltage drop.
- Lack of reactive power compensation.
Diagnosis and Solution:
The main source of Information is the output window.
Enable the ''Show Convergence Progress Report'' option found in the ''Outputs'' tab
of the load-flow dialogue.
Analyze the convergence of the inner loop iterations: check the progress in the load
flow error for nodes and model equations:
Are they increasing or decreasing?
If the error is not continuously decreasing, it could be an indication of a
voltage stability problem.
23 - 37
Identify the element (load, generator) with high convergence error. Use
the Mark in Graphic option to identify the zone of the network having
the problem.

Several possible countermeasures can be undertaken to fix the problem:
Use the Iteration Control options on the load flow command (increasing
the number of stairs as the first option, typically to 3).
Load shedding: disconnect the load identified as responsible for the
high convergence error.
Connect additional reactive power compensation.
Using the flexible data page, check if there are any heavily loaded
circuits, these indicate weak connections.

Once the load flow converges, check if there are areas with voltages with high
deviation from operating voltages.
Excessive Mismatch
Where there is a large mismatch between demand and generation (>15%) the load flow
is unlikely to converge. This is typified by a large number of iterations followed by
warnings or errors such as:
No convergence in load flow!
Equation system could not be solved. Check Control Conditions!
Depending on the size of the mismatch, the failure might occur during the initial Newton-
Raphson or during subsequent outer loop iteration. There may also be a large number of
maximum/minimum reactive power reached and transformer tap statements.
Solution:
Set the option Show Convergence Progress Report on the Outputs tab
page and observe which elements are having the highest mismatches.
These elements should be closely checked.
Check the mismatch on the Reference machine by performing a DC
load flow as Dispatched allowing for normal losses. Rebalancing the
network might alleviate convergence problems.
23.4.5 Too Many Outer Loop Iterations
Outer loops iterations are required to calculate discrete tap positions of transformers,
number of steps of switchable reactive power compensation, etc. in order to match the
voltage profile or reactive power control specified by the user.
Too many outer loop iterations is referring to a solution that is too far away from the
starting point (default tap positions) to converge in the allowed number of outer loop
iterations.
Diagnosis and Solution:
The outer-loop does the following:
23 - 38
Increasing/Decreasing discrete taps.
Increasing/Decreasing switchable shunts.
Limiting/Releasing synchronous machines to/from max/min reactive
power limits.

If the outer loop does not converge, it can have the following reasons:
Tap upper and lower limits are too close, so that the voltage can never
be kept in the desired range.
The same with switchable shunts.
Other toggling effects, for example synchronous machine limits and tap
positions don't find a stable solution.

The main source of Information is the output window. Check first the following:
Is the number of messages reducing with each outer loop iteration?

The following messages in the output window may indicate a problem and lead to a
non-convergent solution.
Maximum/minimum tap position reached
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - '\.... \Transformer.ElmTr2':
DIgSI/pcl - Maximum Tap Position reached
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
The message indicates that more/less reactive power is required at
this location (the tap is at maximum/minimum position). The
message indicates therefore an area in the network where a lack/
excess of reactive power is likely to happen.
Reactive power limit left
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - '\.... \ Generator.ElmSym':
DIgSI/pcl - Reactive Power Limit left
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
This will lead to a convergence error. A load flow calculation without
considering reactive power limits may find a solution. Check then
required reactive power at the generator.
Maximum/minimum reactive power reached.
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
DIgSI/pcl - '\....\Generator.ElmSym':
DIgSI/pcl - Maximum Reactive Power Reached
DIgSI/pcl - --------------------------------
23 - 39
Basically means that there is no regulation margin in the specified
generators.

In general the results from the last iteration should be available to view on the
output window.
Is the mismatch always in the same (or similar) location?
How far away from the solution was the original starting point?

All actions (except for shunt switching) are displayed in the output window by blue
messages. Observing these messages allows to conclude what the reason for the
convergence problem was, for example if a synchronous machine toggles between
limited/released, the problem is related to this particular machine.
If no toggling can be observed, increasing the maximum number of
outer iteration loops may help.
If the load flow converges, improve the convergence of subsequent
calculations by saving the tap positions ( ).

If the load flow does not converge after a large number of iterations then other
methods of improving convergence are:
Use the direct method on the advanced options page of the load flow
command.
Set the maximum tap changes per iteration to be a small number, for
example 1. This will result in PowerFactory not changing all tap
changers at once by several steps but only by maximum of 1 step at
once. In larger networks this is often improving the convergence.
Perform a load flow without automatic taps and shunt adjustment. If
the load flow does not converge in this case, it could be an indication
that the load is exceeding the voltage stability limits, thus the load is
too high.
Tap Hunting
Tap hunting can be easily recognised when one or more transformers oscillate between
tap positions until the number of outer loop iterations is exhausted. This is normally due
to the transformer (controller) target voltage dead band being smaller than the trans-
former tap step size.
The messages below indicate an example of a single transformer Tap-Hunting:
23 - 40
This problem of no converging load-flow with the 'stepped' tap changing method is caused
by a slightly different way of the iteration to reach the correct tap position and load-flow
results. This might result in a non-convergence in the outer loop, when the controller
range (Vmax-Vmin) of the tap changer is near to the value of the additional voltage per
tap.
Solution:
Change the minimum relaxation factor on the Advanced Options tab
page of the load flow command to a smaller value. This might help the
load flow to converge.
Check if the dead bands of the target or control busbars of the
corresponding transformers are correctly set. Also check if the tap
changer data on the load flow page of the transformer type is correct.
Disable the automatic tap changing of the transformers where tap
hunting occur. Run the load flow (it should converge in this case!) and
then check the sensitivity of the tap changer increasing and decreasing
the tap position by one step. Verify the results against the dead band of
the target busbar.
23.5 Load Flow Sensitivities
PowerFactorys Load Flow Sensitivities (ComVstab) command is shown in Figure
23.21. This command performs a voltage sensitivity analysis based on the linearization of
the system around the operational point resulting from a load flow calculation (as
explained in Section 23.5.3).
The ComVstab command is accessible by the following means:
selecting the 'Additional Tools' icon ( ) for the toolbar (in PowerFactorys main
icon bar) and then clicking on the ComVstab icon ( ); or
right-clicking on a busbar/terminal or transformer and selecting Calculate --> Load
Flow Sensitivities... . In this case the command will be automatically set to calculate
the sensitivity to power injections/tap changes on the selected busbar/transformer.
23 - 41
The selected terminal/transformer will be automatically set in the Busbar (or
Transformer) reference.
Fig. 23.21: Load Flow Sensitivities Command (ComVstab) Dialogue
23.5.1 Load Flow Sensitivities Options
The options available for the Load Flow Sensitivities command (Figure 23.21) are:
Initialization
Load Flow:
Displays which load flow command will be used to initialize the
sensitivity analysis. If no load flow calculation has been executed
before opening the Load Flow Sensitivities (ComVstab) command, or
if the calculation has been reset, the Load Flow displays the most
recently executed load flow command in the active study case.
Sensitivities
Diagonal Elements Only:
The effect of the injections of AP and AQ at each busbar are evaluated
for the busbar itself (effect on voltage magnitude ,
, and on voltage angle , for each
busbar) and the corresponding adjacent branches. In this mode, the
calculated sensitivities , , , and
in the branches (index n) always refer to derivations
and of the adjacent buses (index i). This means that the
sensitivities are calculated for all busbars and for all branches,
according to variations in power (AP and AQ) at the directly connected
busbars.
Sensitivity to a Single Busbar:
The effect of the injections of AP and AQ at the selected busbar are
calculated for the whole network (i.e. for all buses and branches). The
target busbar can be selected using the Busbar button ( ) located at
the bottom of the dialogue. Alternatively, the target bus can be
cv
i
( ) cP
i
( )
cv
i
( ) cQ
i
( ) c
i
( ) cP
i
( ) c
i
( ) cP
i
( )
cP
n
( ) cP
i
( ) cQ
n
( ) cP
i
( ) cP
n
( ) cQ
i
( )
cQ
n
( ) cQ
i
( )
c cP
i
c cQ
i

23 - 42
selected in the single line graphic by right-clicking on it and selecting
Calculate --> Load Flow Sensitivities from the context-sensitive menu.
The sensitivities of all busbars and branches are calculated according to
variations in power (AP and AQ) at the selected busbar.
Sensitivity to a Single Transformer Tap Position:
This option evaluates the effect of changing the tap position of a
selected transformer in the network. The sensitivities dP/dtap [MW/tap
step], dQ/dtap [Mvar/tap step] for branches, and dphi/dtap [deg/tap
step], dv/dtap [p.u./tap step] for buses are calculated. The target
transformer can be selected using the Transformer button ( )
located at the bottom of the dialogue. Alternatively, the target
transformer can be selected in the single line graphic by right-clicking
on it and selecting Calculate -> Load Flow Sensitivities from the
context-sensitive menu.
Modal Analysis:
This option performs an eigenvalue calculation on the sensitivity matrix
as explained in Section 23.5.3. The number of eigenvalues to be
calculated is defined in the Number of Eigenvalues field at the bottom
of the dialogue. The eigenvalues are always calculated in order of their
largest magnitude, so selecting n eigenvalues will display the n
eigenvalues in descending order according to magnitude (note that the
larger the number of desired eigenvalues, the longer the calculation will
take).
In the Display Results for Mode field, the user can specify the number
of a specific eigenvalue, for which the stability behavior (i.e. the
eigenvectors and participation factors) is to be analyzed. The algorithm
then additionally calculates the , (branch
sensitivities) and the , (bus sensitivities) which
correspond to the mode specified (see Section 23.5.3 for further
technical background).
23.5.2 Load Flow Sensitivities Execution and Results
When the ComVstab command has been configured and the Execute button has been
pressed, the program calculates several sensitivity factors such as ,
, , etc., according to the selected options, for buses
and branch elements.
Upon completion of the sensitivity factor calculation, the following message appears in
the output window:
DIgSI/info - Load Flow Sensitivities calculated!
The calculated results can be displayed via the 'Flexible Data Page' (see Section 12.5) by
selecting the sensitivities from the load flow variables (Variable Set: 'Current, Voltages and
Powers'). The names of the variables correspond to the calculated derivations, i. e. the
result of the expression is stored in the variable named dvdP; and likewise
the result of the expression is stored in the variable dphidQ.
cP ( ) cQ ( ) cQ ( ) cQ ( )
cv ( ) cQ ( ) c0 ( ) cQ ( )
cv
i
( ) cP
i
( )
cv
i
( ) cQ
i
( ) c
i
( ) cP
i
( ) c
i
( ) cQ
i
( )
cv
i
( ) cP
i
( )
c
i
( ) cQ
i
( )
23 - 43
When the Modal Analysis option is selected, the calculated eigenvalues are displayed (in
descending order according to magnitude) in the output window. The eigenvectors and
participation factors can be displayed using the 'Flexible Data Page'.
23.5.3 Technical Background
PowerFactorys Load Flow Sensitivities function (ComVstab) performs a static voltage
stability calculation as described below.
Linearizing the load flow equations around the actual operating point leads to the
following equation system:
Eqn 23.6:
The equation system in (23.6) shows that changes in the voltage magnitude and angle
due to small changes in the active and reactive power can be directly calculated from the
load flow Jacobian matrix. For example if AP is set to 0, the sensitivities of the type dv/
dQ are calculated from (23.6) according to:
Eqn 23.7:
where:
Eqn 23.8:
As can be seen from (23.7), the variation of voltage magnitude at each busbar can be
described by a linear combination of small reactive power variations according to:
Eqn 23.9:
In this case the diagonal elements S
i1
of S represent the voltage variation at bus i due to
a variation of reactive power at the same point. The non-diagonal elements S
ij
describe
the voltage variation at busbar i due to the variation in reactive power at a different point
on the network.
Positive dv/dQ sensitivity indicates stable operation. High sensitivity means that even
small changes in reactive power cause large changes in the voltage magnitude; therefore
the more stable the system, the lower the sensitivity (high voltage sensitivities are indic-
ative of weak areas of the network).
Note: Recall that in HV networks branches are predominantly reactive.
J
P0
J
Pv
J
Q0
J
Pv
0 c
v c
P c
Q c
=
cv J
Qv
1
cQ S
vQ
cQ = =
J
Qv
J
Q0
J
P0
1
J
Pv
J
Qv
+ =
cv
i
S
i1
cQ
1
. S
in
cQ
n
+ + =
23 - 44
Voltage magnitudes depend primarily on reactive power flows and
voltage angles depend on active power bus injections.
The sensitivity analysis can be extended in order to determine the active and reactive
power variations on branches (in the PowerFactory network model all components
carrying a flow, i.e. lines, transformers, generators are regarded as branches) due to
variations in active and reactive power busbar injections. In this case the sensitivities are
calculated using the branch-node Jacobian matrix.
By applying a modal transformation to (23.7) the dV/dQ sensitivity can be expressed as
an uncoupled system of the form:
Eqn 23.10:
where:
Eqn 23.11:
In (23.10), is a diagonal matrix whose elements correspond to the eigenvalues of the
sensitivity matrix, SvQ, from (23.7). Therefore, the voltage variation at each mode depends
only on the reactive power variation at the same mode:
Eqn 23.12:
The eigenvalues
i
, which are real, provide the necessary information about the voltage
stability of the system. If
i
is positive, the modal voltage increase and the modal reactive
power variations are in the same direction and the system is therefore stable. The
magnitude of the eigenvalue indicates how far/close one voltage mode is to instability.
In (23.10), T= [u1...un] corresponds to the matrix of right eigenvectors of S
vQ
, while T
-
1
corresponds to the left eigenvectors matrix:
Eqn 23.13:
The participation factor of bus k to mode i is defined by the product of the k
th
component
of the left and right eigenvector of mode i:
cv
T
1
S
vQ
TcQ
vQ
cQ
= =
v Tv
and Q TQ
= =
S
vQ
cv
i

i
cQ
i
=
T
1
e
1
T
.
.
e
n
T
=
23 - 45
Eqn 23.14:
The sum of the participation factors of all nodes corresponds to the scalar product of the
left and right eigenvector, and is therefore equal to one. In this sense, the participation
factor gives an indication of the extent of the influence the variation of active power on a
node has on a voltage mode.
p
ik
e
ik
u
ik
=
23 - 46
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Short-Circuit Analysis
24 - 1
Chapter 24
Short-Circuit Analysis
Power systems as well as industrial systems are designed so that loads are supplied safely
and reliably. One of the major aspects taken into account in the design and operation of
electrical systems is the adequate handling of short-circuits. Although systems are de-
signed to stay as free from short circuits as possible, they still can occur. A short-circuit
condition generally causes large uncontrollable currents flows, which if not properly de-
tected and handled can result in equipment damage, the interuption of large areas (in-
stead of only the faulted section) as well as placing personnel at risk. A well-designed
system should therefore isolate the short-circuit safely with minimal equipment damage
and system interruption.Typical causes of short-circuits can be the following:
Lightning discharge in exposed equipment such as transmission lines.
Premature aging of the insulation due mainly to permanent overloadings,
inappropriate ventilation, etc.
Atmospheric or industrial salt ''Build-Up'' in isolators.
Equipment failure.
Inappropriate system operation.
One of the many applications of a short-circuit calculation would be to check the ratings
of network equipment during the planning stage. In this case, the planner is interested in
obtaining the maximum expected currents (in order to dimension equipment properly)
and the minimum expected currents (to aid the design of the protection scheme). Short-
circuit calculations performed at the planning stage commonly use calculation methods
that require less detailed network modelling (such as methods which do not require load
information) and which will apply extreme-case estimations. Examples of these methods
include the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 method, the ANSI method and the IEC 61363 method.
A different field of application is the precise evaluation of the fault current in a specific
situation, such as to find out whether the malfunction of a protection device was due to
a relay failure or due to the consequence of improper settings (for example an operational
error). These are the typical applications of exact methods such as the superposition
method (also known as the Complete Method), which is based on a specific network op-
erating point.
The short-circuit calculation in PowerFactory is able to simulate single faults as well as
multiple faults of almost unlimited complexity. As short-circuit calculations can be used for
a variety of purposes, PowerFactory supports different representations and calculation
methods for the analysis of short-circuit currents.
This chapter presents the handling of the short-circuit calculation methods as implement-
ed in PowerFactory. Further background on this topic can be found in Section 24.1.
24 - 2
Beside load flow calculations, short-circuit is one of the most frequently performed calcu-
lations when dealing with electrical networks. It is used both in system planning and sys-
tem operation (see Figure 24.1, in special cases Methods 2.1 and 2.2 are also used for
network planning). Calculation quantities which have been newly-introduced in Power-
Factory Version 14 are shown in Figure 24.1, also a graphical representation of the short-
circuit current time function is illustrated in Figure 24.2. The IEC 61363 standard which
outlines the procedures for calculating short-circuit currents that may occur on a marine
or off shore a.c. electrical installation is not shown in Figure 24.1.

Fig. 24.1: Areas of Application of Short-Circuit Calculations
According to IEC 60909 the definition of the currents and multiplication factors shown in
Figure 24.1 are as follows:
initial symmetrical short-circuit current (RMS),
peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value),
symmetrical short-circuit breaking current (RMS),
thermal equivalent short-circuit current (RMS),
factor for the calculation of the peak short-circuit current,
factor for the calculation of the symmetrical short-circuit breaking current,
factor for the heat effect of the d.c. component,
factor for the heat effect of the a.c. component,
besides the above currents, the Complete Method introduces the following current defini-
tion:
peak short-circuit breaking current (instantaneous value).
Ikss
i
p
I
b
I
th
k
m
n
i
b
24 - 3
Fig. 24.2: Short-Circuit Current Time Function
Typical applications examples of short-circuit analysis in system planning include:
Ensuring that the defined short-circuit capacity of equipment is not exceeded with
system expansion and system strengthening.
Co-ordination of protective equipment (fuses, over-current and distance relays).
Dimensioning of earth grounding systems.
Verification of sufficient fault level capacities at load points (e.g. uneven loads such as
arc furnaces, thyristor-driven variable speed drives or dispersed generation).
Verification of admissible thermal limits of cables and transmission lines.
Example applications of short-circuit analysis in system operation include:
Ensuring that short-circuit limits are not exceeded with system reconfiguration.
Determining protective relay settings as well as fuse sizing.
Calculation of fault location for protective relays, which store fault disturbance
recordings.
Analysis of system faults, e.g. misoperation of protection equipment.
Analysis of possible mutual interference of parallel lines during system faults.
The fundamental difference between the assumptions used by the calculation methods is
that for system planning studies the system operating conditions are not yet known, and
therefore estimations are necessary. To this end, the IEC 909 (VDE 0102) method which
uses an equivalent voltage source at the fault location has become generally accepted in
Western Europe. A revised version of this was published as IEC 60909 in July 2001. This
method works independently of the load flow (operating point) of a system. It is based
on the nominal and/or calculated dimensions of the operating point of a system and uses
correction factors for voltages and impedances, to give conservative results. For the cal-
culation of minimum and maximum short-circuit currents, different correction factors are
applied. However, it should be mentioned that both IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 do not deal
with single phase elements (expect single phase elements in the neutral conductor).
Another very similar method is the ANSI method, which is basically used in North America
and is accepted in other countries as well. The ANSI method is based on the IEEE Stan-
24 - 4
dards C37.010(1979) which is for equipment applied in medium and high voltage systems
(grater than 1000 Volts) and C37.13(1990) which is for power circuit breakers in low volt-
age systems (less that 1000 Volts).
For short-circuit calculations in a system operation environment, the exact network oper-
ating conditions are well-known. If the accuracy of the calculation according to IEC 60909
is not sufficient - or to verify the results of this method - the superposition method can be
used. The superposition method calculates the expected short-circuit currents in the net-
work based on the existing network operating condition. If the system models are correct,
the results from this method are always more exact than the results of the IEC 60909
method. The system analyst is, however, responsible that she/he has chosen the most
unfavourable conditions with respect to the sizing of plant. In some cases, this might re-
sult in extensive studies required.
Also available in PowerFactory Version 14 is the IEC 62363 method which outlines the
procedure for calculating short-circuit currents on marine or offshore electrical systems
such like ships.
24.1.1 The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method
The IEC 60909/VDE 0102 method uses an equivalent voltage source at the faulted bus
and is a simplification of the superposition method (Complete Method). It is illustrated in
Figure 24.3.
The goal of this method is to accomplish a close-to-reality short-circuit calculation without
the need for the preceding load-flow calculation and the associated definition of actual
operating conditions. Figure 24.3 illustrates how the equivalent voltage source method
can be derived from the superposition method. The main simplifications are as follows:
Nominal conditions are assumed for the whole network, i.e. U
i
= U
n,i
.
Load currents are neglected, i.e. I
Op
= 0.
A simplified simulation network is used, i.e. loads are not considered in the positive
and negative sequence network.
To ensure that the results are conservatively estimated, a correction factor, c, is
applied to the voltage at the faulted busbar. This factor differs for the calculation of
the maximum and the minimum short-circuit currents of a network.
The short-circuit calculation based on these simplifications may be insufficient for some
practical applications. Therefore, additional impedance correction factors are applied to
the physical impedances of the network elements. This method is described in detail in
the following section.
Please note in addition that both IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 do not deal with single phase
elements (expect single phase elements in the neutral conductor).
24 - 5

Fig. 24.3: Illustration of the IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method
As illustrated in Figure 24.1, IEC requires the calculation of the initial symmetrical short
circuit current in order to derive the rest of the physical quantities, each of which is a
function of the following:
R/X ratio,
Machine characteristics
Synchronous generator type of excitation system,
Contact parting time,
Type of network (if its radial or meshed),
Determination if the contribution is "near to" or "far from" the short-circuit location,
Regarding the type of network, IEC describes three methods for the calculation of
(peak short-circuit current) in meshed networks which are defined as follows:
Method A: Uniform Ratio R/X
The factor is determined based on the smallest ratio of R/X of all the
branches contributing to the short-circuit current.
I
k
i
p
k
24 - 6
Method B: Ratio R/X at the Short-Circuit Location
For this method the factor is multiplied by 1.5 to cover inaccuracies
caused by using the ratio R/X from a network reduction with complex
impedances.
Method C: Equivalent Frequency
An equivalent impedance Z
c
of the system as seen from the short-
circuit location is calculated assuming a frequency (for a
nominal frequency ) or for a nominal frequency
). This is the recommended Method in meshed networks.
Note: In PowerFactory methods B and C are available to the user.
Method C is the one recommended in meshed networks. For more
information please refer to Section 24.3.4
IEC Impedance Correction Factors
The IEC method uses only the rated parameters of network elements. This is advanta-
geous in that only little information is necessary to perform a short-circuit calculation.
However, considering that, for example, the short-circuit contribution of a synchronous
generator depends heavily on the excitation voltage and on the unit transformer tap
changer position, the worst-case value of this impedance is considered by applying a cor-
rection factor (< 1).
This idea is illustrated in Figure 24.4. The correction factor c should be determined so that
I
k
= I
k,IEC
. The IEC standard defines an equation for the correction factor for each ele-
ment type.

Fig. 24.4: Principle of Impedance Correction (IEC/VDE Method)
As the IEC standard includes a worst-case estimation for minimum and maximum short-
circuit currents, some PowerFactory elements require additional data. These elements
are:
Lines
In their type, the maximum admissible conductor temperature (for
minimum short-circuit currents) must be stated (Figure 24.5). Line
capacitances are not considered in the positive/negative sequence
systems, but must be used in the zero-sequence system.
k
f
c
20 Hz =
f
c
50 Hz = f
c
24 Hz =
f
c
60 Hz =
24 - 7
Fig. 24.5: Maximum End Temperature Definition in the Line Type (TypLne)
Transformers
Require a flag indicating whether they are unit or network transformers
as shown in Figure 24.6. Network transformers may be assigned
additional information about operational limits which are used for a
more precise calculation of the impedance correction factor. Unit
transformers are treated differently depending on whether they have
an on-load or a no-load tap changer (Figure 24.7).
Fig. 24.6: Unit Transformer Definition in the Transformer Element (ElmTr2)
Maximum
End Tem-
perature
Unit Transformer
Definition
24 - 8
Fig. 24.7: On-Load Tap Changer Definition in the Transformer Type (TypTr2)
Synchronous Machines
Subtransient impedances are used. Additionally, information regarding
the voltage range must be given as seen in Figure 24.8.
Fig. 24.8: Voltage Range Definition in the Synchronous Machine Element (ElmSym)
Asynchronous Machines
The ratio of starting current to rated current is used to determine the
short-circuit impedance (Figure 24.9).
On-Load
Tap Chang-
er Defini-
tion
Syn. Machine
Voltage
Range
24 - 9
Fig. 24.9: Locked Rotor Current Definition in the Asynchronous Machine Type
(ElmAsymo)
Please refer to the IEC 60909 standard to find detailed information regarding specific
equipment models and correction factors for each element.
24.1.2 The ANSI Method
ANSI provides the procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in the following stan-
dards:
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010 - 1979, IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13 - 1990, IEEE Standard for Low-Voltage AC Power Circuit
Breakers Used in Enclosures.
ANSI/IEEE Standard 141- 1993, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Dis-
tribution of Industrial Plants (IEEE Red Book).
ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.5 - 1979, IEEE Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Breakers Rated on a Total Current Basis. (Standard withdrawn).
ANSI C37.010 details the procedure for equipment applied in medium and high voltage
systems considering a classification of the generators as either "local" or "remote" de-
pending on the location of the fault, as well as taking into account motor contribution.
The procedure also covers first cycle and interrupting time currents, with emphasis on in-
terrupting time currents.
ANSI C37.13 details the procedure for power circuit breakers applied in low voltage sys-
tems (less than 1000 Volts), while mainly focusing on first-cycle currents, impedance of
motors and the fault point X/R ratio. Typically, fuses and low voltage circuit breakers begin
to interrupt in the first half cycle so no special treatment for interruptive current is given.
It could be the case however, that nevertheless the equipment test include a dc compo-
nent specification.
Due to the differences in the high and low voltage standards, it would be understandable
to say that two first-cycle calculations are required. The first calculation would be for high
voltage busbars and a second calculation would be for low-voltage busbars.
In IEEE/ANSI Standard 141-1993 (Red Book) a procedure for the combination of first cy-
Locked Ro-
tor Current
24 - 10
cle network is detailed. There is stated that in order to simplify comprehensive industrial
system calculations, a single combination first-cycle network is recommended to replace
the two different networks (high/medium-voltage and low voltage). This resulting com-
bined network is then based on the interpretation of the ANSI C37.010, ANSI C37.13 and
ANSI C37.5 their given.
Total and Symmetrical Current Rating Basis of Circuit Breakers
and Fuses according to ANSI Standards
Depending on the circuit breaker year of construction different ratings are specified. High-
voltage circuit breakers designed before 1964 were rated on "Total" current rating while
now a day's high-voltage circuit breakers are rated on a "Symmetrical" current basis. The
difference between these two definitions is on how the asymmetry is taken into account.
While a "Total" current basis takes into account the ac and dc decay, "Symmetrical" cur-
rent basis takes into account only the ac decay. To explain further these definitions please
refer to Figure 24.10.
Fig. 24.10: Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Current
The DC component "DC" is calculated according to the following equation:
Eqn 24.1:
The RMS value of the ac component (RMS) is then calculated as:
Eqn 24.2:
DC
P1 P2
2
------------------- =
RMS
P1 P2 +
2.828
------------------- =
24 - 11
The total interrupting current in RMS is then:
Eqn 24.3:
From the above, Equation (24.2) corresponds to the "Symmetrical" current calculation
and Equation (24.3) to the "Total" current calculation.
Some of the main ANSI guidelines for the calculation of short-circuit currents are the fol-
lowing:
The pre-fault busbar voltage is assumed to be nominal (1.0 p.u.).
The fault point X/R ratio is calculated based on a separate resistance network
reduction which is latter used to calculate the peak and total asymmetrical fault
current.
Depending on the location of the fault, the generator currents being fed to the short
circuit are classified as "local" or "remote". A remote source is treated as having only
a dc decay, while a local source is treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on
this classification, corresponding curves are used in order to obtain the multiplication
factors.
According to ANSI standard, the following short-circuit currents are calculated:
symmetrical momentary (first cycle) short-circuit current (RMS),
symmetrical interrupting short-circuit current (RMS),
asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current
(RMS). Obtained by applying a 1.6 factor to ,
peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a 2.7
factor to ,
asymmetrical momentary (Close and Latch - Duty) short-circuit current
(RMS). Obtained by applying a factor to according to the calculated X/R ratio,
peak short-circuit current (instantaneous value). Obtained by applying a
factor to , according to the calculated X/R ratio.
24.1.3 The Complete Method
The complete method (sometimes also known as the superposition method) is, in terms
of system modelling, an accurate calculation method. The fault currents of the short-cir-
cuit are determined by overlaying a healthy load-flow condition before short-circuit incep-
tion with a condition where all voltage supplies are set to zero and the negative operating
voltage is connected at the fault location. The procedure is shown in Figure 24.11.
The initial point is the operating condition of the system before short-circuit inception (see
Figure 24.11a). This condition represents the excitation conditions of the generators, the
tap positions of regulated transformers and the breaker/switching status reflecting the op-
erational variation.
From these pre-fault conditions the pre-fault voltage of the faulted busbar can be calcu-
Tot DC
2
RMS
2
+ =
I
sym_m
I
sym_i
I
16asym_m
I
sym_m
I
27peak_m
I
sym_m
I
asym_m
I
sym_m
I
peak_m
I
sym_m
24 - 12
lated. For the pure fault condition the system condition is calculated for the situation
where, the negative pre-fault busbar voltage for the faulted bus is connected at the fault
location and all other sources/generators are set to zero (see Figure 24.11b).
Since network impedances are assumed to be linear, the system condition after fault in-
ception can be determined by overlaying (complex adding) both the pre-fault and pure
fault conditions (see Figure 24.11c).

Fig. 24.11: Illustration of the Complete Method
The Complete Method for calculating short-circuits has been improved in PowerFactory
Version 14 as described below. Additionally, the quantities described below are shown in
Figure 24.1.
A more precise Peak Short-Circuit Current i
p
is calculated based on the accurate
subtransient short-circuit current (which is calculated using the complete method) and
the R/X ratio (which is based on the IEC 60909 standard);
24 - 13
The Short-Circuit Breaking Current I
b
(RMS value) is calculated based on the
subtransient short-circuit current and the transient short-circuit current (both of which
are calculated by the complete method);
The Peak Short-Circuit Breaking Current i
b
is calculated from the RMS short-circuit
breaking current Ib and the decaying d.c. component;
The Thermal Equivalent Short-Circuit Current Ith is calculated based on the IEC
standard, using the m and n factors (see Figure 24.1). The n-factor calculation uses
the transient current instead of the steady-state current;
Additionally, loads can have a contribution to the short-circuit current, which can be
defined in the load element (Fault Contribution section of Complete Short-Circuit tab).
24.1.4 The IEC 61363 Method
The IEC 61363 standard describes procedures for calculating short-circuit currents in
three-phase AC radial electrical installations on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore
units.
The IEC 61363 standard defines only calculation methods for three phase (to earth) short
circuits. Typically marine/offshore electrical systems are operated with the neutral point
isolated from the hull or connected to it trough an impedance. In such systems, the high-
est value of short-circuit current would correspond to a three phase short circuit. If the
neutral point is directly connected to the hull, then the line-to-line, or line-to ships hull
short-circuit may produce a higher current. Two basic system calculation approaches can
be taken, "time dependent" and "non-time dependent".
According to the IEC 61363 standard, PowerFactory calculates an equivalent machine
that feeds directly into the short circuit location. This machine summarizes all "active" and
"non-active" components of the grid.
The shot-circuit procedure in IEC 61363 calculate the upper envelope (amplitude) of the
maximum value of the time dependent short-circuit (see Figure 24.2). The envelope is cal-
culated using particular machine characteristics parameters obtainable from equipment
manufacturers using recognized testing methods, and applying the following assump-
tions:
All system capacitances are neglected.
At the start of the short-circuit, the instantaneous value of voltage in one phase at the
fault point is zero.
During the short-circuit, there is no change in the short-circuit current path.
The short-circuit arc impedance is neglected.
Transformers are set at the main tap position.
The short-circuit occurs simultaneously in all phases.
For generator connected in parallel, all generators share their active and reactive load
proportionally at the start of or during the short-circuit.
During each discrete time interval, all circuits components react linearly.
The exact guidelines on how this is achieved is specified in the standard.
Because the standard considers specific system components and models ("active" and
"non-active") some of the models that can be used in PowerFactory will have no de-
24 - 14
scription according to the standard (such as External Grids, Voltage Sources, Static Gen-
erators, etc.). How these elements are considered and transformed to a replacement
equivalent machine is described in the corresponding Technical Reference.
According to this method, the following short-circuit values are calculated:
initial symmetrical short-circuit current,
upper envelope of short-circuit current ,
decaying (aperiodic) component of short-circuit current,
peak short-circuit current,
steady-state short-circuit current.
The calculating formulae and methods described produce sufficiently accurate results to
calculate the short-circuit current during the first 100 ms of a fault condition. It is assumed
in the standard that during that short time the control of the generators has no significant
influence on the short circuit values. The method can be used also to calculate the short-
circuit current for periods longer than 100 ms when calculating on a bus system to which
the generators are directly connected. For time periods beyond 100 ms the controlling ef-
fects of the system voltage regulators may be predominant. Calculations including the
voltage regulator effects are not considered in this standard.
In PowerFactory besides the standard IEC 61363 method, an EMT simulation method
is available which considers also the first 100 ms of a three phase short-circuit.
24.2 Executing Short-Circuit Calculations
There are different methods of initiating the short-circuit calculation command (ComShc)
in PowerFactory, which may result in a different configuration of the command. These
methods are described in Sections 24.2.1 and 24.2.2.
24.2.1 Toolbar/Main Menu Execution
The short-circuit command may be executed from the toolbar or main menu in Power-
Factory as follows:
By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or
By selecting the Calculation -> Short-Circuit ... option from the main menu.
If the user is performing the short-circuit for the first time (by using one of the above op-
tions), the short-circuit command will be configured in a certain manner by default; that
is the command will be set by default to execute a short-circuit calculation on all busbars/
terminals in the network. If a short-circuit calculation has been already performed (the
command exists in the study case) the settings displayed by the short-circuit command
will be according to the most recent short-circuit calculation. As an example, if the user
performs a short-circuit calculation according to ANSI for only one busbar in the system,
the next time the user executes again the short-circuit, the command will have the most
recent settings, that is, in this case according to ANSI and for the specified busbar.
I''
k
I
k
t ( )
i
dc
t ( )
i
p
I
k
24 - 15
24.2.2 Context-Sensitive Menu Execution
The short-circuit command may be executed from the context-sensitive menu in Power-
Factory by selecting an element(s) in the single-line diagram, right-clicking and selecting
one of the following options:
Calculate... Short-Circuit: performs a short-circuit calculation for each element
selected by the user. It should be noted that the short-circuit calculation for each
element is carried out completely independently of the short-circuit calculation for
each other element. For this calculation, only the following combinations of elements
may be selected:
- Single or multiple terminals/busbars; or
- A single line; or
- A single branch.
If several terminals/busbars are selected for analysis, the results of each individual
short-circuit calculation will be displayed together on the single-line graphic.
Calculate... Multiple Faults: performs a short-circuit calculation according to the
complete method, for the simultaneous short-circuit of all elements selected by the
user. Any combination of busbars, terminals, lines and branches can be selected for
this calculation. Additionally, switch/circuit breaker open/close operations can also be
included in the calculation. When this calculation is selected, the option Multiple Faults
in the (ComShc) dialogue will be automatically ticked.
24.2.3 Faults on Busbars/Terminals
The short-circuit command should first be called using one of the methods described in
Sections 24.2.1 and 24.2.2. The simplest way to calculate several busbar/terminal short-
circuits individually and to then combine the results into one diagram is to select the op-
tion All Busbars (or alternatively, Busbars and Junction/Internal Nodes) in the Fault Loca-
tion section of the Short-Circuit Calculation (ComShc) dialogue, as displayed in Figure
24.12. Note that to access this option, Multiple Faults in the dialogue must be un-selected.
Fig. 24.12: Short-Circuit Calculation Command (ComShc) Dialogue: Faults at All
Busbars
If the user would instead like to select from the single-line diagram a single busbar/ter-
minal, or multi-select several busbars/terminals for calculation, the dialogue will be con-
figured as follows:
When only a single busbar/terminal is selected, and Calculate > Short-Circuit is
chosen from the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of
dialogue) is set to the selected element.
When two or more busbars/terminals are selected and Calculate > Short-Circuit is
chosen from the context-sensitive menu, the Fault Location reference (bottom of
24 - 16
dialogue) is set to a so-called "Selection Set'' (SetSelect) object, which contains a list
of references to the selected busbars/terminals.
In either case, various options for the calculation can be modified. Please refer to Section
24.3 for a detailed description of the options available. It should be noted that selecting
or deselecting the option Multiple Faults may change the selection of fault locations and
may therefore lead to a calculation for locations other than the busbars/terminals selected
in the single line graphic. After pressing the Execute button, the calculation is executed
and, if successful, the results are displayed in the single line graphic. In addition, a result
report is available and may be printed out.
Once a selection of fault locations is made and the short-circuit calculation is performed,
it is simple to execute further calculations based on the same selection of elements. This
can be done by the following alternative means of executing the short-circuit calculation
command:
By pressing the icon on the main toolbar; or
By selecting the Calculation -> Short-Circuit ... option from the main menu.
The short-circuit setup dialogue then shows the previously selected busbars/terminals in
the Fault Location section under User Selection.
24.2.4 Faults on Lines and Branches
It is not only possible to calculate short-circuits on busbars and terminals, but also on lines
and branches. It should be noted, however, that only a single line or a single branch can
be selected at a time, for each short-circuit calculation. It is not possible to select multiple
lines and/or branches for calculation. To calculate a short-circuit on one of these types of
elements, proceed as follows:
From the single-line diagram, select a single line or a single branch where the fault
should be calculated.
Right-click on the element and select Calculation -> Short-Circuit ... . The short-circuit
command (ComShc) dialogue opens and the user can then define the location of the
fault relative to the elements length (see Figure 24.13), including which terminal the
fault distance should be calculated from. It should be noted that the Short-Circuit at
Branch/Line section of this tab is only available when a line or branch has been
selected for calculation.
Clicking the button located in the Short-Circuit at Branch/Line section of the tab
will enable the user to select whether the fault location is defined as a percentage or
as an absolute value.
24 - 17

Fig. 24.13: Configuration of Line/Branch Faults in ComShc Dialogue
When a fault on a line/branch is calculated, a box containing the calculation results is dis-
played next to the selected element.
24.2.5 Multiple Faults Calculation
Multiple faults involve the simultaneous occurrence of more than one fault condition in a
network. This option is only available for the complete method. To calculate simultaneous
multiple faults, proceed as follows:
Select two or more elements (i.e. busbars/terminals, lines, ...) and right-click.
Select the option Calculate -> Multiple Faults. The Short-Circuits dialogue pops up,
displaying the short-circuit event list. A 3-phase fault is assumed by default at all
locations in the event list. Click OK. The Short-Circuit command dialogue then pops up.
In this dialogue, the Multiple Faults option is ticked in combination with the complete
short-circuit method.
Finally, press Execute to start the calculation.
In cases where the event list has to be adapted to reflect the intended fault conditions
(that is, not necessarily the calculation of 3-phase faults), please proceed as follows:
Open the short-circuit events object using one of the following methods:
- In the Fault Location section of the short-circuit (ComShc) dialogue, press the
Show button (see Figure 24.14); or
- Press the icon located on the main tool bar (just besides the short-circuit
command button); or
- In a Data Manager window, open the IntEvtshc object from the current study
case, also denoted by the icon.
24 - 18

Fig. 24.14: Accessing the Short-Circuit Events List
A window opens up which shows the list of events (that is short-circuits at the
selected locations). When double-clicking on one entry in this list (double-clicking on
the entire row), a window with a description of the event is opened.
The short-circuit event settings can now be modified. The list of fault locations
consists of a "Short-Circuit Event List'' (IntEvtshc) object, which holds one or more
short-circuit events (EvtShc). Each of these events has a reference to a fault location
(a busbar/terminal, line, etc.) and displays a short description of the fault type. An
example is shown in Figure 24.15.
The user could add more fault locations to the "Short-Circuit Event List'' (IntEvtshc)
object by right clicking on addition elements in the single line diagram Add to.. ->
Multiple Faults.

Fig. 24.15: A Short-Circuit Event (EvtShc)
Note To re-use the event list (IntEvtshc) later, this object can be copied
to a user-defined folder in the Data Manager. This will prevent it
from being modified during future calculations. When repeating
the calculation with the same configuration, the reference in Cal-
culate -> Multiple Faults can be set to this object. The other option
would be to copy the events to the Fault Cases folder located in the
Operational Library/Faults folder of the project. The user would
then need to press the From Library button (Figure 24.14).
24 - 19
24.3 Short-Circuit Calculation Options
The following sections describe the options available in PowerFactorys short-circuit cal-
culation command. Some of these options are dependent upon the selected calculation
method, therefore separate sections dedicated to each method are presented.
24.3.1 Basic Options (All Methods)
The options presented in this section are common to all implemented calculation methods
and are used to define the general settings of the short-circuit calculation. The specific
options for each method are presented below in separate sections.

Fig. 24.16: IEC Calculation - Basic Options
An example of the short-circuit command dialogue is shown in Figure 24.16 (IEC calcula-
tion in this case). The sections of the dialogue which are common to all calculation meth-
ods are:
Method
PowerFactory provides the following calculation methods for short-circuit calculation:
according to VDE 0102/0103 (the German VDE standard);
according to IEC 60909 (the International IEC standard);
according to ANSI (the American ANSI/IEEE C37 standard);
24 - 20
complete (superposition method which considers the pre-fault load-flow results (see
Section 24.1.3));
according to IEC 61363.
The specific options for each of these methods are available on the Advanced Options tab
of the short-circuit command (ComShc) dialogue.
Fault Type
The following fault types are available:
3-Phase Short-Circuit
2-Phase Short-Circuit
Single Phase to Ground
2-Phase to Ground
1-Phase to Neutral
1-Phase Neutral to Ground
2-Phase to Neutral
3-Phase to Neutral
3-Phase Short-Circuit (unbalanced)
The fault types with a neutral conductor should only be used for systems which are mod-
elled using neutral conductors.
Fault Impedance (Except for IEC 61363)
The fault impedance corresponds to the reactance and the resistance of the fault itself
(such as the impedance of the arc or of the shortening path). This can be defined by
means of an enhanced model, where line to line (Xf(L-L), Rf(L-L)) and line to earth (Xf(L-
E), Rf(L-E)) impedances are regarded (note: requires option Enhanced Fault Impedance
to be enabled). If the option Enhanced Fault Impedance is not enabled, fault impedances
are defined by their equivalent values, Xf and Rf.
Figures 24.17 to 24.19 illustrate the differences between the enhanced and the simplified
representation of fault impedances for the following fault types: (i) 3-phase short-circuits;
(ii) 2-phase faults to ground; and (iii) 2-phase faults.
24 - 21
Fig. 24.17: Fault Impedance Definition: 3-Phase Short-Circuit
Fig. 24.18: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase to Ground Fault
Fig. 24.19: Fault Impedance Definition: 2-Phase Fault
24 - 22
Show Output
A textual report is automatically written to PowerFactorys output window when the
Show Output option of the dialogue is enabled. The command which generates this report
is displayed in blue text next to the Command button . The user can click on this but-
ton to select which type of report will be printed out. Just below the Command button,
blue text informs the user of the currently-selected report type.
Fault Location
The fault location selection options are:
At User Selection:
In this case a reference to a single terminal/busbar/line/branch or to a
selection of busbars/terminals (SetSelect), as explained in Sections
24.2.3 and 24.2.4 must be given.
At Busbars and Junctions/Internal Nodes:
For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network, a short-circuit
calculation is carried out, independently (one after the other).
At All Busbars:
For every terminal (ElmTerm) in the network whose Usage is set to
Busbar (see Section 5.3.2), a short-circuit calculation is carried out,
independently (one after the other).
If the option Multiple Faults has been ticked when the Complete Method is being used, a
reference to a set of fault objects (IntEvtshc), as explained in Section 24.2.5, must be
set. This is done in the Fault Location section of the dialogue; using the Short Circuits ref-
erence.
Note: Multiple faults will only be calculated for the 'Complete Method',
when the option 'Multiple Faults' is enabled. When this option is en-
abled, a short-circuit calculation is carried out for each individual
fault location, simultaneously. When this option is disabled, cases
where more than one fault location have been selected (i.e. several
busbars/terminals), a sequence of short-circuit calculations is per-
formed (i.e. each short-circuit calculation is carried out independ-
ently of each other short-circuit calculation).
24.3.2 Verification (Except for IEC 61363)
When enabled (Verification Tab Page), the user can enter thresholds for peak, interrupting
and thermal maximum loading. The Verification option will then write a loading report to
the output window with all devices that have higher loadings than the defined max. val-
ues. This report shows the various maximum and calculated currents for rated devices.
Rated devices include, for instance:
Lines which have a rated short-time current in their line type which is greater than
zero; and
Breakers or coupling switches which have a type with a valid rated current.
24 - 23
24.3.3 Basic Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)
The Basic Options tab of the Short-Circuit Calculation dialogue is shown in the previous
section in Figure 24.16.
In general, please note that the calculation according to IEC 60909 and VDE 0102 does
not take into account line capacitances, parallel admittances (except those of the zero-
sequence system) and non-rotating loads (e. g. ElmLod). Single phase elements are con-
sidered only if they are located in the neutral conductor.
Published
This option offers a sub-selection for the selected Method, where the version of the stand-
ard to be used can be selected according to the year in which it was issued. The most
recent standard is 2001, however 1990 is still available for the verification of documented
results.
Calculate
The drop-down list offers the choice between the minimal or maximal short-circuit cur-
rent.
If external grids are defined, the corresponding maximum or minimum value will be se-
lected automatically. For example if in the short circuit command you select "Calculate"
according to "Maximum Short Circuit currents", the maximum short circuit value from the
external grid is considered for the calculation.
The equivalent voltage source is based on the nominal system voltage and the voltage
factor c. The voltage factor c will depend on the voltage level and on the selection of the
"Calculate according to" stated in the short-circuit command.
Max. Voltage tolerance for LV systems
In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, this voltage tolerance is used to define the re-
spective voltage correction factor, c. The voltage tolerance is not used when a user-de-
fined correction factor is defined.
Short-Circuit Duration
The value for the Breaker Time is used to calculate the breaking current of a circuit break-
er. The value for the Fault Clearing Time (Ith) is required for the equivalent thermal cur-
rent.
Note: The fields 'Method', 'Fault Type', 'Fault Impedance', 'Output' and
'Fault Location' are described in Section 24.3.1.
24 - 24
24.3.4 Advanced Options (IEC 60909/VDE 0102 Method)

Fig. 24.20: IEC calculation - Advanced Options
Generally, the Advanced Options tab (shown in Figure 24.20) is used for settings to tune
the various short-circuit calculation methods. Familiarization with the IEC/VDE standard
before modifying these options is strongly recommended.
Grid Identification
The calculation of the factor kappa is different in the cases of meshed or radial feeding of
the short-circuit. Normally PowerFactory will automatically find the appropriate setting.
The option Always meshed will force a meshed grid approach.
c-Voltage Factor
The standard defines the voltage factor c to be used for the different voltage levels. In
special cases the user may want to define the correction factor. In this case, activate the
box User-Defined, then a specific c-factor can be entered.
Asynchronous Motors
Whether the calculation considers the influence of asynchronous motors on short-circuit
currents depends on this setting, which may be Always Considered, Automatic Neglection,
24 - 25
or Confirmation of Neglection.
Conductor Temperature
When activating the User-Defined option, the initial (pre-fault) conductor temperature can
be set manually. This will influence the calculated maximum temperature of the conduc-
tors, as caused by the short-circuit currents.
Decaying Aperiodic Component
Allows for the calculation of the DC current component, for which the decay time must be
given. According to the IEC/IEC standard, methods B, C and C' can be selected.
The following nomenclature is used:
T
b
Breaker Time (see Short-Circuit command)
f
n
Nominal frequency
I
k
" Initial short-circuit current
Method B: Uses the complex calculated equivalent impedance of the network
with a security factor of 1.15:
Method C: Uses the R/X ratio calculated with the equivalent frequency method.
The equivalent frequency is dependent on the breaking time (see Table
24.1). This method is recommended for maximum accuracy.
Table 24.1: Breaking Times

The ratio Rc/Xc is the equivalent impedance calculated at the frequency
given by:
f
n
* T
b
< 1 < 2.5 <5 < 12.5
f
c
/ f
n
0.27 0.15 0.092 0.055
i
DC
2 I
k
e
e T
b
R
X
----
=
i
DC
2 I
k
e
e T
b
R
f
X
f
-----
=
R
f
X
f
------
R
c
X
c
------
f
c
f
nom
----------- =
24 - 26
Method C': Uses the R/X ratio as for the peak short-circuit current, thus selecting
the ratio f
c
/f
n
= 0.4. This option speeds up the calculation, as no
additional equivalent impedance needs to be calculated.
Peak Short-Circuit Current (Meshed network)
In accordance with the IEC/VDE standard, the following methods for calculating kappa
can be selected:
Method B':
Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location.
Method C(1):
Uses the ratio R/X calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% of nominal
frequency (20 Hz for fn = 50 Hz, or 24 Hz for fn=60 Hz), based on the
short-circuit impedance in the positive sequence system.
Method (012):
Like C(1), but uses the correct short-circuit impedance based on the
positive-, negative- and zero-sequence system.
Calculate Ik
The steady-state short-circuit currents can be calculated using different means to consider
asynchronous machines:
Without Motors
Will disconnect all asynchronous motors before calculating the current
I
k
.
DIgSILENT Method
Considers all asynchronous motors according to their breaker current.
The breaker opens after the maximum possible time.
Ignore Motor Contributions
Considers asynchronous motor impedances during the calculation, but
will reduce the calculated results for motor contributions.
This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate
tripping times. To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disabled when
protection devices do not need to be analyzed.
Calculate max. Branch Currents = Busbar Currents
This option is used to check the rating of the circuit breakers against the system breaker
currents. Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{Ibus-Ibranch, Ibranch}. If
f
c
f
c
f
nom
----------- f
nom
=
24 - 27
this option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current,
which is actually an over-estimation of the currents.
Automatic Power Station Unit detection
The IEC/VDE standard forces a different impedance correction factor to be applied to sep-
arate generators and transformers than that applied to a unit/block (power station) con-
sisting of a generator including its step-up transformer. PowerFactory tries to detect
power stations. When this option is disabled, block transformers must be marked accord-
ingly by setting the Unit Transformer option available in the VDE/IEC Short-Circuit tab of
the transformer element dialogue (Figure 24.6).
24.3.5 Basic Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Fig. 24.21: ANSI calculation - Basic Options
Prefault Voltage
Value of the pre-fault voltage. In ANSI, the pre-fault voltage is the system rated voltage
(1.0 p.u.). Although a higher or lower voltage can be used in the calculation if operation
conditions show otherwise.
24 - 28
Consider Transformer Taps
The ANSI standard optionally allows the current tap positions of the transformers to be
considered. This can be selected here.
NACD Mode
Depending on the location of the fault, ANSI classifies the different currents being fed to
the short circuit as "local" or "remote". A remote source is treated as having only a dc
decay, while a local source is treated as having a dc and ac decay. Depending on this clas-
sification, corresponding curves are used in order to obtain the multiplication factors.
In PowerFactory the ANSI short-circuit method has the option of selecting the NACD
(No AC Decay) mode.
The NACD factor is the ratio of remote current contribution to the total fault current: NACD
= I
remote
/I
fault
. This NACD factor is used to calculate the breaker currents, including the
DC component of the current. The remote current contribution required to evaluate the
NACD factor is the sum of all remote generator contributions (induction generators, syn-
chronous machines, and external grids).
The calculation of the NACD factor can be very time consuming, as the contribution of
each generator is calculated individually. Therefore, different approximation methods can
be selected, which represent the most common interpretations of the ANSI standard:
Interpolated
The NACD factor is calculated, and the correction factor for the
asymmetrical fault current is interpolated between the "dc decay only"
and "AC/DC decay" curves with the following equation:
MF = AC/DC factor + (DC factor - AC/DC factor)*NACD
If (NACD = 1) then only the DC factor is used; if (NACD = 0) then only
the AC/DC factor is used.
Predominant
The the NACD factor is calculated. If the resulting factor is greater than
or equal to 0.5, then the "dc decay only'' curve is used, which means
that the remote generation is higher than the local generation.
All Remote
All contributions are set to remote; the NACD factor is not calculated,
but assumed equal to 1 and only the "dc decay only'' curve is used.
All Local
All contributions are set to local; the NACD factor is not calculated, but
assumed equal to 0 and only the "AC/DC decay" curve is used.
Current/Voltages for
The calculation mode for the currents and voltages to be evaluated:
LV/Momentary
Evaluates the subtransient short-circuit currents.
LV/Interrupting
Evaluates the breaker currents.
24 - 29
30 Cycle
Evaluates the 30-cycle (steady-state) current.
24.3.6 Advanced Options (ANSI C37 Method)

Fig. 24.22: ANSI Calculation - Advanced Options
Calculate
This option is used to select the various currents (according to the ANSI standard) which
are to be calculated. The options are as follows:
Momentary Current (Close and Latch Duties)
Interrupting Current
30 Cycle Current
Low-Voltage Current
Bypass Series Capacitance
Series capacitances may be optionally bypassed for the ANSI short-circuit calculation. Al-
ternatively, they may be not bypassed, always bypassed/neglected or this option may be
24 - 30
set depending on the type of short-circuit being calculated.
The options are as follows:
No Bypassing
All Currents
LV & Interrupting & 30 Cycle Current
30 Cycle Currents
X/R Calculation
The user may select between a complex number X/R ratio calculation, or a calculation
which considers R and X separately.
The fault point X/R will determine the system dc time constant and consequently the rate
of decay of the transient dc current. Although in PowerFactory the X/R ration can be
calculated from the complex network reduction, using this approach will not insure a con-
servative result. In an attempt to provide a conservative approach, ANSI C31.010 requires
that the X/R ratio be determined by a separate R network reduction.
This option will calculate measured currents for the selected protection devices and will
evaluate tripping times. To increase the speed of the calculation, this option can be disa-
bled when protection devices do not need to be analyzed.
currents. Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{Ibus-Ibranch, Ibranch}. If
this option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current,
which is actually an over-estimation of the currents.
24 - 31
24.3.7 Basic Options (Complete Method)

Fig. 24.23: Complete Method - Basic Options
As opposed to the calculation methods according to IEC/VDE and ANSI, which represent
short-circuit currents by approximations, the complete method evaluates currents without
using approximations. This accurate evaluation of the currents takes into account the sys-
tem conditions immediately prior to the onset of the fault.
Load Flow
The pre-fault system condition used by the complete method can be determined either
by the evaluation of a load flow, or by means of a simplified method, which initializes the
internal voltages of all components that contribute to the short-circuit current with their
nominal values, multiplied by a scaling factor, c.
The load flow command used to initialize the short-circuit calculation (when Load Flow
Initialization on the Advanced Options tab is selected, see Section 24.3.8) is displayed
next to the button labelled Load Flow ( ). The load flow command can be accessed and
modified by pressing this button . The load flow command displayed here is initially
taken from the currently active study case.
24 - 32
Short-Circuit Duration
The value for the Break Time (when set to Global) is used to calculate the breaking cur-
rent of circuit breakers. Depending on the user selection, the value used for the break
time within the calculation is:
global
When set to Global, the breaking current is calculated according to
the Break Time specified in the short-circuit command.
min. of local
When set to min. of local, the breaking current is calculated according
to the shortest Break Time of all circuit breakers (defined in the
Complete Short-Circuit tab of ElmCoup objects) connected to the
busbars being studied.
local
When set to local , the breaking current is calculated for each
connected circuit-breaker according to its own Break Time (defined in
the Complete Short-Circuit tab of ElmCoup objects), however, the
busbar results will show the breaking current according to the shortest
Break Time of all circuit breakers.
24 - 33
24.3.8 Advanced Options (Complete Method)

Fig. 24.24: Complete Method - Advanced Options
Initialisation
The user may select to initialize the complete method by one of the following options:
the load flow calculation referred to in the Load Flow field of the Basic Options tab; or
the nominal voltages with a user-defined correction factor (c-Factor). It should be
noted that this option is only available in the dialogue when Load Flow Initialisation is
not selected.
Peak, DC Currents, R/X ratio (ip, ib, idc)
This option allows the definition of the method used to determine the factor kappa (k)
and the R/X_b ratio, required for the calculation of the peak and the DC component of the
short-circuit current. The methods available correspond to those given in the IEC/VDE
standard.
B
Uses the ratio R/X at the short-circuit location. In this case both ratios
(R/X_p for the calculation of k, and R/X_b) are equal.
24 - 34
C(1)
For k, the ratio R/X_p calculated at a virtual frequency of 40% (based
on the short-circuit impedance in the positive sequence system) is
used. The R/X_b ratio is calculated according to the equivalent
frequency method, considering the breaking time and the positive
sequence impedance (as for Method C from the IEC standard, however
it should be noted that the IEC correction factors are not considered).
C(012)
Like C(1) described directly above, but uses the correct short-circuit
impedance based on the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence
system.
This option will calculate measured currents for all protection devices and will evaluate
tripping times. This option can be disabled to increase the calculation speed when protec-
tion devices do not need to be analyzed.
currents. Normally the breaker currents are calculated as max{I
bus
-I
branch
, I
branch
}. If this
option is activated, the busbar short-circuit current is used as the breaker current, which
is an over-estimation of the currents.
Overhead Line Modelling: Phase Matrices
For the unbalanced short-circuit calculation, PowerFactory always uses the phase com-
ponent matrix. The following options define which phase matrix is used:
Untransposed: the short-circuit calculation uses the untransposed phase matrix.
Symmetrically Transposed: the short-circuit calculation uses the symmetrically trans-
posed phase matrix for untransposed lines.
24 - 35
24.3.9 Basic Options (IEC 61363)
Fig. 24.25: IEC 61363 (EMT) - Basic Options
Calculate Using
In that section the user could select between the options:
Standard IEC 61363 Method
EMT Simulation Method
With the first option the short-circuit is calculated according to the IEC 61363 standard
this is outlined in section 24.1.4. This short-circuit calculation method is only an approxi-
mation and therefore the results are not exact.
When selecting the EMT method PowerFactory calculates for each fault case a three
phase short-circuit with a fault impedance of 0 ohm on the selected locations. This addi-
tional, high precision short-circuit calculation method provides further valuable informa-
tion, and especially when power systems objects must be considered, which are not
covered by the IEC 61363 standard.
The Break Time input parameter represents the contact separation time for circuit-break-
ers. The default setting is 100 ms.
If the EMT Simulation Method option is active the configuration of the Simulation and also
24 - 36
the Simulation Results are available. The Simulation option displays the *.ComSim dia-
logue that is described in more detail in Chapter 27.6 (Stability and EMT Simulations). The
simulation time is set per default to 160 ms. This is necessary because the short circuit is
started after phase A voltage crosses zero and because the first 100 ms after the short-
circuit are displayed as results.
The Simulation Results pointer indicates where the results of the EMT short-circuit simu-
lation will be stored (ElmRes). Typically no changes are required. In another note, this
EMT simulation setup (Initial Conditions and Run Simulation command) is stored sepa-
rately from the normal EMT simulation in order to avoid confusion.
Fault Impedance
The Fault Impedance option is disabled since the IEC 61363 standard considers the short-
circuit impedance to be zero.
Create Plots
By enabling the Create Plots option, the user can select between the following:
Show only short-circuit currents at faulted terminal
With this option selected, PowerFactory will create automatically a time domain plot
of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal, which includes its upper envelope
and DC component.
Show all short-circuit current contributions
With this option selected PowerFactory will create automatically a time domain plot
of the short-circuit current at the selected terminal and a plot for all connected
elements to the faulted terminal. Each created plot will consist of the short-circuit
current, the upper envelope and the DC component.
24.3.10 Advanced Options (IEC 61363)
The settings available on the advanced options page of the IEC 61363 dialogue will de-
pend on the selected calculation method.
Standard IEC 61363
With the standard calculation method the pre-load condition can be configured. The avail-
able options are:
use load flow initialization
With this option a load flow is calculated before the short circuit is calculated. If this
option is selected a link to the used load flow is shown.
use rated current/power factor
With this option is no load flow calculated before the short circuit is calculated. The
preload condition is obtained from the rated values of the grid elements.
neglect preload condition
With this option is no preload information used to calculate the short circuit.
Furthermore is the option Consider Transformer Taps available. According to the stand-
ard are all transformers calculated with their main position so this options should normally
24 - 37
be disabled.
EMT Simulation Method
With EMT simulation method selected on the basic options page is only the choice for
Assume Inertia as infinite available. If this option is selected the acceleration time con-
stants of all rotating machines are set to 9999 s
In PowerFactory the results can be displayed directly in the single line diagram, in tab-
ular form or by using predefined report formats. Also available are several diagram co-
louring options in other to have a "quick" overview of the results.
24.4.1 Viewing Results in the Single Line Diagram
Once a load flow calculation has been successfully executed, the result boxes shown in
the single-line diagram will be populated. There is a result box associated with each "side"
of an element. So for example a load has one result box, a line two result boxes, and a
three-winding transformer three result boxes. In PowerFactory these elements are
collectively called edge elements. In addition, there are result boxes for nodes or buses.
The information shown inside a result box depends on the element to which it is
associated. There are a few predefined formats for edge elements and a few predefined
formats for buses. In order to see the selection, first perform a short-circuit, then, from
the main menu, select Output > Results for Edge Elements or Output > Results for
Short-Circuit Buses or Output > Results for Short-Circuit Buses. These menu options will
show the list of available result box formats. Alternatively, you can select (click) inside a
result box on the single-line diagram, then right-click and from the context sensitive menu
choose Format for Edge Elements or in case of a node Format for Nodes. Figure 24.26
serves as an example.
Fig. 24.26: Selecting the Result Box from the Single Line Diagram.
24 - 38
Besides these predefined formats the result boxes can be formatted in order to display
selected variables.
By right-clicking on one of the result boxes and selecting the option Edit Format for Edge
Elements and afterwards pressing the "Input Mode" button three options will be available:
"Predefined Variables", "User Selection" or "Text Editor". The "User selection" option will
allow the selection of any of the available variables.
24.4.2 Flexible Data Page
Once a short-circuit calculation has been successfully executed, pressing the "Edit
Relevant Objects for Calculation" button ( ) located on the main menu will prompt a
submenu with icons for all classes that are currently used in the calculation. Clicking any
of the class-icons will open a browser with all elements of that class that are currently
used in the calculation. The left-most tab-page at the bottom of the browser is the
"Flexible Data" tab page. Click on this tab page to show the flexible data. To change the
columns in the flexible page, press the "Define Flexible Data" button ( ). This will bring
a selection window where the set of variables can be edited. In the left pane the available
variables will be shown while the right pane will list the selected variables. Pressing the
<< or >> buttons will move the selected variable from the one pane to the other pane.
24.4.3 Predefined Report Formats (ASCII Reports)
In PowerFactory there are predefined report formats also called ASCII reports, available
to the user. These ASCII reports can be created by pressing the "Output Calculation
Analysis" button ( ) located on the main menu (a short-circuit must be calculated first).
This will bring a selection window in which the user can select a specific type of report.
Some reports like the "Currents/Voltages" will have various options which the user can
set. The report selection window also shows the report definition which will be used for
the selected report. Pressing Execute will write the report to the output window.
Although the reports are already predefined, the user has the possibility of modifying the
reports if required (by clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right of the "used format"
definition).
A Show Output and Verification Report can be also printed out automatically each time a
short-circuit calculation is executed (see Section 24.3.1 and 24.3.2).
24.4.4 Diagram Colouring
When performing short-circuit calculations, it is very useful to colour the single line-
diagram in order to have a quick overview of the results, for example if elements have a
loading above rated short-time current or if peak short-circuit currents are higher than the
specified values. In PowerFactory there is the option of selecting different colouring
modes according to the calculation performed. If a specific calculation is valid, then the
selected colouring for this calculation is displayed. As an example, if the user selects the
colouring mode "Areas" for "No Calculation" and "Loading of Thermal/Peak Short-Circuit
Current" for the short-circuit calculation, then the initial colouring will be according to
"Areas". However, as soon as the short-circuit is calculated, the diagram will be coloured
according to "Loading of Thermal/Peak Short-Circuit Current". If the short-circuit calcu-
24 - 39
lation is reset or invalid, the colouring mode switches back to "Areas".
The Diagram Colouring has also a 3-priority level colouring scheme also implemented,
allowing colouring elements according to the following criteria: 1
st
Energizing status, 2
nd
Alarm and 3
rd
"Normal" (Other) colouring.
Energizing Status
If this check box is enabled "De-energized" or "Out of Calculation"
elements are coloured according to the settings in the "Project Colour
Settings". The settings of the "De-energized" or "Out of Calculation"
mode can be edited by clicking on the "Colour Settings" button.
Alarm
If this check box is enabled a drop down list containing alarm modes
will be available. It is important to note here that only alarm modes
available for the current calculation page will be listed. If an alarm
mode is selected, elements "exceeding" the corresponding a limit are
coloured. Limits and colours can be defined by clicking on the "Colour
Settings" button.
"Normal" (Other) Colouring
Here, two lists are displayed. The first list will contains all available
colouring modes. The second list will contain all sub modes of the
selected colouring mode. The settings of the different colouring modes
can be edited by clicking on the "Colour Settings" button.
Every element can be coloured by one of the three previous criteria. Also, every criterion
is optional and will be skipped if disabled. Regarding the priority, if the user enables all
three criterions, the hierarchy taken account will be the following:
- "Energizing Status" overrules the "Alarm" and "Normal Colouring" mode. The
"Alarm" mode overrules the "Normal Colouring" mode.
24 - 40
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Harmonics Analysis
25 - 1
Chapter 25
Harmonics Analysis
One of the many aspects of power quality is the harmonic content of voltages and cur-
rents. Harmonics can be analyzed in either the frequency domain, or in the time-domain
with post-processing using Fourier Analysis. The PowerFactory harmonics functions al-
low the analysis of harmonics in the frequency domain.
The following functions are provided by PowerFactory:
Harmonic Load Flow (including harmonic load flow according to IEC 61000-3-6
and flicker analysis according to IEC 61400-21)
Frequency Sweep
PowerFactorys harmonic load flow calculates actual harmonic indices related to voltage
or current distortion, and harmonic losses caused by harmonic sources (usually non-linear
loads such as current converters). Harmonic sources can be defined by either a harmonic
current spectrum or a harmonic voltage spectrum. In the harmonic load flow calculation,
PowerFactory carries out a steady-state network analysis at each frequency at which
harmonic sources are defined.
A special application of the harmonic load flow is the analysis of ripple-control signals. For
this application, a harmonic load flow can be calculated at one specific frequency only.
The harmonic load flow command also offers the option of calculating long- and short-
term flicker disturbance factors introduced by wind turbine generators. These factors are
calculated according to IEC standard 61400-21, for wind turbines generators under con-
tinuous and switching operations.
In contrast to the harmonic load flow, PowerFactorys frequency sweep performs a con-
tinuous frequency domain analysis. A typical application of the frequency sweep function
calculates network impedances. The result of this calculation facilitates the identification
of series and parallel resonances in the network.
These resonance points can identify the frequencies at which harmonic currents cause low
or high harmonic voltages. Network impedances are of particular importance for applica-
tions such as filter design.
PowerFactory provides a toolbar for accessing the different harmonic analysis com-
mands. This toolbar can be displayed (if not already active) by selecting the 'Harmonics'
icon ( ) on the main toolbar. The Harmonics toolbar provides two icons to open pre-
configured command dialogues for the two different calculations:
: Calculate Harmonic Load Flow
: Calculate Impedance Frequency Characteristics (Frequency Sweep)
The command dialogues can be also accessed through the main menu by selecting:
25 - 2
Calculation > Harmonics > Harmonic Load Flow...; or
Calculation > Harmonics > Impedance Frequency Characteristic... .
Additionally, following the calculation of a harmonic load flow, a third icon on this toolbar
is activated. The icon is used to open the 'Filter Analysis' (ComSh) command dia-
logue. The Filter Analysis command analyzes results from the most recent harmonic load
flow calculation and outputs results to PowerFactorys output window.
All functions and their usage are described in this chapter.
25.1 Harmonic Load Flow
To calculate a harmonic load flow, click on the icon to open the dialogue for the 'Har-
monic Load Flow' (ComHldf) command as shown in Figure 25.1.

Fig. 25.1: Harmonic Load Flow Command (ComHldf)
For a detailed description of how harmonic injections are considered by PowerFactory,
refer to Section 25.4 (Modelling Harmonic Sources), in which the analysis and the har-
monic indices are described.
The following sections describe the options available in the harmonic load flow command.
Network Representation
Calculate Harmonic Load Flow
Nominal Frequency, Output Frequency, Harmonic Order
25 - 3
Calculate Flicker
Result Variables and Load Flow
Balanced
In the case of a symmetrical network and balanced harmonic sources,
characteristic harmonics either appear in the negative sequence
component (5th, 11th, 19th, etc.), or in the positive sequence
component. Hence, at all frequencies a single-phase equivalent
(positive or negative sequence) can be used for the analysis.
Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC)
For analyzing non-characteristic harmonics (3rd-order, even-order,
inter-harmonics), or harmonics in non-symmetrical networks, the
Unbalanced, 3-phase (ABC) option for modelling the network in the
phase-domain should be selected.
Calculate Harmonic Load Flow
Single Frequency
Selecting this option will perform a single harmonic load flow
calculation at the given Output Frequency (parameter name: fshow) or
at the given harmonic order (parameter name: ifshow). A common
application for this input mode is the analysis of ripple control systems.
The results of the analysis are shown in the single line diagram, in the
same way as for a normal load flow at the fundamental frequency.
All Frequencies
Selecting this option will perform harmonic load flow calculations for all
frequencies for which harmonic sources are defined. These frequencies
are gathered automatically prior to the calculation. The results for all
frequencies are stored in a result file, which can be used to create bar
chart representations of harmonic indices (see also Section 19.4.2
(Plots)). The results of the analysis at the given Output Frequency are
shown in the single line diagram.
Nominal Frequency
PowerFactory can only calculate harmonics of AC-systems with
identical fundamental frequencies. The relevant nominal frequency
must be entered here (usually 50Hz or 60Hz).
Output Frequency
This is the frequency for which results are displayed in the single-line
graphic. In the case of a Single Frequency calculation, this is the
frequency for which a harmonic load flow is calculated. When option All
Frequencies is selected, this parameter only affects the display of
results in the single line diagram. It does not influence the calculation
itself. In this case, the results displayed in the single line diagram are
for the defined Output Frequency. A change made to the Output
25 - 4
Frequency will cause the Harmonic Order to be automatically changed
accordingly.
Harmonic Order
This is the same as the Output Frequency but input as the Harmonic
Order (f/fn). The Harmonic Order multiplied by the Nominal Frequency
always equals the Output Frequency. Both floating-point and integer
values are valid as inputs. A change made to the Harmonic Order will
cause the Output Frequency to be automatically changed accordingly.
Calculate Flicker
Calculate Flicker
When selected, the long- and short-term flicker disturbance factors are
calculated according to IEC standard 61400-21. See Section 25.5
(Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21)) for more detailed information.
Result Variables
This option is available if Calculate Harmonic Load Flow option All
Frequencies has been selected, and is used to select the target result
object for storing the results of the harmonic load flow. See Section
25.6 (Definition of Result Variables) for more information regarding
specifying and defining result variables.
Load Flow
This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on
the arrow button ( ) to inspect and/or adjust the load flow command
settings.
25.1.2 IEC 61000-3-6
Treatment of Harmonic Sources
The alpha exponent values on this page will only be considered by the
harmonic load flow (that is to say that the calculation will be carried out
according to the IEC 61000-3-6 standard) if at least one harmonic
source in the network is defined as IEC 61000 (see Section: IEC 61000
Harmonic Sources). On this page, if According to IEC 61000-3-6 is
selected, these tables display the alpha exponent values as given in the
IEC 61000-3-6 standard, as read-only values. If User Defined is
selected, the definition of the alpha exponent values is user-definable
in terms of integer and/or non-integer harmonic orders.
Based on Fundamental Frequency Values (IEEE)
All values are based on fundamental frequency values, as defined by
IEEE standards.
25 - 5
Based on Total RMS-Values (DIN)
All values are based on "true RMS''-values, as defined by DIN
standards.
Based on Rated Voltage/Current
All values are based on the rated voltage/current of the buses and
branches in the network, respectively.
25.2 Frequency Sweep
To calculate frequency dependent impedances, the impedance characteristic can be com-
puted for a given frequency range using the Frequency Sweep Command (ComFsweep).
This function is available by clicking on the icon available in the Harmonics toolbar.
The harmonic frequency sweep command is shown in Figure 25.2.

Fig. 25.2: Harmonic Frequency Sweep Command (ComFsweep)
Harmonic analysis by frequency sweep is normally used for analyzing self- and mutual-
network impedances.
However, it should be noted that not only self- and mutual-impedances can be analyzed
and shown. The voltage source models (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) available in PowerFactory
allow the definition of any spectral density function. Hence, impulse or step responses of
any variable can be calculated in the frequency domain. One common application is the
analysis of series resonance problems.
The following sections describe the options available in the harmonic frequency sweep
command.
25 - 6
Balanced, positive sequence
This option uses a single-phase, positive sequence network
representation, valid for balanced symmetrical networks. A balanced
representation of unbalanced objects is used.
Unbalanced, 3 Phase (ABC)
This option uses a full multiple-phase, unbalanced network
representation.
Impedance Calculation
The frequency sweep will be performed for the frequency range defined by the Start Fre-
quency and the Stop Frequency, using the given Step Size.
The Automatic Step Size Adaptation option allows an adaptive step size. Enabling this op-
tion will normally speed up the calculation, and enhance the level of detail in the results
by automatically using a smaller step size when required. The settings for step size adap-
tation can be changed on the Advanced Options tab.
Nominal Frequency
This is the fundamental frequency of the system, and the base
frequency for the harmonic orders (usually 50Hz or 60Hz).
Output Frequency
This is the frequency for which the results in the single line diagram are
shown. This value has no effect on the actual calculation.
Harmonic Order
This is the harmonic order equivalent of the Output Frequency. The
Harmonic Order multiplied by the Nominal Frequency always equals the
Output Frequency. Both floating-point and integer values are valid as
inputs.
Result Variables
Used to select the target result object which will store the results of the
harmonic frequency sweep. See Section 25.6 (Definition of Result
Variables) for more information regarding specifying result variables.
Load Flow
This displays the load flow command used by the calculation. Click on
the arrow button ( ) to inspect and/or adjust the load flow command
settings.
The results of PowerFactorys frequency sweep analysis are the characteristics of the
impedances over the frequency range.
25 - 7
Selecting the option Automatic Step Size Adaptation on the Basic Data tab of the frequen-
cy sweep command is one way to increase the speed of the calculation. This option en-
ables the use of the step size adaptation algorithm for the frequency sweep.
With this algorithm, the frequency step between two calculations of all variables is not
held constant, but is adapted according to the shape of the sweep. When no resonances
in the impedance occur, the time step can be increased without compromising accuracy.
If the impedance starts to change considerably with the next step, the step size will be
reduced again. The frequency step is set such that the prediction error will conform to the
two prediction error input parameters, as shown below:
errmax
Maximum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.01)
errinc
Minimum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.005)
ninc
Step Size Increase Delay (typically 10 frequency steps)
Calculate R, X at output frequency for all nodes
Normally, PowerFactory calculates the equivalent impedance only at selected nodes.
When this option is selected, following the harmonic calculation, the equivalent imped-
ance is calculated for all nodes.
25.3 Filter Analysis
The Filter Analysis command is a special form of the Output of Results command
(ComSh), whose function is to generate a report. It analyzes the results from the previous
harmonic load flow and outputs results to the PowerFactory output window. It outputs
a summary of the harmonics for the terminals/busbars and branch elements at the fre-
quency specified in the Output Frequency field of the harmonic load flow command. It
also reports the parameters and different variables for the installed filters.
The filter analysis command can be activated using the icon or by using the Output
Calculation Analysis icon from the main menu (see also Section 19.1.3: Output of Re-
sults). This will open the same dialogue as that used for the reporting of harmonic results,
as displayed in Figure 25.3. This command can alternatively be launched from the single
line graphic, after selecting one or more elements, and right-clicking and selecting Output
Data... -> Results. Results will then be output for the selected elements. It should be not-
ed that elements should be selected according to the type of report being generated. This
means that for Busbars and Branches only terminals and branches should be selected, for
Busbars/Terminals only terminals should be selected; and for Filter Layout and Filter Re-
sults only shunts should be selected.
In the dialogue, the Output Frequency specified in the harmonic load flow command is
displayed in red text (see top of dialogue in Figure 25.3). There are four different reports
to choose from:
Busbars and Branches
This displays the results of the harmonic load flow for all node and
25 - 8
branch elements in the network. The distortion for various electrical
variables is printed and summarized.
Busbars/Terminals
For the electrical nodes, the rated voltage, the voltage at the
calculation frequency, as well as RMS values and distortion at the nodes
are displayed.
Filter Layout
The filter layout of all active filters in the network is calculated for the
given frequency. The rated values and impedances of the filter as well
as the type and vector group are printed to the output window.
Additionally, the currents through the different components are shown,
as are the losses.
Filter Results
The filter results show the main layout of all filters in the network for
the calculation frequency. For a set of frequencies, the voltages and
currents through the filter are tabulated.

Fig. 25.3: Filter Analysis Report Command (ComSh) Dialogue
The default format used for the report in the output window is defined in the Used Format
section of the dialogue and can be set or changed by clicking on the Filter Layout button
( ).
Use Selection
Results will only be reported for elements defined in a selection. A selection of elements
can be defined by selecting them either in the single line graphic or in the Data Manager,
right-clicking and choosing Define...-> General Set. This General Set then exists in the
Study Case and can be selected when the Use Selection option is activated.
25 - 9
25.4 Modelling Harmonic Sources
Every switched device produces harmonics and must therefore be modelled as a harmonic
source. In PowerFactory, harmonic sources can be either current or voltage sources.
The following models can be used to generate harmonics (the PowerFactory element
names are given in parentheses):
General loads (ElmLod), if they are modelled as a current source (which can be
defined on the Harmonics tab of the loads assigned Type);
Thyristor rectifiers (ElmRec, ElmRecmono);
PWM-converters (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono), which are generally modelled as harmonic
voltage sources;
Voltage sources (ElmVac, ElmVacbi), which may also be used for ripple control
applications;
Current sources (ElmIac), with a user-defined spectrum of harmonic injections.
Static generators (ElmGenstat);
Static var systems (ElmSvs).
See Section 25.4.1 (Definition of Harmonic Injections) for information on how to define
harmonic injections for these sources.
Note: Harmonic injections can be modelled in EMT simulations using the
Fourier source object. For further details please refer to the Tech-
nical References.
25.4.1 Definition of Harmonic Injections
For the following PowerFactory elements, the harmonic injections must first be defined
using the Harmonic Sources type object (TypHmccur):
PWM-converters (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono);
Current sources (ElmIac);
When defining the spectrum via the Harmonic Sources type object, the harmonic infeeds
can be entered according to one of three options: Balanced, Phase Correct or Unbalanced,
Phase Correct (shown in Figures 25.4 and 25.5, respectively), or IEC 61000 (shown in Fig-
ure 25.6). The Harmonic Sources object is a PowerFactory 'type' object, which means
that it may be used by many elements who have the same basic type. Multiple current
source loads may, for example, use the same Harmonic Sources object. Note that Pow-
erFactory has no corresponding element for this type.
25 - 10
Phase Correct Harmonic Sources
For the Balanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, in both balanced and unbal-
anced harmonic load flows, the magnitudes and phases of positive and negative sequence
harmonic injections at integer harmonic orders can be defined, as shown in Figure 25.4.

Fig. 25.4: Balanced, Phase Correct Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur)
For the Unbalanced, Phase Correct harmonic sources option, the magnitudes and phases
of positive and negative sequence harmonic injections at integer and non-integer har-
monic orders can be defined, as shown in Figure 25.5. In the case of a balanced harmonic
load flow, harmonic injections in the zero sequence are not considered, and harmonic in-
jections at non-integer harmonic orders are considered in the positive sequence. In the
case of an unbalanced harmonic load flow, harmonic injections in the zero sequence and
at non-integer harmonic orders are considered appropriately. See Table 25.2 for a com-
plete summary.
25 - 11

Fig. 25.5: Unbalanced, Phase Correct Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur)
IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources
The IEC 61000-3-6 standard [25.1] describes a second summation law, applicable to
both voltage and current, which is described mathematically as [25.1]:
Eqn 25.1: (IEC 61000 Harmonic Voltage Magnitude)
where is the resultant harmonic voltage magnitude for the considered aggregation of
sources at order , and is the exponent as given in Table 25.1 [25.1].
U
h
U
h m ,
o
m 0 =
N
o
=
U
h
N h o
25 - 12
The Harmonic Sources type set to option IEC 61000 (as shown in Figure 25.6) allows the
definition of integer and non-integer harmonic current magnitude injections. In the case
of balanced and unbalanced harmonic load flows, zero sequence order injections and non-
integer harmonic injections are considered in the positive sequence. This is summarized
in Table 25.2. It should be noted that in order to execute an harmonic load flow according
to IEC 61000-3-6, at least one harmonic source in the network must be defined
as IEC 61000 (i.e. as shown in Figure 25.6).
Fig. 25.6: IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources Type (TypHmccur)
The definition of the spectrum of harmonic injections for the voltage source (ElmVac, Elm-
Vacbi) is done differently to other elements. The harmonic injections are directly input on
the Harmonics tab of the voltage source element itself via the Harmonic Voltages table,
as shown in Figure 25.7.
Additionally, the voltage source allows the following to be input for use in the Frequency
Sweep calculation:
Spectral density of voltage magnitude;
Spectral density of voltage angle;
Table 25.1: IEC 61000-3-6 Summation Exponents According to
Harmonic Order
Alpha
Exponent
Value
Harmonic
Order
1 h<5
1.4 5<=h<=10
2 h>10
25 - 13
Frequency dependencies (in the form of a Frequency Polynomial Characteristic). See
Section 25.4.4 (Frequency Dependent Parameters) and Chapter 18: Parameter
Characteristics for further details.
Fig. 25.7: Definition of Harmonic Voltages for Voltage Source Element
Selection of Type of Harmonic Sources
The Harmonic Sources object (TypHmccur) is independent of the whether the harmonic
source is either a voltage source or a current source. The decision as to whether harmonic
sources are fed into the system as harmonic voltages or as harmonic currents is made
exclusively by the element to which the Harmonic Sources object is assigned. The consid-
eration by the calculation of the sequence components of harmonic injections is given in
Table 25.2.
Magnitudes and Phase Values
The quantities of the spectrum type are rated to current/voltage at the fundamental fre-
quency in the balanced case. Hence, in the case of a harmonic current source, the actual
25 - 14
harmonic current at frequency f
h
is calculated by:

where

The values at the fundamental frequency, I
1
and
1
, are taken from a preceding load flow
calculation. A normal load flow calculation is therefore required prior to a harmonic load
flow calculation.
In case of balanced systems in which only characteristic harmonics of orders 5, 7, 11, 13,
17, etc. occur, the option Balanced, Phase Correct should be selected in the Balanced/Un-
balanced Sources section (as shown in Figure 25.4). In this context, Balanced refers to
characteristic harmonics. In the balanced case, the harmonic frequencies are determined
by the program (note that in the unbalanced case, the harmonic frequencies can be free-
ly-defined).
For harmonic sources which produce non-characteristic, unbalanced or inter-harmonics,
the option Unbalanced, Phase Correct should be set in the Type of Harmonics Sources sec-
tion. In the Unbalanced, Phase Correct case, the harmonic frequency, magnitude and
phase angle of each phase can be chosen individually for each harmonic frequency. This
mode therefore caters for every possible kind of harmonic source.
The problem commonly arises as to how one can represent the harmonic content in a sys-
tem which differs to the native modal system (positive, negative or zero sequence sys-
tem). The following example illustrates how to represent the 3rd harmonic in a positive
or negative sequence system (as opposed to the native zero sequence system).
In the symmetrical case, the phase shift between the three phases is:
A: 0
B: -120
C: +120 (-240)
I
h
k
h
e

h
A
I
1
e
1
=
k
h
I
h
I
1
if balanced
I
ah
I
a1
if unbalanced phase a
I
bh
I
b1
if unbalanced phase b
I
ch
I
c1
if unbalanced phase c
h
A
h

1
if balanced
ah

a1
if unbalanced phase a
bh

b1
if unbalanced phase b
ch

c1
if unbalanced phase c
=
25 - 15
For harmonics of order n:
A: 0
B: -n*120
C: +n*120
Taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:
A: 0
B: -360(= 0)
C: +360 (=0)
Consequently, the 3rd harmonic in the ideally balanced case only in the zero sequence
component, as their native modal system. For representing 3rd harmonics (and multiples
thereof) in the positive sequence system, the following phase correction needs to be en-
tered:
A: 0
B: +(n-1)*120
C: -(n-1)*120
Again taking the 3rd harmonic as an example:
A: 0
B: -360 + 240 = -120
C: +360 - 240 = 120
25 - 16
25.4.2 Assignment of Harmonic Injections
The assignment of harmonic injections to the following elements is done via the individual
elements dialogue on the Harmonics page.
PWM-converters (ElmVsc, ElmVscmono);
Current sources (ElmIac);
This is illustrated in Figure 25.8 for the case of a general load.
Table 25.2: Consideration of Sequence Components of Harmonic
Injections
Harmonic Load
Flow Command
Setting
Harmonic Current
Source Type
Sequence
Components of
Harmonic Injections
Balanced Balanced, Phase
Correct
Positive, negative;
integer orders only.
Unbalanced, Phase
Correct
Positive, negative;
zero sequence orders
are ignored and non-
integer harmonics are
in the positive
sequence.
IEC 61000 Positive, negative;
zero sequence orders
and non-integer
harmonics are in the
positive sequence.
Unbalanced Balanced, Phase
Correct
As for balanced
harmonic load flow.
Unbalanced, Phase
Correct
Positive, negative,
zero; integer and non-
integer harmonics.
IEC 61000 As for balanced
harmonic load flow.
25 - 17
Fig. 25.8: Assignment of Harmonic Current Source to a Load Element (ElmLod)
Harmonic Currents
Used to select and display the assigned Harmonic Sources type
(TypHmccur).
Type of Harmonic Sources
Displays the type of harmonic source selected in the assigned
Harmonic Sources type (TypHmccur).
Harmonic current referred to
For phase correct sources, the harmonic current may be referred to
either the fundamental current or the rated current. If the harmonic
current source type (TypHmccur) has been selected to be IEC 61000,
the harmonic current is always referred to the rated current and this
option is read-only.
Harmonic injections defined for voltage sources (ElmVac, ElmVacbi) are implicitly as-
signed, as they are defined on the elements Harmonics page. No further assignment is
therefore necessary. See Section 25.4 (Modelling Harmonic Sources) for further informa-
tion.
25.4.3 Harmonic Distortion Results
The harmonic loadflow calculation in PowerFactory provides a vast number of results
for network elements. Some of the more prominent result variables are described in this
section.
The harmonic distortion of a current or of a voltage can be quantified in terms of the Har-
monic Distortion (HD), as described by (25.2). To describe the overall distortion, the Total
Harmonic Distortion index THD (see (25.3)) has been introduced. An alternative, less
common index is the Total Arithmetic Distortion TAD (see (25.4)). All distortion indices are
described by their equations (below) for the current, but may be similarly described for
voltage distortion.
25 - 18
Eqn 25.2:
Eqn 25.3: (Total Harmonic Distortion)
Eqn 25.4: (Total Arithmetic Distortion)
where
I(f
i
) Component of the current at frequency f
i
I
ref
Reference value for the current
Eqn 25.5: (Total RMS value)
Eqn 25.6: (Arithmetic Sum value)
The reference value I
ref
depends on the standard used. The two possible options are the
calculation according to DIN (25.7) and according to IEEE (25.8), as presented below:
Eqn 25.7: (DIN Standard)
Eqn 25.8: (IEEE Standard).
Another value which may be of importance is the Total Power (see (25.9)), which de-
scribes the power absorbed over all frequency components:
Eqn 25.9: (Total Power)
It should be noted that for networks containing IEC 61000 harmonic current sources, re-
sult variables for the voltage angle and current angle are not applicable (as the angles
cannot be known). Additionally, the following result variables are available:
ku, ki: Voltage and current diversity factors, respectively (always 1 for networks
containing only phase correct sources);
Eqn 25.10: (Voltage Diversity Factor)
HD
I
f
i
( )
I f
i
( )
I f
1
( )
-------------- =
THD
I
1
I
ref
-------- I
RMS
2
I
2
f
1
( ) =
TAD
I
1
I
ref
-------- I
EA
I f
1
( ) | | =
I
RMS
I
2
f
i
( )
i 1 =
n
=
I
EA
I f
i
( )
i 1 =
n
=
I
ref DIN ,
I
RMS
=
I
ref IEEE ,
I f
1
( ) =
P
tot
P f
i
( )
i 1 =
n
=
ku
U
h
2
U
( )
2
--------------------- =
25 - 19
where is the IEC 61000 harmonic voltage magnitude as defined in (25.1) and is
the voltage magnitude.
HD, THD and TAD for non-integer harmonic orders.
25.4.4 Frequency Dependent Parameters
Due to the skin effect and variations in internal inductance, resistances and inductances
are usually frequency dependent. This can be modeled in PowerFactory by associating
a "frequency characteristic'' with these quantities. Two types of characteristic may be
used: either a Frequency Polynomial Characteristic (ChaPol) as illustrated in Figure 25.9,
or a user-defined frequency table (TriFreq and ChaVec). These kinds of characteristics are
then assigned via the Harmonics tab of the correspoding elements dialogue, as illustrated
by the example in Figure 25.10 for a line element.

Fig. 25.9: The Frequency Polynomial Characteristic (ChaPol)
For the polynomial characteristic object shown in Figure 25.9, the following formula is
used:

The parameters a and b are specified in the Frequency Polynomial Characteristic dialogue.
Variable y is usually expressed as a percentage of the corresponding input parameters.
For example, the resulting line resistance is obtained by:

An example of the use of the polynomial characteristic for a line type is shown in Figure
25.10.
U
h
U
y f
h
( ) 1 a ( ) a
f
h
f
1
----
\ .
|
| |
b
+ =
R f
h
( ) R y f
h
( ) =
25 - 20

Fig. 25.10: Frequency Dependencies in a Line Type
It also is possible to define frequency dependent characteristics using a vectorial param-
eter characteristic (ChaVec). An example for a grid impedance defined with a vectorial pa-
rameter characteristic is shown in Figure 25.11.

Fig. 25.11: Frequency Dependent Grid Impedance as Vectorial Characteristic (ChaVec)
The following objects can have frequency dependent parameters defined using a frequen-
cy characteristic:
Line type (TypLne)
Asynchronous machine type (TypAsmo)
Synchronous machine type (TypSym)
Shunt/filter (ElmShnt)
AC voltage source (ElmVac)
AC voltage source - two terminals (ElmVacbi)
AC current source (ElmIac)
AC current source - two terminals (ElmIacbi)
25 - 21
NEC/NER (ElmNec)
Complex load (TypLodind)
2-W transformer (TypTr2)
3-W transformer (TypTr3)
Lines which are represented by a tower type (TypTow) are automatically assigned a har-
monic characteristic. The same applies to cables using the detailed cable representation
type (TypTow).
25.4.5 Waveform Plot
The waveform plot is used to display the waveform of a voltage or a current following a
harmonic loadflow calculation. The harmonics are typically emitted by a harmonic voltage
or current source, as described in Section 25.4 (Modelling Harmonic Sources).
In this plot, a waveform is generated using the magnitude and phase angle of the har-
monic frequencies. With this diagram, a variable such as the voltage or current, which is
defined in a harmonic source (i.e. a power electronic device or a load), can be easily
shown as a time-dependent variable. This way the real shape of the voltage can be seen
and analyzed. An example plot of harmonic distortion is shown in Figure 25.12.
Fig. 25.12: Use of the Waveform Plot to display Harmonic Distortion
For a more detailed description of this type of plot, see Section 19.4.6 (The Waveform
25 - 22
Plot).
For other types of plots, it should be noted that as the results of the discrete harmonic
analysis are discrete, the plots generated from the result file should have the Bars option
enabled. To do this, open the subplot dialogue by double-clicking on a subplot, going to
the Advanced tab, and selecting Bars in the Presentation frame.
25.5 Flicker Analysis (IEC 61400-21)
The IEC standard 61400-21 [25.2] describes the measurement and assessment of power
quality characteristics of grid connected wind turbine generators (WTGs). One of these
power quality characteristic parameters pertains to voltage fluctuations. Voltage fluctua-
tions can produce undesirable effects on the consumer side which may manifest as flicker
(visible flickering effects from light sources), and voltage changes (voltage magnitude be-
ing too high or too low).
In the assessment of a WTGs power quality in terms of voltage fluctuations, the operation
of WTGs can be subdivided into two modes: continuous operation and switching opera-
tions (see Sections 25.5.1 (Continuous Operation) and 25.5.2 (Switching Operations) for
definitions). These modes of operation are considered by the PowerFactory flicker cal-
culation, which calculates the short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors. See
Section 25.5.6 (Flicker Result Variables) for a list of the flicker result variables available.
The calculation of flicker is performed optionally as part of the harmonic load flow com-
mand. For a detailed description of how to configure and execute a harmonic load flow,
including the calculation of flicker, refer to Section 25.1.1 (Basic Options).
25.5.1 Continuous Operation
Continuous operation is defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as the normal operation of the
wind turbine generator (WTG) excluding start-up and shut-down operations. The short-
term and long-term flicker disturbance factors during continuous operation are defined as
[25.2]:
Eqn 25.11:
(Short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation)
where is the short-term flicker disturbance factor; is the long-term flicker distur-
bance factor; is the flicker coefficient for continuous operation; is the network im-
pedance angle (degrees); is the average annual wind speed (m/s); is the rated
P
st
P
lt
c
k
v
a
, ( )
S
n
S
k
----- = =
P
st
P
lt
c

k
v
a
S
n
25 - 23
apparent power of the wind turbine (VA); and is the short-circuit apparent power of
the grid (VA).
When more than one WTG exists at the point of common coupling (PCC), the following
summation is required [25.2]:
Eqn 25.12:
(Summed short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for continuous operation)
where is the number of wind turbine generators at the PCC.
25.5.2 Switching Operations
Switching operations are defined in IEC standard 61400-21 as start-up or switching be-
tween wind turbine generators (WTGs). In this mode of operation, the short-term and
long-term flicker disturbance factors during switching operations are defined as [25.2]:
Eqn 25.13:
(Short-term flicker disturbance factor for switching operations)
where is the number of switching operations in a 10-minute period; is the flicker
step factor; is the network impedance angle (degrees); is the rated apparent pow-
er of the wind turbine (VA); and is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).
Eqn 25.14:
(Long-term flicker disturbance factor for switching operations)
where is the number of switching operations in a 120-minute period; is the flicker
step factor; is the network impedance angle (degrees); is the rated apparent pow-
er of the wind turbine (VA); and is the short-circuit apparent power of the grid (VA).
When more than one WTG exists at the PCC, the following summation is required [25.2]:
Eqn 25.15:
(Short-term flicker disturbance factor under switching operations)
S
k
P
stE
P
ltE
1
S
k
----- c
k
v
a
, ( ) S
n i ,
( )
2
i 1 =
N
wt
= =
N
wt
P
st
18 N
10
0 31 ,
k
f

k
( )
S
n
S
k
----- =
N
10
k
f
k
S
n
S
k
P
lt
8 N
120
0 31 ,
k
f

k
( )
S
n
S
k
----- =
N
120
k
f
k
S
n
S
k
P
stE
18
S
k
------ N
10 i ,
k
f i ,

k
( ) S
n i ,
( )
3 2 ,
i 1 =
N
wt
0 31 ,
=
25 - 24
Eqn 25.16:
(Long-term flicker disturbance factor under switching operations)
where is the number of WTGs at the PCC.
The relative voltage change due to the switching operation of a single WTG is computed
as [25.2]:
Eqn 25.17:
(Relative Voltage Change (%))
P
ltE
8
S
k
----- N
120 i ,
k
f i ,

k
( ) S
n i ,
( )
3 2 ,
i 1 =
N
wt
0 31 ,
=
N
wt
d 100 k
u

k
( )
S
n
S
k
----- =
25 - 25
25.5.3 Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbine Generator Models
The calculation of flicker according to IEC standard 61400-21 in PowerFactory considers
flicker contributions of the following generator models:
Static generator (ElmGenstat)
Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm)
Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc)
In order that these models can contribute flicker, their flicker contributions must first be
defined and assigned, as described in Sections 25.5.4 (Definition of Flicker Coefficients)
and 25.5.5 (Assignment of Flicker Coefficients).
25.5.4 Definition of Flicker Coefficients
Flicker coefficients are defined in PowerFactory by means of the Flicker Coefficients type
(TypFlicker), as illustrated in Figure 25.13. When created, this is stored by default in the
Equipment Type Library folder in the project tree.
Fig. 25.13: Definition of Flicker Coefficients using the Flicker Coefficients Type
(TypFlicker)
The Flicker Coefficients type allows the input of six parameters (all of which are defined
in IEC standard 61400-21):
Network Angle, psi (degrees)
This is the network impedance angle and must be entered in either the range [-180,180]
25 - 26
(default), or [0,360]. Any mix of these ranges is not permitted. Network angles must be
entered in ascending order.
Coefficient, c(psi)
The flicker coefficient as a function of the network impedance angle.
Step Factor, kf(psi)
The flicker step factor as a function of the network impedance angle.
Voltage Change Factor, ku(psi)
The voltage change factor as a function of the network impedance angle.
Maximum Switching Operations: N10
The maximum number of switching operations in a 10-minute period.
Maximum Switching Operations: N120
The maximum number of switching operations in a 120-minute period.
25.5.5 Assignment of Flicker Coefficients
The Harmonics page of these elements dialogues contains a Flicker Contribution section
which allows the assignment of Flicker Coefficients. This is illustrated in Figure 25.14.
Fig. 25.14: Assignment of Flicker Coefficients in an Asynchronous Machine (ElmAsm)
If Flicker Coefficients is left assigned, the generator is then considered to be an ideal
source for the flicker calculation, as illustrated in Figure 25.15.
25 - 27
Fig. 25.15: Asynchronous Generator (ElmAsm) Model as Ideal Source
25.5.6 Flicker Result Variables
Following the calculation of flicker according to IEC 61400-21, the following result vari-
ables for every node in the network are available in the single line graphic:
Pst_cont; Plt_cont: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for
continuous operation of the wind turbine generator/s;
Pst_sw; Plt_sw: short-term and long-term flicker disturbance factors for switching
operations of the wind turbine generator/s;
d_sw: relative voltage change (as a percentage).
For the mathematical definitions of these result variables, refer to Sections 25.5.1 (Con-
tinuous Operation) and 25.5.2 (Switching Operations).
25.6 Definition of Result Variables
In order to record the results of either the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep cal-
culation, the variables of interest must be defined. However, for each of these calcula-
tions, a small selection of variables are recorded by default in the result object defined on
each commands Basic Data page by the Result Variables parameter.
For the Harmonic Load Flow the following variables are recorded by default:
Harmonic order (-);
Frequency (Hz);
HD (%) (for terminals);
Voltage across inductor (p.u.) (url) (for shunts/filters);
Voltage across capacitor (p.u.) (uc) (for shunts/filters);
Current through inductor (A) (IL) (for shunts/filters);
Current through resistor Rp (A) (IRp) (for shunts/filters);
Current through capacitor C (A) (IC) (for shunts/filters);
Voltage across capacitor C1 (A) (uc1) (for shunts/filters);
Voltage across capacitor C2 (A) (uc2) (for shunts/filters);
Voltage across resistor Rp (p.u.) (urp) (for shunts/filters);
25 - 28
For the Frequency Sweep, the following variables are recorded by default:
Harmonic order (-);
Frequency in Hz (Hz);
In order to define additional variables to be recorded, a two-step process is required of
firstly creating the desired Variable Set and then selecting the variables for recording with-
in these sets. These steps are described in Sections 25.6.1 (Definition of Variable Sets)
and 25.6.2 (Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set), respectively.
25.6.1 Definition of Variable Sets
To define a Variable Set, right-click on a network component (or multi-select several net-
work components and right-click), either in the single-line diagram or in the data manager,
and select the option Define >Variable Set (Harmonic Load Flow); or Define >Variable
Set (Frequency Sweep). This will add a new (but still empty) variable set for the selected
object to the result object (referred to by parameter Result Variables on the Basic Options
tab of the Harmonic Load Flow or Frequency Sweep command dialogue).
All results of harmonic analyses, with the exception of the harmonic load flow using option
Single Frequency (for which no results are recorded), are stored in a normal result object
(ElmRes). This result object stores the result variables against the frequency for which
they were calculated. For more information about the result object, see Section 19.1.4
(Result Objects).
To access the variable sets, click on the Edit Result Variables icon ( ) on the main tool-
bar. There are two instances of this button: one associated with the Harmonic Load Flow
. and one associated with the Frequency Sweep . Select the button associated with
the relevant calculation. The variable set manager dialog will open which displays the list
of all defined variable sets for that calculation. After the variable set has been created and
its variables have been defined, each variable set contains the variables of interest for a
single object. A window is opened automatically whenever a new variable set is defined,
as shown in Figure 25.16, displaying the list of variable sets. In Figure 25.16, three vari-
able sets have been defined for three different network elements: one for load element
"General Load", one for line element "Line 1" and one for terminal element "Sym-Termi-
nal".
A new variable set can also be defined by clicking on the New icon ( ), shown in the
top left corner of Figure 25.16. By doing this, the Variable Set dialogue will appear as
shown in Figure 25.17. To proceed with selecting the result variables for the variable set,
see Section 25.6.2 (Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set). For further infor-
mation on variable sets, refer to Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualizing Results.
25 - 29

Fig. 25.16: Example of a List of Variable Sets
25.6.2 Selection of Result Variables within a Variable Set
The selection of result variables for a variable set can only proceed when the column la-
belled Object for any defined variable set (as shown in Figure 25.16) is set. This can be
done by either double-clicking the appropriate cell of the Object column, or by right-click-
ing the cell and selecting Select Element.... This binds the variable set to a specific object
or network element.
A single variable set from the variable sets list can be accessed (and the desired variables
defined) by either double-clicking on the icon in the corresponding row (for example,
in the case of the "Sym-Terminal" in Figure 25.16), or by right-clicking on the
icon and selecting the Edit menu option. The Variable Set object (IntMon) dialogue opens,
as shown in Figure 25.17 for the example of the "Sym-Terminal". By selecting the Har-
monics tab of this dialogue, a list of all result variables that are available for the selected
object (applicable to harmonics analysis or frequency sweep) is then available for selec-
tion. The Object field in the dialogue in Figure 25.17 shows that the variable set is defined
for the network element "Sym-Terminal".
25 - 30

Fig. 25.17: Selection of Harmonics Analysis Result Variables for a Terminal
Result variables may be added or removed from the set of selected variables by highlight-
ing the desired variable and pressing the or buttons. Additionally, different vari-
ables are available for selection depending on the selection made from the Variable Set
drop-down list. This drop-down list is available in the Filter for section on the Harmonics
tab of the Variable Set dialogue, as displayed in Figure 25.17. For further information on
variable sets, refer to Chapter 19: Reporting and Visualizing Results.
25.7 Literature
[25.1] Technical Report IEC 1000-3-6, First Edition 1996-10, "Electromagnetic Compati-
bility (EMC) - Part 3: Limits - Section 6: Assessment of emission limits for distorting loads
in MV and HV power systems - Basic EMC publication"
[25.2] International Standard IEC 61400-21, Edition 2.0, 2008-08, "Wind turbines - Part
21: Measurement and assessment of power quality characteristics of grid connected wind
turbines"
25 - 31
25 - 32
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Flickermeter
26 - 1
Chapter 26
Flickermeter
In terms of power quality, the term "flicker" is used to describe the phenomenon of un-
wanted, rapidly fluctuating light levels due to voltage fluctuations. The IEC 61000-4-15
standard specifies the function and design of apparatus for the measurement of flicker,
termed the "Flickermeter". This Flickermeter comprises five functional blocks which, via
the use of multipliers, weighting filters, and smoothing and squaring operations, perform
the tasks of simulating the "lamp-eye-brain" chain response, and statistically evaluating
the flicker signal [26.1]. PowerFactory provides a Flickermeter command for the calcu-
lation of the short-term and long-term flicker according to IEC 61000-4-15.
The following sections explain the calculation of short- and long-term flicker by the Flick-
ermeter command, as well as its configuration and handling.
26 - 2
26.1 Flickermeter (IEC 61000-4-15)
26.1.1 Calculation of Short-Term Flicker
The calculation of the short-term flicker value ( ) according to IEC 61000-4-15 is a mea-
sure of the severity of the flicker based on an observation period of 10 minutes. It is de-
fined mathematically as follows [26.1]:
where the percentiles , , , and are the flicker levels exceeded for 0.1;
1; 3; 10; and 50% of the time during the observation period. The subscript 's' used in the
above formula indicates that smoothed values should be used, which are defined as fol-
lows [26.1]:
26.1.2 Calculation of Long-Term Flicker
The calculation of the severity of long-term flicker, , considers the short-term flicker
severity values over a longer period of time and is calculated according to the following
equation [26.1]:
Eqn 26.1:
(Long-term flicker severity)
where are the consecutive values and is the number of obser-
vation periods. It can be seen from (26.1) that when , .
P
st
P
st
0 0314 , P
0 1 ,
( ) 0 0525 , P
1s
( ) 0 0657 , P
3s
( ) 0 28 , P
10s
( ) 0 08 , P
50s
( ) + + + + =
P
0 1 ,
P
1
P
3
P
10
P
50
P
50s
P
30
P
50
P
80
+ + ( ) 3 =
P
10s
P
6
P
8
P
10
P
13
P
17
+ + + + ( ) 5 =
P
3s
P
2 2 ,
P
3
P
4
+ + ( ) 3 =
P
1s
P
0 7 ,
P
1
P
1 5 ,
+ + ( ) 3 =
P
lt
P
lt
P
sti
3
i 1 =
N
N
-----------------
3
=
P
sti
i 1 2 3 . , , , = ( )
P
st N
N 1 =
P
lt
P
st
=
26 - 3
26.2 Flickermeter Calculation
26.2.1 Flickermeter Command
This command is accessible via the Flickermeter icon in the Stability toolbar, which is
accessible via the button. The PowerFactory Flickermeter command dialogue is
shown in Figure 26.1.
Fig. 26.1: Data Source Page of Flickermeter (ComFlickermeter) Command
26 - 4
26.2.2 Data Source
File Input
Import data from
Specifies the type of data file containing the input data. There are five
file types available for selection.
Filename
The name of the input data file.
Result File
The name of the input PowerFactory result file.
Configuration File
Relevant to ComTrade input files only. The name of the corresponding
configuration file.
Info
A summary of information read from the file.
Use System Separators
Relevant to comma-separated value (CSV) input files only. Tick the
checkbox to use the same separators for parsing the file as those used
by the operating system. When unchecked, separators are user-
definable.
Separator for columns
In the case of a PowerFactory Measurement File as the input file
type, this indicates the character used as a separator for the columns in
the file. In the case of a User Defined Text File as the input file type,
the separator may be selected as one of Tab, Space or Other (user-
defined).
Decimal Separator
Indicates the separator used for decimal numbers. This is user-
definable for a User Defined Text File as the input file type.
Selection of Data for Calculation
This table allows the selection of input file data to be analyzed. The leftmost column (with
labels 'y1', , 'y24 ') provides a naming convention for the output of results, indicating
which time-series signals from the input file were analyzed.
Element
Relevant only to a Result File input file type. Used to specify the
element from the result file for which a variable to analyze will be
selected. This variable is then specified in the Variable column of the
same table.
Variable
Relevant only to a Result File input file type. Used to specify the
variable for the Flickermeter command to analyze. This variable is
associated with the selected Element (see above).
26 - 5
Column Number
Refers to the column/s in the input file which correspond to the time-
series signal/s to be analyzed.
Variable Name
For ComTrade files, the variable name is automatically read from the
input file and displayed in the Variable Name column. No variable name
is provided for other file types.
Calculate Pst
Allows the user to select the signals in the input file for which to
calculate the short-term flicker ( ). Valid for all input file types with
the exception of result files.
26.2.3 Signal Settings
Signal Settings
Signal Type
Selection of either EMT or RMS input signal type.
Specify start time
User-defined start time at which data should be read from file. This is
an absolute time value that exists within the input file, from which data
will be read. If this value cannot be found in the file, the next time
point after the specified start time will be used instead.
Resample Data
The input data will be resampled by the user-defined New Sampling
Rate. If the time step of the data within the input file is not constant,
the Flickermeter calculation will automatically resample the data at the
average sampling rate taken from the input file.
New Sampling Rate
User-defined sampling rate at which data will be resampled if option
Resample Data has been selected.
P
st
26 - 6
Calculation Settings
Observation Period
The time period over which the flicker will be analyzed.
Calculate Plt
Perform calculation of long-term flicker ( ). When this option is
checked, a result file is written.
Observation Periods
The number of successive observation periods (or time windows) to
analyze.
Input signals for Flickermeter can be either RMS or EMT signals. The algorithm treats both
of these inputs the same, with the exception of the weight filter coefficients, scaling factor
and the cut-off frequency used. The weight filter coefficients are preset (see Table 26.1),
however the scaling factor and cut-off frequency are user-definable parameters and are
described below.
Parameter Definitions
Cut-off Frequency
Cut-off frequency of Butterworth filter (Hz). When using an RMS input
signal, the cut-off frequency is set to 50Hz; when using an EMT input
signal, its default value is 35Hz but can be user-defined.
Filter Offset
The offset (in seconds) for the filters to stabilize. A positive, non-zero
offset should always be entered. When using an RMS input signal, the
filter offset is set to 5s; when using an EMT input signal its default
value is 5s but can be user-defined.
Scaling Factor
Calibration parameter. When using an RMS input signal, the scaling
Table 26.1:Flickermeter Weight Filter Coefficients
Variable EMT (from IEC 61000-4-15) RMS
1.74802 1,74
P
lt
k
2 t 4 05981 , 2 t 4 1 ,
e
1
2 t 9 15494 , 2 t 9 15 ,
e
2
2 t 2 27979 , 2 t 2 27979 ,
e
3
2 t 1 22535 , 2 t 1 22535 ,
e
4
2 t 21 9 , 2 t 1000
26 - 7
factor is set to 300469,4835 (defined as 2 / (0.0025*0.0025) / 1.065).
When using an EMT input signal, its default value is 303317,5 but can
be user-defined.
Set to default
Resets the Cut-off Frequency, Filter Offset and Scaling Factor to
default values.
Constant Sampling Rate
Tolerance
Tolerance for determining whether the sampling rate is constant or not.
This tolerance is considered on the Data Source page in the Info
frame when displaying the Constant Sampling Rate parameter.
Result Variables
This displays the location of the stored result variables. The result object can be directly
accessed by clicking on the arrow button . It should be noted that the Result Variables
parameter is only visible if the Calculate Plt checkbox on the Signal Settings page has been
selected and the value entered for the Observation Periods on the Signal Settings page
is greater than 1.
Report
Results of the Flickermeter calculation are displayed in PowerFactorys output window
provided that Report has been selected.
When executing the Flickermeter command within DPL, the command option
'Report' must be disabled.
Command
Displays the command used to output results. The Flickermeter
command will write results to a result file provided that option
Calculate Plt on the Signal Settings page has been selected. The
result file used can be accessed via the dialogue which opens when the
Command button is pressed.
Additionally, results of the Flickermeter command can be viewed within the Data Manager
as Flexible Data of the Flickermeter command itself. The relevant variable names for se-
lection when defining the Flexible Data are "b:Pst_y1", , "b:Pst_y24", for short-term
flicker values; and "b:Plt_y1", , "b:Plt_y24" for long-term flicker values). In this case,
viewing the results of a Flickermeter calculation will appear similar to that illustrated in
Figure 26.2. It should be noted that when multiple Observation Periods have been calcu-
lated, only the Plt results will be displayed (Pst results are shown as '0.'); and for a single
Observation Period the Pst results will be displayed. For further information on defining
Flexible Data in the Data Manager in PowerFactory, refer to 12.5: The Flexible Data
Page Tab in the Data Manager.
26 - 8
Fig. 26.2: Using Flexible Data to Access Flickermeter Results
26.2.5 Input File Types
The Flickermeter command can handle five different input file types. The configuration of
the Flickermeter command for each file type differs slightly, and is therefore described for
each case in this section.
ComTrade
If a ComTrade file has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the command
dialogue will look similar to that shown in Figure 26.3. The Configuration File correspond-
ing to the ComTrade data file is automatically displayed, as is the Sampling Rate as read
from the ComTrade configuration file. The Selection of Data for Calculation table in Figure
26.3 shows the column number and corresponding variable name as read from the Com-
Trade configuration file and also a user selection for which the short-term flicker value
should be calculated (checkbox in the Calculate Pst column). In the example shown in Fig-
ure 26.3, a single variable has been selected for analysis. It can be read from this table
that this variable corresponds to column 1 of recorded data in the ComTrade input data
file. See Section 26.2.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command op-
tions.
26 - 9
Fig. 26.3: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for ComTrade Input File
Comma Separated Values and User Defined Text Files
If a Comma Separated Values (CSV) file or a user defined text file has been selected as
input to the Flickermeter command, the command dialogue will look similar to that shown
in Figure 26.4. For a CSV file or user defined text file, the Selection of Data for Calculation
table in Figure 26.4 shows that variables can be selected for analysis according to their
corresponding column number in the input file. In the example illustrated, data from col-
umn 1 has been selected for analysis. See Section 26.2.2 (Data Source) for information
on other Flickermeter command options.
26 - 10
Fig. 26.4: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for CSV or User Defined Text Input
File
PowerFactory Measurement File
If a PowerFactory Measurement File has been selected as input to the Flickermeter com-
mand, the command dialogue will look similar to that shown in Figure 26.5. The Power-
Factory measurement file is a simple ASCII file containing a column of data for each
variable recorded in it. Hence, it can be seen from Figure 26.5 that the variable contained
in column 5 of the file will be analyzed by the Flickermeter command. The PowerFactory
measurement file can be used to record results from other PowerFactory calculations
and then used as input to the Flickermeter command. For further information on the use
of PowerFactory measurement files, please refer to annex C.8.2: File Object (ElmFile).
See Section 26.2.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command options.
26 - 11
Fig. 26.5: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for PowerFactory Measurement
File
Result File
If a Result File has been selected as input to the Flickermeter command, the command
dialogue will look similar to that shown in Figure 26.6. Using a PowerFactory result file
as the input file type is practical when the user wants to first record results from, for ex-
ample, an EMS/RMS simulation in a result file, and then analyze the flicker contribution of
one or more variables from this file. In the example in Figure 26.6, the specified Element
in the Selection of Data for Calculation table is a terminal element (named "LV Busbar")
recorded in the result file, with its corresponding voltage selected as the Variable to ana-
lyze. See Section 26.2.2 (Data Source) for information on other Flickermeter command
options.
26 - 12
Fig. 26.6: Configuration of Flickermeter Command for Result File
26.3 Literature
[26.1] International Standard IEC 61000-4-15, Edition 1.1, 2003-02, "Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC) - Part 4: Testing and measurement techniques - Section 15: Flicker-
meter - Functional and design specifications
26 - 13
26 - 14
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Stability and EMT Simulations
27 - 1
Chapter 27
Stability and EMT Simulations
The transient simulation functions available in DIgSILENT PowerFactory are able to
analyze the dynamic behavior of small systems and large power systems in the time do-
main. These functions therefore make it possible to model complex systems such as in-
dustrial networks and large transmission grids in detail, taking into account electrical and
mechanical parameters.
Transients, stability problems and control problems are important considerations during
the planning, design and operation of modern power systems. Studies involving electro-
magnetic transients and different aspects of stability may be conducted using time-do-
main simulations for varying time periods, or dynamic or small-signal stability analysis
tools using (for example) eigenvalue analysis.
A large range of AC and DC systems can be analyzed (i.e. transmission systems with de-
tailed models of power plants, complex HVDC systems, motor start-up), as well as a com-
bination of both. Applications such as wind power integration or power electronics
constitute new challenges in the analysis of power systems, and as a result new models
and techniques are provided in PowerFactory to meet these requirements.
For modelling a variety of machines and controller units, as well as the electrical and me-
chanical components of power plants, etc., PowerFactorys global library provides a
large number of predefined models. This library includes models of generators, motors,
controllers, motor driven machines, dynamic loads and passive network elements. As an
example, this library contains the IEEE standard models of power plant controllers. Fur-
thermore, the user can model specific controllers and develop block diagrams of power
plants with a large degree of freedom.
A Stability simulation in PowerFactory is started by:
Selecting the Stability toolbar by clicking on the Stability icon from the Select
toolbar;
Calculating the initial conditions for the simulation by either pressing the icon on
the main toolbar, or by selecting Calculation > Stability > Initial Conditions... from
the main menu;
When the initial values have been calculated successfully, the icon on the main
toolbar will be activated and can be pressed to start the simulation.
27 - 2
27.1 Introduction
The study of power system stability involves the analysis of the behavior of power systems
under conditions before and after sudden changes in load or generation, during faults and
outages. The robustness of a system is defined by the ability of the system to maintain
stable operation under normal and perturbed conditions. It is therefore necessary to de-
sign and operate a power system so that transient events (i.e. probable contingencies),
can be withstood without the loss of load or loss of synchronism in the power system.
Transients in electrical power systems can be classified according to three possible time-
frames:
short-term, or electromagnetic transients;
mid-term, or electromechanical transients;
long-term transients.
The multilevel modelling of power system elements and the use of advanced algorithms
means that the functions in PowerFactory can analyse the complete range of transient
phenomena in electrical power systems. Consequently, there are three different simula-
tion functions available:
1 A basic function which uses a symmetrical steady-state (RMS) network model for
mid-term and long-term transients under balanced network conditions;
2 A three-phase function which uses a steady-state (RMS) network model for mid-
term and long-term transients under balanced and unbalanced network conditions,
i.e. for analyzing dynamic behaviour after unsymmetrical faults;
3 An electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation function using a dynamic network
model for electromagnetic and electromechanical transients under balanced and
unbalanced network conditions. This function is particularly suited to the analysis of
short-term transients.
In addition to the time-domain calculations, two other analysis functions are available:
Parameter Identification
Modal Analysis or Eigenvalue Analysis
Time-domain simulations in PowerFactory are initialized by a valid load flow, and Pow-
erFactory functions determine the initial conditions for all power system elements includ-
ing all controller units and mechanical components. These initial conditions represent the
steady-state operating point at the beginning of the simulation, fulfilling the requirements
that the derivatives of all state variables of loads, machines, controllers, etc., are zero.
Before the start of the simulation process, it is also determined what type of network rep-
resentation must be used for further analysis, what step sizes to use, which events to han-
dle and where to store the results.
The simulation uses an iterative procedure to solve AC and DC load flows, and the dynam-
ic model state variable integrals simultaneously. Highly accurate non-linear system models
result in exact solutions, including during high-amplitude transients. Various numerical in-
tegration routines are used for the electromechanical systems (including voltage regula-
tors and power system stabilisers) and also for the hydro-mechanical or thermo-
mechanical models.
The process of performing a transient simulation typically involves the following steps:
1 Calculation of initial values, including a load flow calculation;
2 Definition of result variables and/or simulation events;
27 - 3
3 Optional definition of result graphs and/or other virtual instruments;
4 Execution of simulation;
5 Creating additional result graphs or virtual instruments, or editing existing ones;
6 Changing settings, repeating calculations;
7 Printing results.
27.2 Calculation Methods
27.2.1 Balanced RMS Simulation
The balanced RMS simulation function considers dynamics in electromechanical, control
and thermal devices. It uses a symmetrical, steady-state representation of the passive
electrical network. Using this representation, only the fundamental components of volt-
ages and currents are taken into account.
Depending on the models of generators, motors, controllers, power plants and motor driv-
en machines used, the following studies may be carried out:
transient stability (e.g. determination of critical fault clearing times);
mid-term stability (e.g. optimization of spinning reserve and load shedding);
oscillatory stability (e.g. optimization of control device to improve system damping);
motor start-up (e.g. determination of start-up times and voltage drops);
Various events can be included in the simulation, including the following examples:
start-up and/or loss of generators or motors;
stepwise variation of loads;
load-shedding;
line and transformer switching/tripping;
symmetrical short-circuit events;
insertion of network elements;
power plant shut down;
variations of controller setpoint;
change of any system parameter.
Because of the symmetrical network representation, the basic simulation function allows
the insertion of symmetrical faults only.
27.2.2 Three-Phase RMS Simulation
If asymmetrical faults or unbalanced networks have to be analysed, the three phase RMS
simulation function must be used. This simulation function uses a steady-state, three-
phase representation of the passive electrical network and can therefore compute unbal-
anced network conditions, either due to unbalanced network elements or due to asym-
27 - 4
metrical faults. Dynamics in electromechanical, control and thermal devices are
represented in the same way as in the basic RMS simulation function.
Asymmetrical electromechanical devices can be modelled, and single-phase and two-
phase networks can also be analysed using this analysis function.
In addition to the balanced RMS simulation events, unbalanced fault events can be sim-
ulated, such as:
single-phase and two-phase (to ground) short-circuits;
phase to phase short-circuits;
inter-circuit faults between different lines;
single- and double-phase line interruptions.
All of these events can be modelled to occur simultaneously or separately, hence any com-
bination of symmetrical and asymmetrical faults can be modelled.
27.2.3 Three-Phase EMT Simulation
Voltages and currents are represented in the EMT simulation by their instantaneous val-
ues, so that the dynamic behavior of passive network elements is also taken into account.
This is necessary for the following applications:
DC and harmonic components of currents and voltages;
Exact behavior of inverter-driven machines;
Exact behavior of HVDC transmission systems;
Non-linear behavior of passive network elements such as transformer saturation;
Overvoltage phenomena in switching devices;
Lightning strikes and travelling waves;
Analysis of the exact behavior of protection devices during faults.
The high level of detail used to represent the modelled network means that all phases and
all defined events (symmetrical and asymmetrical) can be simulated. The EMT function
can also be used for the simulation of longer-term transients. However, due to the passive
network elements being represented dynamically, the integration step size has to be sig-
nificantly smaller than in the case of a steady-state representation and as a result, the
calculation time increases.
27.3 Setting Up a Simulation
Based on the results of a load flow calculation, all internal variables and the internal op-
erating status of connected machines, controllers and other transient models have to be
determined. As a result of this calculation, the synchronous generator excitation voltages
and load angles are calculated. Additionally, all state variables of controllers and power
plant models, and any other device which is active and will affect the time-domain simu-
lation, are also calculated.
The calculation of initial conditions is started by either:
Selecting the icon from the icon toolbar, and then pressing the icon;
27 - 5
Selecting Calculation > Stability > Initial Conditions... from the main menu.
In the Initial Conditions command (ComInc) dialogue all simulation settings can be de-
fined, such as the simulation type (i.e. RMS or EMT, balanced or unbalanced) and simu-
lation step size settings.
These settings include:
Basic Options
The simulation type is selected here (RMS, EMT; balanced,
unbalanced), and the load flow command, the result object and the
event list are defined.
Step Sizes
Maximum and minimum step size are specified for use by the step size
algorithms.
Step Size Adaptation
Enables the variable step size algorithm.
Advanced Options
Includes various error margins, iteration limits, damping factors, etc.
Noise Generation
Defines parameters of the noise generation for stochastic applications.
27 - 6

Fig. 27.1: The Initial Conditions Command (ComInc) Dialogue
The basic options are used to select the simulation type and the network representation.
References to the result object, the event list and the load flow command are available
for inspecting or editing these objects, by clicking on the respective icon.
Verify Initial Conditions
If the initial conditions can be fulfilled, the power system will be in a steady-state condi-
tion. When the Verify Initial Conditions options is enabled, then the condition dx/dt=0 is
checked for all state variables. If one or more of the state variable derivatives does not
equal zero, the power system may start 'moving' from the very beginning of the simula-
tion, even without the application of an external event. In this case the user should anal-
yse the relevant controller or model and its defined initial conditions carefully.
27 - 7
All warnings or error messages issued in the output window should be checked carefully.
Typical problems are devices which are overloaded or operate above or below signal lim-
itation from the beginning of the simulation.
The error message displayed in the output window might look as follows:
DIgSI/err - Some models could not be initialized.
DIgSI/err - Please check the following models:
DIgSI/err - 'Simple Grid\AVR Common Model.ElmDsl':
DIgSI/err - Initial conditions not valid !
Automatic Step Size Adaptation
This option enables the step size adaptation algorithm, and can be used to speed-up the
simulation considerably. PowerFactory adjusts the step size to the actual course of each
state variable at any moment in time. Based on the local discretisation error, Power-
Factory calculates an optimal step size that keeps the numerical errors within the spec-
ified limits. A step size controller adjusts the integration step size.
As a result, when fast transients have decayed, PowerFactory automatically increases
the step size and speeds up the simulation process considerably. In the case of events
(external or internal), the step size is always set back to the Minimum Step Size. This way,
the behavior of the system during a transient event is represented with the best accuracy.
If this option is activated, two integration step sizes are available on the Step Size tab of
the dialogue:
Electromagnetic Transients/Electromechanical Transients
Minimum step size for EMT and RMS simulations, respectively.
Maximum Step Size
Maximum step size for the simulation.
Further parameters to adapt this algorithm can be found on the Step Size Adaptation tab.
27.3.2 Step Sizes
Integration Step Sizes
When using a fixed step size for the simulation (deactivate Automatic Step Size Adaptation
on the Basic Options tab), the integration step size for EMT or RMS has to be set.
It is often unnecessary to plot every single calculated time step, and this reduction in plot-
ted data can also result in a reduced simulation time. For this purpose, the step size for
the output graphs can be set, so that not every point in time throughout the simulation
time will be drawn on the virtual instruments plot. By selecting a larger Output step size,
the simulation process will speed up without influencing the calculation process. It should
be noted, however, that fast changes may not be seen in the reported results.
The parameters which are available for the step size are:
dtemt Electromagnetic Transients (typical value: 0.0001 sec)
dtgrd Electromechanical Transients (sym, asm, vco, pss) (typical 0.01 sec)
dtout Output (typical equal to dtemt for EMT; and dtgrd for RMS simulation)
27 - 8
Start Time
The start time of the simulation. This is typically negative, allowing the first event to be
analysed to take place at t=0s.
Note When setting up time-domain simulations, it is very important to
use the correct time steps for simulations in order to observe the
right phenomena in the results. For the RMS simulation the mini-
mum time step should always be smaller then the time constants
in the system. In controllers one must consider both the open-loop
and the closed-loop time constants. For electromagnetic tran-
sients, e.g. when analyzing travelling waves, the smallest travelling
time would be the upper limit for the minimum time step.
In addition to the Newton-Raphson based algorithm for the solution of "weak'' non-linear-
ities (i.e. saturation effects in synchronous and asynchronous machines), the EMT simu-
lation function allows interrupts for the simulation of "strong'' non-linearities (i.e.
switches, two-slope transformer saturation or thyristors). These interrupts can also occur
between time steps.
In case of such an interrupt, all time dependent variables are interpolated to the instant
of interrupt and the simulation restarts at that point. This prevents numerical oscillations
and allows much a lower integration step size to cater for power electronics devices.
The dynamic model equations of the voltage-controllers (vco) and the power system sta-
bilisers (pss) are solved simultaneously with the electrical generator and passive network
equations (stepsize dtgrd).
27.3.3 Step Size Adaptation
If option Automatic Step Size Adaptation is enabled on the Basic Options tab, further step
size options are available on the Step Size Adaptation tab. These options are:
errmax
Maximum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.01)
errinc
Minimum Prediction Error (typical value: 0.01)
ninc
Delay for Step Size Increase (typical value: 10 time steps)
finc
Speed Factor for increasing the time step (default value: 1.5)
fdec
Speed Factor for decreasing the time step (default value: 2)
ddtemt_max
Maximum increase of step size (typical values: 0.05 for RMS; 0.001 sec
for EMT)
Note The simulation time can be very sensitive to some of the parame-
ters. For example when you increase the maximum time step the
duration of calculating transients may not always increase. If this
27 - 9
time step is increased over an "optimal'' time step the simulation
time may increase as well. It is strongly recommended to critically
observe the simulation time and the results for different simulation
parameters.
The advanced options may be used to tune the performance of the simulation algorithm.
Less experienced users are recommended to use the default values.
Event Control
Resolution Factor
The value entered here (parameter name: kres) determines the time interval used to syn-
chronize events. Every time an internal or external event occurs (usually between two in-
tegration time steps), PowerFactory interpolates all state variables up to the moment
in time at which the event has occurred and restarts the simulation from there. In the
case of large disturbances it is possible that a very large number of events occur almost
simultaneously. As this would slow down the simulation considerably, PowerFactory ex-
ecutes all events that occur within a time interval of duration kres*dtmin at the same time.
All system variables are then interpolated up to the point in time when the event takes
place, and the simulation is started from there. A higher resolution factor decreases the
minimum time interval between events. The default value of 0.001 is usually sufficient.
If an event occurs, there are two different options available:
Interpolation at user defined events
Calculation of v(t) and v(t+h) as usual. PowerFactory uses special numerical
methods to allow this without numerical oscillations.
Re-Initialize After Event
Calculation of v(t) and v(t+h), hence two values at the same time, one before the
occurrence of the event, and one after. The second method is applied if the option Re-
initialize After Event is enabled.
Further parameters can be changed to control the simulation algorithm.
Integration Control
errseq
Maximum Error of State Equations (typical value: 0.1%)
itrpx
Maximum Number of Successive State Iterations (typical value: 10)
alpha_rms
Damping Factor (RMS) (typical value: 1)
27 - 10
alpha_emt
Damping Factor (EMT) (typical value: 0.99)
Iteration Control
errsm
Maximum Iteration Error of Nodal Equations (typical value: 10*errlf)
The iteration error errsm depends on the nominal power of the
machines and the voltage levels. As an adequate starting value, errsm
should be set to:
errsm = 10*errlf, where errlf is the Max. Allowable Load-Flow Error for
each Bus. Checking is best done by plotting some voltages at generator
busbars. If voltage steps are observed, the value of errsm should be
reduced.
erreq
Maximum Error of Model Equations (typical value: 1%)
itrlx
Maximum Number of Iterations (typical value: 25)
itrpx specifies the max. number of iterations at each integration step
which are allowed to reach the max. tolerable bus-error errsm. During
the transient simulation process, the typical number of iterations
required is between 1 and 5. Under certain conditions - i.e. after
switching operations - up to 25 iterations may be observed.
itrjx
Iteration Limit to Recompute Jacobian Matrix (typical value: 5)
Signal Buffer
Reference System
Local/Global Reference System
The PowerFactory stability analysis uses the angle of a reference machine and refers
all other angles to this reference angle. This is a numerically very efficient approach. After
running initial conditions, the reference machine is displayed in the output window. It is
usually the "Slack''-machine of the load-flow calculation.
In case of several isolated islands, PowerFactory offers the option of using one refer-
ence machine for the whole system (Global Reference System), or to use an individual
reference machine for each island. The first case should be used if the islands are re-syn-
chronised again later in the simulation. In all other cases the option (Local Reference Sys-
tem) should be used because it leads to a higher numerical stability and to faster
simulation times.
Calculate Maximum Rotor Angle Deviation
PowerFactory can also calculate the maximum deviation between the rotor angles be-
tween the synchronous machines in the system. This variable is then called dfrotx and
can be chosen and displayed from the variables of all synchronous generators in the sys-
27 - 11
tem. This variable can be used as an indicator for the synchronous operation of a large
transmission system.
A-stable integration algorithm for all models
If you enable this option, PowerFactory uses an A-stable numerical integration algo-
rithms for all models to solve the simulation. In this case dynamic model equations and
network equations are solved simultaneously. This algorithm is (slightly) slower in case of
small step sizes but converges much better in case of large step sizes. Typical applications
are longer term simulations, in which the simulation step size is increased considerably
after fast transients have decayed. Another typical application are systems with power
electronics. Even if power electronics devices are usually equipped with very fast controls,
the A-stable algorithm still allows reasonable step sizes, at which the relaxation method
would fail.
When using a conventional, explicit numerical integration algorithm, such as Runge-Kutta
(not an A-stable algorithm), the integration step size must be adjusted to the eigenvalues
of a system. Such a method (Relaxation Method) means a mutual solution of dynamic
model equations and network equations until convergence is reached: This algorithm is
fast for small step sizes but fails to converge when the step size is increased. Best choice
for classical transient stability applications. But if excessively large step sizes are used, the
numerical solution becomes unstable, even if fast modes have fully decayed and are no
longer apparent in the system.
With the PowerFactory A-stable algorithm, the step size can be adjusted to the actual
course of all state variables without considering numerical stability. When fast transients
have decayed, the step size can be adjusted to the speed of slower transients, etc.
If some very fast modes are not of interest, a large step size can be selected from the
beginning, and the algorithm will automatically smooth fast variations. A typical applica-
tion of this type of algorithm is the simulation of long-term phenomena - where it is nec-
essary to increase the simulation step size to the range of minutes, even if fast modes are
present in the system.
However, if power electronics are involved, characteristic time constants can be extremely
short (i.e. 1ms), even if a stability model with steady-state equations for the electrical net-
work is used. Hence, using a classical integration algorithm would require the use of step
sizes significantly smaller than the smallest time constant of the system, otherwise it
would be numerically instable.
Note A requirement for using the A-stable integration algorithm is that
just "true" input and output signal variables are used for exchang-
ing information between different models.
It should be mentioned, that it is also possible to choose the usage of an A-stable algo-
rithm for some element models only (not for all models), so that it is possible to run just
a part of the models with the A-stable algorithm (for example the power electronic con-
verters or fast controllers). This option is available in the dialogues of the elements.
With the A-stable algorithm, these systems can be analysed with reasonable step sizes.
Hence, the A-stable algorithm cannot be described as using simplified models but as a
different type of numerical integration algorithm.
27 - 12
27.3.5 Noise Generation
The Noise Generator element (ElmNoise) can be used in a transient simulation to pro-
duce a noise signal based on random numbers. On the Noise Generation page of the
ComInc dialogue, the random number generation method can be selected. The random
number generator can be selected to be automatic (by selecting option auto), which is
the default value and the most commonly used.
Alternatively, the option renew may be selected, in which case the random seed of the
noise generator can be selected manually from "A" to "K". Thus the noise signal will look
the same in every simulation, i.e. the results of a former simulation can be reproduced
exactly.
27.3.6 Advanced Simulation Options - Load Flow
There are further options which can influence the simulation process and its results. In
the load flow command dialogue (ComLdf, see also Section 23.2) on the Advanced Sim-
ulation Options tab, the influence of protection devices or various controller models can
be neglected. Hence the chosen models or protection devices will be ignored during the
simulation as well as in load flow and other calculations. This is illustrated in Figure 27.2.

Fig. 27.2: Advanced Simulation Options in the ComLdf Command Dialogue
The options available for the consideration of protection devices are:
none
No protection devices are considered in the calculations
all
All protection devices are considered
27 - 13
main
Only the protection devices are in operation, which are defined as
'main' devices
backup
Only the 'backup' protection devices are considered. According to the
controller models, there is the possibility to ignore all controllers and
mechanical elements with the option Ignore Composite Elements. If
there are only some specific model types one would like to neglect in
the simulation, they can be moved from the left window Considered
Models to the right window, Ignored Models.
27.4 Result Objects
During an EMT or RMS simulation, a large number of signal variables are changing over
time. To reduce the available data and to narrow down the number of variables to those
necessary for the analysis of each particular case, a selection of these signals for later use
has to be defined.
Therefore, one or more result objects containing the result variables can be configured.
The simulation function needs the reference to a result object to store the results.
The command dialogues for calculation functions, that produce signals, have result object
references, as depicted in Figure 27.3 for the Initial Conditions (ComInc) dialogue. See
also Figure 27.1 for the complete dialogue.

Fig. 27.3: Result Object Reference
Such a result object reference refers to the currently used result object. The downward
arrow button ( ) is used to select or reset the reference, or to edit the contents of the
referenced result object.
The right-arrow button ( ) is used to edit the result object itself. When editing the out-
put variables press this Edit button and then Contents to get access to the list of vari-
ables stored inside the result object. This will pop up the corresponding ElmRes edit
dialogue.
An easier way to edit or inspect the result object is to press the icon on the main
toolbar, or to select the Data > Stability > Result Variables option from the main menu.
This will enable the user to edit the contents of the currently selected Result object in the
Initial Conditions (ComInc) command dialogue. Result objects (ElmRes) are treated in
detail in Chapter 19 (Reporting and Visualizing Results).
To add variables of different elements to the result object for RMS and EMT simulations,
right-click on the desired element in the single-line graphic and select Define...--> Variable
27 - 14
Set (Sim)... as shown in Figure 27.4.

Fig. 27.4: Defining a Variable Set for a Line Element
This element will then be monitored during the simulation. A browser window is automat-
ically opened, and by double-clicking on the variable set icon ( ) of the relevant row,
the variables of interest to be recorded can then be selected. See also Section 19.1.4 (Re-
sult Objects).
Note Most of the variables for RMS and EMT simulations are identical.
Nevertheless there may exist variables that are valid for EMT but
not for RMS calculations. It is advisable to only use variables for
the calculation which is currently being performed.
27.4.1 Saving Results from Previous Simulations
The variables to be monitored are stored (by default) in the result object All calculations.
The results of the variables in the current simulation are stored in this file also. If the re-
sults of two different simulations are to be displayed, e.g. in one virtual instrument, there
is the possibility to save the result object of a previous simulation simply by copying the
result object All calculations and renaming it to something else.
This can be done easily in the data manager. The result object can be found in the cur-
rently active study case. Copy the result object and paste it into the same study case.
Following this, a second result object will be created with the name All calculations(1). If
desired, the object can be renamed to something more appropriate.
In the following simulation, the default result object All calculations will be overwritten
27 - 15
with the new results, but the copied results will not be modified and can be displayed to-
gether with the new simulation results in one plot. For further information see Section
19.4.2 (Plots).
27.5 Events
Besides the reference to a result object, the simulation function needs a reference to an
event object to determine the simulation events. The default event object in Power-
Factory is Simulation Events and, like the result object, is also stored inside the study
case.
External events are used in steady-state calculations (e.g. short-circuit calculations) as
well as for transient calculations (Simulations).
PowerFactory offers several kinds of events for time-domain simulations:
1 Switch events (EvtSwitch)
2 Parameter events (EvtParam)
3 Short-circuit events (EvtShc)
4 Intercircuit fault events (EvtShcll)
5 Synchronous machine events (EvtSym)
6 Load events (EvtLod)
7 Outage of element (EvtOutage)
8 Message events (EvtMessage)
9 Set integration step size event (EvtStep)
10 Tap event (EvtTap)
The different events are stored in the event object. The contents of the currently selected
event object (labelled Events) can be found in the ComInc dialogue. This object can be
edited using the right-arrow ( ) button followed by the Contents button to access the
event list stored inside the event object.
Alternatively, the event object can be easily accessed from the main toolbar by pressing
the Edit Simulation Events icon. A list of the currently defined events will be displayed
including the set simulation time, when the event will occur, and the related object. Figure
27.5 shows an example set of events.
27 - 16

Fig. 27.5: The Event Object Including a Set of Events
When creating a new event, use the icon in the toolbar, as can be seen in the Simu-
lation Events object dialogue in Figure 27.5. The event type can be chosen from the list
in the element selection dialogue which pops up, as shown in Figure 27.6. The events can
also be modified during a simulation by stopping the calculation, editing the events and
continuing the simulation.
27 - 17
Fig. 27.6: Defining a New Simulation Event
An alternative means of defining events is as follows: upon calculation of the initial con-
ditions ( ), or when the simulation is already running, double-click on the desired cu-
bicles to create switch events. Additionally, the user can right-click on an element and
then select an element-related event such as Define... > Switch Event, Define... > Load
Event or Define... > Short-Circuit Event.
During a simulation all previous events (i.e. events which have already occurred), are dis-
played in a grey font style and can no longer be edited or changed. When the simulation
is finished or is stopped manually, the events which are still to come in the simulation can
be altered and new events can be created.
Note At the end of a simulation the event list shows all events, which are
now grey in color. They can no longer be modified for this simula-
tion, because the simulation could be restarted from this point on.
To change the events for a new simulation one must first initialise
the calculation again ( ), so the simulation time is reset to the
beginning.
27 - 18
27.5.1 Switch Events
Switch events are used only in transient simulations. To create a new switch event, press
the icon on the main menu (if this icon is available), which will open a browser con-
taining all defined simulation events. Click on the icon in this browser, which will show
a IntNewobj dialogue which can be used to create a new switching event.
Fig. 27.7: Creation of a New Switch Event (IntNewobj)
After pressing OK, the reference to the switch (labelled Breaker or Element) must be man-
ually set. Any switch in the power system may be selected, thus enabling the switching
of lines, generators, motors, loads, etc. The user is free to select the switches/breakers
of all phases or of only one or two phases.
It should be noted that more than one switching event must be created if, for instance, a
line has to be opened at both ends. These switch events should then have the same ex-
ecution time.
27.5.2 Parameter Events
With this type of event, an input parameter of any element or DSL model can be set or
changed. First, a time specifying when the event will occur is inserted. Then an element
has to be to specified/selected using the down-arrow button . Then choose Select...
from the context-sensitive menu. Afterwards insert the name and the new value of a valid
element parameter.
27.5.3 Short-Circuit Events
This event applies a short-circuit on a busbar, terminal or on a specified point on a line.
The fault type (three-phase, two-phase or single-phase fault) can be specified as well as
the fault resistance and reactance and the phases which are affected.
27 - 19
The duration of the fault cannot be defined. Instead, to clear the fault, another short-cir-
cuit event has to be defined, which will clear the fault at the same location. An example
is shown in Figure 27.5.
27.5.4 Intercircuit Fault Events
This type of event is similar to the short-circuit event described in Section 27.5.3 (Short-
Circuit Events). Two different elements and their respective phases are chosen, between
which the fault occurs. As for the short-circuit event (EvtShc), four different elements can
be chosen:
Busbar (StaBar)
Terminal (ElmTerm)
Overhead line or cable (ElmLne)
27.5.5 Events of Synchronous Machines
There is a special event for synchronous machines, which is used to easily change the
mechanical torque of the machine. The user specifies the point in time in the simulation
for the event to occur, and an active synchronous machine ElmSym. The user can then
define the additional mechanical torque supplied to the generator. The torque can be pos-
itive or negative and is entered in per unit values.
27.5.6 Events of Loads
The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the event to occur, and a load
element (ElmLod, ElmLodlv or ElmLodlvp). The value of the load can then be altered
using the load event.
There are different ways to change the power of the selected load:
Step
Changes the current value of the power (positive or negative) by the
given value (in % of the nominal power of the load) at the time of the
event.
Ramp
Changes the current value of the power by the given value (in % of the
nominal power of the load), over the time specified by the Ramp
Duration (in seconds). The load ramping starts at the time of the event.
27.5.7 Outage of Element
This event can only be used during an RMS simulation, when an element is to be put out
of service at a specific point in time. The option Take element out of service should be
selected within the dialogue. It should be noted that it is not possible to bring the outaged
elements back into service during the transient simulation. This is only possible in steady-
state calculation functions, e.g. short-circuit calculation or reliability assessment. In time-
domain simulation the following error message will occur in the output window:
27 - 20
DIgSI/err (t=000:000 ms) - Outage Event in Simulation not available.
Use Switch-Event instead!
27.5.8 Save Results
This event is only used in the PowerFactory Monitor of the program. It cannot be used
during time-domain simulations.
27.5.9 Set Integration Step Size
27.5.10 Tap Event
The user specifies the point in time in the simulation for the tap event to occur, and a
shunt or transformer element (ElmShnt, ElmTr2, etc). The Tap Action can then be spec-
ified.
27.6 Running a Simulation
Upon successful calculation of the initial conditions (i.e. execution of ComInc ), the
icon on the main toolbar will be activated and can be pressed to start the simulation.
The simulation is performed for the time interval between the start time defined in the
initial conditions command ComInc, and the stop time (parameter name: tstop), which
can be specified in the simulation (ComSim) dialogue. After a simulation has finished, it
may be continued by pressing the icon again, and entering a new stop time. In this
case, the stop time may also be entered relative to the current simulation time.
A running simulation may be interrupted by pressing either the icon or the icon
on the main toolbar. Additional events can be created and results may be viewed while
the simulation is paused. The simulation is then continued by pressing the icon again.
Pausing and continuing the simulation may be done as often as required.
27 - 21
27.7 Models for Stability Analysis
Stability analysis calculations are typically based on predefined system models. In the ma-
jority of cases the standard IEEE definitions for controllers, prime movers and other as-
sociated devices and functions are used.
For planning purposes, this approach might be acceptable. The predefined sets of param-
eters will allow a favorable and reasonable behavior of the analyzed system. This ap-
proach is often also applied to operation analysis, and the system should show a response
similar to a real system.
For systems and configurations for which no IEEE models exist, such as wind generators,
HVDC-systems, etc., powerful tools for user defined modelling are required. For this pur-
pose, highly specialised, exact models can be created in PowerFactory.
In cases when manufacturers are able to supply exact controller models including real pa-
rameters, the system model can be improved by not using the IEEE standard models, but
instead building a new block diagram of the individual controller/mechanical system to
represent the device. This facilitates highly accurate system modelling.
Utilities and consultants often conduct system operation performance and optimization
studies, and therefore have a clear need for accurate methods and tools for creating ac-
curate transient models for stability analysis.
This includes complex operation analysis and special component planning problems. This
demand led to the development of highly flexible and accurate DIgSILENT Power-
Factory time-domain modelling features, which are introduced in this chapter.
27.7.1 System Modelling Approach
System modelling for stability analysis purposes is one of the most critical issues in the
field of power system analysis. Depending on the accuracy of the implemented model,
large-signal validity, available system parameters and applied faults or tests, nearly any
result could be produced and arguments could be found for its justification.
This is one aspect of the complexity of a transient stability study. The other aspect results
from the often large set of time-domain models that are required, each of which may be
a combination of other models. All these time-domain models are ultimately wired togeth-
er into one large, single transient model from which the basic set of system differential
equations can be obtained.
Given this complexity of a transient analysis problem, the PowerFactory modelling phi-
losophy is targeted towards a strictly hierarchical system modelling approach, which com-
bines both graphical and script-based modelling methods.
The basis for the modelling approach is formed by the basic hierarchical levels of time-
domain modelling:
The DSL block definitions, based on the "DIgSILENT Simulation Language"
(DSL), form the basic building blocks to represent transfer functions and differential
equations for the more complex transient models.
The built-in models and common models. The built-in models or elements are the
transient PowerFactory models for standard power system equipment, i.e. for
generators, motors, static VAr compensators, etc. The common models are based on
the DSL block definitions and are the front-end of the user-defined transient models.
27 - 22
The composite models are based on composite frames and are used to combine
and interconnect several elements (built-in models) and/or common models. The
composite frames enable the reuse of the basic structure of the composite model.
The relation between these models and the way that they are used is best described by
the following example.
Suppose the frequency deviation due to the sudden loss of a fully-loaded 600 MW unit in
a particular network is to be analyzed. Depending on the network and the required detail
in the calculated results, such analysis may ask for a detailed modelling of the voltage
controllers, prime movers and primary controllers, or any other important equipment for
all large generators in the system.

Fig. 27.8: Example of a Composite Generator or Power Plant Model
Figure 27.8 shows a typical configuration of a synchronous generator with power system
stabilizer, voltage controller, primary controller, and prime mover model. The primary con-
troller and prime mover can be summarized as the primary controller unit model. To cre-
ate this kind of model, the following actions are required:
1 Transient models for each required controller type or unit type have to be defined
(Model/Block Definition).
2 For each generator, the transient models of the individual controller must be
customized by setting the parameters to the correct values (Common Model).
3 A diagram has to be made defining the connections between the inputs and outputs
of the various models (Composite Frame).
4 For each generator, the diagram and the customized transient models are to be
grouped together to define an unique 'composite' generator model (Composite
Model).
It may seem unnecessary to include steps 2 and 3: it would be possible to create custom-
ized transient models for each generator directly, with 'burned-in' parameter settings, and
to link these models to a generator without having to define a diagram first. This, how-
ever, would mean that one would have to create a new voltage controller, e.g. for each
generator in the system.
Often the design of many of these voltage controllers will be similar. To omit the need of
creating copies of these controllers for each generator and to avoid redundant copies of
controllers or also of whole generator models.
Here the same relationship as that between individual controller (Common Model) and
PSS
Power System
Stabilizer
PCO
Primary Controller
PCU
Primary Controller Unit
PMU
Prime Mover Unit
VCO
Voltage Controller
V
EXC
V
PSS
A
V
V
GEN
P
GEN
e
GEN
P
T
SYM
Synchronous
Machine
27 - 23
controller definition (Model Definition) is used; this time between the generic power plant
diagram (Composite Frame) and the individual power plant (Composite Model). DIgSI-
LENT PowerFactory uses two key objects in creating composite models, which can be
compared to the element definition of the different elements:
The Common Model (ElmDsl) combines general time-domain models or model
equations (a block definition) with a set of parameter values and creates an integrated
time-domain model.
The Composite Model (ElmComp) connects a set of time-domain models inside a
diagram (a composite frame) and creates a 'composite model'.
The following diagrams explain the relation between the Composite Model (which is using
a Frame as type) and the Common Model (based on a block diagram as type) in detail.
The Composite Model (ElmComp), see Figure 27.9, references the definition of a
composite frame. This composite frame is basically a schematic diagram containing
various empty slots, in which controller or elements can be assigned. These slots are
then interconnected according to the diagram, see Section Composite Block
Definitions (part of Section 27.8.3: Defining DSL Models). The slots in the composite
frame are pre-configured for specific transient models.
The schematic diagram in Figure 27.10 shows a Composite Frame (BlkDef) which
has one slot for a synchronous machine, one for a primary controller unit (pcu slot),
and one for a voltage controller (vco slot). The composite model, which uses this
composite frame, shows a list of the available slots and the name of the slot. Now the
specific synchronous generator, voltage controller or primary controller unit model can
be inserted into these slots.
The synchronous machine that is used in the Composite Model is called a Built-In
Model, see Figure 27.11. This means that such elements are pre-configured elements
which do not need a specific model definition. Any kind of element which is able to
provide input or output variables, e.g. converters, busbars, etc, can be inserted into
the slots.
The voltage controller, and primary controller unit, however, are user-defined
Common Models, see Figure 27.12. The 'front-end' of all user-defined transient
models is always a common model (ElmDsl), which combines a model definition with
specific parameter settings. There are predefined definitions as well, so that the user
can create her/his own model definitions.
The common model has a reference to the Model Definition (BlkDef), which looks
similar to the composite frame (shown in Figure 27.13). Here different blocks are
defined and connected together according to the diagram. The input and output
variables have to fit with the slot definition of the slot that the model is defined for.
Not all slots of the composite model must necessarily be used. There can also be empty
slots. In such cases, the input of this slot is unused and the output is assumed to be con-
stant over the entire simulation. The usage of composite models with a composite frame,
and the common model with its block definitions are described in the next sections.
The design and creation of user defined common models using the "DIgSILENT Simu-
lation Language" (DSL) can be found in Section 27.8 (User Defined (DSL) Models).
27 - 24

Fig. 27.9: Example of a Composite Model Using the Frame Frame_Generator

Fig. 27.10: Composite Frame Frame_Generator

Fig. 27.11: Generator G1 (Built-In Model)
u
upss
pt
ve
fe
vco slot
ElmVco*
0
1
pcu Slot
ElmPcu*
sym Slot
ElmSym*
0
1
0
1
pss slot
ElmPss*
L1
G
~
G1
27 - 25

Fig. 27.12: Example of a Common Model Using the Definition vco_simple

Fig. 27.13: Example of a Model Definition vco_simple
u o12
usetp
yi
o
1
3
uerrs
upss
ve
- _{K/(1+sT)}_
Ke,Te
Emax
Emin
PID Controller
Ta,Tb,K1
vco_Simple: Simplified Excitation System
2
3
1
0
27 - 26
27.7.2 The Composite Model
A composite model element (ElmComp) can created using the "New Object" ( ) icon,
located in the toolbar of the data manager and selecting Composite Model from the avail-
able options. The next step is to select the composite frame. The composite frame can be
stored either in the global library or in the local library, and is conceptually similar to a
type definition for an electrical element. The composite model then shows the list of slots
in the composite frame as shown in Figure 27.14.
Existing controllers or models can be assigned to a slot manually by right-clicking the slot
and selecting Select Element/Type, as depicted in Figure 27.14. A data manger window
will pop up and the user can then browse the grid for the element to insert into the se-
lected slot.

Fig. 27.14: Editing the Composite Model (ElmComp) Dialogue
When inserting controller models into a slot, it is often the case that the controller element
has not yet been created. To create a new controller element select New Element/Type
from the slots context-sensitive menu. PowerFactory will automatically jump to the
project Library and show a list of available user defined models (ElmDsl).
Selecting a model definition from the project library or the global library will open the el-
ement dialogue of the newly-created common model, so that its parameters can be de-
fined, similar to (for example) a transformer element. If no suitable model is found, a
block definition has to be selected prior to setting the model parameters (see Section
27.7.3 (The Composite Frame) and Figure 27.13).
If an element is assigned to a slot, it is possible to edit the assigned element by simply
right-clicking and selecting Edit Element/Type. The right-mouse button menu entry Reset
Element/Type will reset the slot, so that it is empty again.
27 - 27
Note Depending on the settings of the individual slot, the menu entry
Reset Element/Type will not only clear the marked slot but also de-
lete the built-in or common model, if it is stored inside the compos-
ite model in the data manager. These settings are explained in
detail in Section 27.7.3 (The Composite Frame).
A faster method for defining standard composite models is to right-click on an object in
the single line diagram and select Define... from the context menu of the element.
When a standard composite model is available for the selected object, a list of the avail-
able controllers is shown. Selecting a controller will add it to the composite model, which
is automatically created when no composite model yet exists for the selected object.
Standard composite models are available for:
The synchronous motor and generator;
The asynchronous motor and generator;
The static VAr system.
Slot Update
The Slot Update button in the composite model (ElmComp) dialogue will re-read the
slot definitions from the composite frame and will cancel all invalid slot assignments.
A slot assignment is invalid when a model has been assigned to a slot which is not suited
to receive this kind of model, i.e. a voltage controller cannot be assigned to a slot defined
for a primary controller model.
All built-in models and common models which have been created for a specific composite
model are stored in that composite model itself. The contents of a composite model are
shown in the data manager where the composite model is treated as a normal database
folder. Basic power system equipment, such as synchronous machines or static VAr com-
pensators, are normally not stored in the composite folder, but in the grid itself.
The slot update will try to re-assign each model found in its contents to the corresponding
slot.The options defined for each slot are important, and are described in the paragraph
Classification in Section 27.7.3 (The Composite Frame).
Step Response
The Step Response button in the composite model (ElmComp) dialogue will activate
the Step Response command (ComStepres). The dialogue can be seen in Figure 27.15.
Next to the references to the composite model, the template and the target directory, the
two step response tests, which will be created, can be specified. The study case to be
activated can also be selected. When Execute is pressed, PowerFactory will create a
new folder in the current project named Step Response Test. Figure 27.16 shows this fold-
er in the data manager.
27 - 28

Fig. 27.15: Step Response Command (ComStepres) Dialogue

Fig. 27.16: Step Response Folder in the Data Manager
Inside the Step Response Test folder, a second folder is created, named according to the
composite model which is to be tested. Here the simple test grid can be found including
only the generator, the complete composite model and a load. Additionally there will be
two new study cases in which a step response for the AVR and the PCU, respectively, of
the composite model can be tested.
The user can switch between these two study cases and her/his previously-used study
cases by activating and deactivating them.
Note There is now no longer any connection between the original ele-
ments and the new elements of the composite model. Therefore,
you can change any controller settings without changing your net-
work.
After testing the controller, the folder Step Response Test can be deleted completely with-
out loss of information in the original network.
27 - 29
27.7.3 The Composite Frame
A composite frame is a block diagram which defines two or more slots, their input and
output signals, and the connections between them. A composite frame is defined graph-
ically by drawing it.
Drawing a composite model frame is similar to drawing a normal block diagram. The main
difference is that instead of common blocks, only slots may be used.
To create a new composite frame select the Insert New Graphic icon on the main tool-
bar (in the graphics window) and then select Block/Frame Diagram and press Execute
as shown in Figure 27.17. This new block definition will then be automatically created in
the local library.

Fig. 27.17: Creating a New Composite Frame
An empty diagram of the frame will appear in the graphics window. A slot is then created
by selecting the icon in the graphics toolbox and positioning the slot on the drawing
surface by clicking once at the desired location. This is similar to placing elements in the
single-line diagram.
An empty slot will be drawn on the page. To define the slots input and output signals and
different parameters, edit the slot by double-clicking it. The slot edit dialogue will pop up
27 - 30

Fig. 27.18: Slot Dialogue (BlkSlot)
Name and Sequence
The name of the slot will appear later in the composite model dialogue, and it is therefore
recommended to name this element according to which slot it will be assigned (e.g. 'vco
slot'). The Sequence parameter defines the order of the slots appearing in the composite
model dialogue.
Classification
The classification options only effect the external behavior of the slot.
Linear
The slot representation in the frame diagram will be as a linear or non-
linear model.
Automatic, model will be created
When this option is activated, the function 'Slot Update' (see Section
27.7.2: The Composite Model) will automatically create a DSL model
and ask for a block definition from the library.
Local, Model must be stored inside
This option is activated by default. This means that when a Slot
Update is executed in the composite model, PowerFactory will only
search for elements which are stored inside the ElmComp. A reference
to models which are stored outside, i.e. the synchronous generator in a
plant model, will be removed from the slot.
27 - 31
Not all input or output signals of built-in elements or common models have to be used
and defined in the slot. A slot may only have an input or an output signal.
For example, the voltage or frequency of an AC voltage source ElmVac may be controlled
by an external function. Therefore, the slot for the source will only have two input signals
u0 and f0. More information about drawing composite frame diagrams can be found in
Section 27.7.6 (Drawing Composite Block Diagrams and Composite Frames).
Input and Output Signals
The input and/or output signal(s) have to be defined for each slot. The available signal
names for the Built-In transient models (Elements) can be found in the corresponding
Technical References.
The given input and output signal names in this slot dialogue have to match the input/
output signals of the given transient model exactly, or the signals will not be connected
properly and an error message will result.
Only after one or more input and output signals have been defined for a slot, is it possible
to connect the slot with signal lines to other slots. It is therefore recommended to first
position and edit all slots and to draw the signal connections thereafter.
Limiting Signals
There is also the possibility to enter 'limiting signals'. These signals are handled by Pow-
erFactory exactly like normal input signals. The difference is only in the graphical repre-
sentation in the block diagram. These signals will be shown as inputs on the top or bottom
of the slot.
Class/Name Filter
There is also the possibility to specify a filter for the class name and/or for the model name
to be inserted. This makes sense when (for example) only synchronous machines should
be assigned to the slot. In this case, the class name ElmSym* would be entered. Pow-
erFactory then will only allow the element class "synchronous machine'' to be inserted
into the slot. A filter for a specific (part of an) element name can also be defined.
Assigning a Block Definition to a Slot
A block definition (BlkDef) can be assigned directly to a slot. This option will simplify the
handling of the slot and prevent errors due to mis-matched signal names of slot and as-
signed block.
To assign the external form of a block definition to the selected slot, edit the slot by dou-
ble-clicking it and choose the "select" button for the "Block Definition" in the dialogue.
Now the block definition can be selected, e.g. the type of controller or built-in element,
which should be assigned to this slot later.
As an example, if the newly-defined slot ought to represent a synchronous machine in the
frame diagram, a predefined block definition can be chosen to insert the input and output
signals to this slot available for the element ElmSym. A controller should, for example,
only be assigned to a slot, when only this type of controller is to be inserted into this slot,
and no other model can be.
27 - 32
Some predefined block definitions can be found in the global library in the path Library\
Models\Built-in.
When the block definition is selected (in our example the ElmSym.BlkDef), the input
and output as well as limiting signals will disappear from the slot dialogue. The filter for
the class name will automatically be entered. When clicking on the Ok button, the slot will
then show the right inputs and outputs of the block definition.
Note When a block definition is assigned directly to a slot, only the input/
output signals are set automatically. The internal equations/defini-
tions of the block definition are not implemented in the slot and the
slot itself remains empty. There is always the need to create a
common model, which is the model inserted into the slot of the
composite model. When the slot refers to an outside block defini-
tion, beware that this reference is also inside your project. If the
reference to the definition is invalid or changed, the slot may be
changed as well. Therefore, assign a block very carefully.
27.7.4 The Common Model
The common model element (ElmDsl, ) is the front-end object for all user-defined
block definitions. This means that user-defined transient models, but also the block dia-
grams that are ready-shipped with the PowerFactory program, cannot be used other
than through a common model. The common model combines a model or block definition
with a specific set of parameter values. The common model shown in Figure 27.19 uses
the block definition vco_Simple.
Typically the model definition is implemented as a block definition, such as that shown in
Figure 27.20.
A model definition contains block references which may in turn either point to a primitive
block definition (see Figure 27.21) or to a another composite block definition (see Figure
27.22). The structure of the block definition is thus recursive and the user should check
that this recursive structure does not contain circular references to composite block defi-
nitions.
A primitive block definition contains one or more DSL expressions and forms a basic block
for more complex transient models. A description of how to use and create DSL models
can be found in Section 27.8 (User Defined (DSL) Models).
It is also possible to implement the model definition not as a block definition, but directly
as a primitive block definition (Figure 27.21), coded using DSL.
Each block definition generally has one or more parameters which can be changed to de-
fine the model's behavior. Two kinds of parameters are supported:
Scalar parameters, i.e. amplification factors, offsets, setpoints, etc.
Two and three dimensional array parameters, which are used in the DSL lapprox()/
lapprox2() and sapprox()/sapprox2() functions.
27 - 33

Fig. 27.19: Common Model for the VCO

Fig. 27.20: Block Definition of the VCO, Using a Sub-Definition
u o12
usetp
yi
o
1
3
uerrs
upss
ve
- _{K/(1+sT)}_
Ke,Te
Emax
Emin
PID Controller
Ta,Tb,K1
vco_Simple: Simplified Excitation System
2
3
1
0
27 - 34

Fig. 27.21: Implementation of the Limiter Block, Using a DSL Routine

Fig. 27.22: Implementation of the Controller, Defining a Sub-Block
To create a common model, use the "New Object" ( ) icon in the toolbar of the data
manager and select Common Model. The block/model definition has to be selected first.
Similar to the composite frame, this definition is either stored in the global library or in
the local library.
The common model then displays the list of available parameters and arrays from the
block diagram, as shown in Figure 27.23. All parameters are listed on the first page of the
common model, and their values can be specified there.
y2 yo
o
1
1
(
1
.
.
yo(1)
o11
yi1
o
1
yi
-
1/sT
Tb
K
K1
K1/K2
Ta,Tb
27 - 35

Fig. 27.23: Common Model with Parameter List
If the selected block definition uses one or more arrays in its definition, then these arrays
are displayed on the second page (for simple characteristics) and third page (for two-di-
mensional characteristics) of the ElmDsl object. In Figure 27.24 an example is shown for
a 13x4 array definition.

Fig. 27.24: Common Model with Array List
The characteristics are defined as follows:
Characteristic
In the row labelled 'Size', insert the number of rows in the first cell; the
number of columns is set automatically. If the number of rows is
changed, jump to the previous page and back again to update
the characteristic.
27 - 36
Two-Dimensional Characteristic
In the row labelled 'Size', insert the number of rows in the first cell and
the number of columns in the second cell. If one of these numbers is
changed, jump to the previous page and back again to update
the characteristic.
27.7.5 The Composite Block Definition
A composite block diagram of the model definition is a graphical representation of a math-
ematical transfer function, which produces one or more output signals as a function of
one or more input signals. A block diagram may also have limits (minimal and maximal
values) as input signals.
A block diagram may thus be described as:
(y_0, y_1, ...) = function(u_0, u_1, ...)
where y_0, y_1, ... represent output signals 0, 1, ... and u_0, u_1, ... represent for input
signals 0, 1, .... These signals are all functions of time.
Block diagrams consist basically of the following elements:
Summation Points
which produce the single output y=(u_0+u_1+...)
Multipliers
which produce the single output y=(u_0*u_1*...)
Divisors
which produce the single output y=(u_0/u_1/...)
Switches
which produce the single output y=u_0 or y=u_1
Signal Lines
which produce one or more outputs from one input: y_0=y_1=...=u
Block References
which are used to include other block definitions.
Block references can be looked upon as macros that insert a low-level block definition in-
side a composite block diagram definition. A block reference may either point to another
composite block definition or to a primitive block definition.
The PowerFactory program is shipped with a large set of primitive block diagrams for
most common controller elements like PID-controllers, Dead Bands, Valve Characteristics,
etc., and can be found in the PowerFactory tree under Database | Library | Models
|Global_Macros. These predefined DSL primitives may be copied and altered for specific
needs.
A block reference is created by using the icon in the graphics toolbox. This creates
an empty square which can then refer to any existing block definition in the library.
Note The composite frame and the model definition are very similar and
their usage is almost identical. When creating one or the other
PowerFactory recognizes the class when you place the first slot
27 - 37
or block. If you place a block ( ) first, the icon for the slot
will become inactive, so the user cannot inadvertently mix up slots
and blocks in one diagram. See also Section 27.7.6 (Drawing Com-
posite Block Diagrams and Composite Frames).
If the block type is selected, PowerFactory inserts all available parameters of the re-
ferred block. The user may change the name of any parameter, however ensure that the
order of the parameters is not changed. The order is important so that the right parameter
is assigned to the parameters inside the block definition.
Signal lines are directed branches, connecting input and output signals. A single output
line may be branched off and connected to more than one input terminal.
After the block reference has been edited, it will show the input, output and limiting signal
connection points of the referenced block definition as one or more colored dots on the
left and right side, respectively, on the upper and lower side of the box. Signal lines may
then be connected to these points. It is allowed to refer to the block definition more than
once in the same block diagram. This way, it is possible to use a particular PID-controller,
for instance, twice or more in the same model definition.
An example of a simple block diagram, comprising a multiplier, a summation point and a
standard PI block, is shown in Figure 27.25.

Fig. 27.25: Example of a Simple Block Diagram
When rebuilding a diagram (by pressing the icon), the DSL representation of the
block diagram is written to the output window. For the example block diagram in Figure
27.25, this results in the following output:
model o1 = 'MyBlock'(i1,i2;x1;Kp,Ti;yi)
s1 = '\System\Library\Models\DSL\PI.BlkDef'(xe;x1;Kp,Ti;yi)
xe = i1*i2
o1 = s1+i2+i1
This simple example shows the whole meaning of the block diagram graphics: it is a con-
venient way to define specific controllers, based on standard components.
However, it would also be possible to define exactly the same block diagram by entering
the above DSL script manually and thereby create a primitive block definition.
27.7.6 Drawing Composite Block Diagrams and Composite
Frames
Although the composite block diagram and the composite frame diagram should be dis-
27 - 38
tinguished from one other, they are drawn in the same way.
The basic distinction between a block diagram and a frame diagram is that the latter con-
tains only slots and signals, whilst the block diagram must not contain any slots.
A new block or frame diagram can be created in various ways:
Selecting the main menu entry File > New or Strg-N and then selecting the option
Block/Frame Diagram from the "New" command dialogue (ComNew);
By clicking on the Insert New Graphic icon on the toolbar of an open graphic, and
selecting the option Block/Frame Diagram;
By right-clicking on, or inside a (library) folder in the active project in the data
manager and selecting New... > Block/Frame - Diagram from the context-sensitive
menu;
By using the New Object icon in the database manager and selecting Block
Definition (BlkDef).
Note The two later options only create a block definition object (BlkDef),
but no graphic. This method is therefore not suitable for creating
a composite block or frame diagram, but only for creating primitive
block definitions by entering the DSL code.
In the first two methods, a graphic will be created and will appear in the open graphics
board. A new graphics board will be created when no graphics board is open. The new
block/frame diagram graphic will show a single rectangular block, which depicts the block
or frame. The name of the new diagram will appear on top of the frame.
Inside this rectangle the following objects can be placed from the graphic toolbox for the
block diagram:
Node objects:
- block references
- summation points
- multipliers
- divisors
- switches
- different kinds of graphical objects
Branch objects:
- signals lines
Inside a frame diagram only the following elements are allowed:
Node objects:
- slots
- different kinds of graphical objects
Branch objects:
- signals lines
These objects can be selected from the Drawing Toolbox. The toolbox also has buttons
27 - 39
for pure graphical add-on objects (lines, polygons, rectangles, texts, etc.) as shown in
Figure 27.26. It should be noted that the availability of this toolbox is according to wheth-
er or not the graphic is frozen ( ). When the graphic is not frozen, the toolbox is avail-
able, and likewise, when the graphic is frozen for editing, the toolbox is hidden.

Fig. 27.26: Block/Frame Diagram Objects
Note When creating a frame or a block definition, PowerFactory rec-
ognizes the type of definition when you place the first slot or block.
Because a composite frame diagram may only contain slots and
signal lines, creating a slot will disable all other node objects in the
drawing toolbox. If you place a block ( ) first, the icon for the
slot will become inactive, so you can't mix up slot and block
elements in one diagram.
Adding a Block Reference
Drawing the block objects and connecting them with signals is done in a similar way as is
done with elements in the single line graphic. A block reference is first displayed as an
empty square which has to be edited in order to assign a (low level) block diagram to it.
Because of lack of information about the number of inputs and outputs of the new block
reference before a (lower level) block definition is assigned to it, it is not possible to con-
nect signals to the empty block. It is therefore recommended to first draw all block refer-
ences and to assign block definitions to them. The block references then show all available
input and output signal connections.
A block reference is edited by right-clicking on it and selecting Edit from the context-sen-
sitive menu, or simply by double-clicking on it. The dialogue as displayed in Figure 27.27
will pop up.
27 - 40

Fig. 27.27: Edit Dialogue of the Block Reference
Use the Select button ( in Figure 27.27) to select a model definition. Predefined stan-
dard block diagrams for your usage are located in the folder Database\ Library\ Models.
It is also possible to create a block in the graphical Block Definition by dragging Macros
from the global library or project library into the drawing area of the Block Definition, us-
ing the Drag & Drop functionality.
Adding Calculation Blocks
Summation Point
Every dot can be used as an input to the summation point. The sign of
signals at summation points can be changed by editing the summation
point object. The "edit" dialogue will pop up, where any connected
input connection can be inverted. It should be noted that not all dots
have to be used and only one dot can be defined as an output.
Multiplier
Every grey dot of this block can be used as an input or output of the
multiplier. An output of three input signals will thus be:
out=(in_0*in_1*in_2). It should be noted that not all dots have to be
used and only one dot can be defined as an output.
Divisor
Every grey dot of this block can be used as an input or output for the
divisor. The first input will be the numerator and thus will be divided by
the second (and if existing, the third) input. The order of the signals
will be clockwise beginning from the left. An output of three input
signals will then be: out=(in_0/in_1/in_2). Mind that not all dots have
to be used and only one dot can be defined as an output.
27 - 41
Switch
Two input signals can be applied to this block, which will be connected
to the output according to the position of the switch. Additionally a
control signal has to be connected to the top, which will define the
operation of the switch. If the control signal is 0.5 or less, the switch
will stay in the displayed state, whereas a signal greater than 0.5 will
cause the switch to change to the upper signal and the other way
round. In the edit dialogue the zero position of the switch may be
altered.
Connecting Signals
After drawing and defining the block references, slots or other node elements, they can
be connected with signal lines. After selecting the button from the graphical toolbox,
a signal line is drawn by first clicking on a 'from' node (output of a block/slot), optionally
clicking on the drawing surface to make a non-direct connection, and finally clicking on a
'to' node (input to a block/slot). The input and output terminals of common blocks and
other node elements are depicted with colored dots (see Figure 27.28).

Fig. 27.28: Block Signal Connections
Green:
Input
Red:
Output
Blue:
Min. Limitation
Pink:
Max. Limitation
Gray:
Every signal can be connected
The signal lines can also be edited in the corresponding dialogue, which provides the pos-
sibility to change the name of the signal.
Multi-Signal Connections
Signals normally connect a single output parameter with a single input parameter. Espe-
cially in the case of three phase signals, as is often the case for voltage or current signals,
multi-signal connections may be used.
A multi-signal is defined by writing two or more signal names together, separated by semi-
colons, e.g "I_A;I_B;I_C''. In Figures 27.29 and 27.30, the multi-signal output and input
27 - 42
of two block definitions are shown. Both blocks will show a single input or output connec-
tion point. They can be connected to each other by a single signal line, as illustrated in
Figure 27.31.

Fig. 27.29: Output Definition of Block 1

Fig. 27.30: Input Definition of Block 2

Fig. 27.31: Multi-Signal Connection
Note The number of variables and their order in the output signal must
be equal to the number of signals in the input signal.
Block Diagram Input and Output Definitions
The composite block diagram normally has input, output and limiting signals of its own.
Input signal points are defined by starting a new signal line on the left, top or bottom side
of the frame enclosing block diagram. This will create a new input signal for the composite
block definition.
New output signals are defined by ending a signal line by clicking on the right side of the
enclosing rectangle frame.
Signals, which are thus connected to the rectangular frame, have the following meanings:
connected to the left side: Input
connected to the right side: Output
connected to the bottom side: Minimum Limitation
connected to the top side: Maximum Limitation
Note The names of the input and output signals must be the same as
the names of the input and output signals defined in the slot or
block to which it is intended to assign the definition.
27 - 43
Resize
If a marked symbol has small black squares at its corners, it can be resized by left clicking
one of the squares, as can be seen in Figure 27.32. The cursor will change to a double
diagonal arrow, and moving it (while holding down the left mouse button) resizes the ob-
ject. Release the mouse when the new size is correct.

Fig. 27.32: Resizing an Object
It is also possible to make the object(s) have a new size by clicking on one side of the
marking box. The marked object(s) will only resize in one direction in that case. This is
not possible for all objects. Some objects may only be resized with a fixed X/Y- ratio; some
other objects cannot be resized at all.
Additional Equations
After the internal structure of the block diagram has been defined graphically, the block
diagram itself can be edited. This can be done without having to close the graphical rep-
resentation of the block diagram. By left or double-clicking the enclosing rectangular
frame, the block diagram edit dialogue will pop up. This dialogue will show all input, out-
put and internal signals, as have been defined graphically.
On the second page of the dialogue, which can be accessed by pressing the button,
information and equations for the initialisation of the block can/has to be entered. Addi-
tionally, the name and the unit of the parameters to be defined in the common model can
be specified (see also Section 27.8: User Defined (DSL) Models).
Additional DSL equations can be defined on the second page of the block diagram edit
dialogue.
27.8 User Defined (DSL) Models
System modeling for stability analysis purposes is one of the most critical issues in the
field of power system analysis. Depending on the accuracy of the implemented models,
large signal validity, available system parameters and applied faults or tests, nearly any
result could be produced and arguments could be found for its justification.
A simple example illustrates this. In a 10 GW power system the expected steady-state
frequency deviation when losing a fully loaded 2000 MW unit depends highly on the
frequency dependency, K_f, of loads. Assuming a total system droop of 7% and a K_f
value of 0, the steady-state frequency deviation will be approximately 700 mHz.
Now with a more realistic coefficient of K_f = 5 %/Hz, the steady-state frequency
27 - 44
deviation is expected to be 596 mHz only. On the other hand, the frequency dependency
might be slightly higher or lower, but the non-linear characteristics of hydro turbine
efficiencies and steam valve non-linearities could be more relevant at a certain unit
loading point. Consequently, as long as only one or two different loading scenarios are
considered, average values with reasonable simple models may give acceptable results by
tuning only some key parameters like the frequency dependency of loads or droop
settings.
Thus system model structures and parameter settings are to be best evaluated against
the following main criteria:
System size
Large and small systems have different "key parameters''. Referring to
the above example, for a smaller power system the frequency
dependency of loads is irrelevant, while in large systems such as UCTE
or UPS/IPS, frequency dependency may cover the spinning reserve
requirements totally.
Unit size
Steady-state and transient behavior of large units is more decisive for
the overall system response than smaller units which might have a very
negligible effect on the total system.
System structure
Independent of system and unit size, the system structure may be
more relevant than any other factor. This can be easily demonstrated
when weak systems with a longitudinal geographical extension or
appropriate substructures are analyzed.
System fault
Most relevant to system modeling considerations are the applied faults
and related problems which are to be analyzed. The analysis of system
damping and PSS tuning will not necessarily require the boiler
dynamics to be considered. On the other hand, load shedding
optimization and frequency restoration would not give appropriate
results if mid- and long-term characteristics of relevant system
elements are neglected.
Study purpose
In general, for systems which are in the planning stage, typical models
and parameters could be applied as long as there is no specific
additional information available. However, a more detailed
representation is necessary for system extensions, where a detailed
model representation should form part of the performance
specification. Special attention has to be paid to the analysis of
operational problems and operation optimization. For these cases,
detailed modeling of the relevant components is critically important.
As soon as a detailed analysis and representation of system models is required, the subse-
quent questions to be asked are:
How can the structures and parameters of the model be determined?
Are IEEE models and additional manufacturers block diagrams adequate and
accurate?
27 - 45
How could the available information be used within the power system analysis
software?
The approach which is presented here and successfully applied in various projects can be
called the "Advanced System Modeling Approach (ASMA)''. Typical applications are:
The analysis of controller problems and relevant malfunctions, especially under
disturbance conditions;
Optimization of control parameter settings;
Modeling of unconventional system structures and control concepts often found in
industrial systems;
Study applications for the design and specification phase of components and systems
(e.g. power system stabilizer, generator and HVDC controllers).
For the ASMA approach, the following steps are critically important:
Setup of system models
Based on the fundamental equations of engineering and physics, the
basic algebraic and differential equations are to be set up according to
the required degree of accuracy. In addition, all parameters such as
time constants and gains which could be also derived from these
basics, are to be calculated with the same degree of accuracy.
Performance of system tests
In order to define all other parameters and, in particular, non-linear
characteristics, system performance tests are the best method. In the
majority of cases, frequency response tests will not permit the
determination of any non-linear structure and its parameters. Special
test procedures, which do not interfere with normal operation, have to
be applied to focus on the steady-state characteristics, gains and time
constants. These measurements are preferably executed with a highly
accurate digital transient performance measurement system.
System Identification
Non-linear, multi-input and multi-output system identification
techniques are applied for system identification procedures. Typically,
the mismatch between measured and identified data should be smaller
than 2%.
Comparison of measurements and simulations
Besides the analysis of subsystems and components, overall system
performance is to be compared with the theoretical model for all
relevant operating modes.
Of course, very strict application of the ASMA approach is not necessary for modeling
relays and less complex or digital control functions, as these are clearly defined by their
appropriate general and acceptance test documentation. However, independently of the
analyzed system, where the system representation cannot be matched to a classical IEEE
or any other standard model, there is a substantial need for an easy to use and flexible
method for the realization of individual models.
27 - 46
27.8.1 Modeling and Simulation Tools
As already indicated, the most critical and decisive factor for reliable simulation results is
the accuracy and completeness of system model representation for identification and
simulation purposes. Methods for solving this task range from the classical and traditional
way of using software which allows interfacing of user-defined models at the FORTRAN/
C level - typically via connection lists - to the block-oriented approach which is based on
the provision of predefined low-level block macros being connected at the case definition
level.
In addition, most modern commercially available general purpose simulation tools may be
used for flexible and specific system representation. Unfortunately, this approach does not
adequately cover the special electrical system load flow characteristics.
In order to provide a very flexible modeling and simulation tool, which forms part of a
stability program, a control system based simulation language was developed. The
following describes the main features of the DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL):
The simulation tool falls into the category of a Continuous System Simulation
Languages (CSSL);
DSL includes a complete mathematical description of (time-) continuous linear and
non-linear systems;
The simulation tool is based upon common control and logic diagrams, leading to a
non-procedural language, as the sequence of elements can be chosen arbitrarily. In
other words, a DSL model can be converted into a graphical representation;
Provision of flexible definition of macros, which could be: algebraic equations, basic
control elements like PID, PTn or even complete physical subsystems like valve groups
or excitation systems;
Provision of various intrinsic functions such as: "select'', "lim'', "limits'', "lapprox'',
"picdrop'' in order to provide a complete control of models;
Provision of various formal procedures for error detection and testing purposes such
as: algebraic loop detection, reporting of unused and undefined variables and missing
initial conditions.
27.8.2 DSL Implementation: an Introduction
The "DIgSILENT Simulation Language" is used to define new dynamic controllers which
receive input signals from the simulated power system and which react by changing some
other signals.
DSL itself can be looked upon as an add-on to the transient analysis functionality of
PowerFactory. During the simulation, the model equations of the DSL models are
combined with those describing the dynamic behavior of the power system components.
These equations are then evaluated together, leading to an integrated transient simulation
of the combination of the power system and its controllers.
The DSL main interfacing functions are:
Signal input and output channels:
Any variable defined within the kernel (currently more than 2500) and
in a DSL model, can be accessed in a read-and-write mode. Main and
sub-address features are implemented allowing the access of any signal
existing in the system or to build up complex structures such as
27 - 47
hardware-based modules taking equipment "rack'' and "function card''
structures into account.
Events:
Conditions evaluated by DSL models may cause events to be sent to
the program kernel where they will be scheduled within the event
queue.
Output and Monitoring:
Conditions may trigger user-defined messages to be displayed in the
output window.

Fig. 27.33: Structure of the PowerFactory DSL System
The structure of a DSL model is best explained by an example. This example considers a
prime mover unit model of a simple hydro turbine. This DSL model has been defined
graphically, and contains one embedded DSL macro. This embedded macro models a
single integrator and is defined by programming it.
The basic method for designing new DSL models is as follows:
1 A set of basic DSL models is created. These models implement simple, 'primitive'
controllers like a 'first order time lag' or a 'PID' controller. The PowerFactory
program is shipped with a large number of these primitive controller models. New
primitives are created by programming their differential equations and signal
settings, using the DSL language.
2 The more complex controller is created graphically by drawing its block diagram.
This kind of block diagram normally uses references other DSL models which are
thus combined into a more complex controller. Controller references may be used to
include DSL primitive models into the complex model, but may also refer to other
graphically defined complex models. Highly complex controllers may thus be
27 - 48
designed in a hierarchical way, by designing sub-models and sub-sub-models, where
the DSL primitives form the lowest level. Section 27.8.3 (Defining DSL Models)
describes these procedures in detail.

Fig. 27.34: Diagram of a Simple Model of a Hydro Turbine
Figure 27.34 depicts the model definition that was used to define the hydro turbine model.
The resulting DSL code, as shown in the output window when a graphical Rebuild ( )
is performed is:
1. model Pt = 'pmu_hydro'(At,C;x1;Ti;)
2. pt_x = 'I.BlkDef'(xe;x1;Ti;)
3. i3 = i1/i2
4. i1 = At*At
5. i2 = pt_x*pt_x
6. i4 = xe*pt_x
7. xe = i3-C
8. Pt = pt_x-i4
The line numbers have been added for readability. The corresponding block definition
shows:
Output Signals : Pt
Input Signals : At, C
State Variables : x1
Parameter : Ti
Internal Variables :
The example describes a simple hydro turbine model with the input signals A_t and C and
the output signal P_t.

Fig. 27.35: Graphical Representation of a DSL Model of an Integrator
Figure 27.35 depicts the graphical representation of the embedded primitive DSL model.
This primitive model is included in the hydro turbine (in line 2 of the definition of the
hydro). The DSL primitive implements a single integrator and is programmed as follows:
1. model y = 'I'(xe;x1;Ti;)
27 - 49
2. [Ti] = 's'
3. limits(Ti) = (0,)
4. inc(x1) = y
5. inc(xe) = 0
6. x1. = xe/Ti
7. y = x1
Line 1 is generated by clicking on the Equations button in the block diagram dialogue.
Lines 2..7 were entered manually.
The block definition dialogue was used to set the following:
Output Signals : y
Input Signals : xe
State Variables : x1
Parameter : Ti
Internal Variables
Parts of a DSL Model
Both example DSL models show the two basic parts of any DSL model, primitive or
complex:
1 The interface definitions
2 The DSL model description
Interface description
The interface defines the model name, names of input and output signals, model param-
eters and state variables. These are shown in the output window in the model heading.
Example (line 1 from the hydro turbine model):

1. model Pt = 'pmu_hydro'(At,C;x1;Ti;)
The block diagram dialogue further allows for the definition of limiting parameters and
input signals, and the classification of the model as a linear model and/or as a DSL macro.
Model description
The model description describes the DSL model, based on the signals defined in the
interface. The DSL description includes:
Parameter descriptions: name and unit
Allowed parameter ranges
Initial conditions and functions which are used to calculate initial values.
The algebraic relations which define the controller.
Example (the integrator):
2. [Ti] = 's' ! the unit of Ti is seconds
3. limits(Ti) = (0,) ! Ti > 0
4. inc(x1) = y ! initially x1=y
5. inc(xe) = 0 ! initially xe=0
27 - 50
6. x1. = xe/Ti ! equation 1: deltax1 / deltat = xe/Ti
7. y = x1 ! equation 2: y=x1
Advanced Features
The numerical integration of DSL models, interrupt scheduling and input-output signal
processing is handled automatically by the program kernel. In addition, if the output of a
DSL model is an electric current being added to the appropriate total bus current - which
is the case if a load or generator model is created - all Jacobian elements necessary for
the iterative simulation procedure will be calculated automatically.
Another useful feature of DSL is the algorithm implemented for numerical setup of the
system matrix for eigenvalue calculation purposes. Consequently, any model implemented
at the DSL level will be automatically taken into consideration when calculating the system
eigenvalues or when applying the modal network reduction approach (MRT). Of course,
any signal limiting functions will be disabled automatically for this calculation procedure.
In addition, inputs and outputs of model parameters, its organization via windows menus
etc. is also derived automatically from the DSL model.
27.8.3 Defining DSL Models
A new DSL model is created either by entering the DSL code in the equation part of a
"Block Definition'' (BlkDef) object, or by creating a new Graphical Block Diagram (see
also section Composite Block Definitions on how to create a new block definition). Both
methods will result in a Block Definition Object which holds the definition of the DSL
model.
The block definition objects thus serve two purposes in the process of constructing a DSL
model:
They hold the definitions and parts of a graphically constructed composite block
definition, and the diagram graphic which was used to define the model;
They provide the surrounding in which a new "DSL primitive '' or 'primitive block
definition' can be defined.
Composite Block Definitions
To create a new composite block definition:
Use the main menu entry File > New or Strg-N and then select the option Block/
Frame Diagram from the "New" command dialogue (ComNew).
Use the Insert New Graphic icon on the toolbar (of the graphics window) and
select the option Block/Frame Diagram.
To access the dialogue of the block definition (BlkDef), double-click on the frame box
surrounding the diagram.
Complex block definition objects are conceptually similar to "Grid Folders'' in the Power-
Factory database tree. They are defined by graphically defining a controller block
diagram of which they will store the graphical information and all logic parts. These parts
include signals, small standard components (adders, multipliers, etc.) or DSL primitives.
27 - 51
Although a complex block definition object is created graphically, it allows for additional
DSL equations to define those aspects of the controller that would be otherwise difficult
to enter in a graphical way.
The graphical environment in which a complex block diagram is constructed, is not treated
here. Please refer to Chapter 11 (Network Graphics (Single Line Diagrams)) for more
information.
Primitive Block Definitions
To create a primitive DSL block definition:
Right-click on or inside a (library) folder in the active project in the data manager and
select New... > Block/Frame - Diagram from the context-sensitive menu;
Use the "New Object" icon in the database manager and select Block Definition
(BlkDef);
Double-click an new/empty block reference in an open block diagram and then use
the button to select a block definition. Following this, use the icon to create a
new block definition inside the local library.
DSL primitives are the building blocks from which the more complex controller diagrams
are composed. A DSL primitive, for example, might implement a low pass filter, which may
then be used to graphically construct more complex controllers which include this kind of
filter.
Unlike transformers or other power system components, which may be looked upon as
'power system primitives', a DSL primitive is only referred to by a complex block diagram
and may thus be used in more than one complex DSL model at the same time.
Block Definition Dialogue
When creating a primitive DSL model or by double-clicking on the frame of a composite
block definition, a dialogue will appear, where input and output variables, parameters,
state variables and limiting signals can be defined. Furthermore, additional equations,
initial conditions of variables as well as names and units of parameters can be inserted.
Figure 27.36 shows an example dialogue of a PI controller including limiting parameters
and a 'switch' signal.
27 - 52

Fig. 27.36: Dialogue of the Block Definition
The Name and Title will appear in the library folder, where the model is stored.
The Level of the model representation is only important when using or changing old
models. For new created models "Level 3'' should always be used. For macros, this
option does not have any impact, because the level of the highest block is important,
i.e. the controller definition.
"Automatic Calculation of Initial Conditions'': PowerFactory can calculate the initial
conditions automatically. However, if no sequence is found (because of, for example,
deadlock situations) there will be an error message.
"Classification'':
Linear
This option will only effect the graphical representation of the block in
the diagram. If this option is enabled, the block will be represented as a
linear block, otherwise as a non-linear block with two lines.
Macro
This option is used to identify the block definition as a macro inside the
library.
27 - 53
Matlab
Enabling the 'Matlab' tag will show an input dialogue, where a Matlab
(*.m) file can be defined with which the block definition can
communicate during a simulation. For more information about the
Matlab interface see Section 27.10 (Matlab Integration).
A constant Limiting Parameter may be defined, which are defined in the common
model dialogue, as well as limiting signals, which are similar to input signals. The
difference is the graphical representation in the block diagram.
Input and output signals have to be defined for internal use inside the block
definition. The number and their name will then appear in the graphical diagram when
the block is used.
State variables are needed when not only linear, but also differential, equations are
used. Then for every first-order derivative one state variable must be specified.
The Parameters will appear in the common model dialogue and can then be
specified. The parameter defined in the block definition will automatically be inserted
in the block reference. The names of the parameters can be different in the block
reference and in the block definition. Only the order must be identical.
Internal variables are only used inside the block definition but can not be set from
outside.
There are several buttons on the right side of the dialogue:
Contents
This button will display the (possible) contents of the block definition.
This can be the graphically inserted objects, further block references or
the packed macros. This may additionally include, for example,
internally-defined events.
Equations
The "Equations" button will print the DSL equations to the output
window, regardless of whether they are defined graphically or on the
"Additional Equations" page, as well as variable definitions.
Macro Equat.
This button prints the current block definition DSL equations (including
the equations in the used macros) to the output window.
Check
"Check" will verify the model equations and output error messages if
errors have occurred. Otherwise the following message will occur:
DIgSI/info - Check '\TestUser.IntUser\Windparks.IntPrj\Library
\Block Definitions\DFIG\Voltage Control.BlkDef':
DIgSI/info - Block is ok.
Check Inc.
The initial conditions of the block definition will be printed and checked.
Pack
Pack will copy all used DSL models (macros) of a composite model
definition to the folder "Used Macros" inside the block definition. In this
way there will now be references to other projects or libraries outside
the model. Beware: any further changes in the macro library have no
influence; the macros are copied and no longer linked to the library. So
27 - 54
if there is an error in a certain macro it has to be fixed separately in
each packed block.
Pack-> Macro
This command will reduce the entire model including DSL blocks and
additional equations and macros into one DSL model containing only
equations. All graphical information will be lost. It should be noted that
this command is irreversible.
Encrypt
The "Encrypt" button is available when Pack-> Macro is activated
before. This command encrypts all equations inside the model, so that
the equations can not be seen or output anymore. In this way a model
containing sensitive or restricted device equations can be delivered
without showing the internal equations. It should be noted that this
command is irreversible and a decrypt function is not available.
By clicking on the button the second page of the dialogue can be accessed. Here the
(additional) equations of the DSL model can be defined. Also further information e.g. the
initial conditions of state variables and the name and unit of parameters can be specified.
Figure 27.37 shows the additional equations of the DSL model of the PI controller.

Fig. 27.37: Dialogue of the block definition - Page 2
The next section describes the handling and usage of the DSL language.
27.9 The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL)
The DSL language is used to program models for the electrical controllers and other
components used in electrical power systems. As for any other simulation or programming
language, a special syntax is provided for the model formulation.
This syntax is explained in the following order:
27.9.1 Terms and Abbreviations
The following terms and abbreviations are used to describe the DSL syntax:
expr
- arithmetic expression, not to be terminated with a ';'
- arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /
- constants: all numbers are treated as real numbers
27 - 55
- standard functions: sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), asin(x), acos(x), atan(x), sinh(x),
cosh(x), tanh(x), exp(x), ln(x), log(x) (basis 10), sqrt(x) (square root), sqr(x)
(power of 2), pow(x,y), abs(x), min(x,y), max(x,y), modulo(x,y), trunc(x), frac(x),
round(x), ceil(x), floor(x).
These standard functions are described in detail in the last chapter.
- Parenthesis: (arithmetic expression)
All trigonometric functions are based on radians (RAD).
Example:
A = x1+2.45*T1/sin(3.14*y)
boolexpr
- logical expression, not to be terminated with a ';'
- Logical relations: <, >, <> (inequality), >=, <=, =.
- Unary operators: .not.
- Binary operators: .and. .or. .nand. .nor. .eor.
- Parentheses: {logical expression}
Example:
A = {x1>0.and..not.x2 <= 0.7}.or.T1=0.0
string
anything within '...' (single quotation marks).
Example: A = 'this is a string'
27.9.2 General DSL Syntax
Line length:
The maximal line length is 80 characters. Longer lines have to be
broken by using the '&' sign in the first column of the continuing line. A
'&' sign in the first column joins the current row and its preceding row.
Example:
y = lapprox(x, 1.674, 7.367, 2.485, 12.479, 5.457, 18.578
& 6.783, 15.54, 8.453, 12.589, 9,569, 6.478)
Line breaking cannot be used within names or strings.
Case sensitivity
All keywords, names, functions, variables, models, macros, etc. are
case sensitive.
Blanks
All blanks are removed when the DSL code is processed. Exception:
blanks in strings are kept.
Comments
The '!' sign causes the remaining line to be interpreted as a comment.
Comments are removed when the DSL code is processed.
27 - 56
Example:
! comments may start at the beginning of a line
x1. = select(at<>0, ! comments may be used in broken lines
& (1-sqr(x1)/sqr(at))/Tw, 0)
27.9.3 DSL Variables
A DSL model may use five different types of variables:
Output signals
Output signal variables are available as input signals to more complex
DSL models.
Input signals
Input variables may originate from other DSL models or from power
system elements. In the latter case, currents and voltages, as well as
any other signal available in the analyzed power system, become
available to the DSL model.
State variables
State variables are time-dependent signals generated and used within
the DSL model itself.
Parameters
Parameters are 'read only' numbers which are set to alter the behavior
of the DSL model.
Internal variables
Internal variables are defined and used in the DSL model to ease the
construction of a set of DSL equations.
The following rules may be helpful when interpreting warning and error messages:
A state variable may not be simultaneously used as a state variable and an output
variable; if required, the use of an assignment like y=x1 is recommended.
All parameters are real numbers.
A special parameter 'array_iiii' (with up to 4 digits i), with 2*iiii elements is provided to
define characteristics (see procedure "lapprox'').
Only the derivatives of state variables can be assigned an expression.
27.9.4 DSL Structure
DSL models are constructed of three parts:
The interface part, which states the model name, title, classification and variable set.
This part is set in the first page of the block diagram dialogue;
Definition code;
Equation code.
The definition and equation code form the actual controller network definition and are
treated in the next sections.
27 - 57
27.9.5 Definition Code
Definition code in the equation part of a DSL model is used to define parameter
properties and initial conditions.
Unit and Parameter Description
vardef(varnm) = unitstring;namestring
Unit and name for variable varnm.
Examples:
vardef(Ton) = 's';'Pick up time for restart' ! defines unit and name
vardef(Ton) = ;'Pick up time for restart' ! only defines name
vardef(Ton) = 's'; ! only defines unit
[varnm] = unitstring
Unit for variable varnm, maximum 10 characters wide.
Remark:
A macro call causes error messages if the units of the substituted
variables do not match the defined units.
Example:
[Ton] = 's' ! defines unit
Valid Value Ranges
limits(varnm) = [/( minimum value, maximum value ]/)
Defines the valid interval for variable varnm. Violations of the interval
limits during simulation will be reported:
limits(yt)=(,1] is equivalent to output(yt>1,'Maximum exceeded: yt=yt>1')
The '(' and ')' braces exclude the minimum or maximum value from the
interval; the '[' and ']' braces include them.
Examples:
limits(x)=[min,max] ! min <= x <= max
limits(x)=(min,max] ! min < x <= max
limits(x)=(,max] ! x <= max
limits(x)=(min,) ! min < x
If required and if possible, the program automatically determines the smallest interval
under several intervals of the same variable.
Example:
limits(x)=(1,3) and limits(x)=(2,4] results in 2<x<3.
Macro models often define limits for certain variables. The model which uses the macro
might also define limits for the variables which are used in the macro calls. The 'smallest
interval' method gives the calling model thus the freedom to redefine parameter limits
without violating the internal macro limit definitions.
27 - 58
27.9.6 Initial Conditions
Direct Setting of Initial Conditions
inc(varnm) = expr
Definition of the initial condition of variable varnm. If inc(varnm) is not
defined, the normal assignment expression will be evaluated (only
possible if varnm is of the intern or input type). If inc(varnm) is
defined, it will be evaluated when the model is reset.
inc0(varnm) = expr
Definition of the initial condition of variable varnm, for unconnected
output or input variables. This variant of the inc() statement is used
only when the variable varnm could not be initialized through the initial
condition of the connected input or output signal. The inc0() statement
is thus used to make open input or output terminals possible.
incfix(varnm) = expr
This variant of the inc() statement is valid only in connection with
automatic initialization and is used to determine the initial values in
ambivalent situations. With the incfix, one or more variables can be
directly initialized so that other variables can be initialized
automatically.
Example:
An AVR model has two inputs, [upss , usetp ], and one output, [uerrs ]. Both inputs
cannot both be initialized automatically by the single output value, which is determined
by the connected machine. Therefore one of the inputs must be initialized as fixed, e.g.
by incfix(upss)=0. The initial value of usetp is now automatically determined, using
upss=0.
Iterative Setting of Initial Conditions
Three functions are available for determining initial values iteratively: looping, intervalinc,
newtoninc.
These functions are used to find the initial value for one set of parameters if the initial
values of another set of parameters, which are functions of the first set of parameters,
are known.
The iterative functions are used to find the (approximated) values for the unknown
parameters for which the known parameter take their initial value.
loopinc (varnm, min, max, step, eps)
Performs a simple linear search for a single value for which the parameter varnm is
closest to its known initial value.
varnm = target variable, whose initial value is known
min = lower limit
max = upper limit
step = stepsize
eps = maximum error
Example:
inc(a) = loopinc(b, -5, 5, 0.01, 0.001)
27 - 59
The initial value of variable a is searched for by evaluating parameter b,
beginning at a=-5, ending at a=5, with an increment of 0.01.
Return value: the value of a for which the deviation of b from its known initial
value, takes the smallest value. A warning is given if the smallest deviation is
greater than eps.
Restriction: Can only be used on the right side of an inc() statement
intervalinc(varnm, min, max, iter, eps)
Performs an 'interval-division search' for a single value for which the parameter
varnm is closest to its known initial value.
varnm = target variable, whose initial value is known
min = lower limit, max = upper limit
iter = maximum number of iterations
s = maximum error
Example
inc(a) = intervalinc(b, -5, 5, 40, 0.001)
Explanation:
The initial value of the variable a is searched for, within the interval [-5,5] by suc-
cessively dividing the interval as long as the deviation of the variable b from its initial
value is less than eps. The iteration stops if the maximum number of iterations is
reached, and a warning is given if the smallest deviation is greater than eps.
Restriction:
May only be used on the right side of an inc() statement
newtoninc(initexpr, start, iter, eps)
Performs a Newton iterative search for one or more parameters by minimising the
errors in a set of coupled equations.
initexpr = the expression which must equal the parameters whose initial value is
sought
start = the starting value for the parameter whose initial value is sought
iter = the maximum allowed number of iterations
eps = the maximum allowed absolute error between initexpr and the parameter
whose initial value is sought.
Example:
qt0 = 0.5
eps = 0.000001
maxiter = 100

inc(hedr) = newtoninc(hw-sqr(qedr)*(Rds+Rdr), hw, maxiter, eps)
inc(qt1) = newtoninc(Pt1/(4*dh*eta1), qt0, maxiter, eps)
This example shows a part of the initial value definitions for a model where the initial
values of 5 parameters (hedr ,qt1 ,..,qt4) are sought simultaneously by setting up a
system of coupled equations and solving that system by the Newton method so that,
eventually:
hedr hw qedr Rds Rdr + ( ) ~
qt1 Pt1 4 dh eta1 ( ) ~
27 - 60
The following guidelines should be considered:
Add the initial conditions to the complex block, as opposed to each primitive (like a
first-order time lag).
The general initialisation 'direction' is from right to left, i.e. the outputs are normally
known and the inputs (or setpoints) have to be determined.
If initial conditions are not defined for a certain variable, the simulation equations are
used instead. It should be therefore enough to specify the initial conditions of the
state variables and input variables.
The option Automatic Calculation of Initial Conditions requires configuring, but does
not require correct initial conditions for each state/input variable. The initial values are
only used to initialize the iteration process. The incfix-function can be used to
determine the initial values in ambiguous situations.
Use the option Verify Initial Conditions to check if the initial conditions lead to the
correct result.
qt2 Pt2 4 dh eta2 ( ) ~
qt3 Pt3 4 dh eta3 ( ) ~
qt4 Pt4 4 dh eta4 ( ) ~
27 - 61
27.9.7 Equation Code
Within the equation code, all equations necessary to build up the simulation models are
included. The set of equations defines a set of coupled differential equations which
describe the transfer functions between the input and output signals. These transfer
functions may range from simple linear, single-input single-output functions, to highly
complex non-linear, non-continuous, multi-input, multi-output functions.
DSL is used to describe the direct relationships between signals and other variables.
Expressions may be assigned to a variable, or to the first derivative of a state variable.
Higher order differential equations have to be thus split up into a set of single order
equations by the introduction of additional state variables.
27.9.8 Equation Statement
The equation statements are used to assign expressions to parameters, thus relating all
parameters in a set of differential equations.
Syntax:
varnm = expr
Assigns expression 'expr' to variable 'varnm'.
Examples:
y = sin(a)+3*x1
y = .not. x1>2 .or. a<=3
varnm. = expr
Assigns expression expr to the first order derivative of the variable varnm.
Examples:
x1. = (xe-x1)/T1
x2. = x1
Remarks
DSL assignments may occur in any sequence. The sequence does not influence the
evaluation of the assignments.
All variables are of type floating point, even if assigned to a boolean expression, in
which case the value will be 0.0000 or 1.0000.
When a variable z is used in a logical expression (i.e. y=.not.z), the logical 1 of z is
tested by evaluating (z>0.5):
y1 = .not.z is interpreted and equal to y1 = (z=<0.5)
There is no warning against mixing logical and non-discrete variables in expressions.
Consequently the following code will not cause a message to be emitted: depending
on y, z will take the value x1 + 4.0, or just x1:
y = .not. x1>2 .or. a<=3
z = 4.0*y + x1
The assignment of a value to a variable takes place in an order which recognizes the
connections between these variables. In the case of the following example, the
second line will be evaluated first, then line 1:
1. a = b+5
2. b = x1
3. x1. = 1
27 - 62
Algebraic loops are not supported. In the following example, an error message will be
displayed:
a = b+5
b = 2*a
If there is no assignment to a variable varnm, varnm will keep its initial value. The
right side expression may not contain derivatives. Derivatives may only appear on the
left side of the equal sign. The first example is correct; the second is false.
x1. = asin(a) ! Correct
a = sin(x1.) ! Not accepted
27.9.9 DSL Macros
A DSL macro is a predefined DSL model, complex or primitive, which is meant to be
included in higher level DSL models. The block diagram edit dialogue offers a 'Macro'
classification option which can be set to mark the model as a macro.
A DSL macro is included in a higher level DSL model either by creating a block reference
in the block diagram graphics or by its explicit inclusion in a DSL equation.
Syntax:
varnm1, varnm2,... = macroname (i1,i2,... ; s1,s2,... ; p1,p2,... ; i1,i2,...)
Assigns the output signals of the DSL macro macroname to the variables varnm1,
varnm2 , ... Assigns the input signals of DSL macro to the variables i1, i2,... The
macro uses the state variables s1, s2,... the parameters p1, p2,... and the internal
variables i1, i2,...
Example:
P1,P2 = '\User\I.BlkDef'(i1,i2;s1,s2;T1,T2)
This example assigns to P1 and P2 the output of DSL model \ User\ I.BlkDef .
Macro calls are not supported within expressions, even if they only have one output
variable.
Correct example:
y = my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1) !
Incorrect example:
y = 3 * my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1) + 4
which should be replaced by:
y1 = my_macro(x1, s1, p1, i1)
y = 3 * y1 + 4
DSL Internal Macro Handling
A preparser substitutes each macro call with the equation code of the macro. The
variables of the macro DSL model are then replaced by the variables used in the macro
call. The local variable names of macros thus disappear after the preparation process.
DSL Models
In general, there are two basic types of DSL models possible:
1 Models of electrical devices such as generators, loads or HVDC systems. These
models are characterized by their principal output signal "complex device current'',
27 - 63
which is injected to the electrical grid at a certain busbar. However, in addition to the
electrical device currents, there may be any other variable defined as an output
signal. A summary of the available variables of each element can be seen in the
corresponding Technical References.
2 Models with output signals which are not directly injected to the electrical network
(general devices). Among these types of models are prime mover units, voltage
controllers, relays, calculation procedures, etc.
27.9.10 Events and Messages
The DSL language provides procedures for the generation of an interrupt event and for
sending messages to the output window:
The procedure fault(boolexpr, event_string) generates an event and is evaluated
at the beginning of each time step
The procedure output(boolexpr, message_string) outputs a message and is
evaluated at the end of each time step.
The "fault" and "output" procedures are evaluated at each time step during the simulation
of a model. The first time that boolexpr is found to be true, the string will be processed
and a message will be sent to the output window, or an event will be added to the Power-
Factory event queue. The '"fault" or "output" procedures will be disabled afterwards until
the DSL model is reset, to prevent an avalanche of messages or events.
Both procedures are explained in detail in the following paragraphs.
output(boolexpr, message_string)
The message_string may contain variables and the special function num(boolexpr) or
num(expr):
Variable names which appear directly after an '=' sign will be substituted by their
actual values; hence, the line of code below may generate the message:
maximum exceeded: yt=1.2 > ymax=1.0:
output(yymax,'maximum exceeded: yt=yt > ymax=ymax')
The num(expr) or num(boolexpr) will be substituted with the calculated value of the
expression, e.g.:
value=num(a+b) may produce value=3.5000
fault(boolexpr, event_string)
Each DSL model can add events to the event list. A DSL model of a distance relay, for
instance, can open the power switch of a line by adding the correct switch event. 'Adding
an event' is done by executing an existing event object in the PowerFactory database.
Consequently, all events that may be used by the DSL model have to be created together
with the DSL model. They must all be stored inside the common model (ElmDsl). These
DSL events will thus form an integrated part of the DSL model.
The event_string in the fault expression must refer to the name of one of these events.
At evaluation, the event will be thrown onto the event stack if boolexpr is true. As soon
as the simulation reaches the event, it will execute it. Consequently, a delayed event may
be thrown by the DSL model by setting the execution time ahead of the current time.
27 - 64
The parameters of the event can be modified in the fault string by assigning a new value.
The mechanism is the same as described above in the output procedure.
Example:
fault(u>1.1,'name=MySwitchEvent1 dtime=0.15')
If the variable u exceeds 1.1, the event named 'MySwitchEvent1' will be thrown onto the
event stack and its variable dtime (relative event time) will be set to 15 milliseconds. The
event will thus be delayed for that amount of time, which, in this case, mimics the time
needed to open a switch. The actual switch that will open is defined in the event object
'MySwitchEvent1'.
Note The events are accessed or created by opening the edit dialogue
of the common model (double-click on the DSL model in the
Data Manager), and then pressing the button Events in the dia-
logue. A list of events already defined inside this model is dis-
played.
The events are not added to the projects global event list unless
the event is 'activated' by the DSL model.
27.9.11 Example of a Complete DSL Model
Thermal Double Reheat Turbine with Steam Storage
Controller Model:
model pt,ptmw =
'pmu_1'(at,sgn,cosn,ngnum;x1,x2,x3,x4;Thp, Tip,Tlp,alflp,Tspi)
[T1] = 's'
limits(T1) = [0,)
limits(alfhp) = [0,1]
vardef(alfhp) = ;'High pressure turbine ratio';
limits(alflp) = [0,1-alfhp]
vardef(alflp) = ;'Low pressure turbine ratio';
vardef(Tspi) = 's';'Boiler capacity time constant';
limits(Tspi) = (0,)
vardef(Thp) = 's';'High pressure turbine time constant';
vardef(Tip) = 's';'First reheater time constant';
vardef(Tlp) = 's';'Second reheater time constant';
inc(x1) = y/K
inc(xe) = y/K
inc(x4) = 1.0
inc(at) = pt
inc(steamflow0) = pt
inc(ylp) = pt
x1. = select(T1>0,(xe-x1)/T1,0)
y = K*select(T1>0,x1,xe) ! if T1=0 => y=xe
steamflow = at*x4
x4. = (steamflow0 - steamflow)/Tspi ! boiler
yhp = PT1(steamflow;x1;Thp) ! high pressure part
yip = PT1(yhp;x2;Tip) ! medium pressure part
ylp = PT1(yip;x3;Tlp) ! low pressure part
pt = yhp*alfhp + ylp*alflp+ yip*(1.0-alfhp-alflp)
ptmw = pt*sgn*cosn*ngnum ! only for output purposes
27 - 65
The used macro 'PT1' is defined as:
model y = 'PT1'(xe;x1;K,T1;)
x1. = select(T1>0,(xe-x1)/T1,0)
y = K*select(T1>0,x1,xe) ! if T1=0 => y=xe
inc(x1) = y/K
inc(xe) = y/K
[T1] = 's'
limits(T1) = [0,)
27.10 Matlab Integration
Additionally to designing controllers or various electrical and mechanical models using the
DIgSILENT Simulation Language, there is also the possibility to use an interface to
Matlab. This interface gives the opportunity to model controller or very complex transfer
functions using the Matlab environment and insert them as a block definition into a frame
in a PowerFactory transient simulation.
PowerFactory can correspond to the Matlab program during the simulation. It will
transfer the input values of a block to Matlab for every time step, which will then simulate
a specified *.m file in its own environment and gives back the results as the outputs of
the block definition. Consequently this function needs a installation of the Matlab program
including the Simulink package.
The implementation of a Matlab file is shown in the next sections. In this example a
voltage controller is implemented first using a built-in model (ElmVco) and using a
definition from Matlab. This example can also be found in the FAQ on the DIgSILENT
home page.
27.10.1 Implementation of Voltage Controller - Example
In this example the grid consists of two generators, one load and one line, as shown in
Figure 27.38.

Fig. 27.38: Matlab example grid
The simulation event is defined for the load, where the reactive power is increased after
0.5 seconds.
The complete example contains three files:
27 - 66
1 Matlab Example.dz is a PowerFactory file.
2 VCOtype16.m is a Matlab M-file.
This file is an interface to the Simulink model, and it is used as a middle layer in the
communication between PowerFactory and Simulink.
3 vcotype16mod.mdl is a Simulink model and contains Simulink implementation of
VCO type 16.
27.10.2 Implementation with Built-In Model
In the base study case, the voltage controller models are represented by the built-in
models VCO type 16 (ElmVco__16). The built-in VCO type 16 inside PowerFactory is
one excitation control system with simplified exciter. Both composite models use the AVR
inside the IEEE-frame from the global library. The generators have different VCO param-
eters set.
In Figure 27.39 the edit dialogue of the ElmVco with the parameters of the AVR can be
seen.

Fig. 27.39: Parameters dialogue of the voltage controller
The model representation of the ElmVco__16 is indicated in Figure 27.40.
27 - 67

The plots resulting from the simulation (Figure 27.45) show busbar voltages and
excitation voltage for both generators. The results are stored in result files located under
the Results folder of the relevant study case.
27.10.3 Implementation with Matlab Model
In the second study case "Matlab'' which is a modification of the base case, VCO type 16
is modelled inside the Simulink package, instead of using a built-in model. The Matlab
console is started automatically when running the simulation.
To implement a Matlab model into a current project in PowerFactory it has to be
included into a frame similar to a DSL model definition. This procedure is described in
detail in the Section 27.10 (Matlab Integration). First a slot inside the frame has to be
created, where the controller model should be inserted. This is done exactly like for imple-
menting built-in models or common models. Then a block definition BlkDef has to be
created inside the library. Instead of programming the transfer function using the DSL
code, there can now the definition of the Matlab code be imported.
This can be done in the dialogue of the block definition. When creating a primitive DSL
model in the library by
right-clicking a or inside a (library) folder in the active project in the data manager
and selecting New... > Block/Frame - Diagram from the context menu.
using the "New Object'' icon in the database manager and selecting Block
Definition (BlkDef).
double-clicking an new/empty block reference in an open block diagram and then use
the button to select a block definition. Then The icon can be used to create a
new block definition inside the local library.
Now open the dialogue of the new BlkDef
by double-clicking on the frame of a composite block definition
by double-clicking the definition in side the library or on its icon
Here input and output variables, parameters, state variables and limiting signals have to
be defined. Instead of inserting the equations to describe the different function blocks, a
Matlab file *.m can be selected, when the option Matlab is activated.
The edit dialogue of the block definition including the parameter definition and the
27 - 68
selected file can be seen in Figure 27.41 for the mentioned example.

Fig. 27.41: Composite model using a special frame
The model representation of the ElmVco__16 in the Matlab Simulink package is shown
in Figure 27.42.

When the block definition is specified, a DSL model has to be created first. As described
in Section 27.7.4 (The Common Model), the common model element (ElmDsl, ) is the
front-end object for all user-defined block definitions. This means that all user-defined
transient models including built-in elements or Matlab models cannot be used other than
through a common model.
The common model then combines a model or block definition with specific set of
parameter values. The edit dialogue of the DSL element now looks different to the built-
in ElmVco. From Figure 27.43 can be seen, that this dialogue is similar to the normal DSL
models. All time constants and other parameters are the same as for the built-in VCO
models.
27 - 69

Fig. 27.43: Parameters dialogue for the Matlab voltage controller
Figure 27.44 shows the composite model using the special frame with the generator 'G1'
and the Matlab-AVR inserted into the slots.

Fig. 27.44: Composite Model using a special frame
These results from the simulation of the reactive power step using the built-in VCO model
(dotted curves) and using the Matlab representation (solid curves) can be seen in Figure
27.45.
27 - 70

Fig. 27.45: Results of the transient simulation with the Built-In model
27.10.4 The Matlab File
The Matlab file VCOtype16.m is an interface configuration for the Simulink model,
stored in the file vcotype16mod.mdl, and the PowerFactory DSL model. There the
input and output signals, the parameters and the state variables are defined, as described
below. The transfer function is specified.
The contents of this file is listed here:

function [t, x, y] = VCOtype16
global U Tvm Usetp Upss Vska Tisp Ur1mx Ur1mn Vsex Efdmx
Efdmn ve1 x1 x2
options = simget('VCOtype16mod');
options = simset('InitialState', [x1,x2]);
[t, x, y] = sim('VCOtype16mod', [], options);
PowerFactory inserts the following variables into the Matlab workspace:
U, Tvm, Usetp, Upss, Vska, Tisp, Ur1mx, Ur1mn, Vsex, Efdmx, Efdmn, ve1, x1,
x2
Those variables are necessary to successfully run the Simulink model. There are three
input signals (U, Estop, Upss), one output signal Uerrs and two state variables x1 and x2.
In each step of the PowerFactory simulation the Simulink model is completely
evaluated. State variables ('InitialState') are assigned to Simulink model in each step of
the simulation. For PowerFactory it is a simple function call:
[t, x, y] = VCOtype16.
PowerFactory uses only one Simulink model for both generators. To avoid limitation of
27 - 71
Simulink, which allows only one instance of the model running at the same time, Power-
Factory must send all parameters in the each step of the simulation.
To find appropriate equations for the initial conditions you need to understand the
construction of the transfer function blocks in Simulink. To obtain this understanding you
can replace the variables with actual numbers in the Matlab Simulink model, set the
initial conditions, run it for a few seconds and monitor the outputs of all transfer functions
to see whether the model initialized correctly.
The Matlab Simulink model (.mdl) and the interface file (.m) file may not have the same
name.
The order of the state variables in the interface file's statement "options = simset('Initial-
State', [x1, x2, .])" is important; the order of the elements in the vector [x1, x2, ]
must be the same as in the state variable vector constructed internally by Matlab. To
determine the order of the Matlab state variable vector the user may use the command
"[sizes,x0,xstring]= ModelName" in the Matlab workspace, where ModelName is the
name of the Simulink model (without the .mdl extension and without inverted commas).
The output of the string variable xstring contains the names of the dynamic blocks in the
Simulink model in the desired order. In the case of the above example the first state
variable is in the measurement block and the second state variable is in the integrator:
xstring =
...'VCOtype16_model/Measure/State Space'
...'VCOtype16_model/Integrator'
The names of the variables in the 'Initial conditions' fields in the masks of the Simulink
model dynamic blocks is irrelevant.
The initial conditions are set within PowerFactory. Also, for the purpose of Power-
Factorys model checking mechanisms, the state derivatives equal to zero
The Simulink solver parameters are set to integrate over one small time step, e.g. start
time = 0, end time = 0.01, and step size = 0.01.
The y-matrix returned by MATLAB contains the output variables. If more than one output
variable is defined in the DSL model, then those are sorted alphabetically before
assigning the outputs from MATLAB. For example, if there are two outputs "uerrs" and
"output", then the value from the first column of the y-matrix is assigned to "output" and
the value from the second column is assigned to "uerrs".
27.10.5 Additional notes
DIgSILENT PowerFactory calls MATLAB using the programme identification keys
"Matlab.Application" and "Matlab.Application.Single". PowerFactory will start that same
MATLAB installation which was used last. Additional information on the calling of MATLAB
is available on http://www.mathworks.com.
27 - 72
27 - 73
27 - 74
27 - 75
27 - 76
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Modal Analysis / Eigenvalue Calculation
28 - 1
Chapter 28
Modal Analysis / Eigenvalue Calculation
The Modal Analysis command calculates the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a dynamic
multi-machine system including all controllers and power plant models. This calculation
can be completed at the beginning of a transient simulation and at every time step when
the simulation is stopped. Note that sometimes in the literature Modal Analysis is referred
to as 'Eigenvalue Calculation' or 'Small Signal Stability'. Throughout, this chapter the cal-
culation will generally be referred to as Modal Analysis.
This chapter provides a brief background on the theory of Modal Analysis, followed by a
detailed explanation of how to complete such an analysis in PowerFactory. The various
methods of analyzing the results are also presented. Finally, a 'troubleshooting' section
explains what to do when you receive common errors.
28.1 Theory of Modal Analysis
The calculation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors is the most powerful tool for oscillatory
stability studies. When doing such a study, it is highly recommended to first compute the
'natural' system oscillation modes. These are the oscillation modes of the system when all
controller and power plant models are deactivated so every synchronous machine will
have constant turbine power and constant excitation voltage. After determining these
'natural' modes, the effects of controllers (structure, gain, time constants etc.) and other
models can be investigated.
After the initial conditions have been calculated successfully, which means that all time-
derivatives of the state variables should be zero (the system is in steady state), or the
simulation has been stopped at a point in time, the modal analysis calculates the complete
system A-matrix using numerical, iterative algorithms. The representation of the electro-
dynamic network model is equivalent to the representation used for the balanced RMS
simulation, except for the general load model, for which the frequency dependencies are
neglected.
The computation time for the Modal Analysis is approximately proportional to the number
of state space variables to the power of three. Considering, that most power system ob-
jects and models will contain several (perhaps up to a dozen or more for some complex
controllers), the calculation time can rapidly increase as the size of the system being con-
sidered increases. For this reason, alternative methods for calculating the system eigen-
values and eigenvectors must be used when the system grows very large. PowerFactory
supports two types of analysis methods.
A multi-machine system exhibits oscillatory stability if all conjugate complex eigenvalues
making up the rotor oscillations have negative real parts. This means that they lie in the
28 - 2
left complex half-plane. Electro--mechanical oscillations for each generator are then sta-
ble.
More formally, assuming that one of the conjugate complex pair of eigenvalues is given
by:
then the oscillatory mode will be stable, if the real part of the eigenvalue is negative
The period and damping of this mode are given by:
where A
n
and A
n+1
are amplitudes of two consecutive swing maxima or minima respec-
tively.
The oscillatory frequencies of local generator oscillations are typically in the range of 0.5
to 5 Hz. Higher frequency natural oscillations (those that are not normally regulated), are
often damped to a greater extent than slower oscillations. The oscillatory frequency of the
between areas (inter-area) oscillations is normally a factor of 5 to 20 times lower than
that of the local generator oscillations.
The absolute contribution of an individual generator to the oscillation mode which has
been excited as a result of a disturbance can be calculated by:
where
generator speed vector
i'th eigenvalue
i'th right eigenvector
magnitude of excitation of the i'th mode of the system (at t=0)
(depending on the disturbance)
n number of conjugate complex eigenvalues
(i.e. number of generators - 1)
In the following c is set to the unit vector, i.e. c = [1, ..., 1], which corresponds to a the-
i
o
i
je
i
=
o
i
0 <
T
i
2 t
e
i
----------
=
d
i
o
i
1
T
p
------
A
n
A
n 1 +
---------------
\ .
|
| |
ln = =
e t ( ) c
i
|
i
e
i
t

i 1 =
n
=
e t ( )
i
|
i
c
i
28 - 3
oretical disturbance which would equally excite all generators with all natural resonance
frequencies simultaneously.
The elements of the eigenvectors u
i
then represents the mode shape of the eigenvalue i
and shows the relative activity of a state variable, when a particular mode is excited. For
example, the speed amplitudes of the generators when an eigenfrequency is excited,
whereby those generators with opposite signs in u
i
oscillate in opposite phase.
The right eigenvectors u
i
can thus be termed the "observability vectors''. The left eigen-
vectors +
i
measures the activity of a state variable x in the i-th mode, thus the left eigen-
vectors can be termed the "relative contribution vectors''.
Normalization is done by assigning the generator with the greatest amplitude contribution
the relative contribution factor 1 or -1 respectively.
For a n-machine power system, n-1 generator oscillation modes will exist and n-1 conju-
gate complex pairs of eigenvalues
i
will be found. The mechanical speed e of the n gen-
erators will then be described by:
The problem of using the right or left eigenvectors for analyzing the participation of a gen-
erator in a particular mode i is the dependency on the scales and units of the vector ele-
ments. Hence the eigenvectors u
i
and +
i
are combined to a matrix P of participation
factor by:
The elements of the matrix p
ij
are called the participation factors. They give a good indi-
cation of the general system dynamic oscillation pattern. They can be used to determine
the location of eventually needed stabilizing devices to influence the system damping ef-
ficiently. Furthermore, the participation factor is normalized so that the sum for any mode
is equal to 1.
The participation factors can be calculated not only for the generator speed variables, but
for all variables listed in Table 28.1.
Name Unit Description
e
1
e
2
...
e
n
c
1
|
11
|
12
...
|
1n
e
1
t
c
2
|
21
|
22
...
|
2n
e
2
t
... c
2
|
n1
|
n2
...
|
nn
e
n
t
+ + + =
p
i
p
1i
p
2i
...
p
ni
|
1i
+
i1
|
2i
+
i2
...
|
ni
+
in
= =
28 - 4
Table 28.1: Variables accessible for eigenvalue calculation
When are modal analysis results valid?
A modal analysis can be started when a balanced steady-state condition is reached in a
dynamic calculation. Normally, such a state is reached by a balanced load-flow calculation,
followed by a calculation of initial conditions. However, it is also possible to do a balanced
RMS simulation and start a modal analysis after the end of a simulation or during a sim-
ulation when you have manually stopped it.
Although, the modal analysis can be executed at any time in a transient simulation it is
not recommended that you do so when the system is not in a quasi-steady state. This is
because each modal analysis is only valid for a unique system operating point. Further-
more, the theory behind modal analysis shows that the results are only valid for 'small'
perturbations of the system. So although you can complete a modal analysis during a
large system transient, the results obtained would change significantly if the analysis was
repeated a short time step later when the operating point of the system would be signif-
icantly different.
s:speed p.u. Speed
s:phi rad Rotor-angle
s:psie p.u. Excitation-Flux
s:psiD p.u. Flux in D-winding
s:psix p.u. Flux in x-winding
s:psiQ p.u. Flux in Q-winding
28 - 5
28.2 How to Complete a Modal Analysis
This section explains the steps required to complete a 'Modal Analysis' in PowerFactory
Completing an analysis using the default options is explained in the first sub-section. The
second sub-section explains the various options available in the 'Modal Analysis' com-
mand.
28.2.1 Completing a Modal Analysis with the Default Options
To complete a modal analysis in using the default options in PowerFactory, you must
follow the steps below:
1 Use the toolbar selection button to choose the 'Modal Analysis' toolbar. The process
is illustrated in Figure 28.1.
Fig. 28.1: How to select the 'Modal Analysis' toolbar
2 'Calculate Initial Conditions' using the button to open the command and then
press Execute. Note that the calculation of initial conditions needs a converging
load-flow. More information about the options in the 'Calculation of Initial
Conditions' command can be found in Section 27.3.
3 Open the 'Modal Analysis ...' command using the button.
4 If you want to quickly complete the modal analysis and capture all eigenvalues using
the default options, you can press Execute in the subsequent dialog box and the
calculation will proceed. When the calculation is complete you can view the 'Modal
Analysis' results. This is explained in detail in Section 28.3.
Internal Calculation Procedure
When executing the Modal Analysis command by pressing Execute, the initial conditions
of all elements are calculated first (assuming that the calculation is initialised from a load-
flow rather than during a RMS simulation). Then the modal analysis constructs a system
matrix from the load-flow and the dynamic data. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are
Open the toolbar selection
window by clicking 'Select
Toolbar' button.
Choose the 'Modal Analysis'
toolbar.
The 'Modal Analysis' toolbar.
28 - 6
calculated directly from that matrix. PowerFactory automatically does the linearization
of all relevant system elements because eigenvalue calculations need linearized models.
28.2.2 Explanation of Modal Analysis Command Basic Options
(ComMod)
The 'Modal Analysis' command dialog is shown in Figure 28.2. This section explains the
available command options.
Fig. 28.2: Modal Analysis command dialog
Calculation Method
There are two possible calculation methods for the Modal Analysis, they are:
QR-Method; This method is the 'classical' method for calculating all of the system
eigenvalues.
Selective Modal Analysis (Arnoldi/Lanczos); This method only calculates a subset of
the system eigenvalues around a particular reference point. Often this method is used
in very large systems when using the QR-method could be very time consuming. It is
especially useful if the user knows the target area of interest for the eigenvalues. This
option needs more configuration as explained below.
Complex reference point (RP)
Here you must enter the reference point on the real-imaginary plain for the Selective Mod-
al Analysis.
28 - 7
Which Eigenvalues
The selective eigenvalue calculation determines eigenvalues 'close' to the reference point
using one of three different measures for 'closeness'. The options are:
Smallest Magnitude w.r.t RP; If this option is selected, the selective eigenvalue
calculation chooses eigenvalues that are closest to the reference point by magnitude
of the eigenvalue.
Smallest Imaginary Part w.r.t RP; If this option is selected, the selective eigenvalue
calculation chooses eigenvalues that are closest to the reference point using only the
imaginary part of the eigenvalue.
Smallest Real Part w.r.t RP; If this option is selected, the selective eigenvalue
calculation chooses eigenvalues that are closest to the reference point using only the
real part of the eigenvalue.
This option can be further clarified using a diagram as shown in Figure 28.3. The three
eigenvalue pairs are as follows:
A; -0.8 +/- 1.4
B; -0.7 +/- 1.5
C; -0.5 +/- 2.0
Say the reference point was set to the origin (0,0). Then using the first method above,
the closest eigenvalue pair would be A because this pair has the smallest magnitude. Us-
ing method two, the closest pair would be C because this pair has the smallest real com-
ponent. Finally, using the third method, the closest pair would also be A because this pair
has the smallest imaginary component.
Fig. 28.3: Illustration of different eigenvalue selection methods
Number of Eigenvalues
This parameter limits the total number of eigenvalues calculated by the 'Selective Eigen-
value' calculation method. An eigenvalue pair is defined as 'one' eigenvalue mode for this
calculation.
28 - 8
Settings
The Settings button, is a reference (pointer) to the 'Calculation of Initial Conditions'
command, also accessed through the button, that is used by the Modal Analysis com-
mand. It is provided here so that you can easily inspect the selected calculation options.
The advanced options tab for the modal analysis is shown in Figure 28.4. This section ex-
plains the options available on this page.

Fig. 28.4: Advanced Options tab of the Modal Analysis command dialogue
Calculate
There are three checkboxes here:
Left Eigenvectors (Controllability); If this option is enabled, the Modal Analysis
command will calculate the 'Left Eigenvectors'. It is enabled by default. The user can
visualise the 'Controllability for any mode using the 'Mode Phasor Plot' or 'Mode Bar
Plot' described in Section 28.3.2.
Right Eigenvectors (Observability); If this option is enabled then the Modal Analysis
command will calculate the 'Right Eigenvectors' (Observability) for each state variable.
It is disabled by default. The user can visualise the 'Observability' for any mode in
either the 'Mode Phasor Plot' or 'Mode Bar Plot' described in Section 28.3.2.
Participation Factors; If this option is enabled then the Modal Analysis command will
calculate Participation Factors for each state variable. It is disabled by default. The
user can visualise the Participation Factors for any mode using the 'Mode Phasor Plot'
or 'Mode Bar Plot' described in Section 28.3.2.
Results
This selection control provides a reference (pointer) to the results object that is used to
store the calculation results of the Modal Analysis. After a completed calculation, these
results can be exported to an external format such as a spreadsheet or text-file using the
ASCII result exporter tool as described in Section 19.1.4.
By default the Modal Analysis captures results for all state variables from all models active
in the calculation. The observability is also calculated by default for the variables shown
in table 28.1. In addition, the Modal Analysis command can calculate the Controllability
and Participation Factors for these variables.
28 - 9
28.3 Viewing Modal Analysis Results
There are several ways for the user to view the results of the Modal Analysis calculation,
including through pre-defined reports to the Output Window, using the built-in plots with-
in PowerFactory or using the spreadsheet like data browser. Additionally, the user can
search individual objects within the database and view the Controllability, Observability,
and Participation for a particular mode within the familiar data manager or object filters.
This section describes how to get results using these four methods.
28.3.1 Viewing Modal Analysis Reports in the Output Window
This section describes how to view the Modal Analysis results in the PowerFactory Out-
put Window To do this follow these steps:
1 Left-click the "Output Calculation Analysis" icon on the main toolbar. The
'Output of Results' dialog should be visible.
2 Select the eigenvalues radio button and the dialog should look as shown in Figure
28.5.
3 There are four options for the report. You must choose one of these options in the
'Output of Eigenvalues' section of the dialog:
- Eigenvalues; This option prints a report of all the calculated eigenvalues.
- Controllability/Observability/Participations; Selecting any of these options changes
the dialog format to that shown in Figure 28.6. The various options are explained
as follows:
Select Eigenvalue
To print a report showing all eigenvalues and for each eigenvalue a filtered list of
the state variables Controllability, Observability or Participation Factors, then
choose the option 'Filtered' from this drop down menu. Adjust the filter settings in
the box below to determine which eigenvalues will not be shown in the report.
Alternatively, to display a report for a single eigenvalue, choose the eigenvalue
index from this box. Note when choosing a single eigenvalue, the filter settings are
not applied to the report.
Variable Selection
To show all variables (for example, speed, phi, psiD), select 'Show all'. To filter the
displayed variables according to Controllability, Observability or Participation Factor,
choose 'Min. contribution' and enter the value for the minimum contribution.
Alternatively, for greater control over which variables are displayed, select the 'User
Defined States' option. The button Show shows the currently selected variables.
More variables can be added using the Add button whereas all variables can be
removed by using the Remove All button.
4 Press Execute. An example report for eigenvalues is shown in Figure 28.7. The
results of the participation factors for a single mode in a small example power
system are shown in Figure 28.8. Note the 'Detailed' check-box shows the bar chart
in the report, whereas the normal report shows only numerical values.
28 - 10

Fig. 28.5: Output of eigenvalues only
Fig. 28.6: Output of Controllability, Observability or Participation Factors
28 - 11
Fig. 28.7: Output of system eigenvalues
Fig. 28.8: Output of participation factors for a single mode (detailed)
28.3.2 Viewing Modal Analysis Results using the built-in Plots
There are three special plot types in PowerFactory for visualising the results of a modal
analysis calculation; the Eigenvalue Plot, the Mode Bar Plot and the Mode Phasor Plot.
Each type of plot can be automatically created by selecting the icon and clicking the
desired plot icon. This section explains how to use each plot and also how these plots can
be exported to external software.
How to use the The Eigenvalue Plot (VisEigen)
Creating the EigenValue Plot
1 Using the plot selection toolbar as shown in Figure 28.9, choose the Eigenvalue Plot
by clicking the icon.
2 The Eigenvalue Plot will appear in a new window. Note, every time you select the
EigenValue Plot icon from the drop-down menu, a new plot window will be created.
28 - 12

Fig. 28.9: Selection of the Modal Analysis plots
Interpreting the EigenValue Plot
An example EigenValue Plot is shown in Figure 28.10.
The Eigenvalue Plot displays the calculated eigenvalues in a two axis coordinate system.
For the vertical axis, it is possible to select among the imaginary part, the period or the
frequency of the eigenvalue. The horizontal axis shows the real part.
Stable eigenvalues are shown in green (default) and unstable eigenvalues in red (default).
Each eigenvalue can be inspected in detail by double clicking it on the plot. This will bring
up a pop-up dialog where the index, the complex representation, the polar representation
and oscillation parameters of the mode can be inspected as illustrated in Figure 28.11.

Fig. 28.10: The Eigenvalue Plot
Create Eigenvalue Plot
Create Mode Bar Plot
Create Mode Phasor Plot
-3.1290 -7.9335 -12.738 -17.542 -22.347 Real Part [1/s]
14.792
8.8753
2.9584
-2.9584
-8.8753
-14.792
Imaginary Part [rad/s]
Stable Eigenvalues
Unstable Eigenvalues
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
28 - 13

Fig. 28.11: IntEigen dialogue
Changing the appearance of the EigenValue Plot
All settings that control the appearance of the Eigenvalue Plot can be accessed by double
clicking a empty area of the plot. A dialog as shown in Figure 28.12 will appear. The op-
tions available are explained as follows:
Appearance; Here the color of the stable and unstable eigenvalues can be adjusted.
You can also decide whether to display the plot legend and the stability borders. The
so-called 'Stability Borders' option shades the area of the plot containing all the modes
shown on the plot. It is not an 'area of stability' as such.
Filter Options; Here you can choose to restrict the display of eigenvalues on the plot
according to defined criteria. Eigenvalues can be restricted by range (independently in
either the x or y axes) by selecting the 'Restrict Range' option. The 'Restrict Indexes'
options allows the user to choose from the complete list of eigenvalues, a limited
subset to display on the plot. Alternatively, just the 'Oscillatory Modes' can be
displayed by choosing the 'Show Oscillatory Modes' option.
Scale; Here the range of the plot (x and y axes limits) can be defined. Also by
enabling the 'Adapt Scale' option, the x and y axes tick marks will be displayed as
integer values, rather than floating point numbers. For example, the axis marks will be
10.0, 20.0 and 30.0 rather than 9.7988, 19.5976 and 29.3964.
28 - 14
Fig. 28.12: The Eigenvalue Plot settings
How to use The Mode Bar Plot (VisModbar)
Creating the Mode Bar Plot
1 Using the plot selection toolbar as shown in Figure 28.9 choose the Mode Bar Plot by
clicking the icon.
2 The Mode Bar Plot will appear in a new window. Note, every time you select the
Mode Bar Plot icon from the drop-down menu, a new plot window will be created.
Interpreting the Mode Bar Plot
An example Mode Bar Plot is shown in Figure 28.13. The Mode Bar Plot displays the con-
trollability, observability or participation factors of variables for a user selected eigenvalue
in bar chart form. This allows for easy visual interpretation of these parameters.
Double clicking any of the bars in the plots shows the detailed IntEigstate dialogue as
shown in Figure 28.14. This dialogue displays the magnitude, phase and sign of the vari-
ables for controllability, observability and participation in the selected mode. Note, the ob-
servability and participation factors are only shown if these calculations were enabled in
the Modal Analysis Command as described in Section 28.2.3.
28 - 15

Fig. 28.13: Example Mode Bar Plot

Fig. 28.14: Eigenvalue state dialogue
Changing the appearance of the Mode Bar Plot
All settings that control the appearance of the Eigenvalue Plot can be accessed by double
clicking a empty area of the plot. A dialog as shown in Figure 28.15 will appear. The op-
tions available are explained as follows:
Mode Selection; Here you must choose the mode displayed on the plot. The
observability, controllability or participation factors will then be displayed for this
mode. Note, if you are interested in a mode near a particular value, but dont know
the index of the mode, you can enter the real and imaginary values in the boxes here,
and PowerFactory will automatically select the closest mode.
1.00 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -1.00
Grid / 01_Sym; speed: -0.803 / +168.8 deg
Grid / 13_Sym; phi: +0.232 / +0.7 deg
Grid / 02_Sym; phi: +0.113 / -7.4 deg
Grid / 08_Sym; phi: +1.000 / +0.0 deg
Grid / 05_Sym; phi: +0.873 / -0.2 deg
Grid / 11_Sym; phi: +0.635 / +1.6 deg
Participation of mode: -1.119 -12.250*j
Magnitude: 12.301 1/s, Angle: -95.220 deg
Period: 0.513 s, Frequency: 1.950 Hz
Damping: 1.119 1/s, Ratio of Amplitudes: 1.775
Min. contribution: 0.100
28 - 16
Shown values; Here you can select to display either the Controllability, Observability
or Participation Factors for the selected mode.
Filter Options; Here you can choose to restrict the display of variables on the plot
according to defined criteria. Displayed variables can be restricted to a minimum
contribution by selecting the 'Min. Contribution' option, or for greater control the
variables to display can be selected manually by selecting the 'User Defined States'
option and manually choosing the variables to display.
Appearance; Here you can adjust the color and style of the bars and choose to show
the plot legend and also the annotation (value) for each bar.
Fig. 28.15: Mode Bar Plot Dialog
How to use the Mode Phasor Plot (VisModephasor)
Creating the Mode Phasor Plot
1 Using the plot selection toolbar as shown in Figure 28.9 choose the Mode Phasor
Plot by clicking the icon.
2 The Mode Phasor Plot will appear in a new window. Note, every time you select the
Mode Phasor Plot icon from the drop-down menu, a new plot window will be
created.
Interpreting the Mode Phasor Plot
An example Mode Phasor Plot is shown in Figure 28.16. The Mode Phasor Plot displays
the controllability, observability or participation factors of variables for a user selected ei-
genvalue in polar form. Variables are grouped and colored identically if their angular sep-
aration is less than a user defined parameter (default 3 degrees).
Double clicking any of the bars in the plots shows the detailed IntEigstate dialogue as
28 - 17
shown in Figure 28.14. This dialogue is identical to the dialog displayed when clicking on
one of the bars in the Mode Bar Plot.

Fig. 28.16: The Mode Phasor plot
Changing the appearance of the Mode Phasor Plot
All settings that control the appearance of the Mode Phasor Plot can be accessed by dou-
ble clicking a empty area of the plot. The dialog that appears is very similar to the dialog
for the Mode Bar Plot and the Mode Selection, Filter Options and Appearance can be al-
tered in the same way. In addition, there are three more options:
Cluster; Enabling this option will 'cluster' variables with a angular separation less than
the parameter entered. A cluster shares the same diagram color.
Show only points; If this parameter is disabled, the vectors will appear as points on
the diagram rather than arrows.
Show unit circle; The unit circle can be removed from the plot by disabling this option.
Exporting a Modal Analysis Plot to External Software
Any of the Modal Analysis plots can be exported to a WMF or BMP file for use in an exter-
nal software program such as a word processor. It is recommended to use the WMF for-
mat where possible because this format is a vector based format (which means that the
plot looks good regardless of scaling) and is compressed so uses much less disk space
than the BMP file.
To export a Modal Analysis plot follow these steps:
1 From the main PowerFactory file menu, choose the Option File -> Export ... ->
Windows Metafile (*.WMF). A 'Save As' dialog will appear.
2 Choose an appropriate File name and disk location and click 'Save'.
1.00 0.50 -0.50 -1.00
1.00
0.50
-0.50
-1.00
Participation of mode: -1.119 -12.250*j
Magnitude: 12.301 1/s, Angle: -95.220 deg
Period: 0.513 s, Frequency: 1.950 Hz
Damping: 1.119 1/s, Ratio of Amplitudes: 1.775
Min. contribution: 0.100
Cluster 2:
Grid / 01_Sym; psiD: 0.15 / -95.5 deg
Cluster 3:
Grid / 11_Sym; phi: 0.64 / 1.6 deg
Grid / 13_Sym; phi: 0.23 / 0.7 deg
Grid / 08_Sym; phi: 1.00 / 0.0 deg
Grid / 05_Sym; phi: 0.87 / -0.2 deg
Cluster 4:
Grid / 02_Sym; phi: 0.11 / -7.4 deg
Cluster 1:
Grid / 01_Sym; speed: 0.82 / 168.8 deg
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
28 - 18
Note: The process of exporting multiple plots can be automated using a
DPL script. See the DPL function WriteWMF() for more information.
28.3.3 Viewing Modal Analysis Results using the Modal Data
Browser
The Modal Analysis results can be displayed in a convenient data browser specially de-
signed for working with these results. To display the results in this data browser follow
these steps:
1 Click the icon found in the Modal Analysis toolbar. The ComModres dialogue as
shown Figure 28.17 will appear.
2 Optional: If you want to display the Modal Analysis results from another Study Case,
you need to select user-defined for 'Shown Results' and select an alternative results
object. Normally you should leave this value on 'Default'
3 The procedure now depends on if you want to view the calculated eigenvalues, or if
you want to view the controllability, observability and participation factors for
variables related to a particular eigenvalue.
- If you only want to display the eigenvalues, then leave the 'Shown Values' on
'Eigenvalues'.
- If you want to view the controllability, observability and participation factors for a
particular eigenvalue then you must select 'States' and choose the 'Eigenvalue
index'.
4 Press the Execute button. The data browser window will appear as shown in
Figure 28.18 (for eigenvalues) or as shown in Figure 28.19 for a single eigenvalue
and the controllability etc for each variable.

Fig. 28.17: Displaying modal analysis results in a data browser (ComModres
dialogue)
28 - 19

Fig. 28.18: Modal analysis results in a data browser (eigenvalues)
Fig. 28.19: Modal analysis results in a data browser (controllability etc)
Note: The results in the eigenvalue data browser can be sorted or
grouped by clicking on the column heading. Clicking once sorts the
column in descending order, a second time in ascending order.
Viewing the Mode Bar Plot or Mode Phasor Plot directly from the
Modal Data Browser
When you view the Eigenvalues in the data browser as shown in Figure 28.18, you can
quickly show the Mode Bar Plot or Mode Phasor plot of the eigenvalue. To do so follow
these steps:
1 Right-click the mode icon on the left most side of the browser. The context sensitive
menu will appear.
28 - 20
- For a Mode Phasor Plot choose the option 'Show -> Phasor Plot -> Controllability
etc'.
- For a Mode Bar Plot choose the option 'Show -> Bar Plot -> Controllability etc'.
Exporting the results from the Modal Analysis Data Browser to
external software
To export the results shown in the Modal Analysis Data Browser to an external software
program (such as a spreadsheet tool) follow these steps:
1 In the browser window left click and drag a selection of data that you would like to
export. To select all data press <CTRL-A>.
2 Right-click within the selection and choose the option 'Spread Sheet Format -> Copy
(with column headers)'.
3 Open the external software and paste the data from the windows clipboard.
28.3.4 Viewing Results in the Data Manager Window
The data manager and object filter can be used to view the participation factors, control-
lability or observability for power system elements such as synchronous machines after
completing an Modal Analysis. There are three tasks that you might need to complete to
show this information. Tasks one and two are compulsory, whereas task three is only nec-
essary if you are viewing the eigenvalue results in the data manager or object filters for
the first time.
Task 1: Choosing the Eigenvalue and variable to view
1 Firstly, make sure you have executed a Modal Analysis as described in Section 28.2.
2 From the Modal Analysis toolbar click the 'Set Eigenvalue' icon . The Set
Eigenvalue dialog (ComSeteval) should appear as shown in Figure 28.20.
Fig. 28.20: The 'Set Eigenvalue' dialog
3 Typically, you should leave the 'Shown results' set to Default, unless you wish to
view results from an alternative Study Case.
28 - 21
4 Choose the 'Eigenvalue index' to display results for by entering the number using the
keyboard or by using the increment/decrement control.
5 Choose the 'State Variable' to view the results for by using the drop-down selection
menu.
6 Press the Execute button. It will appear as if nothing has happened - this is normal.
Task 2: Viewing the results in the Object filter
1 Select the synchronous machine icon from the object filter menu as shown in
Figure 28.21.
Fig. 28.21: Choosing the synchronous machine object filter
2 A list of all 'Relevant' synchronous machines will appear in a data manager style
window. Select the Flexible Data tab from the bottom of the window. In Vista/
Windows 7 this will be highlighted in blue.
3 Scroll across the window to view the columns containing the observability,
controllability and participation factor date. If you dont see these column headings
as shown in Figure then you will need to define the 'Flexible data' as described in
Task Three.
Fig. 28.22: Object filter for synchronous machines showing the
Task 3: Changing the Flexible Data Columns to show the
participation factors
1 Click the 'Define Flexible Data' icon from the window toolbar. A Variable set
browser selection window will appear.
2 Choose the 'RMS Simulation' tab from the top of this window.
3 In the 'Filter for' settings choose the Variable Set 'Calculation Parameter'.
4 In the 'Available Variables' window, scroll to near the bottom until you see the
variables p_mag (Participation, Magnitude) etc. Holding <shift> select this variable
and all eight other variables down to rEVec_mags (Observability, Magnitude signed).
28 - 22
5 Click the right arrows icon >> between the 'Available Variables' and 'Selected
Variables' windows. The variables you selected in 4 should disappear from the left
window and appear appended to the right window. The screen should look similar to
Figure 28.23.
6 Press the OK button. Now you can scroll to the right in the flexible data page to view
the values of these variables.
Note: The results can only be displayed for one eigenvalue and variable
at a time. For instance, eigenvalue 3 and speed. To change the dis-
played eigenvalue and/or variable, repeat task one above. You
dont need to repeat task three every time because after this has
been done the first time in the project it will remain configured this
way until you change the 'defined variables' in the flexible data
page.
Fig. 28.23: Variable set selection of Controllability, Observability and Participation
Factor variables for Synchronous Machines.
28.4 Troubleshooting Modal Analysis Calculation
Problems
There are various things that can go wrong during an attempt at a Modal Analysis and
PowerFactory usually provides error messages to indicate the nature of the problem when
28 - 23
it occurs. This chapter describes some of the common problems that can occur when at-
tempting a Modal Analysis and the probable solutions.
28.4.1 Models not supported by the QR method
Sometimes the Modal analysis calculation will fail with an error like: ''The system contains
models which cannot be supported by QR method. Please try Selective Modal Analysis (Ar-
noldi/Lanczos)''. There are several PowerFactory models that are not supported by the QR
method such as:
The Asynchronous Machine (ElmAsm);
The PWM converter (ElmVscmono, ElmVsc);
DFIG (ElmAsmsc);
DC machine (ElmDcm);
DC line (ElmLne with type set to DC);
Complex load;
DC shunt;
DC surge arrester;
DC valve (ElmValve);
DC series reactor;
If you get such a message, you have two options for resolving the problem:
1 Place all objects from your project as listed above out of service (you could possibly
create a operation scenario for this purpose so that you can easily revert to the base
model for load-flow, short circuit etc).
2 Use the Arnoldi/Lanczos method. In the majority of cases, this is probably the best
option.
28.4.2 The Arnoldi/Lanczos Method is slow
The Arnoldi/Lanczos Method is a selective eigenvalue calculation and should not be used
when you need to calculate all the system eigenvalues. When you need all the system
eigenvalues, the QR method will generally be faster.
The Arnoldi/Lanczos method is generally fast when computing a selective number of ei-
genvalues around a desired point. If you need to get a larger number of eigenvalues than
the default, it is suggested that you increase the requested number of values slowly, say
starting with 20 then 50 etc.
28 - 24
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Model Parameter Identification
29 - 1
Chapter 29
Model Parameter Identification
The process of parameter estimation for power system elements for which certain mea-
surements have been made is performed with the "Parameter Estimation" function using
the icon .
The ComIdent command object is a high performance non-linear optimization tool,
which is capable of a multi parameter identification for one or more models, given a set
of measured input and output signals. This identification is principally performed in the
following way:
A "Measurement File'' object (ElmFile) is created which maps the raw measured data
onto one or more "measurement signals''. These signals may contain measured
excitation and response signals.
The measurement signals are used as inputs by the models of the power system
elements for which one or more parameters have to be identified, or they may be
used to control voltage or current sources.
The output signals of the power system elements are fed into a comparator, just as
the corresponding measured signals. The comparator is thus given the measured
response on the excitation and the simulated response of the element models.
The comparator calculates an objective function, which is the weighted sum of the
differences between the measured and the simulated response, raised to a whole
power (by default to the power of 2).
The ComIdent command will collect all objective functions from all comparator
objects in the currently active study case and will minimize the resulting overall
objective function. To do this, the ComIdent command is given the list of parameters
which are to be identified. The objective functions are minimized by altering these
parameters.
This whole process is visualized in Figure 29.1.
29 - 2

Fig. 29.1: The identification Principle
Of course, Figure 29.1 only visualizes the principle of the identification. To connect mea-
surement files, power system models and comparator objects to each other, a composite
frame is used. This, and all other details of the PowerFactory identification functions, is
described in the following sections.
29.1 Target Functions and Composite Frames
The parameter identification process is performed by minimizing objective functions.
These objective functions are calculated by ElmCompare objects from the difference be-
tween measured responses and calculated responses of one or more power system ele-
ments.
To define an objective function, the measured excitation signals must be connected to the
component models or to voltage or current sources, and the measured and calculated re-
sponse signals must be connected to the compare object. All this is done graphically by
drawing a Composite Frame, using a block definition (BlkDef) with slots.
A simple example of an identification block diagram, for the objective function for a volt-
age controller, is visible in Figure 29.2.
29 - 3

Fig. 29.2: Simple identification block diagram
The block diagram uses slots which reserve space for the measurement files, the compar-
ator and the element models.
29.1.1 The Measurement File Slot
The measurement file object (ElmFile) has the following signals available:
Number of Input Signals: 0
Number of Output Signals: 10
Input Signals Names: -
Output Signals Names: "y1,..,y10''
The measurement file slot in the example of Figure 29.2 has the following settings:
Class Name Filter: "ElmFile''
Output Signals: "y1,y2''
The fact that the signal is named "output'' signals in the case of the measurement file
does not implicate that the parameter identification only regards measured response sig-
nals ("measured outputs'') from power system elements. It only means that the measured
excitation signals will be mapped onto ElmFile signals. The ElmFile will reproduce the
measured excitation and response signals during the identification process.
29.1.2 Power System Element Slot
Power system element slots are used in the identification block diagram in the same way
as they are used to define composite models.
As in the case of a composite model diagram, the element slots may use any of the avail-
able parameters of the power system element model as input or output. The in- and out-
put signals are defined by stating the exact variable name (see also Section Composite
Block Definitions in Section 27.8 (User Defined (DSL) Models)).
In the case of the example in Figure 29.2, the "Vco1'' slot has the following parameters
set:
Class Name Filter: "ElmVco*''
Output Signals: "uerrs''
29 - 4
Input Signals: "u''
29.1.3 Comparison Slot
The comparison object ElmCompare has the following properties:
Number of Input Signals: 21
Number of Output Signals: 0
Measured Response Signal Names: "in1mea,..,in10mea''
Simulated Response Signal Names: "in1sim,..,in10sim''
Weighting Factor: qzpf
Output Signals Names: -
The calculated value of the objective function will be multiplied by the weighting factor
before it is put out. The weighting factor may be used, for instance, to connect a time-
window to the comparison object which forces the objective function to zero for those mo-
ments in time which are not to be used in the identification process.
In the case of the example in Figure 29.2, the Comparison slot has the following param-
eters set:
Class Name Filter: "ElmCompare''
Input Signals: "in1meas,in1sim''
29.2 Creating The Composite Identification Model
The identification block diagram only defines a generalized 'workbench' that is needed for
the identification process. Its function is similar to that of the "Composite Frame'' object.
There is also the need to create a composite model, based on the block diagram, to iden-
tify particular parameters of particular objects.
Suppose having a voltage controller model of which one wants to identify the parameters
ka '' and ta. Measurements of the behavior of the physical appliance are available as mea-
sured voltage-curves on the input and output of the controller during a disturbance.
Assuming the example identification block diagram of Figure 29.2, a composite model
(ElmComp) has to be created in the active grid folder.
Note If the identification process only addresses secondary power sys-
tem element, which are not directly connected to busbars, the
identification process does not require a power system grid.
However, all calculation functions like load-flow or EMT simulation
require a calculation target in the form of an activated grid of sys-
tem stage folder. Therefore, a grid folder with at least one 'DUM-
MY' busbar has to be created when secondary element models are
to be identified.
The composite model must be set to use the identification block. It will then show the
slots that have been defined in that block. In the current example, the composite model
dialogue will look like Figure 29.3.
29 - 5

Fig. 29.3: The example composite identification model
In this figure, the three slots have been assigned already. Visible is that the comparison
object "Compare Signals'' is selected, as well as a measurement file and the voltage con-
troller of which to find the best possible values for ka and ta.
29.2.1 The Comparison Object
The comparison object calculates the objective function from the connected measured
and simulated responses. It allows for the use of weighting factors and for other powers
to raise to. The example in Figure 29.4 shows the default settings.
29 - 6

Fig. 29.4: The comparison object dialogue
In this figure, the 10 difference signals are listed, with their weighting factor. By default,
these are one, but they may be edited freely. The power factor equals 2 by default but
may be set to any other positive whole number from 2 to 10.
The objective function calculated by the comparison object equals
where
is the measured response (i.e. "in1mea'')
the simulated response (i.e. "in1sim'')
is the weighting factor (i.e. for the difference signal nr.1)
p is the power
29.3 Performing a Parameter Identification
The identification process is executed by the ComIdent command. This command can
be opened by the icon on the main menu. This icon can be found on the "Stability''
toolbar which is be accessed by selecting the icon .
The Comident dialogue is depicted in Figurefigure 29.5.
M
i
S
i
( ) w
i
| |
p
i 1 =
n
M
i
S
i
w
i
29 - 7

Fig. 29.5: The ComIdent dialogue
This dialogue shows references to the following objects:
Composite Model
This reference is normally not needed. When left open, the identification process
will automatically gather all composite identification models and will minimize all
objective functions.When the composite model reference is set, then the
identification will only minimize that model's objective function.
Load-Flow Settings
This reference is automatically set to the load-flow command that will be used
during the identification process.
Initial Conditions
This reference is automatically set to the initial conditions command that will be
used during the identification process.
Simulation
This reference is automatically set to the simulation command that will be used
during the identification process.
The identification process allows for the use of load-flow calculations and/or dynamic sim-
ulations.
The "Load-Flow'' and "Simulation'' pages shows the variables that are to be identified, in
case of a load-flow or a dynamic identification. See for example Figure 29.6.
29 - 8

Fig. 29.6: Setting identification parameters
In this example, two parameters of the voltage controller element "vco IEEEX1'' from the
Composite Identification Model are listed. The identification process will alter these pa-
rameters in order to minimize the objective functions.
The "Mode'' field in the parameter list determines the parameter constraints:
0 means not to change the parameter, but to leave it at its initial conditions. This
option may be used to temporarily exclude some parameters from the identification
process.
1 mean to optimize the parameter without restrictions
2 means to optimize the parameter, given the constraint that the parameter value
must always be greater than zero.
Although the object for which the parameters are optimized in this example is the same
object as is used in the Composite Identification Model, it is allowed to enter any other
parameter from any other element, as long as that element belongs to the active study
case. Such may be used to optimize secondary appliance, where only the behavior of the
primary appliance has been measured.
29.4 Identifying Primary Appliances
A primary appliance, such as a general load, an asynchronous machine or a static var sys-
tem, do not have an input signal like a voltage controller or any other secondary appli-
ance. It would therefore not be possible to connect a measured signal directly to a load
model in order to simulate its response.
To identify a primary element model, a small grid model is used to which one or more
controllable voltage sources may be connected. These voltage sources will translate the
measured voltage signals from the measurement file into a normal busbar voltage which
will be used in the load-flow or simulation calculations. The response of the primary ele-
ment models connected to that busbar may then be compared to a measured response.
An example of this method is shown in the following figures.
29 - 9

Fig. 29.7: Identification diagram with primary element
In Figure 29.7, a simple Identification Block Diagram is shown in which the measurement
file is no longer connected to the element slot, but to the voltage source slot. The voltage
at the busbar at which the voltage source will be connected will thus be forced to the mea-
sured values during the identification process.

Fig. 29.8: Primary element and voltage source
In Figure 29.8, a very simple grid is shown to which the load which is to be identified and
a voltage source element are connected. As with the normal identification process, a Com-
mon Identification Model has to be created which uses the Identification Diagram with
Primary Element as shown in Figure 29.7. In the ComIdent command dialogue, the un-
known parameters of the load may then be listed.
It is of course possible to mix the identification of both primary and secondary power sys-
tem elements at the same time.
29 - 10
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Contingency Analysis
30 - 1
Chapter 30
Contingency Analysis
In Chapter 23 the general aspects of load flow analysis and its main areas of application
were presented. Additionally, two perspectives were discussed: that of planning and that
of system operation (see Figure 23.1). There it was made evident that regardless of the
perspective, the behavior of the system must be analyzed under both normal and
abnormal conditions.
When referring to contingency analysis, we are essentially referring to the analysis of
abnormal system conditions. In general, contingency analysis can be defined as: "the
evaluation of the violations in system operating states (if any) that certain contingencies
can pose to the electrical power system"; or put in other words, contingency analysis is
the execution and evaluation (loading and voltage-wise) of post-fault load flows; each of
which reflect the "outage" of a single or group of elements (such as transformers,
busbars, transmission lines, etc.).
Contingency analyses can be therefore used to determine power transfer margins or for
detecting the risk inherent in changed loading conditions. This chapter deals with deter-
ministic contingency analysis.
The contingency analysis module available in PowerFactory offers two distinct contin-
gency analysis methods:
Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis:
The non-probabilistic (deterministic) assessment of failure effects
under given contingencies, within a single time period.
Multiple Time Phase Contingency Analysis:
The non-probabilistic (deterministic) assessment of failure effects
under given contingencies, performed over different time periods, each
of which defines a time elapsed after the contingency occurred. It
allows the definition of user defined post-fault actions.
Figures 30.1 and 30.2 illustrate the general sequence of both methods. Here the results
of both pre- and post-fault load flows are compared to the specified loading and voltage
limits; based on this comparison contingency reports are generated.
In Figure 30.1 the term Single Time Phase is used because only one post-fault load flow
30 - 2
is analyzed per contingency case.
Figure 30.2 illustrates the multiple time phases contingency analysis method. Here, more
than one post-fault load flow can be analyzed for the same contingency; hence the term
Multiple Time Phase. Furthermore, if required, each time phase can have its own post-
fault actions defined. The defined post-fault actions can be either a single event or a
combination of the following events:
Load shedding
Generator re-dispatching
Switching action (opening or closing)
Tap changing
In PowerFactory, the term Fault Case (used in both Figures) is used to define a contin-
gency.
Fig. 30.1: Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis Method
30 - 3
Fig. 30.2: Multiple Time Phase Contingency Analysis Method
Before describing in detail the contingency analysis itself, it is necessary to introduce two
basic concepts which define the functionality of this tool:
Contingencies: These are objects in PowerFactory of the class ComOutage
( ) which are used to represent contingencies. They are defined by a set of events
which represent the occurrence of the originating fault(s) over time and the
subsequent fault clearing and post-fault actions. It should be noted that depending on
the method selected and the value assigned to the Post Contingency Time parameter
(see Section 30.3.3: Multiple Time Phases), post-fault actions are carried out. For
further information on the definition and use of contingencies please refer to Section
30.4.7 (Defining Time Phases for Contingency Analyses).
Time Phases: These represent points in time at which the steady-state operational
point of the network under analysis is calculated. Each time phase is defined via a
user defined Post Contingency Time (see the Multiple Time Phases tab of the
Contingency Analysis command). The Post Contingency Time defines the end of a
phase; that is, the point in time at which the steady-state of the network is calculated.
For further information regarding the definition of time phases refer to Section 30.4.7
(Defining Time Phases for Contingency Analyses).
30 - 4
30.1.1 Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis
The single time phase contingency analysis function first performs a pre-fault (base) load
flow calculation. Following this, for each contingency (stored inside the command itself)
it performs a corresponding post-contingency load flow (for a single time phase), which
take one or more primary components out of service. The command calculates the initial
consequences of the contingencies, but does not regard the operational measures taken
to mitigate voltage band problems or supply interruptions.
It is important to mention here that if the contingency analysis command is set to consider
Automatic Tap Adjust of Transformers and Shunt Adjustment, they will only be considered
if their time constants are smaller than the current Post Contingency Time or if the
Consider Specific Time Phase flag (Multiple Time Phases page) is not enabled.
Additionally, the operational thermal ratings of branch elements during the contingency
(if 'short term' thermal ratings (5.5.7) have been defined) will depend on the duration of
the contingency i.e. the current Post Contingency Time.
The raw results of the single time phase contingency analysis correspond to the steady-
state operational points of the network being studied, considering each one of the defined
contingencies up to the given Post Contingency Time (see Section 30.3: The Single Time
Phase Contingency Analysis Command for further information on this setting). The
reporting facilities available in PowerFactorys contingency analysis function allow the
filtering of results of interest to the user, including maximum loading of branch elements,
exceeded voltage limits, etc. Refer to Section 30.3 (The Single Time Phase Contingency
Analysis Command) for further information on configuring the reporting settings, and
Section 13.9 (Results Objects) for information on handling result objects (ElmRes) in
PowerFactory.
Note: If the Fault Case contains post-fault actions such as load shedding,
generator re-dispatch, tap changing and switching actions (clos-
ing), these are ignored in the Single Time Phase mode, regardless
of the specified Post Contingency Time.
30.1.2 Multiple Time Phases Contingency Analysis
As indicated previously, PowerFactory provides tools for the analysis of contingencies
over multiple time phases, allowing the definition of post-fault actions that can lead to the
mitigation of voltage band problems or supply interruptions which are caused by faults in
the networks under analysis.
As in the single time phase contingency analysis, the multiple time phases contingency
analysis function first performs a pre-fault (base) load flow calculation. The major
difference here is that for each contingency (stored inside the command), it loops over
the list of defined time phases (also stored inside the command itself), calculating the
corresponding post-contingency load flows. For each load flow calculation, the events
(faults and post-fault actions) whose time of occurrence are earlier than, or equal to, the
corresponding Post Contingency Time, are considered.
Similar to single time phase contingency analysis, the effect of transformer tap changers
and switchable shunts depends on these components corresponding time constants and
the current Post Contingency Time. Controllers are only considered if their time constants
are smaller than the current Post Contingency Time. Additionally, the operational thermal
ratings of branch elements during the contingency (if 'short term' thermal ratings (5.5.7)
30 - 5
have been defined) will depend on the duration of the contingency i.e. the current Post
Contingency Time.
The raw results of the contingency analysis with multiple time phases correspond to the
steady-state operational point of the network being studied, at every Post Contingency
Time for each of the defined contingencies. The reporting features included in the
function allows the filtering of problematic contingencies, according to maximal loading
of branch elements, exceeded voltage limits, etc.
30.1.3 Time Sweep Option (Single Time Phase)
PowerFactory provides a special Calculate Time Sweep option for the Single Time Phase
method, and which can be found on theTime Sweep tab of the contingency analysis
command. When enabled, the date and time of the active Study Case will be modified
according to a list predefined by the user. The application of this option is in situations
where the calculation of contingencies is required for a certain time span; for example,
the automatic calculation of contingencies for every hour of the day.
Here it is important to note that in order for the Time Sweep to activate the corresponding
scenarios automatically, a Scenario Scheduler (IntScensched) object needs to first be
created and afterwards activated. Once the execution of the contingency analysis has
finished, the Study Case date and time are restored to their original setting. For more
information on the Scenario Scheduler please refer to Chapter 16.
In addition, the Time Sweep option can be used in combination with the Parallel
Computing option (Section 30.1.5).
30.1.4 Consideration of Predefined Switching Rules
In PowerFactory, the contingency analysis can be setup to consider predefined
switching rules of substations (refer to Chapter 5 for further information). The Switching
Rule defines switching actions for different fault locations (arranged in a matrix) that can
be reflected at a certain time. These switching actions will always be relative to the
current switch position of every breaker.
30.1.5 Parallel Computing Option (Single Time Phase)
The computation time required to perform a contingency analysis largely depends on two
factors:
The size of the power system; and
The number of contingencies considered.
Depending on these factors, the computation time could take from a couple of seconds
(or less) up to several minutes.
With the development of multi-core machines and the existence of Ethernet network
technology, the calculation of contingencies in parallel is now an option in Power-
Factory. This feature facilitates the significant reduction of required computation time
depending on the number of cores being used.
By default, the Parallel Computing option is enabled in each user account; however, the
setting can be modified when the user has logged on as an Administrator.
30 - 6
The following sections provide detailed information regarding the execution and settings
of the contingency analysis command in its single or multiple time phase configuration.
30.2 Executing Contingency Analyses
To access the various contingency analysis related functions within PowerFactory, click
on the icon on the "Select Toolbar" (shown in Figure 30.3).
To initiate the contingency analysis command, click on the icon, which should now be
visible in the first row of icons at the top right of the screen.
Fig. 30.3: Contingency Analysis Selection from the Main Toolbar
Fig. 30.4: Contingency Analysis Related Functions
Both the Single Time Phase and Multiple Time Phases contingency analysis are carried out
using the Contingency Analysis command (ComSimoutage, ). When configured and
executed, it performs a 'base' load flow calculation to determine the operational point of
the network under no-fault conditions. The command contains Contingency Cases
(ComOutage objects) which define one or more elements that are taken out of service
simultaneously. Following the calculation of the base load flow, a contingency load flow
Contingency Definition
Contingency Comparison
Show Contingencies
Show Fault Cases
Show Fault Groups
Edit Result Variables
Start, Next and Stop
Tracing Buttons
Report Contingency
Analysis Results
30 - 7
for each of these contingencies is calculated. This calculation considers the post-fault
thermal ratings of branch elements (see Section 5.5.7), transformer tap changer
controller time constants and automatic shunt compensators (for further information
please refer to Section 30.3: The Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis Command).
In PowerFactory, contingency cases can be generated by two primary means:
Via the definition and use of Fault Cases and Fault Groups; and/or
Using the Contingency Definition (ComNmink) command, either via its toolbar icon
( ) or by selecting component(s) in the single-line graphic, right-clicking and
selecting Calculate --> Contingency Analysis... .
In the first case, contingency cases can be created using references to user defined Fault
Cases and Fault Groups (introduced in Section 5.5.3) from the Operational Library. By
means of a topological search, PowerFactory determines which circuit breakers must
be opened in order to clear the faults, and generates the corresponding contingency
cases. Each contingency case is generated with its corresponding interrupted components
for each fault case/group. Fault cases and groups reside in the Operational Library folder,
and can be reused. Hence there is no need to manually redefine the same contingencies
each time a contingency analysis is required. For further information on creating contin-
gencies from fault cases/groups, please refer to Section 30.5 (Creating Contingency Cases
Using Fault Cases and Groups).
In the second case, contingencies can be created using the Contingency Definition
command. This command is available either via the icon on the main toolbar, or by
right-clicking on a selection of elements in the single line diagram, and selecting the
option Calculate --> Contingency Analysis.... Either an n-1 or an n-2 outage simulation for
the selected elements can then be prepared. Additional to these two options an n-k
outage for mutually coupled lines/cables is available. The Contingency Definition
command optionally allows all lines/cables, transformers, series reactors, series capac-
itors and/or generators to be selected to create contingencies. For further information on
creating contingencies using the Contingency Definition command, please refer to Section
30.6 (Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command).
The following sections provide detailed information regarding the settings and features of
the contingency analysis command in its single time phase configuration.
30.3 The Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis
Command
The settings of the Basic Options page of the contingency analysis command (ComSi-
moutage ) are illustrated in Figure 30.5.
30 - 8
Fig. 30.5: Basic Options settings of the Contingency Analysis (ComSimoutage)
Command
When executing a contingency analysis, the general sequence of operations performed is
as follows:
Execution of a 'base' load flow in order to determine the initial operational point of the
network. This 'base' (pre-fault) load flow is performed according to the settings stated
in the load flow command and which is referenced on the Basic Options tab page of
the contingency analysis command.
Execution of the 'contingency' load flows. That is, for each of the stored contingency
cases, it places the interrupted components (see Section 30.3.8: Representing
Contingency Situations - Contingency Cases) on outage and performs a contingency
(post-fault) load flow. Here, the settings of the post-fault load flows will depend on
how the contingency command is configured. That is, if specified by the user, the pre-
fault and post-fault load flows can be executed with different settings (only a
difference in certain settings are allowed). For more information please refer to
Section 30.3.3 (Multiple Time Phases).
The contingency load flow is characterized by the Post Contingency Time parameter
(available on the Multiple Time Phases tab of the Contingency Analysis command if either
the option Allow different settings has been enabled, or when the option Consider Specific
Time Phase has been selected). This parameter determines the duration of the interval
between the occurrence of the fault(s) which define the contingency, and the time when
the load flow calculation of the network under the contingency situation is performed. The
Post Contingency Time is a key parameter of the single time phase contingency analysis
because:
1 The actions of transformer automatic tap changers and switchable shunt
compensators on the faulted network are only regarded if the time constants of their
30 - 9
controllers are less than the defined Post Contingency Time (meaning that the
controllers are fast enough to operate during the time phase); and
2 The operational thermal ratings of branch elements during the contingency (if 'short
term' thermal ratings (see Section 5.5.7) have been defined) will depend on the
duration of the contingency, i.e. the Post Contingency Time.
Note: The 'base' and the 'contingency' load flow calculations by default
use the same load flow command (ComLdf object). However, the
user can define different load flow commands for these two calcu-
lations by selecting the option Allow different settings on the Mul-
tiple Time Phases tab of the contingency analysis command
(ComSimoutage). The actions of automatic tap changers and
switchable shunts are only possible if the corresponding options
are selected in the 'Basic Options' tab of the load flow command(s).
The contingency analysis uses a result file object (ElmRes, see Section 13.9: Results
Objects) to store the voltages at terminals and the loading of certain branch element
classes (lines, transformers, series capacitances and series reactances). Recording the
loadings for all branches and the voltages for all terminals for every contingency may lead
to excessive data storage. Therefore, in order to minimise data storage, only significant
results are recorded. In contingency analysis, a calculated parameter is considered to be
significant if the threshold (Limits for Recording) of the corresponding component are out
of the threshold. Limits can be set individually for each terminal and branch element (in
the Load Flow tab of the elements dialogue) or globally in the Limits for Recording field
of the contingency analysis command. A calculated result is stored in the result file
whenever one of the constraints (individual or global) is violated.
The settings of the contingency analysis command are entered using the dialogue shown
in Figure 30.5. The following subsections explain each of the available options.
Calculation Method
AC Load Flow Calculation
The contingency analysis uses an iterative AC load flow method to
calculate the power flow and voltages per contingency case.
DC Load Flow Calculation
The contingency analysis uses a linear DC load flow method to
calculate the active power flow per contingency case.
DC Load Flow + AC Load Flow for Critical Cases
The contingency analysis will perform two runs (if required). First it will
use a linear DC load flow method to calculate the active power flow per
contingency case; if for certain contingencies loadings are detected to
be outside a certain threshold, then for these cases the contingency
30 - 10
analysis will recalculate the post-fault load flow using the iterative AC
load flow method. The criteria (threshold) used for the AC recalculation
of critical DC cases is stated on the Advanced Options page.
Limits for Recording
The parameters in this section set the global threshold used to determine whether a calcu-
lated result is recorded in the Results object (object pointed to by the Results for AC or
Results for DC field located in the bottom section of the Basic Options page). Whenever
one of the defined constraints is violated, the calculated result (for the corresponding
contingency case and network component) is recorded.
Max. thermal loading of components (%)
Maximum thermal loading in percent. Loadings exceeding this value will
be recorded in the result file for the corresponding component.
Lower limit of allowed voltage (p.u.)
Minimum admissible voltage in per unit. Voltages lower than this value
will be recorded in the result file for the corresponding terminal.
Upper limit of allowed voltage (p.u.)
Maximum admissible voltage in per unit. Voltages higher than this value
will be recorded in the result file for the corresponding terminal.
Maximum voltage step change (%)
Maximum (+/-) admissible voltage change in percent. Larger voltage
changes (pre-fault vs. post-fault) will be recorded in the result file for
the corresponding terminal.
Contingencies
The Contingencies section of the Basic Data tab, as shown in Figure 30.6, allows the
display, creation and removal of contingencies. These are the contingencies that will be
analyzed by the contingency analysis command.
Fig. 30.6: Contingencies Section of Contingency Analysis Dialogue
Show
Displays a list of all defined contingencies.
Add Cases/Groups
This button is used to create the contingency cases (ComOutage
objects) based on fault cases and/or fault groups. A fault case contains
events: one for the fault location, and (optionally) others specifying
post-fault actions. Fault groups contain a set of references to fault
cases. In order to use the Add Cases/Groups option, the fault cases
and/or groups must have been previously defined in the Operational
Library. If these have been defined, when the Add Cases/Groups
30 - 11
button is pressed, a data browser listing the available fault cases/
groups pops up. The user can then select the desired fault cases/
groups from this browser and press Ok. The corresponding
contingencies are then created automatically by PowerFactory. One
contingency is created for each selected fault case, and one
contingency is created for each fault case referred to within each
selected fault group. For further information on creating contingencies
from fault cases/groups, please refer to Section 30.5 (Creating
Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and Groups).
Remove All
Removes all contingency cases (ComOutage objects) stored in the
contingency analysis command.
Results for AC/DC
Depending on the calculation method selected, the reference to the
corresponding result file object (ElmRes) is defined. If, for example, the
calculation method DC Load Flow + AC Load Flow for Critical Cases is
selected, two result file objects will be referenced (one for AC calculations
and another for DC calculations). The results stored in this file are filtered
according to the global threshold set in the Limits for Recording section
of the Basic Data tab, and also according to the individual limits defined
within each components respective dialogue (such as on the Load Flow
tab of the elements own dialogue). For further information on result
objects, please refer to Section 13.9: Results Objects.
30.3.2 Effectiveness
The Effectiveness tab of the contingency analysis command (Figure 30.7), allows the
display, addition and removal of quad boosters and generators in order to calculate their
effectiveness.
Fig. 30.7: Effectiveness Options Settings of the Contingency Analysis Command
30 - 12
Calculate Quad Booster Effectiveness
Show QBs
Shows a list of the transformers for which the effectiveness should be
calculated.
Add QBs
Adds references to transformers for which the effectiveness should be
calculated. Only transformers where the additional voltage per tap is
different to 0 and multiples of 180 degrees will be listed (Load Flow tab
of the transformer type (TypTr2) Phase of du parameter).
Remove All
Removes all references to transformers for which the effectiveness is
currently calculated.
Calculate Generator Effectiveness
Show Gen.
Shows a list of the generators for which the effectiveness should be
calculated.
Add Gen.
Adds references to transformers for which the effectiveness should be
calculated.
Remove All
Removes all references to generators for which the effectiveness is
currently calculated.
30.3.3 Multiple Time Phases
The Multiple Time Phases tab, as shown in Figure 30.8, allows the selection of the contin-
gency method to be performed as well as the corresponding settings.
30 - 13
Fig. 30.8: Multiple Time Phases Option Settings of the Contingency Analysis
Command
Method
Single Time Phase
Performs the contingency analysis for a single time phase.
Multiple Time Phase
Performs the contingency analysis for multiple time phases, allowing
the definition of post-fault actions.
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow
Use same settings
Uses the settings from the base case load flow for the contingency case
load flow.
Allow different settings
Allows different settings for the base case load flow and the
contingency case load flow.
Base Case Load Flow
Only available when option Allow different settings is selected in the
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Multiple Time
Phases tab. This is a reference to the load flow command used to
calculate the network operational point before the simulation of
contingencies. The settings of this load flow command can be edited by
pressing the button.
Contingency Load Flow
30 - 14
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Advanced
Options tab. This is a reference to the load flow command used to
assess the network in contingency situations. It is characterized by the
Post Contingency Time, which is defined in the Post Contingency Time
field, also located in the Calculation Settings section of the dialogue.
The contingency load flow command referred to by the Contingency
Load Flow is always stored inside the contingency analysis command
itself. The settings of this load flow command can be edited by pressing
the button. The Contingency Load Flow command settings can be
set to those of the currently used by the Base Case Load Flow
command by pressing the button.
Note: If no 'Contingency Load Flow' command is defined, the 'Base Case
Load Flow' command is used to asses the network under contin-
gency situations. In this case the action of automatic transformer
tap changers and switchable shunt compensators is directly con-
sidered (provided that the corresponding options are selected in
the 'Basic Options' tab of the assigned load flow command).
Consider Specific Time Phase
Only available when option Use same settings is selected in the Base
Case versus Contingency Load Flow section. This option must be
enabled to define a post contingency time.
Post Contingency Time (End of Time Phase)
This value defines the time phase of the contingencies. This means that
all switch-open events with an event time less than or equal to this
are considered in the contingency.
30.3.4 Time Sweep
The Time Sweep settings shown in Figure 30.9 allow the automatic modification of the
date and time of the active Study Case according to a list predefined by the user. The
advantage of this option is in situations where the contingency analysis needs to be
automatically performed taking into account different system conditions such as consid-
ering several load and generation profiles (according to the hour of the day).
30 - 15
Fig. 30.9: Time Sweep Option Setting of the Contingency Analysis Command
Note: When enabled, the Time Sweep will automatically change the Date
and Time of the active Study Case. However, in order for the Study
Case to activate the corresponding scenario automatically, a Sce-
nario Scheduler (IntScensched) object needs to first be created
and afterwards activated. Once the execution of the contingency
analysis has finished, the Study Case date and time is restored to
its original setting. For more information on the Scenario Scheduler
please refer to Chapter 16.
To add study times to the list, first enable the Calculate Time Sweep option, then right-
click anywhere in the table and select Insert Rows (alternatively select Append Rows or
Append n Rows). To modify the date and time, double-click on the corresponding Study
Time cell. Additionally, the user has the option to ignore previously defined Study Times
by enabling the Ignore flag. This ensures that the contingency analysis will not take into
account the ignored Study Times in the calculation.
Restricted Recording of Contingencies Results
Do not record contingency result if base case is above...
If in the pre-fault load flow elements have loadings above this value,
then they are not recorded in the results.
Output per Contingency Case
Short
Displays only the number of iterations required for each contingency
case.
Detailed
Displays the full load flow output per contingency case.
30 - 16
Consider Predefined Switching Rules of Substations
If this option is selected, predefined switching rules which describe
switching actions for different fault locations will be considered. For
more information on Switching Rules, please refer to Chapter 5.
Criteria for AC Recalculation of Critical DC Cases
If the calculation method DC Load FLow + AC Load Flow for Critical
Cases is selected, the recalculation of critical DC cases using the AC
load flow method is performed whenever:
1 The maximum loading of a component is greater than or equal to
the first value specified; for example 100% (parameter name:
maxLoadAbs); or
2 The maximum loading of a component is greater than or equal to
the second value specified; for example 80% (parameter name:
maxLoad) and the maximum relative change of loading compared
to the base case is equal to or greater than the value specified; for
example 5% (parameter name: stepLoad).

In addition to these settings, if required, the user can define a set of
components to be ignored in the AC recalculation or to ignore
components if they are already overloaded in the base case. This set of
components is assigned via the Components to be ignored field.
Fig. 30.10: Advanced Options Settings of the Contingency Analysis Command
30.3.6 Parallel Computing
There are two types of settings associated with the Parallel Computing option. The first
and more general group of settings are the ones related to the management of the parallel
computation function (computing method and the assignments of slaves). To access and
modify these settings; log-on first as an administrator and afterwards open a Data
30 - 17
Manager window. Locate and edit the Parallel Computing Manager (\System\Configu-
ration\Parallel Computation\) as indicated in Figure 30.11.
The users can however define their own settings by creating a system folder (with key
"Parallel") under the folder "\\Configuration" and then creating the setting object
"ComParalman". This can only be carried out when logged on as administrator.
The available options are:
Master Host Name or IP
Refers to the machine name or IP address of the master host. If a local
multi-core machine is used, the name "localhost" can be used.
Parallel Computing Method
1) Local Machine with Multi Cores/Processors: All the slaves will be
started in the local machine.
2) Local Machine Plus Remote Machines: The slaves will be started in
both the local and remote machines.
Number of Slaves
Defines the number of slaves that will be started in the local machine.
This number should not be greater than the number of cores available
in the local machine.
Computer Group
Specifies the link to a computer group (number of remote machines)
which will be used for parallel computing.
Fig. 30.11: Parallel Computing Manager
The second group of settings are the ones related to the execution of the contingency
analysis; and which are located in the Parallel Computing tab page of the contingency
analysis command (Figure 30.12).
30 - 18
Enable Parallel Contingency Analysis for AC, DC or Time Sweep
If the corresponding option is enabled, the contingencies will be
calculated in parallel; otherwise the contingency analysis is executed in
its default mode (i.e. sequential calculation).
Minimum Number of Contingencies
The parallel contingency analysis will be started only if the number of
contingencies is greater than this setting.
Package Size for Optimized Method and Package Size for Standard Method
The master distributes the contingencies to slaves per package. The
package size indicates how many contingencies will be calculated by a
slave each time. The contingencies can be calculated using either
optimized method or standard method. As the standard method is
much slower than optimized method, the package size of the standard
method should be smaller than that used for the optimized method to
balance the calculation.
Fig. 30.12: Parallel Computing Settings of the Contingency Analysis Command
30.3.7 Calculating an Individual Contingency
To calculate an individual contingency, click on the Show button in the contingency
analysis command dialogue (see Figure 30.6) to open the list of contingencies included in
the analysis. From here the user can right-click on a contingency of interest, and select
Execute from the context sensitive menu. Additionally, the corresponding element can be
marked in the single line graphic by right-clicking on the contingency object in the list and
selecting Mark in Graphic from the context sensitive menu.
30.3.8 Representing Contingency Situations - Contingency
Cases
Contingency cases (ComOutage objects) are objects used in PowerFactory to define
contingency situations within the analyzed networks. A contingency case determines
which components are put on outage. When a contingency analysis (ComSimoutage)
is executed, the contingency analysis command considers each of the contingency cases
stored inside it, taking the corresponding components out of service and performing a
30 - 19
contingency load flow.
As mentioned previously, the contingency cases used by a specific contingency analysis
command are stored inside the command itself. Contingency cases are created either by
using Fault Cases and/or Fault Groups (see Section 30.5), or via the Contingency
Definition command ( , see Section 30.6). Once the contingencies have been defined
in the contingency command, the cases can be viewed by using the Show button available
in the dialogue (see Figure 30.6). Additionally, the contingency cases within the active
study cases contingency analysis command may be viewed by clicking on the Show
Contingencies icon ( ), located on the main toolbar (only available when the Contin-
gency Analysis toolbar is selected). In both cases a new data browser showing the
defined contingencies is opened, with the contingencies listed inside. By double-clicking
on a contingency from the list, the corresponding dialogue for that particular contingency
is opened (as illustrated in Figure 30.13). The dialogue displayed in Figure 30.13 shows
the following fields:
Name
Name of the contingency case.
Not Analyzed
If enabled, the case is not considered by the contingency analysis
command.
Number
An identification number given to the contingency and which is stored
in the results. This number can be used for reporting purposes.
Fault Case
Reference to the fault case (if any) from where the contingency case
originated.
Fault Group
Reference to the fault group (if any) from where the contingency case
originated. This field is only available if the contingency case has an
associated fault group.
Events Used for this Contingency (Multiple Time Phase only)
The user can specify wether to generate the events based on the fault
case definition (automatically), or to use locally defined events. If the
user chooses to use locally defined events, then the ComOutage
object which defines the contingency (located in contingency command
of the study case) can be modified independently.
Interrupted Components
This is a table showing the components put on outage by the
contingency case. The table, which is read-only, is automatically
generated when the contingency case is created.
Fault Type
Displays the fault type and the contingency order. See Figure 30.18.
Reference to the contingency analysis command where the contingency
case is stored.
30 - 20
The Mark in Graphic button highlights the interrupted components in the single line
diagram.
Fig. 30.13: Contingency Cases (ComOutage objects)
Normally, contingency cases (ComOutage objects) are analyzed by the contingency
analysis command (ComSimoutage) in which they are stored. However, each contin-
gency case provides the functionality of a command itself, and can be executed individ-
ually using the Execute button at the top right of the ComOutage dialogue. In this case
the actions taken by the circuit breakers, which must switch to clear the fault, are shown
in the single line graphic (only if the contingency case was created using fault cases/
groups).
Note: The 'Interrupted Components' table is updated by the program
each time the contingency analysis is executed.
For further information on contingency cases generated using fault cases and/or fault
groups, please refer to Section 30.5 (Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and
Groups). For information on contingency cases created using the Contingency Definition
(ComNmink) command, please refer to Section 30.6 (Creating Contingency Cases Using
the Contingency Definition Command).
30 - 21
30.4 The Multiple Time Phases Contingency Analysis
Command
As explained in Section 30.2 (Executing Contingency Analyses), the multiple time phases
contingency analysis is executed with the same contingency analysis command (ComSi-
moutage) as that used for the single time phases contingency analysis. In the multiple
time phases configuration it determines the initial operational condition of the system via
a 'base' load flow calculation. Following this, it loops over the defined time phases for
each stored contingency (ComContingency object). Load flow calculations are
performed which consider the contingency events whose time of occurrence is earlier
than, or equal to, the Post Contingency Time, which is set in the corresponding load flow
command.
As a result of the execution of the Contingency Analysis command, the steady-state
operational point of the network at the Post Contingency Time, for every contingency, is
obtained. The calculated results are filtered according to user defined criteria and
recorded in the Results (ElmRes) object referred to by the Contingency Analysis
command.
When configured to perform contingency analysis with multiple time phases, the Contin-
gency Analysis command stores the contingencies to be analyzed within the command
itself. If different settings for the contingency load flow are stated, a folder (named Time
Phases) is also stored within the command; this folder contains the load flow commands
that define the time phases. The user may define as many contingencies and time phases
as required, following the procedures explained in this section.
The Contingency Analysis command can be accessed via the main toolbar by clicking on
the icon (provided that the Contingency Analysis toolbar has already been
selected). The following subsections present the options available in the dialogue
provided that the user has selected the Multiple Time Phases method in the contingency
command (Multiple Time Phases tab).
Calculation Method
This setting is configured as described for Single Time Phase operation. Please refer to
Section 30.3.1 (Basic Options). Only AC Load Flow Calculation and DC Load Flow Calcu-
lation methods are available (no DC Load Flow + AC Load Flow for Critical Cases).
Section 30.3.1 (Basic Options).
Contingencies
30 - 22
Results for AC/DC
30.4.2 Effectiveness
These options are only available for the Single Time Phase calculation. Please refer to
Section 30.3.2 (Effectiveness).
30.4.3 Multiple Time Phases
The Multiple Time Phases tab, as shown in Figure 30.14, allows the selection of the
contingency method as well as its corresponding settings. Although most of the setting
descriptions are similar to those given for the Single Time Phase method, they are
reviewed here.
Fig. 30.14: Multiple Time Phases Option Settings of the Contingency Analysis
Command (Multiple Time Phases Method)
Method
Single Time Phase
Performs the contingency analysis for a single time phase.
Multiple Time Phase
Performs the contingency analysis for a multiple time phases, allowing
the definition of post-fault actions.
30 - 23
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow
Use same settings
Uses the settings from the base case load flow for the contingency case
load flow.
Allow different settings
Allows different settings for the base case load flow and the
contingency case load flow.
Load Flow
Only available when option Use same settings is selected in the Base
Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Advanced Options
tab. This is a reference to the load flow command used to calculate
both the network operational point before the simulation of
contingencies, and the contingency load flow(s). The settings of this
load flow command can be edited by pressing the button.
Base Case Load Flow
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Advanced
Options tab. This is a reference to the load flow command used to
calculate the network operational point before the simulation of
contingencies. The settings of this load flow command can be edited by
pressing the button.
Time Phase n
Lists the defined time phase(s). The button next to each time phase can be used to
remove the corresponding time phase. If the option Allow different settings has been
selected on the Advanced Options tab, the Time Phase will have its corresponding load
flow accessible by pressing the button next to the defined time phase.
Add Time Phase
Opens an input dialogue to define the new time phase by entering its
Post Contingency Time. If the option Allow different settings has been
selected on the Advanced Options tab, the previous load flow settings
(i.e. those with the preceding occurrence in time) will be used for the
new time phase. In the case that there is no previous time phase load
flow, the base case settings will be used for the new time phase.
Use Base Case Settings for All
Copies the settings from the base case load flow to all time phase load
flows.
30 - 24
Post contingency time for order identification
The order of the contingencies stored inside the command is calculated according to the
time defined in this field. Only the events (actions) taking place before this point in time
are considered when calculating the contingency order.
Note: In PowerFactory a region is defined as a set of topologically con-
nected components. A region is interrupted if it is energized (topo-
logically connected to a network reference bus) before a fault and
de-energized afterwards. The order of a contingency corresponds
to the number of interrupted regions at the time of its calculation
(i.e. the 'Post contingency time for order identification').
30.4.4 Time Sweep
This option is only available for the Single Time Phase calculation. Please refer to Section
30.3.4 (Time Sweep).
Section 30.3.5 (Advanced Options).
30.4.6 Parallel Computing
This option is only available for the Single Time Phase calculation. Please refer to Section
30.3.6 (Parallel Computing).
30.4.7 Defining Time Phases for Contingency Analyses
The time phases of a contingency analysis are defined in the Calculation Settings section
of the Multiple Time Phases tab of the Contingency Analysis command, by specifying a
Post Contingency Time for each defined time phase. A specified Post Contingency Time
defines the end of a time phase and is used to determine which events (actions) from the
analyzed contingency are considered. If the time of occurrence of an event from a contin-
gency occurs earlier than or equal to the Post Contingency Time, the event will be
considered in the corresponding load flow calculation.
Each defined time phase uses a corresponding load flow calculation, and by default, this
is the same load flow calculation as that used for the base case load flow. In this case,
the load flow used for the entire contingency analysis calculation is accessible via the Load
Flow field ( ), as shown in Figure 30.15. If the option Allow different settings in the
Base Case versus Contingency Load Flow section of the Multiple Time Phases tab is
selected, the user can define individual load flow commands for each time phase, as illus-
trated in Figure 30.16. Access to each load flow command and its settings is via the
button.
30 - 25
Fig. 30.15: Same Settings for Base Case and Contingency Load Flows
Fig. 30.16: Different Settings for Base Case and Contingency Load Flows
Note: Transformer tap changer controllers and switchable shunts are
only considered by a time phase if their time constants are smaller
than the current Post Contingency Time. The operational thermal
ratings of branch elements during a contingency (if 'short term'
thermal ratings (see Section 5.5.7) have been defined) will also de-
pend on the duration of the contingency (i.e. the current Post Con-
tingency Time).
The Contingency Analysis time phases (which are essentially just load flow commands)
are stored within a folder inside the ComSimoutage command and can be accessed in
several ways. One way is by clicking on the button next to each defined time phase
in the Calculation Settings section of the Multiple Time Phases tab; by doing so, the edit
dialogue of the corresponding load flow command pops up.
Another way is through the Data Manager. After performing a contingency analysis, a
contingency command object (ComSimoutage) is created inside the current active
Study Case. If the contingency analysis was performed using the Multiple Time Phases
method (with different load flow settings), then a Time Phases folder with the corre-
sponding time phase load flow commands will be created inside the contingency analysis,
as illustrated in Figure 30.17.
30 - 26
Fig. 30.17: Location of the Time Phases Folder
New time phases can be defined in the data browser by clicking on the Add Time Phase
button. Existing time phases can be deleted using the button. Note that after several
time phases have been defined, this list is then scrollable using the up/down arrow
buttons ( ) available in the dialogue.
30.4.8 Representing Contingency Situations with Post-Fault
Actions
Contingency situations which include post-fault actions are represented in Power-
Factory via objects called 'contingencies' (ComOutage, ). The contingencies are
defined by a set of events which represent:
Faults on the selected components;
The switching actions carried out to isolate the faulty components; and
The post contingency actions taken in order to mitigate the subsequent voltage band
problems and/or supply interruptions.
Load Flow Commands of
the Time Phases
Time Phases Folder
Contingency
Analysis
Command
30 - 27
Contingencies are created based on fault cases defined in the Operational Library. These
fault cases define the location of the fault events, and may also define post contingency
actions taken to isolate the fault and mitigate the effects of the outage of the
component(s). Whenever a new contingency is created, a link from the ComOutage
object to the fault case is set. New contingencies can be created in a Contingency Analysis
command by clicking on the Add Cases/Groups button in the Configuration section of
the Basic Data tab (see Section 30.3.1: Basic Options).
Besides the events which are transferred from the linked fault case during calculation of
the contingency case, the user has the possibility of defining additional post contingency
actions in the contingency by manually creating new events.
The contingencies calculated in a Contingency Analysis, are stored inside the command
itself and can be accessed using the Show button (see Figure 30.6). Alternatively, the
contingencies in the Contingency Analysis command contained in the active study case
can be viewed by clicking on the Show Contingencies icon ( ) on the main toolbar. In
both cases a new data browser listing the defined contingencies is shown. By double-
clicking on a selected item from the list, the edit dialogue of the corresponding contin-
gency (Figure 30.13) pops up.
Normally, contingency cases are analyzed by the Contingency Analysis command in which
they are stored. However, each case provides the functionality of a command and can be
executed individually using the Execute button at the top right of the ComOutage
dialogue (see Figure 30.13). In this case, all of the time phases are executed for the
selected contingency considering its associated events. The results observed in the single
line graphic correspond to those from the last time phase, including the final states of the
network switches.
The events that define a contingency can be displayed in a list format in a new data
browser by pressing the Events button in the fault case (IntEvt) dialogue (as shown in
Figure 30.20). This data browser can be used to edit and/or delete the listed events. New
events can be created by using the New icon at the top of the opened browser
window. Only four different types of events are allowed in the contingency analysis as
post-fault actions, which are:
Load Event (EvtLod)
Dispatch Event (EvtGen)
Switch Event (EvtSwitch)
Tap Event (EvtTap)
It should be noted that events created locally in the contingency object are only
considered if the ComOutage option Use locally defined events (User defined) is selected
in the Events Used for this Contingency field.
The Start Trace button ( ) (available on the main toolbar) can be used to follow the
behavior of the system over time. When this button is pressed, a dialogue opens allowing
the user to select a contingency. Following the selection of a contingency by the user and
pressing OK, the contingency dialogue is closed and the base case load flow is executed.
The execution of the first event(s) and all subsequent event(s) is initiated by pressing the
Next Time Step button ( ) on the main toolbar. At each time step the load flow calcu-
lation results and the state of the network circuit breakers are displayed in the single line
30 - 28
graphic. It should be noted that the Next Time Step evaluates events according to their
time of occurrence, and not according to the time phases defined in the Contingency
Analysis command. After the last time event(s) have been executed, the Next Time Step
button becomes inactive. The Stop Trace button ( ) can be pressed to clear the calcu-
lation. Alternatively, the Trace button in each ComOutage dialogue can be used to
initiate the Trace for that particular contingency.
Note: The 'Trace' functionality can be started directly from the main tool-
bar by pressing the 'Start Trace' button ( ). In this case a data
browser listing all available contingencies (i.e. those stored inside
the 'Contingency Analysis' command of the active study case) is
displayed. After the user selects the desired contingency by dou-
ble-clicking on it, the 'Base Case' load flow is executed. The subse-
quent event(s) are then calculated using the 'Next Time Step'
button.
30.5 Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and
Groups
Contingency cases created from fault cases can be regarded as contingency situations
produced in a network as a consequence of the clearing of a fault. Fault cases without
switching events (created following the procedure described in Section 14.2.3: Fault
Cases and Fault Groups) are used to automatically generate contingency cases in the
contingency analysis command, by pressing the Add Cases button and selecting the
desired objects from the data browser that pops up.
For every selected fault case, the calculation automatically detects which circuit breakers
must open in order to clear the defined fault(s). All components which lose their
connection to the network reference bus following the switching actions that clear the
fault(s), are regarded as 'interrupted' and are subsequently added to the Interrupted
Components table of the corresponding contingency case. In other words, these compo-
nents are put on outage by the contingency case.
Depending on the fault defined in the fault case that generates a contingency, the Fault
Type field in the contingency case dialogue (Figure 30.18) is set to:
Busbar fault:
If the contingency originates from a fault on a busbar
n-k fault:
With contingency order equal to k (where k >= 0). k corresponds to the number of
network regions (sets of topologically connected components) which are disconnected
during a fault, by the switching actions performed. It should be noted that the
switching actions which are considered depend on the post contingency time used by
the update (this time differs between single- and multiple time phase analyses).
30 - 29
Fig. 30.18: Fault Type Field in the Contingency Case (ComOutage) Dialogue
Note: In PowerFactory an interrupted component is a network primary
element that is energized before a fault and de-energized after-
wards. A component is considered to be energized if it is topolog-
ically connected to a network reference bus. A region is defined as
a set of topologically connected components. Like components, re-
gions can have energized, de-energized and interrupted states, de-
pending on their connection to a network reference bus.
Contingency cases can be created from fault cases/groups, which reside in the Opera-
tional Library, by pressing the Add Cases/Groups button in the contingency analysis
command (see Section 30.3.1 (Basic Options) and Figure 30.6). In the case of creating
contingencies from fault group(s), a contingency case will be generated for each fault
case referred to in the selected fault group(s).
Note: The 'topological search' algorithm used by the program to set con-
tingency cases from fault cases requires the explicit definition of at
least one reference bus in the analyzed system. A bus is explicitly
set as a reference if it has connected to it either a synchronous
generator (ElmSym), or an external network (ElmExtnet) with
the option 'Reference Machine' enabled (available on the elements
'Load Flow' tab).
30.5.1 Browsing Fault Cases and Fault Groups
There are two types of subfolder inside the Faults folder in the Operational Library: Fault
Cases and Fault Groups.
30 - 30
Fig. 30.19: Contents of the Faults folder in the Operational Library
In order to make a new folder of either of these types, left-click on the Faults folder icon
( ) and then press the "New Object" button ( ) on the Data Manager toolbar. In the
drop-down list, select whether a new Fault Cases or Fault Groups folder should be created.
The Fault Cases folder holds every contingency (n-1, n-2, or simultaneous) defined for the
system, as described in Section 30.5.2 (Defining a Fault Case). Alternatively, several fault
cases can be selected and stored in a Fault Group, as described in Section 30.5.3 (Defining
a Fault Group).
30.5.2 Defining a Fault Case
To define a fault case for an element in the grid, select it in the single-line diagram. Then
right-click and choose one of: Define --> Fault Case --> Single Fault Case or Define ...
--> Fault Case --> Multiple Fault Cases, n-1 (or Multiple Fault Cases, n-2) or Define ... --
> Fault Case --> Mutually Coupled Lines/Cables, n-k.
If Multiple Fault Cases, n-2 is selected, fault cases will be created for the simultaneous
outage of every unique combination of two elements in the selection. If the user selects
Single Fault Case, a fault case will be created for the simultaneous outage of all elements
in the selection.
If Mutually Coupled Lines/Cables, n-k is selected, then fault cases will be created for the
simultaneous outage of each coupled line in the selection.
Alternatively, a filter can be used. This can be done (for example) with the help of the Edit
Relevant Objects for Calculation button ( ), to list all elements for which outages are
to be defined. These elements can then be highlighted and the user can then right-click
on the highlighted selection and choose (for example) Define --> Fault Case.... The
Simulation Events/Fault dialogue opens, as shown in Figure 30.20, where the user can
enter the desired name of the fault case in the Name field.
On the second page of the Basic Data tab of the same dialogue, the user can create
30 - 31
the corresponding switch events, by clicking on the Create Switch Events button.
Fig. 30.20: Creation of Fault Case (IntEvt)
Fault cases can also be defined by the Contingency Definition command, as explained in
Section 30.6 (Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command).
For further background on fault cases, please refer to Section 5.5.3 (Faults).
30.5.3 Defining a Fault Group
To define a fault group, left-click on the Fault Groups folder. Then click on the 'New Object'
button ( ). A Fault Group dialogue pops up as shown in Figure 30.21. In this dialogue
the user can specify the name of the fault group in the Name field, and add fault cases to
this new group using the Add Cases button. Click the Cases button to view existing cases
(if any) in the fault group.
Fig. 30.21: Creation of Fault Group (IntFaultgrp)
Note: When a fault group is defined and fault cases are added to it, a ref-
erence is created to each of these fault cases. The fault case itself
resides in the Fault Cases subfolder. This means that if an item in
the fault group is deleted, only the reference to the fault case is
deleted. The fault case itself is not deleted from the Fault Cases
subfolder.
30 - 32
30.6 Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency
Definition Command
The Contingency Definition command (ComNmink) is used to automatically generate
contingency cases based on selected components. It is accessible via the Contingency
Analysis toolbar ( ) but using the button. The Contingency Definition command
can be used to automatically generate contingency cases for either (i) a user-defined
selection of elements; or (ii) pre-defined sets of elements. These two approaches are now
described.
To generate contingency cases for a user-defined selection of elements:
Select the components to be put on outage either by multi-selecting them in the
single line graphic or the Data Manager.
Right click on the selection and choose Calculate --> Contingency Analysis... from the
context sensitive menu. This command will create a list with references to the
selected objects inside the Contingency Definition command (ComNmink). The
command dialogue shown in Figure 30.22 will pop up.
Select the required outage level.
Select the Creation of Contingencies option according to how the contingencies should
be handled (see explanation of options below) and click on Execute.
To generate contingency cases for either the complete system or from pre-defined sets of
elements:
Click on the icon on the main toolbar to open the command;
Select the option Whole System in the Create Cases for field;
Select the required pre-defined set of elements (for example transformers and lines);
Select the Creation of Contingencies option according to how the contingencies should
be handled (see explanation of options below) and click on Execute.
30 - 33

Fig. 30.22: Contingency Definition Dialogue (option: Generate Contingencies for
Analysis)
Once the Contingency Definition command is executed, it generates the corresponding
contingency cases according to the options and elements selected. The Contingency
Analysis command, which is automatically created inside the current active Study Case is
then automatically opened. The created contingencies can be analyzed by executing this
already-opened Contingency Analysis command. Note that when a new list of contin-
gencies is created using the Contingency Definition command, the previous content of the
contingency analysis command is overwritten.
It is also possible to open the Contingency Definition command directly from the Contin-
gency Analysis toolbar ( ), without any previous selection, by clicking on the icon.
In this case, contingencies for all elements within the network (selected according to their
class, as described below), can be created.
The Contingency Definition command offers the following options to generate contin-
gency cases from the selected objects:
Creation of Contingencies
Generate Fault Cases for Library
Generates fault cases which are stored in the Operational Library, in a
folder named Faults.
Generate Contingencies for Analysis
Generates contingencies which are stored in the contingency analysis
command, and then opens the contingency analysis command
(ComSimoutage) dialogue.
30 - 34
Outage Level
n-1
Creates single contingency cases for each of the selected components.
n-2
Creates contingency cases for every unique combination of two
selected components.
n-k cases of mutually coupled lines/cables
Creates contingency cases for every set of mutually coupled lines/
cables. If for example, three lines are modeled as having a mutual
coupling, by selecting this option a fault case is created considering the
simultaneous outage of the three coupled lines.
Lines/cables
Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for all lines
and cables (ElmLne objects) in the system.
Transformers
Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for all trans-
formers (ElmTr2, ElmTr3 objects) in the system.
Generators
Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for all
synchronous generators (ElmSym objects) in the system.
Series Capacitors
Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for all series
capacitors (ElmScap objects) in the system.
Series Reactors
Contingency cases according to the selected outage level will be generated for all series
reactors (ElmSind objects) in the system.
The selection of elements to outage in the Contingency Definition command can also be
created by the use of DPL scripts. Please refer to the ComNmink methods in the
appendix DPL Reference.
Note: It is important to note the difference between contingency cases
created from fault cases and contingency cases created with the
Contingency Definition command. In the former, the cases are re-
garded as the outage of certain network components as a conse-
quence of fault clearing switching actions, with the fault(s) being
defined by the fault case and the switching actions automatically
30 - 35
calculated by the program. In the latter, the cases are regarded as
contingency situations generated by the outage of a selected
group of components.
30.7 Comparing Contingency Results
In order to compare contingencies in a fast and easy way, PowerFactory provides a
Contingency Comparison function ( ). The Contingency Comparison function is only
enabled if the user has previously defined the contingency cases in the Contingency
Analysis command, as explained in Sections 30.5 (Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault
Cases and Groups) and 30.6 (Creating Contingency Cases Using the Contingency
Definition Command). The general handling of the Contingency Comparison function is as
follows:
1 Define the contingency cases in the Contingency Analysis command (see Sections
30.5: Creating Contingency Cases Using Fault Cases and Groups and 30.6: Creating
Contingency Cases Using the Contingency Definition Command).
2 Click on the Contingency Comparison button ( ). A window will pop up allowing
the user to select the required contingency cases (Figure 30.23). The selection can
correspond to one, several, or all contingency cases.
Fig. 30.23: Selection of Contingency Cases for Comparison
30 - 36
3 By clicking on the OK button, the Comparing of Results On/Off button (Figure 30.24)
is enabled and the selected contingency cases are automatically executed.
Fig. 30.24: Comparing of Results Button
4 The single line graphic result boxes will display the results, based on the comparison
mode and the two compared cases. By default, the comparison is made between the
Base Case and the last selected contingency case in the list.
5 To change the comparison mode and/or the cases to be compared, click on the Edit
Comparing of Results button (Figure 30.24). The Compare dialogue will pop up
displaying the current settings. To change the cases to be compared, click on the
black arrow pointing down ( ) and select a different case (Figure 30.25).
Fig. 30.25: Selection of other Cases for Comparison
6 If the contingency analysis is defined with time phases, the compare dialogue will
have the option of selecting the time phase.
7 Once the calculation is reset (for example by either making changes in the model or
by clicking on the Reset Calculation button), the comparison mode will be disabled.
Comparing of Results Button
Edit Comparing of Results Button
30 - 37
30.8.1 Predefined Report Formats (Tabular and ASCII Reports)
In PowerFactory the Contingency Analysis function has a special set of predefined
report formats that can be launched by clicking on the Report Contingency Analysis
Results button ( ), which is illustrated in Figure 30.4. The Report Contingency Analysis
Results button will only be enabled if the user has previously executed the Contingency
Analysis command, as explained in Section 30.2 (Executing Contingency Analyses). Once
the reporting of results has been launched, the dialogue window illustrated in Figure
30.26 will be displayed.
Fig. 30.26: Contingency Analysis Reports Dialogue
The following types of report can be selected:
Maximum Loadings:
Only the maximum loaded component (according to the specified loading limit) for
each contingency is displayed in a single list.
Loading Violations:
All overloaded components (according to the specified loading limit) for each
contingency are displayed in a single list.
Additional Filter
Settings
Type of Report
Output Format Selection:
Tabular or ASCII
Study Time
Definition for
Reporting
30 - 38
Voltage Steps:
All voltage deviations of terminals (between the base case and the contingency case)
for each contingency are displayed in a single list. Reports the highest voltage
deviation of terminals (between the base case and the contingency case) considering
all contingencies. Any such terminal is reported only once. Only terminals with the
highest voltage deviation greater than the specified maximum voltage step are
reported.
Maximum Voltages:
Reports the greatest voltage violation of a terminal (greater than or equal to the
specified voltage limit) considering all contingencies. Any such terminal is reported
only once (i.e. it is reported for the contingency causing this violation).
Minimum Voltages:
Reports the greatest voltage violation of a terminal (less than or equal to the specified
voltage limit) considering all contingencies. Any such terminal is reported only once
(i.e. it is reported for the contingency causing this violation).
Maximum Voltage Violations:
Reports all voltage violations of a terminal (greater than or equal to the specified
upper voltage limit) considering all contingencies.
Minimum Voltage Violations:
Reports all voltage violations of a terminal (less than or equal to the specified lower
voltage limit) considering all contingencies.
Loading Violations per Case:
All overloaded components (according to the specified loading limit) for each
contingency are displayed in separate lists (i.e. one list per contingency case).
Voltage Violations per Case:
All busbars with exceeding voltage (maximum or minimum) are displayed in separate
lists.
Generator Effectiveness:
Generators having an effectiveness greater than or equal to the specified value (%)
are displayed in a single list.
Quad-Booster Effectiveness:
Quad-booster transformers having an effectiveness greater than or equal to the
specified value (MW/Tap) are displayed in a single list.
Non-convergent Cases:
The non-convergent cases of the contingency analysis are displayed in a list.
30 - 39
Fig. 30.27: Tabular Report of Loading Violations
The tabular format (Figure 30.27) for reporting has the following sections:
Header:
Identifies the report and its data.
Filter:
Represented as drop-down lists, allowing the selection of one item at a time or as
"Custom".
Table:
Matrix of rows and columns containing cells that can refer to an object and provide
actions such as "Edit", "Edit and Browse" and "Mark in Graphic". It also supports copy
and paste, scroll features, page up and down keys as well as Ctrl+Pos1, Ctrl+End and
HTML view.
Although the tabular reports are already predefined, the user can modify them if required
(by going to the second page of the Report Contingency Analysis Results dialogue and
clicking on the blue arrow pointing to the right of the Used Format definition).
Column Header
Loading Limit Specification
Filter
30 - 40
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Reliability Assessment
31 - 1
Chapter 31
Reliability Assessment
Reliability assessment involves determining, generally using statistical methods, the total
electric interruptions for loads within a power system. The interruptions are described by
several indices that consider aspects such as:
the number of customers;
the connected load;
the duration of the interruptions;
the amount of power interrupted; and
the frequency of interruptions.
Other measures of reliability such as voltage sags and swells can also be considered as
part of a reliability assessment.
The reliability assessment module of PowerFactory offers two calculation functions:
Network reliability assessment:
The probabilistic assessment of power system interruptions during an
operating period.
Voltage sag assessment:
The probabilistic assessment of the frequency and severity of voltage
sags during an operation period.
Both of these calculation methods have different applications. Network reliability
assessment is used to calculate expected interruption frequencies and annual interrup-
tions costs, or to compare alternative network designs. Voltage sag assessment is used
to determine the expected number of equipment trips due to deep sags.
Reliability analysis is an automation and probabilistic extension of contingency evaluation.
For such analysis, you are not required to pre-define outage events, instead the tool can
automatically choose the outages to consider. The relevance of each outage is considered
using statistical data about the expected frequency and duration of outages according to
component type. The effect of each outage is analyzed automatically such that the
software simulates the protection system and the network operator's actions to re-supply
interrupted customers. Because statistical data regarding the frequency of such events is
available, the results can be formulated in probabilistic terms.
This chapter deals with probabilistic Network Reliability Assessment. For information on
PowerFactorys deterministic Contingency Analysis, please refer to Chapter 30 (Contin-
gency Analysis).
The reliability assessment functions can be accessed by activating the reliability toolbar
using the icon on the toolbar selection control as illustrated in Figure 31.1.
31 - 2
Fig. 31.1: Reliability Toolbar Selection
The basic user procedure for completing a reliability assessment consists of the following
steps as shown in Figure 31.2. Steps on the left are compulsory, while steps on the right
are optional and can be used to increase the detail of the calculation.
Fig. 31.2: Reliability Assessment User Procedure
Reliability toolbar selection
Reliability Assessment Calcu-
View Considered Contingencies
Create Load States
Start Fault Trace
31 - 3
These procedures are explained in detail in the following sections
31.1 Probabilistic Reliability Assessment - Technical
Background
The Reliability Assessment procedure considers the network topology, protection systems,
constraints and stochastic failure and repair models to generate reliability indices. The
technical background of the procedure and Stochastic Models is described in this sub-
chapter.
31.1.1 Reliability Assessment Procedure
The generation of reliability indices, using the Reliability Assessment tool also known as
'reliability analysis', consists of the following:
Failure modeling;
Load modeling;
System state creation;
Failure Effect Analysis (FEA);
Statistical analysis; and
Reporting

Fig. 31.3: Reliability Analysis: Basic Flow Diagram
The reliability analysis calculation flow diagram is depicted in Figure 31.3. The failure
models describe how system components can fail, how often they might fail and how long
it takes to repair them when they fail. The load models can consist of a few possible load
demands, or can be based on a user-defined load forecast and growth scenarios.
The combination of one or more simultaneous faults and a specific load condition is called
a 'system state'. Internally, PowerFactorys system state generation engine uses the
failure models and load models to build a list of relevant system states. Subsequently, the
Failure Effect Analysis (FEA) module analyzes the faulted system states by simulating the
Electric System
Model
System State
Generation
Failure Effect
Analysis
Statistical Evaluation
Failure Models
Load Models
31 - 4
system reactions to these faults. The FEA takes the power system through a number of
post-fault operational states that can include:
Fault clearance by tripping of protection breakers or fuses;
Fault separation by opening separating switches;
Power restoration by closing normally open switches;
Overload alleviation by load transfer and load shedding.
Voltage constraint alleviation by load shedding (distribution option only).
The objective of the FEA function is to determine if system faults will lead to load inter-
ruptions and if so, which loads will be interrupted and for how long.
The results of the FEA are combined with the data that is provided by the system state
generation module to create the reliability statistics including indices such as SAIFI, SAIDI
and CAIFI. The system state data describes the expected frequency of occurrence of the
system state and its expected duration. However, the duration of these system states
should not be confused with the interruption duration. For example, a system state for a
line outage, perhaps caused by a short-circuit on that line, will have a duration equal to
the time needed to repair that line. However, if the line is one of two parallel lines then it
is possible that no loads will be interrupted because the parallel line might be able to
supply the full load current.
Even if the loads are interrupted by the outage, the power could be restored by network
reconfiguration - by fault separation and closing a back-feed switch. The interruption
duration will then equal the restoration time, and not the repair duration (equivalent to
the system state duration).
31.1.2 Stochastic Models
A stochastic reliability model is a statistical representation of the failure rate and repair
duration time for a power system component. For example, a line might suffer an outage
due to a short-circuit. After the outage, repair will begin and the line will be put into
service again after a successful repair. If two states for line A are defined as 'in service'
and 'under repair', monitoring of the line could result in a time sequence of outages and
repairs as depicted in Figure 31.4.
Fig. 31.4: Line availability states are described by the status of the line (in service or
under repair). Each of these states lasts for a certain time.
Line A in this example fails at time T
1
after which it is repaired and put back into service
at T
2
. It fails again at T
3
, is repaired again, etc. The repair durations R
1
=T
2
-T
1
, R
2
=T
4
-
T
3
, etc. are exaggerated in this example.
The repair durations are also called the 'Time To Repair' or 'TTR'. The service durations
A
A
R1 R2
R3 S2
S3
S4
t T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
31 - 5
S
1
=T
1
, S
2
=T
3
-T
2
, etc. are called the 'life-time', 'Time To Failure' or 'TTF'.
Both the TTR and the TTF are stochastic quantities. By gathering failure data about a large
group of similar components in the power system, statistical information about the TTR
and TTF, such as the mean value and the standard deviation, can be calculated. The
statistical information is then used to define a Stochastic Model.
There are many ways in which to define a Stochastic Model. The so-called 'homogenous
Markov-model' is a highly simplified but generally used model. A homogenous Markov
model with two states is defined by:
A constant failure rate ; and
A constant repair rate .
These two parameters can be used to calculate the following quantities:
mean time to failure, TTF = 1/;
mean time to repair, TTR = 1/;
availability, P = TTF/(TTF+TTR);
unavailability Q, = TTR/(TTF+TTR);
The availability is the fraction of time when the component is in service; the unavailability
is the fraction of time when it is in repair; and P+Q = 1.0.
For example, if 7500 monitored transformers were to show 140 failures over 10 years,
during which a total of 7360 hours was spent on repair, then:

These equations also introduce some of the units used in the reliability assessment:
frequencies are normally expressed in [1/a] = 'per annum' = per year;
lifetimes are normally expressed in [a] = 'annum';
repair times are normally expressed in [h] = 'hours';
140
10 7500
----------------------
1
a
-- - 0,00187
1
a
--- = =
TTF
1
--- 536a = =
TTR
7360
140
------------ h 52,6h 0,006a = = =
1
TTR
------------ 167
1
a
--- = =
P
536
536 0,006 +
---------------------------- 0,999989 = =
Q
0,006
536 0,006 +
----------------------------
6
min
a
----------
= =
31 - 6
probabilities or expectancies are expressed as a fraction or as time per year ([h/a],
[min/a]).
A homogenous Markov model can also have more than two states. This kind of model can
be used to distinguish between faults that are repaired quickly, and faults that take longer
to repair. Two repair states are then defined, each with a different mean repair time.
The homogenous Markov model is memory-less. For instance, if preventive maintenance
is performed to improve the reliability of a component, it does not make a difference if
the last maintenance was completed one week or 5 years ago, or even if maintenance
was performed at all. The probability that the component will fail in the next period will
be equal in all cases. Therefore, the effect of changing preventive maintenance strategies
cannot be calculated when using the homogenous Markov model.
Additionally, because of the memory-less quality, all repairs are similar, with the only
difference the mean duration. Interruption costs, however, might be dependent on the
fraction of repairs that take longer than a certain amount of time. For example, a repair
might take 2 hours on average, but when compensation has to be paid for interruptions
longer than 3 hours, and when such long repairs occur in 20% of all cases, using the mean
duration alone will not produce correct results. Consequently, a realistic assessment of
interruption costs is not possible when using the homogenous Markov model.
31.1.3 Calculated Results for Reliability Assessment
The network reliability assessment produces two types of indices:
Load point indices
System indices
These indices are separated into frequency/expectancy indices and energy indices.
Furthermore, there are indices to describe the interruption costs.
Load point indices are calculated for each load (ElmLod), and are used in the calculation
of many system indices. This section describes the simplified equations for the reliability
indices. However, note that the PowerFactory reliability assessment calculations use
more complex calculation methods. Nevertheless, the simplified equations shown here
can be used for hand calculations or to gain insight into the reliability assessment results.
In the definitions for the reliability indices, the following parameters are used:
The number of customers supplied by load point i
The number of affected customers for an interruption at load point i
The frequency of occurrence of contingency k
The probability of occurrence of contingency k
C The number of customers
A The number of affected customers
The total connected kVA interrupted, for each interruption event, m
Duration of each interruption event, m
C
i
A
i
Fr
k
pr
k
L
m
r
m
31 - 7
The total connected kVA supplied
Load Point Frequency and Expectancy Indices
ACIF: Average Customer Interruption Frequency
ACIT: Average Customer Interruption Time
LPIF: Load Point Interruption Frequency
LPIT: Load Point Interruption Time
AID: Average Interruption Duration
These indices are defined as follows:
, Unit: 1/a
, Unit: h/a
, Unit: 1/a
, Unit: h/a
where
i is the load point index, k is the contingency index, and frac_i,k is the
fraction of the load which is lost at load point i, for contingency k. For
unsupplied loads, or for loads that are shed completely, frac_i,k=1.0.
For loads that are partially shed, 0.0 <= frac_i,k < 1.0.
System Indices
SAIFI
System Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/C/a],
indicates how often the average customer experiences a sustained
interruption during the period specified in the calculation.
CAIFI
Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/A/a], is
the mean frequency of sustained interruptions for those customers
L
T
ACIF
i
Fr
k
frac
i k ,
=
ACIT
i
Pr
k
frac
i k ,
=
LPIF
i
ACIF
i
C
i
=
LPIT
i
ACIT
i
C
i
=
AID
i
ACIT
i
ACIF
i
---------------- =
31 - 8
experiencing sustained interruptions. Each customer is counted once
regardless of the number of times interrupted for this calculation.
ASIFI
Average System Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/a], The
calculation of this index is based on load rather than customers
affected. ASIFI can be used to measure distribution performance in
areas that supply relatively few customers having relatively large
concentrations of load, predominantly industrial/commercial customers.
SAIDI
System Average Interruption Duration Index, in units of [h/C/a],
indicates the total duration of interruption for the average customer
during the period in the calculation. It is commonly measured in
customer minutes or customer hours of interruption.
CAIDI
Customer Average Interruption Duration Index, in units of [h], is the
mean time to restore service.
ASIDI
Average System Interruption Duration Index, in units of [h/a], is the
equivalent of SAIDI but based on load, rather than customers affected.
ASAI
Average Service Availability Index, this represents the fraction of time
that a customer is connected during the defined calculation period.
ASUI
Average Service Unavailability Index, is the probability of having all
loads supplied.
MAIFI
Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index, in units of [1/Ca],
evaluates the average frequency of momentary interruptions. The
calculation is described in the IEEE Standard 1366 'IEEE Guide for
Electric Power Distribution Reliability Indices'.
, Unit: 1/C/a
, Unit: 1/A/a
, Unit: h/C/a
, Unit: h
SAIFI
ACIF
i
C
i
C
i
----------------------------------
=
CAIFI
ACIF
i
C
i
A
i
---------------------------------- =
SAIDI
ACIT
i
C
i
C
i
---------------------------------- =
CAIDI
SAIDI
SAIFI
-----------------
=
31 - 9
, Unit h/a
, Unit 1/a
Load Point Energy Indices
LPENS: Load Point Energy Not Supplied
LPES: Load Point Energy Shed
These indices are defined as follows:
in MWh/a
in MWh/a
Where
Pd_i is the weighted average amount of power disconnected
Ps_i is the weighted average amount of power shed at load point i.
ASUI
ACIT
i
C
i
8760 C
i
---------------------------------- =
ASAI 1 ASUI =
ASIDI
r
m
L
m
( )
L
T
------------------------------- =
ASIFI
L
m
L
T
--------------- =
MAIFI
IM
i
N
mi
N
i
-------------------------------- =
LPENS
i
ACIT
i
Pd
i
Ps
i
+ ( ) =
))
LPES
i
ACIT
i
Ps
i
=
)
31 - 10
System Energy Indices
ENS
Energy Not Supplied, in units of [MWh/a], is the total amount of energy
on average not delivered to the system loads.
SES
System Energy Shed, in units of [MWh/a], is the total amount of energy
on average expected to be shed in the system.
AENS
Average Energy Not Supplied, in units of [MWh/Ca], is the average
amount of energy not supplied, for all customers.
ACCI
Average Customer Curtailment Index, in units of [MWh/Ca], is the
average amount of energy not supplied, for all affected customers.
in MWh/a
in MWh/a
in MWh/Ca
in MWh/Ca
Load Point Interruption Cost
LPEIC is defined as
in $/a
where
LPEIC_i,k
is the average interruption cost for load point i and contingency case k,
considering the load point interruption costs function and the assessed
distribution of the durations of the interruptions at this load point for
contingency case k. The interruption costs are calculated differently for
different cost functions. All cost functions express the costs as a
function of the interruption duration. For cost functions expressed in
money per interrupted customer, the number of interrupted customers
ENS LPENS
i
=
SES LPES
i
=
AENS
ENS
C
i
------------- =
ACCI
ENS
A
i
------------- =
LPEIC
i
LPEIC
i k ,
=
31 - 11
is estimated for each interruption as the highest number of customers
interrupted at any time during the whole interruption duration.
System Interruption Costs
EIC
Expected Interruption Cost, in units of [M$/y], is the total expected
interruption cost.
IEAR
Interrupted Energy Assessment Rate, in units of [$/kWh], is the total
expected interruption cost per not supplied kWh.
in M$/a
in $/kWh
Additional Calculated Indices for Load Points
AID: Average Interruption Duration [h]
Additional Calculated Indices for Busbars/Terminals
AID: Average Interruption Duration [h]
AIF: Yearly Interruption Frequency [1/y]
AIT: Yearly Interruption Time [h/y]
31.1.4 System State Enumeration in Reliability Assessment
In PowerFactory, Reliability Assessment uses a System State Enumeration to analyze all
possible system states, one by one. A fast 'topological' method is used which ensures that
each possible system state is only analyzed once. State frequencies (average occurrences
per year) are calculated by considering only the transitions from a healthy situation to an
unhealthy one and back again. This is important because the individual system states are
analyzed one by one, and the (chronological) connection between them is therefore lost.
The enumerated calculation method is fast for quick investigation of large distribution
networks, but does not compromise accuracy. Exact analytic averages are calculated.
Distributions of reliability indices, however, cannot be calculated. For example, the
average annual unavailability in hours/year can be calculated, but the probability that this
unavailability is less than 15 minutes for a certain year cannot be calculated.
The state enumeration algorithm can include independent failures, simultaneous (n-2)
failures, common mode failures, numerous load states and planned outages.
An overview flow diagram for the reliability assessment by state enumeration is shown in
Figure 31.5.
EIC LPEIC
i
=
IEAR
EIC
ENS
------------ =
31 - 12

Fig. 31.5: Overview Flow Diagram for Reliability Assessment by State Enumeration
After the State Enumeration is complete, you can view each simulated system state using
the 'tracing tool' on the Reliability Toolbar, see Section 31.3.2 for more information.
31.1.5 Failure Effect Analysis in Reliability Assessment
The simulation of the system response to specific contingencies is called 'Failure Effect
Analysis' (FEA). The System State Enumeration algorithm uses the FEA engine to analyze
the following steps after a contingency:
Fault Clearance;
Fault Isolation;
Power Restoration;
Overload Alleviation;
Voltage Constraint Alleviation;
Load Transfer;
Load Shedding;
This section describes each of these steps in detail.
Pre-Processing
- Load Curves
- Load Growth
- Statistics Initialization
Post-Processing
- Load Point Indices
- System State Indices
- Reports
First
Contingency
Next
Contingency
Fault
Clearance
Fault
Separation
Power
Restoration
Optimize
Energy at Risk
Optimize
Load Shedding
Update
Statistics
Worst-Case
AC Load-Flow
First Year of
Load Growth
Next Year of
Load Growth
Next Load
Demand
First Load
Demand
Adjust
Load-Flow
Overload ?
N
More
More
More
Y
31 - 13
FEA analysis for the network assessment can consider or ignore constraints. For overload
alleviation, the algorithm uses an AC load flow to search for overloaded branches and if
any are identified then it attempts to resolve them, firstly by load transfer and secondly
by load shedding. If constraints are not considered by the FEA, then a load-flow for each
state is not required and consequently the simulation is much faster.
For every simulated failure, a contingency is created by the FEA algorithm. If the calcu-
lation uses load characteristics, a contingency is created for every combination of failure
and load state. Likewise, when maintenance (planned outages) is considered, there are
more states for each outage and contingency combination.
Fault Clearance
The fault clearance step of the FEA assumes 100% selectivity of the protection. Therefore,
it is assumed that the relays nearest to the failure will clear the fault. If protection/
switching failures are considered in the FEA, it is assumed that the next closest protection
device (after the failed device) has 100% selectivity. As described in (Protection/Switch
Failures), PowerFactory does not consider separate switch and protection failures,
instead these are lumped together. In the pre-processing phase of the reliability
assessment, all breakers in the system that can be tripped by a relay, or fuse are marked
as 'protection breakers'. Figure 31.6 shows a simple network containing four loads,
several circuit breakers (CB) and disconnectors (DS) and a back-feed switch (BF). The
possible load interruptions caused by a fault on 'Ln4' will now be investigated.

Fig. 31.6: Short-Circuit on Ln4
To clear the fault, the FEA starts a topological search from the faulted component/s to
identify the closest protection breaker/s that can clear the fault. These breaker/s are then
opened to end the fault clearance phase of the FEA. If it is not possible to isolate the fault
because there are no appropriate protection breakers, then an error message will be
printed and the reliability assessment will end.
The area isolated by the fault clearance procedure is called the 'protected area'. Figure
31.7 shows the example network after the fault clearance functions have opened the
protection breaker 'CB1'. The protected area is the area containing all switches, lines and
loads between 'CB1' and the back-feed switch, 'BF'. Therefore, during the clearance of this
fault, loads 1, 2, and 3 are interrupted.
31 - 14
Fig. 31.7: Protected Area
Fault Separation
The next step of the FEA is to attempt to restore power to healthy network sections. It
does this by separating the faulted section from the healthy section by opening section-
alizing switches.
The fault separation procedure uses the same topological search for switches as the fault
clearance phase. The fault separation phase starts a topological search from the faulted
components to identify the closest switches that will isolate the fault. These switches are
subsequently opened. Note, all closed switches can be used to separate the faulted area.
The area that is enclosed by the identified fault separation switches is called the
'separated area'. The separated area is smaller than, or equal to, the 'protected area'. It
will never extend beyond the 'protected area'.
The healthy section which is inside the 'protected area', but outside of the 'separated area'
is called the 'restorable area' because power can be restored to this area. Figure 31.8
shows the example network with the separation switches, 'DS2' and 'DS4' open. The
separated area now only contains the faulted line, Ln4.
There are now two restorable areas following the fault separation; the area which
contains load 1, and the area which contains loads 2 and 3.

Fig. 31.8: Separated Area Highlighted
31 - 15
Power Restoration
The Power Restoration process of the FEA energizes the healthy areas of the system after
the fault separation process has isolated the faulted area. Note that only open switches
that are enabled for use in power restoration will be considered by PowerFactory as
candidate switches for power restoration. Additionally, PowerFactory uses a 'smart
power restoration' procedure that also considers the direction of the power restoration
and the priority (stage) of the switch. The fastest candidate switch is always selected
when there is more than one restoration alternative. Each restorable area that is recon-
nected to the supplied network is called a 'restored' area. For more information about the
switch configuration for smart power restoration, see Section 31.2.3.
If we consider the previous example after the fault separation phase is complete, the
following switch actions are required to restore power to the two separate 'restorable'
areas:
Separation switch 'DS2' is 'remote-controlled' and has a switching time of 3 minutes.
Power to load 1 is restored by (re)closing the protection breaker, 'CB1' which is also
remote controlled. Load 1 is therefore restored in 3 minutes (=0.05 hours).
Power to load 2 and 3 is restored by closing the back-feed switch, 'BF'. Because the
back-feed switch has a actuation time of 30 minutes, loads 2 and 3 are restored in 0.5
hours. The network is now in the post-fault condition as illustrated in Figure 31.9.

Fig. 31.9: Power Restoration by Back-Feed Switch BF1 and CB1
All loads and terminals in a separated area are interrupted for the mean duration of the
repair, which is normally several hours. All loads and terminals in a restored area are inter-
rupted for the time needed to open all separators and to close all power restoration
switches. You can analyze the effects of improved automation and remote control by
lowering the actuation times for the remote controlled switches.
Overload Alleviation
If the power restoration does not cause any thermal overloads, then the FEA can proceed
to calculate the statistics for that state and then analyze the next state. However, if
thermal constraints are enabled, then PowerFactory will complete load-flows to check
that all components are still within their thermal capability after the power restoration is
complete. If necessary, load transferring, partial or full load shedding might be required
to alleviate the thermal over-load. Note load transferring and partial load shedding are
only considered by the transmission analysis option. The distribution option considers only
31 - 16
discrete switch actions. Therefore, loads must be fully shed or remain in service.
Figure 31.10 shows a line overload in the post-fault condition in the example network: line
'Ln1' is loaded to 113%.

Fig. 31.10: Overloaded Post-Fault Condition
Note: In the distribution reliability option, voltage constraints can be con-
sidered in addition to thermal constraints. The voltage constraint
alleviation process is similar to the thermal overload alleviation
process, where loads will be shed if necessary to maintain all ter-
minals on the feeder within the defined limits.
Load Transfer (Transmission Option only)
In some cases, load transfer switches and/or the alternative feeders are not included in
the network model where reliability assessment is completed. In these cases, the
automatic power restoration cannot switch an unsupplied load to an alternative supply.
An example is when a (sub-)transmission network is analyzed and the connected distri-
bution networks are modeled as single lumped loads. In this scenario, transfer switches
that connect two distribution networks will not be visible. Therefore, the possibility of
transferring parts of the lumped load model to other feeders can be modeled by entering
a transfer percentage at each lumped load. This transfer percentage defines the portion
of the lumped load that can be transferred 'away' from the analyzed network, without
specifying to which feeder(s) the portion is transferred.
The use of the load transfer percentage (parameter name: Transferable on the load
elements Reliability tab) is only valid when load transfer is not expected to result in an
overloading of the feeders which pick up the transferred loads.
Load transfer is used in the overload alleviation prior to the calculation of power at risk
(see the following section for further information). The power at risk is considered to be
zero if all overloads in the post-fault condition can be alleviated by load transfers alone.
Load Shedding
In the example network shown in Figure 31.11, loads 1, 2, 3 and 4 all contribute to the
line overload. Consequently, some of these loads must be shed. There are three basic
variations of shedding that can be used:
31 - 17
Optimal load shedding
Priority optimal load shedding
Discrete optimal load shedding
Optimal load shedding presumes that all loads can be shed precisely (an infinite number
of steps). PowerFactory attempts to find a solution that alleviates the overload with the
lowest amount of load shed. In the example network it does not matter which load is
shed, because a one MW reduction of any load will cause an equal reduction of the line
loading. In more complex (meshed) networks, with more than one overloaded branch,
the reduction of one particular load might have a greater impact on the total overloading
than the reduction of another load.
PowerFactory uses linear sensitivity indices to first select those loads with any contri-
bution to overloading. A linear optimization is then started to find the best shedding
option. The resulting minimum amount of shed load is called the 'Power Shed', because
it equals the minimum amount of load that must be shed to alleviate overloads after the
power restoration. The power shed is multiplied by the duration of the system state to get
the 'Energy Shed'. The total energy shed for all possible system states is reported after
the reliability assessment is complete, and is referred to as the 'System Energy Shed'
(SES).

Fig. 31.11: Ld1 is shed to alleviate the overload on Ln1
Loads are shed automatically based on their allocated priority, with PowerFactory
attempting to shed low priority loads, prior to high priority loads wherever possible. In the
transmission reliability option, loads can be partially or fully shed, whereas in the distri-
bution option, loads can only be fully shed.
31.2 Setting up the Network Model for Reliability
Assessment
Prior to starting a Reliability Assessment Calculation, you must setup the Network Model
with specific reliability data models. This chapter discusses the following procedures:
How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair Models;
How to Create Feeders for Reliability Assessment;
How to Configure Switches for the Reliability Assessment;
Load Modelling for Reliability Assessment;
31 - 18
Considering Multiple System Demand Levels;
Defining Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location;
How to Consider Planned Maintenance;
Specifying Individual Component Constraints;
31.2.1 How to Define Stochastic Failure and Repair models
Stochastic Failure models define the probability that a component will fail and when it
does fail, the mean time to repair the component. The following Stochastic failure models
are supported by PowerFactory:
Busbar/Terminal Stochastic Model
Line/Cable Stochastic Model
Transformer Stochastic Model
Common Mode Stochastic Model
Protection/Switch Failure Model
Double Earth Fault Failure Model
This section describes each of these Stochastic Models and the procedure for defining
them.
Busbar/Terminal Stochastic Model (StoTypbar)
It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every busbar and terminal within the
network. The Stochastic Model can be defined either through the object type or through
the object element. If you want to use the same Stochastic Model for a number of
different busbars/terminals then you should define it through the object type. Alterna-
tively, if you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one element, then you should define
it through the element reliability dialog.
You can use Stochastic Models defined through types and elements together as required
- the element definition always overrides the type definition.
To define a Stochastic Model for a busbar type follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the busbar type and select the Reliability tab.
2 Using the 'Stochastic Model' selection control click the black triangle and select the
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the 'Bar Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the failure data for the busbar and the failure data per connection. Note that
the probability of the busbar failure is the sum of these two failure frequencies. For
example a busbar with 3 connections, a failure frequency for the busbar of 0.002
and a failure frequency of 0.005 per connection will have a total probability of failure
of 0.002 + 3 * 0.005 = 0.017.
4 Enter the mean repair duration.
5 Press OK twice to return to the element dialog.
To define a Stochastic Model for a busbar element follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the busbar element and navigate to the Reliability tab.
31 - 19
2 Using the 'Element model' selection control click the black triangle and select the
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the 'Bar Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the busbar type.
4 Press OK to close the element dialog.
Note: If you define a stochastic element model for a busbar/terminal that
also has a stochastic type model within its corresponding type, the
element model overrules the type model.
Line/Cable Stochastic Model (StoTyplne)
It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every line or cable within the network. The
Stochastic Model can be defined either through the object type or through the object
element. If you want to use the same Stochastic Model for a number of different lines/
cables then you should define it through the object type reliability page. Alternatively, if
you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one element, then you should define it
through the element reliability page.
To define a Stochastic Model for a line or cable type follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the line type and select the Reliability tab.
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the 'Line Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the Sustained Failure Frequency. Note that the probability of the line failure is
determined using this value and the length of the line. For example, a 12 km line
with a Sustained failure frequency of 0.032 (1/(a*km)) will have a failure probability
of 12 * 0.032 = 0.384 (1/(a*km)).
4 Enter the mean repair duration in hours.
5 Enter the Transient Fault Frequency. Note this parameter is used for the calculation
of the MAIFI index.
To define a Stochastic Model for a line or cable element follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the line element and navigate to the Reliability tab.
2 Using the 'element model' selection control click the black triangle and select the
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the 'Line Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the line type.
4 Press OK to return to the element dialog.
Transformer Stochastic Model (StoTyptrf)
It is possible to define a Stochastic Model for every transformer within the network. The
Stochastic Model can be defined either through the object type or through the object
element. If you want to use the same Stochastic Model for a number of different trans-
formers then you should define it through the object type reliability page. Alternatively, if
you want to use a Stochastic Model for only one transformer element, then you should
define it through the element reliability page.
31 - 20
To define a Stochastic Model for a transformer type follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the transformertype and select the Reliability tab.
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the Transformer Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the failure frequency data (1/a).
4 Enter the mean repair duration in h.
To define a Stochastic Model for a transformer element follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the transformer element and select the Reliability tab.
2 Using the 'element model' selection control click the black triangle and select the
option 'New project type'. The dialog for the 'Transformer Type Failures' will appear.
3 Enter the failure data and repair time data as described above for the transformer
type.
4 Press OK to return to the element dialog.
Common Mode Stochastic Model (StoCommon)
A common mode failure involves the simultaneous failure of two or more power system
components. An example is a distribution feeder where two lines with different voltages
share the same poles. If one or more poles fail, for example a car hits a pole, then both
lines will be interrupted simultaneously: these lines have a 'common failure mode'. Such
a failure will usually be more likely than the probability of the two lines failing indepen-
dently at the same time.
In PowerFactory, it is possible to define a common mode failure object to consider such
failures in the reliability calculation. These Stochastic Models consider the common mode
failure probability in addition to the independent failure mode of each component within
the model.
To define a common mode failure Stochastic Model follow these steps:
1 Using the Data Manager, select the 'Common Mode' failures folder within the
'Operational Library'.
2 Click the 'New Object' button to create a Stochastic Common Mode failure
object (StoCommon). The dialog for the object should appear.
3 Double click in the first empty cell of the 'Name' column, to open an object selection
browser.
4 Use the browser to find the first object that is part of the Common Mode failure that
you are trying to define.
5 Click OK to return to the Common Mode Failure dialog.
6 Add a cell below the last full cell by right-clicking within an empty area of the dialog
and selecting the option 'Append Rows'.
7 Repeat steps 3-6 to add more objects to the Common Mode Failure.
8 Click the 'Failure Data' tab and enter the Sustained Failure Frequency, Mean Outage
duration and Transient Fault Frequency data.
31 - 21
9 Click OK to save your changes.
Protection/Switch Failures
PowerFactory can consider the failure of the protection system to clear the fault as a
stochastic probability within the reliability calculation. This is enabled by entering a 'Proba-
bility of Failure' into the switch object. To enter this data:
1 Open the dialog for the switch object where you want to enter the switch failure
probability. Normally switches are accessed by right clicking their containing cubicle
and selecting the option 'Edit Devices'.
2 On the Reliability tab of the switch object, enter the 'Fault Clearance: circuit breaker
fails to open probability' in percent. For example, a 5 % failure rate means that on
average 1 out of 20 attempted fault clearance operations will fail.
Note: PowerFactory does not distinguish between a protection system
failure and a switch failure. For example, the reason that a switch
fails to open could be caused by a faulty relay, a protection mal-
grading or a faulty circuit breaker. The cumulative probability of all
these events should be entered into the switch failure probability.
Double Earth Faults
A double earth fault in PowerFactory is defined as follows: a single earth fault on a
component followed by a second simultaneous earth fault on another component.
A double earth fault might occur after voltage rises on healthy phases on a feeder
following a single phase to earth fault on the feeder, causes a second phase to earth fault
on the same feeder.
Double earth faults occur on lines, transformers (2 Winding and 3 Winding transformers)
and busbars, and PowerFactory supports adding the conditional probability data for
double earth faults for Stochastic Models of these components. The reliability calculation
automatically generates a contingency event for every double earth fault that meets the
following conditions:
Both objects are in the same part of the network (supplied by the same transformers).
The star point of the transformers that supply that part of the network is isolated or
compensated (star point grounded and Peterson Coil enabled).
The frequency of single earth faults of the first object is > 0
The probability of double earth fault of the second object is > 0.
The frequency for single earth faults and the probability of the second earth fault data can
be entered on the 'Earth Fault' page of every Stochastic Model. Follow these steps to enter
data for a Line Stochastic Model:
1 Open the Stochastic Failure Model for the line (either through the reliability page of
the line type or the line elements).
2 Select the Earth Fault page.
3 Enable the option 'Model Earth Faults'
31 - 22
4 Enter the data for the frequency of single earth faults
5 Enter the data for the conditional probability of a second earth fault
6 Enter the Repair duration.
7 Close the Stochastic Model.
Note: The double earth fault is a conditional probability. Therefore, the
probability of one occurring in the network is the probability of an
earth fault on component A * probability of an double earth fault
on component B
31.2.2 How to Create Feeders for Reliability Calculation
All loads that are to be considered for the reliability calculation must be incorporated
within a feeder. Additionally, the feeders must be radial - mesh systems cannot be
considered and will be ignored. PowerFactory automatically checks for parallel compo-
nents within each feeder and if any are detected the following message will be printed to
the output window:
DIgSI/wrng - The following feeders contain parallel components and are
therefore ignored by the optimal power restoration:
The reliability calculation can proceed with other feeders in the system but all contin-
gencies within the feeder with parallel components will be ignored. Therefore, it is recom-
mended to first radialize all feeders before proceeding with the reliability calculation.
To create a feeder:
Right click on the cubicle at the head of the feeder and select the option Define ->
Feeder; or
for fast creation of multiple feeders right click the bus the feeder/s are connected to
and select the option Define -> Feeder. More information on feeders and feeder
creation can be found in Chapter 15.5.
31.2.3 How to Configure Switches for the Reliability Calculation
A critical component of the Failure Effect Analysis (FEA), is the behavior of the switches
in the network model. Switches in PowerFactory are classified into four different
categories:
Circuit Breakers; Typically these are automatic and controlled by relays and through
remote communications. They are used for clearing faults and for closing back-feeds
for power restoration.
Disconnectors; Used for isolation and power restoration
Load-Break-Switch; Used for isolation and power restoration
Switch Disconnector; Used for isolation and power restoration
All switches in PowerFactory are modelled using the StaSwitch or ElmCoup objects. The
switch category (CB, disconnector etc) is selected on the basic data page of the switch.
The actions that the FEA analysis takes depends on the configuration of these switches
31 - 23
and, optionally, the location of protection devices.
To configure a switch for reliability analysis follow these steps:
1 Open the dialog for the switch and select the reliability page. This can be done
directly by editing switches modelled explicitly on the single line diagram, or for
switches embedded within a cubicle, by right-clicking the cubicle and selecting the
option 'edit devices', to access the switch.
2 Select the Sectionalizing' option. The following choices are available:
- Remote controlled (Stage 1); This option means that the actuation time of this
switch is taken from the global 'remote controlled' switch actuation time. The
default time is 1 min but this can be adjusted within the reliability command, see
Section 31.3.1: How to run the Reliability Assessment.Typically remote controlled
switches are circuit breakers controlled by relays or with communications from a
control room.
- Indicator of Short Circuit (Stage 2); This option represents a switch that has an
external indication of status on the outside of the switch enclosure. This allows the
operator/technician to easily identify the switch status and actuate the switch.
- Manual (Stage 3); These switches need direct visual inspection to determine their
status and therefore take longer to actuate than either stage 1 or stage 2 switches.
3 Select the Power Restoration option. The following choices are available:
- Do not use for power restoration; If this option is selected the switch can only be
used for isolation of equipment or load shedding. It will not be used by the FEA
calculation to restore power.
- From terminal i to j; If this option is selected, the switch will only be used to restore
power if the post restoration power flow is in the direction from terminal i to
terminal j. The switch will not be used for power restoration in the opposite
direction.
- From terminal j to i; If this option is selected, the switch will only be used to restore
power if the post restoration power flow is in the direction from terminal j to
terminal i. The switch will not be used for power restoration in the opposite
direction.
- Independent of direction; If this option is selected the switch will be used to restore
power flow regardless of the direction of the post restoration power flow.
4 Enter the time to actuate switch (Stage 2 and 3 switches only); This field specifies
the time taken by the operator to actuate the switch. Note, this excludes the local
access and access time if the switch is within a substation. The total actuation time
of such a switch is therefore the switch actuation time + the substation access time
+ the local access time.
Note: The Sectionizing options are only considered in the 'Distribution'
reliability analysis option. If the 'Transmission' mode is selected,
then all switches are assumed to be remote controlled.
31.2.4 Load Modeling for Reliability Assessment
This section describes the load element parameters that are used by the reliability calcu-
lation. The first sub-section describes how to input the number of customers that each
31 - 24
load represents and how to classify each load. The second sub-section describes the
process of creating a load interruption cost characteristic. The third sub-section describes
how to define load shedding and transfer parameters.
How to Specify the Number of Customers for a Load
Many of the reliability indices such as SAIFI and CAIFI are evaluated based on the number
of customers interrupted. Therefore, for accurate calculation of these indices it is
important to specify the number of customers that each load represents. To do this:
1 Open the dialog for the target load element.
2 Select the Reliability page.
3 In the 'Number of connected customers' field, enter the number of customers that
this load represents.
4 Repeat this process for each load in the system you are modelling.
Load Classification
Every load can be optionally classified into agricultural, commercial, domestic or industrial
load. This option does not affect the calculation of the reliability indices and is provided
for categorisation purposes only.
How to model Load Interruption Costs
When supply to a load is interrupted, there is a cost associated with the loss of supply. In
many cases, the cost for short duration interruptions, say less than one hour, could be less
(on a per unit basis), than the cost of interruptions longer than one hour. An example
interruption cost curve is shown in Figure 31.12.
Fig. 31.12: Example Load Interruption Cost Curve
PowerFactory supports the definition of such cost curves for load elements. They can
be defined using the 'time dependent rate' characteristic on the reliability page of the load
element. To define such a characteristic follow these steps:
31 - 25
1 Choose the 'Select' option from the 'time dependent rate selection control on the
reliability page of the load element. A data manager browser should appear with the
'Equipment Type Library' selected.
2 Optional: If you have previously defined a 'time dependent rate' characteristic and
want to re-use it, you can select it now. Press OK to return to the load element to
reliability page.
3 Create a characteristic by pressing the 'New Object' button from the data
browser toolbar. A type creation dialog should appear.
4 Press OK to create the 'Parameter Characteristic'. A 'Parameter Characteristic' dialog
box will appear. You now need to create a scale the defines the 'x-axis' values of the
characteristic. To do this:
1 Using the 'Scale' selection control, choose the select option. A data browser will
appear.
2 Create a 'Scale' by pressing the 'New Object' button from the data
browser toolbar. A Element selection dialog will appear.
3 Choose the 'Time Scale' (TriTime') option from the list box. A time scale object
dialog will appear.
4 Choose the unit 'min'.
5 Enter the minute values you want to consider as part of your characteristic
above. These are the x-axis values. You can append more rows by right-clicking
within a cell and selecting the option 'Append Rows'.
6 Press OK twice to return the 'time dependent rate' characteristic you created
earlier. The scale values you entered should appear in burgundy text in the left
most column of the characteristic.
5 Enter the cost values for interruption duration.
6 Press OK to return to the load element reliability page.
7 Select the unit of the interruption cost function by choosing from the following
options:
$/kW Cost per interrupted power in kW.
$/customer Cost per interrupted customer.
$ Absolute cost.
8 Optional: enter a scaling factor for the 'time dependent' rate characteristic.
Note that the interruption cost function is not interpolated. As an example, consider the
following cost function:
This then means that for the following durations the cost is as follows:
30min $7.50
60min $20.00
180min $80.50
0min t 30min $0.00 < s
31 - 26
Specifying Load Shedding and Transfer Parameters
Load transfer and load shedding are used to alleviate violated voltage or thermal
constraints caused by the power restoration process. There is a distinction between load
transfer for constraint alleviation, such as described in this section, and load transfer for
power restoration. Load transfer by isolating a fault and closing a back-stop switch is
considered automatically during the fault separation and power restoration phase of the
failure effect analysis.
If a violated constraint is detected in the post-fault system condition, a search begins for
the loads contributing to these overloads. The overloads are then alleviated by either:
Transferring some of these loads, if possible; or
Shedding some of these loads, starting with the lowest priority loads.
To define the load shedding parameters follow these steps:
1 Open the reliability page of the load element.
2 Enter the number of load shedding steps using the 'Shedding steps' list box. For
example, four shedding steps means that the load can be shed to 25%, 50%, 75%
or 100% of its base value. Infinite shedding steps means that the load can be shed
to the exact value required to alleviate the constraint.
3 Enter the 'Load priority'. The reliability algorithm will always try to shed the loads
with the lowest priority first. However, high priority loads can still be shed if the
algorithm determines this is the only way to alleviate a constraint.
4 Enter the load transfer percentage in the 'Transferable' parameter. This defines the
percentage of this load that can be transferred away from the current network.
PowerFactory assumes that the transferred load is picked up by another network
that is not modelled, hence load transferring in this way is equivalent to load
shedding in terms of constraint alleviation. The difference is that transferred load is
still considered as supplied load, whereas shed load is obviously not supplied.
5 Optional: Use the selection control next to 'Alternative Supply (Load)' to specify an
alternative load that picks up all transferred load.
Note: There is a critical difference between the transmission reliability
and distribution reliability functions. In distribution reliability all
constraint alleviation is completed using switch actions, so loads
can only be fully shed (switched out) or they remain in service.
However, by contrast, the transmission reliability option can shed
or transfer a percentage of the load.
Considering Multiple System Demand Levels (Optional)
If you have defined time-based characteristics for the feeder loads so that the demand
30min t 60min $7.50 < s
60min t 180min $20.00 < s
180min t $80.50 s
31 - 27
changes depending on the study case time, then you might want to also consider using
these different demand patterns in the reliability analysis. Because the reliability analysis
always analyses a discrete 'system state', it is normally not practical to consider every
possible demand level because the number of discrete states in a practical system is
usually very large. Instead, the load demand for a one year period is can be discretized
and converted into several so-called 'load states', and a probability of occurrence for each
state. For reference, the internal procedure that PowerFactory follows to create load
states is described in Chapter 34.1.5.
The Reliability Command does not automatically generate the load states. Therefore, if
you wish to consider multiple demand levels in your reliability analysis you must first get
PowerFactory to generate the load states. This procedure is described in the next
section.
To Create Load States
Pre-requisites:
Prior to creating load states you must have defined time based parameter characteristics
for some loads within your network model. See Chapter 18 for more information on
parameter characteristics.
Follow these steps to create the load characteristics:
1 Click the 'Create Load States' button on the reliability toolbar. The load states
creation dialog will appear.
2 Optional: Use the Reliability Assessment selection control to inspect or alter the
settings of the Reliability Calculation command. This selection control points to the
default reliability command within the active Study Case.
3 Optional: Use the Load Flow selection button to inspect and alter the settings of the
load flow command. This selection control points to the default load-flow command
within the active Study Case.
4 Enter the year to generate the load states for.
5 Enter the Accuracy. More information about the accuracy is available in
Chapter 34.1.5. Essentially, the lower accuracy percentage, the more load states
that are generated.
6 Optional: Limit the number of load states to a user-defined value.
7 Optional: Change the threshold for ignoring load states with a low probability by
altering the 'Minimum Probability'. You can also disable this feature by unchecking
the 'Ignore load states with a small probability' flag.
8 Click Execute to generate the load states.
To View Existing Load States
After you have generated the load states as described above, or if you want to inspect
previously generated load states follow these steps:
1 Using the data manager, select the Reliability Assessment Command within the
Active Study Case.
31 - 28
2 Use the filter to select the 'characteristic load states' object . There should
now be one object visible in the right panel of the data manager.
3 Double-click this object to view the load states. Figure 31.13 shows the dialog of the
load states object.
Fig. 31.13: Load States (SetCluster) dialogue box
The load states object properties are as follows:
Basic Data
Year The Year used to create the load states.
Loads: Table containing each load considered by the load states creation algorithm
and their peak demand.
Cluster: Table containing all load clusters. The first row in the table contains the
probability of the corresponding cluster. The remaining rows contain the power values
of the loads. Every column in the table contains a complete cluster of loads with the
corresponding power.
Number of loads: Number of loads considered in the load cluster object.
Number of states: This equals the number of columns in the Clusters table.
Diagram Page
Displayed Load
Use the selection control to change the load displayed on the plot.
Plot
The plot shows the cluster values (P and Q) for the selected load where
the width of each bar represents the probability of occurrence for that
cluster in the given year.
31 - 29
31.2.5 Fault Clearance Based on Protection Device Location
The Reliability Calculation has two options for fault clearance:
Use all circuit breakers; or
Use only circuit breakers controlled by protection devices (fuses or relays).
The second option is the more realistic option, because only locations within the network
that can automatically clear a fault will be used by the reliability calculation to clear the
simulated faults. However, you must create protection devices to control each automatic
switch for this option to work correctly.
31.2.6 How to Consider Planned Maintenance
The PowerFactory reliability calculation supports the definition and automatic inclusion
of planned network maintenance. Maintenance is implemented with a planned outage
object. These objects are found within the 'Outages' sub-folder within the project 'Opera-
tional Library'. The following steps describe the procedure for creating a planned outage:
1 On the single line diagram (or within the data manager), select the object (or
objects) that you would like to define an outage for.
2 Right-click the selected object/s and from the menu that appears choose the option
'Define -> Planned Outage'. The dialog box for the planned outage will appear.
3 Using the Start Time selection control '...', enter the time that the outage begins.
4 Using the End Time selection control '...', enter the time that the outage ends.
5 Optional: Adjust the Outage Type. Typically you would leave this on the default
Outage of Element' option, but if you wanted to model a generator derating, then
you would choose the 'Generator Derating' option.
Note: When the reliability calculation considers outages it creates a
unique contingency case for every contingency with the outage ap-
plied and also without the outage. For example, for a network with
two planned outages and six contingencies there will be a total of
6 * 3 = 18 contingency cases.
31.2.7 Specifying Individual Component Constraints
The reliability calculation can automatically consider voltage and thermal constraints for
the power restoration process. There are two options for specifying the constraints:
Global Constraints; All network constraints are based on the constraints specified on
the constraints tab of the Reliability Command Dialog.
Individual Component Constraints; For this option every branch and terminals object
has constraints defined within these objects.
To Specify Individual Terminal Voltage Constraints
Follow these steps to specify voltage constraints for terminals:
1 Open the reliability page of the target terminal.
31 - 30
2 Enter the Max and Min Voltage limits in the fields near the bottom of this page.
3 Click OK to close the dialog and save the changes.
To Specify Individual Line/transformer Thermal Constraints
Follow these steps to specify thermal constraints for a line or transformer:
1 Open the reliability page of the target line/transformer.
2 Enter the Max Loading in the field near the bottom of this page.
3 Click OK to close the dialog and save the changes.
31.3 Running The Reliability Assessment Calculation
The procedure for using the PowerFactory Reliability Assessment tool and analyzing the
results generated by the tool is described in this section.
31.3.1 How to run the Reliability Assessment
In PowerFactory the network Reliability Analysis is completed using the Reliability
Assessment command (ComRel3 ). This command is found on the 'Reliability
Analysis' toolbar , see Figure 31.1. The options for the reliability command that are
presented within its dialog are described in the following sub-sections.
Basic Options
The following options are available on the Basic Options page Reliability Assessment
Command dialog.
Method
Connectivity analysis
This option enables failure effect analysis without considering
constraints. A load is assumed to be supplied if it is connected to a
source of power before a contingency, and assumed to undergo a loss
of supply if the process of fault clearance separates the load from all
power sources. Because constraints are not considered, no load-flow is
required for this option and hence the analysis will be faster than when
using the alternative load-flow analysis option.
Load flow analysis
This option is the same as the connectivity analysis, except that
constraints are considered by completing load-flows for each
contingency. Loads might be disconnected to alleviate voltage or
thermal constraints. For the transmission analysis option, Generator re-
dispatch, load transfer and load shedding are used to alleviate
overloads.
Calculation time period
Complete year
The reliability calculation is performed for the current year specified in
31 - 31
the 'Date/Time of the Calculation Case'. This can be accessed and the
date and time changed by clicking the button.
Single Point in Time
The Reliability Calculation is completed for the network in its current
state at the actual time specified by the 'Date/Time of the Calculation
Case'.
Note: If load states or maintenance plans are not created and consid-
ered, then these options make no difference because the reliability
calculation is always completed at the single specified time.
Load Flow
This button is a link to the load-flow calculation command used for the analysis. The load
demand is calculated using this load-flow. In addition, its settings are used for the
constraint evaluation load-flows.
Network
Distribution
The reliability assessment will try to remove overloading at components
and voltage violations (at terminals) by optimizing the switch positions
in the radial system. If constraints occur in the power restoration
process, loads will be shed by opening available switches. This option is
the recommended analysis option for distribution and medium voltage
networks.
Transmission
Thermal overloads are removed by generator re-dispatch, load transfer
and load shedding. First generator re-dispatch and load transfer is
attempted. If these cannot be completed or do not remove the thermal
overload, load shedding actions will occur. Generator re-dispatch and
load transfer do not affect the reliability indices. However, by contrast,
load shedding leads to unsupplied loads and therefore affects the
reliability indices.
Automatic Contingency Definition
The 'Selection' list presents three possible options for the contingency definition. These
are:
Whole system: PowerFactory will automatically create a contingency event for every
object that has a Stochastic Model defined.
Single Grid: Selecting this option shows a selection control. Now you can select a
single grid and only contingencies for objects in this grid will be created.
User Defined: Selecting this option shows a selection control. Now you can select a
set of objects (SetSelect), and contingencies will be created for each of these objects
that has a Stochastic Model defined.
In addition to the above contingency definition options, the automatic contingency
definition can be further controlled with the following checkboxes:
Busbars/Terminals; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to create Busbar
and terminal contingencies.
31 - 32
Lines/Cables; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to create Line/Cable
contingencies.
Transformers; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to create transformer
contingencies.
Common Mode; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to create Common
Mode contingencies. See Common Mode Stochastic Model (StoCommon) for more
information.
Independent second failures; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to
consider n-2 outages in addition to n-1 outages. Caution: n-2 outages for all
combinations of n-1 outages are considered. This means that for a system of n
contingencies there are (n * (n-1)) / 2) + n, contingencies to consider. This equation
is quadratic, so for this reason, this option is disabled by default.
Double-earth faults; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to consider double-
earth faults. See Double Earth Faults for more information.
Protection/switching failures; You must enable this flag for PowerFactory to
consider protection devices or circuit breakers failure to operate. See Protection/
Switch Failures for more information.
Outputs
The following options are available on the Outputs tab of the Reliability command.
Results
This option allows the selection of the result element (ElmRes) where
the results of the reliability analysis will be stored. Normally,
PowerFactory will create a result object within the active study case.
Perform Evaluation of Result File
The Reliability Analysis automatically writes all simulation results to a
result object specified above. After completing the Reliability
Calculation, PowerFactory automatically evaluates the result object to
compute the reliability indices. This button allows you to re-evaluate a
results file that has previously been created by this or another reliability
calculation command. The benefit of this is that you do not have to re-
run the reliability calculation if you only want to recalculate the indices
from an already completed calculation, which is typically much more
time consuming than the result object evaluation.
Output
Displays the form used for the output report. Report settings can be
inspected and the format selected by clicking on the button.
Recording Limits
These options define when PowerFactory will record bus voltages
and line loadings in the reliability assessment result object. For
example, if the loading limit is specified as 80 %, then line loadings will
only be recorded on lines where the calculated loading is greater than
80 %.
FEA
A failure effect analysis (FEA) is made for each system state that occurs during the state
31 - 33
enumeration. The configuration options are explained next.
Fault Clearance Breakers
Use all circuit breakers
All switches in the system whose Usage is set to Circuit Breaker can be
used for fault clearance.
Use only circuit breakers with protection device
All circuit breakers in the system which are controlled by a protection
device (fuse or relay) can be used for fault clearance.
Fault Separation/Power Restoration
This option will only be enabled if Automatic Power Restoration is enabled on the
Advanced Options Tab.
Concurrent Switch Actions
It is assumed that the switching actions can be performed immediately
following the specified switching time. However, a switch can be closed
for power restoration only after the faulted element was disconnected.
The analogy for this mode, is if there were a large number of operators
in the field that were able to communicate with each other to
coordinate the switching actions as quickly as possible. Therefore, this
option gives an optimistic assessment of the 'smart power restoration'.
Sequential Switch Actions
It is assumed that all switching actions are performed sequentially. The
analogy for this mode, is if there is only a single operator in the field
and they are required to complete all switching. The fault separation
and power restoration is therefore slower when using this mode
compared with the 'concurrent' mode.
Consider Sectionalizing (Distribution analysis only)
If enabled, the FEA considers the switch sectionalizing stage when attempting fault
separation and power restoration. First sectionalizing is attempted using only stage 1
switches, if this is not successful then stage 1 and 2 switches are used. Finally, if this is
not successful, then stage 1, 2 and 3 switches are used.
Time to open remote controlled switches
The time (in minutes) taken to open remote controlled switches.
Constraints
The settings for global constraints are defined within this page. The options are as follows:
Consider Thermal Constraints (Loading)
If this option is enabled, thermal constraints are considered by the FEA.
Global constraints for all components
Constraints specified in 'Max thermal loading of components' apply to
all components.
Individual constraint per component
The maximum thermal loading limit is considered for each component
separately. This loading limit can be found on the Reliability tab of each
component.
31 - 34
Max thermal loading of components (Global constraints only)
The maximum thermal loading of all components can be specified in
percent value.
Consider Voltage Limits (Terminals)
If this option is enabled voltage limits are considered by the FEA.
Global Constraint for all terminals
Constraints specified in Lower and Upper Limit of allowed voltage apply
to all terminals
Individual Constraint per terminal
Voltage constraints are considered for each terminal separately. These
constraints can be found on the Reliability tab of each terminal.
Lower limit of allowed voltage (Global constraint only)
You can specify the lower limit of allowed voltage in p.u that will apply
to all terminals.
Upper limit of allowed voltage (Global constraint only)
You can specify the upper limit of allowed voltage in pu that will apply
to all terminals.
Ignore all constraints for
Constraints are ignored for all terminals and components below the entered voltage level.
Nominal voltage below or equal to
The voltage level in kV is specified here if 'Ignore all constraints for...' is
enabled.
Note: Voltage constraints are only available in the 'Distribution' analysis
option. Thermal constraints are available in the 'Transmission' and
'Distribution' analysis.
Maintenance
This tab allows you to enable or disable the consideration of Maintenance based on the
Planned Outages you have defined. See Section 31.2.7, for more information on defining
planned outages. The following options are available on this page:
Consider Maintenance
If enabled, all maintenance that falls in the selected time period, whether its a year or a
single point in time, is considered.
Show used planned outages
When clicked, this button will show a list of all planned outages that will
be considered by the calculation.
Show all planned outages
When clicked, this button will show a list of all planned outages created
in the project, including those not considered by the analysis because
they fall outside of the selected time period.
Load Data
If the Reliability Calculation option 'Complete Year' is selected on the basic options page,
31 - 35
then the following options are available on the Load Data page.
Consider Load states
Enable this flag to consider the load states in the reliability calculation. The reliability
calculation does not create load states automatically. If this flag is enabled but the states
have not been created, then an error will be printed to the output window and the
reliability calculation will stop. Otherwise the following two buttons are available.
Create Load States
Launches the 'Load state creation' command after closing the reliability
command. See (To Create Load States), for more information on load
state creation.
Show all existing Load states
Opens a list of all current load states.
Advanced Options
Failures, correction of forced outage rate
This option performs an automatic correction/normalization of the reliability indices to
allow for the fact that not all unlikely but possible contingencies have been considered in
the analysis. For instance, n-3 contingencies have a non-zero probability.
Fault Clearance/ Automatic Power Restoration
Do not save corresponding switch events
Results of internal nodes of substations will not be written to the result
file. This minimizes the amount of objects created in the database while
performing calculations with many contingencies caused by big
networks (e.g if independent second failures or double earth faults are
enabled).
Save corresponding switch events
Corresponding switch events will be saved in the database while
performing calculations.
Automatic Power Restoration
If enabled, automatic power restoration will be considered.
Calculate Existing Contingencies (Do not create contingencies)
If enabled, the existing contingencies inside the reliability command will be used in the
analysis. Note that the options for automatic contingency definition on the Basic Options
tab disappears.
Switch/Load events
Delete switch events
Removes all switch events associated with the contingencies stored
inside the command.
Delete load events
Removes all load events associated with the contingencies stored inside
the command.
Loadflow Analysis, Overloadings
Consider branch if loadings exceeds
If there are overloaded elements in the system, these overloadings
should be removed through overload alleviation. Branches whose
31 - 36
loading exceeds this limit, are considered by the overload alleviation
algorithm.
A reliability assessment will be started when the Execute button is pressed. The calcu-
lation time required for a reliability assessment can range from a few seconds for a small
network only considering n-1 contingencies, to several hours for a large network consid-
ering n-2 contingencies. A reliability assessment calculation can be interrupted by clicking
on the Break icon ( ) on the main toolbar.
31.3.2 Viewing the FEA results for a Specific Contingency
After the Reliability Analysis has completed, it is possible to view the fault clearance, fault
separation, power restoration and load shedding actions completed by the algorithm for
each contingency. To do this:
1 Click the 'Fault Trace' button on the Reliability toolbar. A list of available
contingencies will appear in a new window.
2 Select the contingency to consider and click OK. The network will be initialized to the
state before the inception of the fault.
3 Click the 'Next Step' button to advance to the next system state. This will
usually show the system state immediately after the protection has operated and
cleared the fault.
4 Click the 'Next Step' button to advance through more steps, each click
advances one time step.
5 To stop the fault trace, click the 'Stop Trace' button.
31.3.3 Viewing the Load Point Indices
You can view the Reliability Assessment Load Point Indices in two ways: in the load result
boxes in single line graphic, or in the data browser (data manager or load filter). This sub-
section describes both of these methods.
View the Load Point Indices in the Single Line Diagram
After you have executed the Reliability Assessment Calculation, all loads within the
Network Single Line Graphic, will show the following load point indices:
AID
LPIF
LPIT
LPIC
As usual, with PowerFactory result boxes, you can hover the mouse pointer over the
result box to show an enlarged popup of the results. This is demonstrated in Figure 31.14.
31 - 37
Fig. 31.14: Single Line Diagram Graphic Showing the Load Point Indices Results
Note: You can show any of the calculated load point indices in the load
result boxes. To do this modify the displayed variables as described
in Chapter 19.3.3.
View the Load Point Indices in the Data Browser
To view the load point indices in the Data Browser (as a selectable spreadsheet list), follow
these steps:
1 Select the load element icon from the 'Edit Relevant Objects for Calculation
Selection' button . A list of all loads considered in the calculation will appear.
2 Choose the 'Flexible Data' tab. Calculated Load Point Indices for each load will
appear in Green Font text. By default, not all available load point indices will be
shown.
3 Optional: Click the 'Define Flexible Data' button , to show all available variables.
4 Optional: Add more variables to the 'Selected Variables' by double-clicking the
variable in the 'Available Variables' window.
5 Optional: Click OK to view the result variables in the data browser.
31.3.4 Viewing the System Reliability Indices (Spreadsheet
format)
The System Reliability Indices can be viewed for the whole system, individual grids, or for
individual feeders. Viewing these results is described in this sub-section.
To View Complete System Reliability Indices
Follow these steps to view the complete system reliability indices:
31 - 38
1 Select the 'Grids' icon from the 'Edit Relevant Objects for Calculation' button
located on the main toolbar. A list of all grids in the network model and a
summary grid will appear.
2 Click the Flexible Data' tab.
3 Click the 'Define Flexible Data' button to show the variable selection dialog.
4 Click the Reliability tab (if not already selected).
5 Choose the variable set 'Calculation Parameter', from the list selection control in the
'Filter for' section. A list of available reliability indices will appear.
6 Select the indices that you wish to view, and double click them to move them to the
'Selected Variables' window.
7 Click OK to view the result variables in the data browser.
Note: Steps 3-7 are only required the first time you want to view the sys-
tem reliability indices, or if you want to change the displayed vari-
ables. PowerFactory 'remembers' these settings within each
project.
To View Feeder Reliability Indices
Reliability indices can also be viewed for each Feeder. To do this:
1 Select the 'Feeder' icon from the 'Edit Relevant Objects for Calculation' button
located on the main toolbar. A dialog box with a list of all feeders in the
network model will appear.
2 Click the 'Flexible Data' tab.
3 Click the 'Define Flexible Data' button to show the variable selection dialog.
4 Click the Reliability tab (if not already selected).
5 Choose the variable set 'Calculation Parameter', from the list selection control in the
'Filter for' section. A list of available reliability indices will appear.
6 Select the indices that you wish to view, and double click them to move them to the
'Selected Variables' window.
7 Click OK to view the result variables in the data browser.
Note: Steps 3-7 are only required the first time you want to view the
Feeder reliability indices, or if you want to change the displayed
variables. PowerFactory 'remembers' these settings within each
project.
31.3.5 Printing ASCII Reliability Reports
PowerFactory has three built-in ASCII Reliability Reports that you can use to show
31 - 39
detailed print outs of the Reliability Calculation results. To do this, follow these steps:
1 Click the 'Output Calculation Analysis' icon on the main toolbar. A dialog box
showing the available reports will appear.
2 Choose the report that you want to view.
3 Click Execute. The selected ASCII report will be printed to the PowerFactory
Output Window.
Note: ASCII reports can be copied into a word processing tool directly
from the Output Window. However, for a more professional look,
try printing the report directly to PDF format from the Output Win-
dow.
31.3.6 Using the Colouring modes to aid Reliability Analysis
There are several colouring modes that can aid you when using the reliability assessment
functions. These are:
Colouring according to 'Feeders'; Use this to identify each Feeder and to see which
feeder picks up load when back-feed switches are closed.
Colouring according to 'Connected Grid Components'; Use this to identify de-
energized sections of the network during the fault isolation, separation and power
restoration.
Switches, type of usage. Use this mode to check the type of switches in the system
when they are not modelled explicitly in the single line diagram.
To Colour According to Feeders
1 Click the 'Diagram Colouring' button . The Diagram colouring dialog will appear.
2 Select the tab for the function you want to show the colouring mode for. For
example, if you want the feeder colouring to appear before a calculation, then select
the 'Basic Data' tab. If you want the colouring to appear after a load-flow choose the
load-flow tab.
3 Check the '3. Other' box and select 'Topology' from the drop down list.
4 Select 'Feeders' in the second drop down box.
5 Optional: To change the feeder colour settings click the 'colour settings' button. You
can double click the displayed colours in the colour column and select a different
colour for each feeder as desired.
6 Click OK to close the Diagram Colouring dialog and save your changes.
To Colour According to Connected Grid Components
The 'Connected Grid Components' colouring mode displays all the network components
that are electrically connected together in the same colour. Other components are not
coloured. To enable this mode:
31 - 40
1 Click the 'Diagram Colouring' button . The diagram colouring dialog will appear.
2 Select the load-flow tab.
3 Check the '3. Other' box and select 'Topology' from the drop down list.
4 Select 'Connected Grid Components' in the second drop down box.
To Colour According to Switch Type
The 'Switches: type of usage' colouring mode displays all switches in the network with a
different colour depending on their 'switch type'. For instance circuit breakers will be
displayed in a different colour to disconnectors. To enable this mode:
1 Click the 'Diagram Colouring' button . The diagram colouring dialog will appear.
2 Select the tab for the function you want to show the colouring mode for. For
example, if you want the switch type colouring to appear before a calculation, then
select the 'Basic Data' tab. If you want the colouring to appear after a load-flow
choose the load-flow tab.
3 Check the '3. Other' box and select 'Secondary Equipment' from the drop down list.
4 Select 'Switches, Type of Usage' in the second drop down box.
5 Optional: To change the switch colour settings, click the 'colour settings' button. You
can double click the displayed colours in the colour column and select a different
colour for each switch type as desired.
31.3.7 Using the Contribution to Reliability Indices Script
It can be useful to analyze the influence of a particular component or group of compo-
nents on the calculated reliability indices. This enables the identification of components
that can be targeted for upgrade to improve reliability, or to examine the impact of
improved switch automation for example. This sub-section describes the built-in DPL
script that can be used for these purposes.
To Start the Contribution to Reliability Indices Script
1 Execute a Reliability Assessment Calculation (or ensure that you activate a study
case where a reliability analysis has previously been completed).
2 Click the 'Edit Relevant Objects for Calculation' button from the main toolbar.
Depending on whether you want to view the contributions by Feeder, Grids, Areas or
Zone, choose one of the following icons from the list of icons that appears:
- For Grids choose the icon.
- For Feeders choose the icon.
- For Zones choose the icon.
31 - 41
- For Areas choose the icon.
3 In the window that appears, select the object/s that you want to show the reliability
indices contributions.
4 Right-click one of the selected object icons. A menu will appear.
5 Choose 'Execute DPL scripts'. A window displaying a list of DPL scripts will appear.
6 Select the 'Contribution to Reliability Indices' Script and click OK. The script dialog
box will appear. The available options are explained in the next section.
How to Configure and Run the Contribution to Reliability Indices
Script
1 Enter '1' in the value column for 'calcSystemIndices' parameter to make the script
print the system indices results. '0' suppresses the printing of the system indices.
2 Enter '1' in the value column for 'calcEnergyIndices' parameter to make the script
print the Energy indices results. '0' suppresses the printing of the Energy indices.
3 Enter '1' in the value column for 'outputComponentClasses' to make the script
display contributions from each class such as lines, cable, transformers. '0' supresses
the printing of the class information.
4 Enter '1' in the value column for 'outputIndivComponents' parameter to make the
script print the results indices for each object in the selected area. '0' suppresses the
printing of the individual indices.
5 Optional: Enter '1' in the 'outputPercentages' column to display the results from the
script in percent format.
6 Optional: Enter a percent threshold in the 'outputThreshold' column to limit the
printed results to those above a specific threshold.
7 Click Execute to run the script. The results are printed to the PowerFactory
output window.
31.4 Voltage Sag Analysis
Voltage Sag Analysis, is a calculation the assesses the expected frequency of voltage sags
within a network. The PowerFactory Voltage Sag tool calculates a short-circuit at the
selected load points within the system and uses the failure data of the system components
to determine the voltage sag probabilities.
31.4.1 Calculation Options
Voltage sag analysis has a lot in common with probabilistic reliability analysis. Both use
fault statistics to describe the frequency of faults and then use these statistics to weight
the results of each event and to calculate the overall effects of failures.
Reliability analysis looks for sustained interruptions as one aspect of quality of supply,
whereas voltage sag analysis calculates the voltage drop during the fault until the
protection system has disconnected the defective component.
An assessment of voltage sag tables for a selection of load points can be started as
follows:
31 - 42
Select one or more busbars/terminals and/or loads in the single line diagram or the
data manager, right-click the selection and select "Calculate... --> Voltage sag
table..."; or
Click on the icon on the main toolbar to activate the Additional Tools toolbar (if
not already visible), and then click the Voltage sag table assessment icon ( ).
In both cases, the voltage sag table command dialogue will open, as shown in Figures
31.15 and 31.16.

Fig. 31.15: Voltage Sag Table Assessment - Basic Options
Basic Options
Load selection
Reference to the set of load points. A load point can be defined by a
busbar, terminal or load.
Short-circuit command
Displays the short-circuit command that is used. The options for the
short-circuit type will be changed during the voltage sag calculation,
depending on the Advanced Options specified in the ComVsag
dialogue. However, other settings can be inspected or changed by
clicking on the button.
Results
Reference to the result file that is used for storage of results.
Exposed area limit
This defines the minimum remaining voltage for the voltage sag
calculation to continue calculating short-circuits at busbars which are
further away from the selected load points. If short-circuits at all
busbars (at a certain distance away from all load points) result in
voltages at the load points being higher than this limit, then no further
short-circuit will be analyzed.
Advanced Options
The Advanced Options shows the various short-circuit types that can be analyzed by the
voltage sag assessment command. All components for which a failure model has been
defined use the same short-circuit frequency. It is not possible to define frequencies of
occurrence for single phase, two-phase or three-phase short-circuits independently for
each component. The relative frequency for each type of short-circuit is entered for all
components in a uniform way.
31 - 43

Fig. 31.16: Voltage Sag Table Assessment - Advanced Options
The voltage sag analysis simulates various faults at all relevant busbars. It starts with the
selected load points, and proceeds to neighboring busbars until the remaining voltage at
all load points does not drop below the defined Exposed area limit. The remaining
voltages and the short-circuit impedances for all load points are written to the result file
specified by the Results parameter.
After all relevant busbars have been analyzed, the sag table assessment continues by
analyzing short-circuits at the midpoint of all lines and cables that are connected between
the relevant busbars. Again, the remaining voltages and short-circuit impedances for all
load points are written to the result file.
After the complete exposed area has been analyzed in this way, the result file contains
the values for Z_F1, Z_F2, Z_F0, Z_S1, Z_S2, Z_S0 and ura, uia, urb, uib, urc, uic for the
two ends of all relevant lines and cables and at their midpoints.
The written impedances are interpolated between the ends of a line and the middle with
a two-order polynomial. From them, and from the written remaining voltages, the various
source impedances are estimated. These estimated impedances are also interpolated
between the ends and the midpoint.
The interpolated impedances are then used to estimate the remaining voltages between
the ends and the midpoints of the lines or cables. This quadratic interpolation gives good
results also for longer lines, and also for long parallel or even triple parallel lines.
The main advantage is a substantial reduction in computation and an increase in the
overall calculation speed.
31.4.2 Performing a Voltage Sag Table Assessment
A voltage sag table assessment is performed in two phases:
31 - 44
1 A result file with remaining voltages and short-circuit impedances is created by
executing the ComVsag command. This can be done by selecting one or more
nodes, right-clicking and executing the Calculate... --> Voltage sag table... option, or
by initiating the command directly from the main toolbar by clicking on the icon.
2 A voltage sag plot is created by selecting one or more of the nodes for which the
ComVsag command was executed, right-clicking and executing the option Show --
> Voltage Sag Plot...
Alternatively,
The Load selection in the ComVsag dialogue can be filled manually with a set of
objects. A load point is defined by a terminal, a busbar, or by a single-connection
element (a load, motor, generator, etc.). These kinds of elements can be multi-
selected from the single-line diagram or data manager. Once selected, right-click on
them and select Define... --> General Set from the context-sensitive menu. This set
can then be selected as the Load selection.
A voltage sag plot can be created on a virtual instrument page manually, and the load
points can then be selected from the list of analyzed load points.
If several objects are selected which are all connected to the same busbar, then that
busbar will be added only once to the set of load points.
The Load selection parameter in the voltage sag assessment command should be set to
use the SetSelect which has the Used for: Voltage sag table flag set. However, any other
selection can be assigned to the Load selection.
The voltage sag tables are not calculated until a voltage sag plot is constructed. Upon
reading the remaining voltages, short-circuit frequencies and short-circuit impedances
from the result file, a voltage sag table is constructed for each selected load point. Figure
31.17 shows the voltage sag plot dialogue.
31 - 45

Fig. 31.17: Voltage Sag Plot Dialogue
Because there is no single definition of a voltage sag, the plot offers a selection of sag
definitions:
Minimum of Line-Neutral Voltages
Minimum of Line-Line Voltages
Minimum of Line-Line and Line-Neutral Voltage
Positive Sequence Voltage
Secondly, the x-variable against which the sag frequency will be shown has to be selected.
Possible x-variables are:
Remaining Voltage
Nom. Voltage at Shc-Busbar
Fault Clearing Time
Short-Circuit Type
Additionally, the x-variable can be sub-divided according to a split-variable (parameter
31 - 46
name: Split Bars in). Possible split variables are:
no split
any of the possible x-variables
the same parameter cannot be selected for the x-variable and the split-variable.
An example of the resulting voltage sag plot, in accordance with the settings shown in
Figure 31.17 is shown in Figure 31.18.

Fig. 31.18: Example Voltage Sag Plot
The voltage sag plot always shows the annual frequency of occurrence on the y-axis.
The example plot shows a bar for each load point for each x-variable, which is the
Remaining Voltage. All three loads can be seen to suffer either deep sags (remaining
voltage less than 0.4 p.u.), or shallow sags, although the values at 0.8 p.u. are also signif-
icant. Each bar is subdivided to the nominal voltage at SHC-Busbar. The shallow sags are
caused by the low voltage network, as well as the deep sags. The high voltage network
seems to cause moderate voltage sags. This is caused by the fact that the low voltage
networks in this example are radially operated and the higher voltage networks are
meshed. More detailed information about a specific value in the voltage sag plot can be
obtained by placing the mouse over a bar or part of a bar (without clicking) and allowing
the balloon help to pop up.
The voltage sag plot dialogue has a Report button, which outputs the voltage sag plot
data to the output window. A table for each selected load point will be written in accor-
dance to the selected Voltage Sag definition, x-Variable and Split Bars in selection. An
example of a voltage sag table is shown below. The reported voltage sag tables also show
the totals for each row and column.
DIgSI/info - 'Grid\TA2.ElmTerm'
col : Remaining Voltage (Volt.Sag) [p.u.]
row : Nom. Voltage at Shc-Busbar (Unom Shc) [kV]
val : Frequency of Shc (Sag Freq.) [1/a]
----------------------------------------------------------------------
| 0.20 0.50 0.60 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 |
-------|-------------------------------------------------------|------
10.0 | 1.56 0.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.25 6.75 | 11.50
50.0 | 1.45 1.52 0.00 0.83 0.09 0.12 1.08 5.57 | 10.66
150.0 | 3.50 2.32 1.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 | 7.50
380.0 | 0.00 1.25 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 | 2.50
-------|-------------------------------------------------------|------
| 6.52 6.04 1.67 2.08 0.09 0.12 3.33 12.32 | 32.16
----------------------------------------------------------------------
31 - 47
31.5 Compact Reliability Glossary
Lost load
A system load that is disconnected from the supply as a direct result of one or more
system failures by intervention of automatic protection devices. A system load cannot be
partly lost.
Shed load
A system load that is disconnected from the supply as a result of one or more system
failures by intervention of a system operator. A system load can be shed up to a certain
percentage.
Stochastic
A quantity is said to be stochastic when its value is random and therefore unknown. The
range of possible values is known, however, as is the respective likelihood of these values.
The number of eyes thrown with a dice is random, the possible outcomes are
{1,2,3,4,5,6} and the likelihood is frac16 for each outcome. For a continuous range of
possible outcomes, the likelihood is a continuous function, which is called the Probability
Density Function or 'PDF'.
Statistic
Statistical calculation methods are used to analyze stochastic quantities. A simple example
is the method for calculating a mean repair duration by dividing the total time spend
repairing by the number of repairs performed.
Information obtained using statistical methods on measured data can be used to build
Stochastic Models of the observed equipment.
Outage
The removal of a primary component from the system.
Forced Outage
The unplanned removal of a primary component from the system due to one or more
failures in the system. A failure does not have lead to lead to an outage, for instance the
failure of a transformer tap changer.
Scheduled Outage
The planned removal of a primary component from the system.
Maintenance
The planned removal of one or more primary components from the system.
31 - 48
Spare Unit
A reserve component, not connected to the system, which can be used as a replacement
for a component on outage by switching or replacing.
Failure
The event in which a component does not operate as intended or stops operating as
intended. An example of the former is a circuit breaker that fails to trip; an example of
the latter is a transformer that is tripped by its Buchholz relay.
Hidden Failure
An undetected change in a component which will lead to the failure of the component the
next time it is required to operate, unless it is inspected and repaired first.
Active Failure
The failure of a component which activates the automatic protection system. Active
failures are always associated with short-circuits.
Passive Failure
The failure of a component which does not activate the automatic protection system.
Repair
The restoration of the functionality of a component, either by replacing the component or
by repairing it.
Interruption
An unplanned zero-voltage situation at one or more load points due to outages in the
system.
Contingency
The state of a system in which one or more primary components are on outage. The level
of a contingency is determined by the number of primary components on outage. A "k-
Level'' contingency is thus the state of a system in which exactly k primary components
are on outage.
Adequacy
The ability of the electrical power system to meet the load demand under various steady
state system conditions.
31 - 49
Security
The ability of the system to meet the load demand during and after a transient or dynamic
disturbance of the system.
Availability
The fraction of time a component is able to operate as intended, either expressed as a
real fraction or in hours per year.
Redundant Unit
A component whose outage will never lead to an interruption in the base state which
cannot be restored by normal switching actions (i.e normal network reconfiguration)
alone.
Base State
The state of the system where all components are able to operate as intended.
(n-1) system
A system for which all relevant components are redundant units.
(n-k) system
A system for which the outage of k or less components will never lead to an interruption
which cannot be restored by normal switching actions (i.e normal network reconfigu-
ration) alone.
Distribution Function
The distribution function for the stochastic quantity X equals the cumulative density
function CDF(x).
CDF(x) = the probability of X to take a value smaller than x.
Probability Density Function
The function PDF(x), describing the probability of the stochastic quantity to take a value
from an interval around x, divided by the length of that interval. The PDF(x) is the deriv-
ative of the distribution function.
Hazard Rate Function
The function HRF(x) describes the probability of a stochastic quantity to be larger than
x+dx, given the fact that it is larger than x, divided by dx. Therefore, the hazard rate can
describe the probability of the failure of an element in the upcoming time period, given
the fact that it is still functioning properly. The hazard rate is often used to describe
equipment ageing and wear. A well-known example is the 'bath-tub' function which
31 - 50
describes the probability of a device failing in the next period during wear-in, normal
service time and wear-out.
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Generation Adequacy Analysis
32 - 1
Chapter 32
Generation Adequacy Analysis
The ability of the power system to be able to supply system load under all possible load
conditions is known as 'System Adequacy'. Specifically this relates to the ability of the
generation to meet the system demand while also considering typical system constraints
such as:
Generation unavailability due to fault or maintenance requirements;
Variation in system load on an monthly, hourly and minute by minute basis;
Variations in renewable output (notably wind generation output), which in turn affects
the available generation capacity.
The PowerFactory 'Generation Adequacy' Tool is designed specifically for testing of
'System Adequacy'. Using this tool, it is possible to determine the contribution of wind
generation to overall system capacity and to determine the probability of 'Loss of Load'
(LOLP) and the 'Expected Demand Not Supplied' (EDNS).
Note: In PowerFactory V14.1, the Generation Adequacy Assessment is
completed using the 'Monte Carlo Method' (probabilistic)
The analytical assessment of Generation Adequacy requires that each generator in the
system is assigned a number of 'probabilistic states' which determine the likelihood of a
generator operating at various output levels. Likewise, each of the system loads can be
assigned a time based characteristic that determines the actual system load level for any
point of time. A simplified general illustration of the Generation Adequacy assessment is
In such a small example, it is possible to determine the Generation Adequacy analytically
in a relatively short time. However, as the number of generators, generator states, loads
and load states increases, the degrees of freedom for the analysis rapidly expands so that
it becomes impossible to solve in a reasonable amount of time. Such a problem is ideally
suited to Monte Carlo simulation.
32 - 2
Fig. 32.1: Generation Adequacy Assessment Illustration
Monte Carlo Method
In the Monte Carlo method, a sampling simulation is performed. Using uniform random
number sequences, a random system state is generated. This system state consists of
random generating operating states and of random time points. The generating operating
states will have a corresponding generation power output, whereas the time points will
have a corresponding power demand. The value of Demand Not Supplied (DNS) is then
calculated for such state. This process is done for a specific number of draws (iterations).
At the end of the simulation, the values of the Loss of Load Probability (LOLP), Loss of
Load Expectancy (LOLE), Expected Demand Not Supplied (EDNS), and Loss of Energy
Expectancy (LOEE) indices are calculated as average values from all the iterations
performed.
Pseudo Random Number Generator
A Monte Carlo simulation relies on the generation of random numbers of 'high' quality. As
all computers run deterministic code to generate random numbers, a software random
number generator is known as a pseudo random number generator (PRNG). There are
various PRNGs available, some of which do not display appropriate statistical qualities for
use in Monte Carlo simulations, where very long sequences of independent random
numbers are required.
PowerFactory uses an implementation of the 'RANROT' PRNG. This generator displays
32 - 3
excellent statistical qualities suitable for Monte Carlo simulations and is also relatively fast.
Example
To illustrate the process of a Monte Carlo simulation, an example is now presented using
Figure 32.1 as the example network.
For each iteration, the operating state for each generator is randomly selected by gener-
ating a uniform random number. For each of these states, the corresponding power output
of the generator is calculated. The total generation power of the system is calculated by
summing all the generator outputs.
For the same iteration, a time point in the system is randomly selected. For this time point,
the power demand of each load is obtained. The total demand of the system is calculated
by summing all the load demands. It is then possible to obtain the 'Demand Not Supplied'
(DNS) value for this iteration, where DNS is defined as shown in Equation (32.1).
Eqn 32.1:
For example, in the first iteration, the generator states might be G1: 100%, G2: 100%,
and G3: 75%. The corresponding outputs would be then G1: 100 MW, G2: 60 MW, and
G3: 60 MW. The total generation output is the sum of all the three generator outputs;
220 MW. Also, a random time point yields Load A: 85 MW, Load B: 60 MW and Load C:
30 MW. The total system demand is the sum of all the load demands; 175 MW. Since the
generation is greater than the demand, all the demand is supplied and the value of DNS
is zero.
In a second iteration, the generator states might be G1: 0%, G2: 75%, and G3: 75%. The
corresponding outputs would be then G1: 0 MW, G2: 45 MW, and G3: 60 MW. The total
generation output is now 105 MW. A second random time point yields say Load A: 60 MW,
Load B: 50 MW, and Load C: 20 MW. The total system demand is now 130 MW. In this
case, the generation is smaller than the demand, so there is demand that cannot be
supplied. The demand not supplied is defined as the difference between demand and
generation - 25 MW in this iteration.
Continuing the analysis for a few subsequent iterations yields the results shown in
Table 32.1:
Table 32.1: Example Monte Carlo Analysis
Iteration six yields a second case where demand is not supplied.
Once the analysis has continued in this way (usually for several tens of thousands of itera-
tions) various indices of system adequacy can be calculated. The indices Loss of Load
DNS Demand
= Generation

32 - 4
Probability (LOLP) and Expected Demand Not Supplied (EDNS) are the critical measures.
They are calculated as follows:
Eqn 32.2: %
Eqn 32.3:
where is the number of iterations where and is the total number of itera-
tions.
Therefore, for the above example the indices are calculated as follows:
%
32.2 Database Objects and Models
There are several database objects in PowerFactory specifically related to the 'Generation
Adequacy' Analysis, such as:
Stochastic Model for Generation Object (StoGen);
Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve); and
Meteorological Station.
This section provides information about each of these objects.
32.2.1 Stochastic Model for Generation Object (StoGen)
This object is used for defining the availability states of a generator, an example of which
is shown in Figure 32.2. An unlimited number of states is possible with each state divided
into:
Availability of Generation (in %)
Probability of Occurrence (in %)
This means that for each state, the total available generation capacity in % of maximum
output must be specified along with the probability that this availability occurs. Note that
probability column is automatically constrained, so that the sum of the probability of all
LOLP
N
DNS
N
-------------- 100 =
EDNS
DNS
N
------------------- =
N
DNS
DNS 0 > N
LOLP
2
6
--- 100 33,33 = =
EDNS
30
6
------ = 5MW =
32 - 5
states must equal 100 %.
Fig. 32.2: Stochastic Model for Generation Dialog Box
The Stochastic model for generation object should reside within the project library,
'Equipment Type Library'.
Note that the generator maximum output is calculated as where is the
nominal apparent power and is the nominal power factor.
32.2.2 Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve)
This object is used to specify the wind speed (in m/s) vs nominal power output (p.u or
MW) for wind turbine generators. The dialog for the curve is shown in Figure 32.3.
Fig. 32.3: Power Curve Type (TypPowercurve)
For wind-speed values between specified curve values, PowerFactory interpolates using
the method specified in the 'Approximation' drop down menu. Interpolation options
include:
constant
Generation
Availability
Probability of
Availability
S
nom
u cos S
nom
u cos
'Approxima-
tion' (curve
interpolation
method)
32 - 6
linear
polynomial
spline and
hermite.
To change the Power unit, go to the configuration tab and choose either p.u or MW by
selecting the appropriate radio button.
32.2.3 Meteorological Station (ElmMeteostat)
It is often the case that 'groups' of wind generators have a wind speed characteristic that
is correlated. PowerFactory can represent such a correlation through the 'Meteo Station'
Object. This object is a 'grouping element' and is located within the project 'Network Data
Fig. 32.4: Project Data Structure showing the location of the 'Meteo Station' Object
Note that when two wind generators are correlated as members of the same 'Meteo
Station', they may still have different average wind speeds defined within their Generation
Adequacy dialog. During the Monte Carlo Analysis, a random wind speed is drawn for each
'Meteo Station'. This wind speed is then applied to every wind generator in that 'Meteo
Station' using the Weibull Stochastic Model. Thus, the power is calculated according to
the individual power curve of the generator.
When the generator is using time characteristics as a wind model, then the correlation is
given by the Monte Carlo drawn time, which is the same for all the generators of the
system.
Meteorological stations can be defined either via the element that is to be part of the
meteorological station (from any of the generator elements described in Section 32.3), or
via the single line diagram by right-clicking on an appropriate element and selecting
'Define -> Meteo Station' (or 'Add to -> Meteo Station') from the context-sensitive
menu. Note that the ability to define a 'Meteo Station' is dependent upon whether at least
32 - 7
one of the 'member' generators has the options 'Generator' and 'Wind Generator' selected
on its Basic Data page. If these options are not selected, the context menu entry is not
visible.
Note: A graphical coloring mode exists for Meteorological Stations, so
that they can be visualized in the single line graphic.
32.3 Assignment of Stochastic Model for Generation
Object
For the Generation Adequacy Analysis, there is a distinction between 'Dispatchable
(Conventional) Generation' and 'Non-dispatchable Generation'. Dispatchable generation
refers to generation that can be controlled at a fixed output automatically, typically by
varying the rate of fuel consumption. This includes generation technologies such as gas
thermal, coal thermal, nuclear thermal and hydro.
Non-dispatchable generation refers to generation that cannot be automatically controlled
because the output depends on some non controllable environmental condition such as
solar radiation or the wind speed. Wind turbine and solar photovoltaic generators are
examples of such 'environmentally dependent' generation technologies.
32.3.1 Definition of a Stochastic Multi-State Model
For both Dispatchable and Non-dispatchable generation it is possible to assign a
Stochastic Multi-State model to define the availability of each unit. The availability is
defined in a number of 'States' each with a certain probability as described in
Section 32.2.1.
Definition of a Stochastic Model for Dispatchable (Conventional)
Generation
The following 3-phase models are capable of utilising the Stochastic Model For Generation
Object (see 32.2.1), provided they are defined as generators and not as motors within
their respective element dialogs:
Synchronous machine (ElmSym);
Static generator (ElmGenstat) set as 'Fuel Cell', 'HVDC Terminal', 'Reactive Power
Compensation', 'Storage', or other 'Static Generator';
Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm); and
Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc)
In all cases, the stochastic model object is assigned on the elements 'Generation
Adequacy' page, under 'Stochastic Multi-State Model'. This is illustrated in Figure 32.5.
32 - 8
Fig. 32.5: Generation Adequacy tab with a Stochastic Model for generation selected
Also, to consider the generation as 'dispatchable', the 'Wind Generation' option in the
'Basic Data' tab page of the synchronous, asynchronous, and doubly fed machine should
be disabled.
Definition of a Stochastic Model for Non-Dispatchable (Wind and
Renewable) Generation
As for the dispatchable generation, the following 3-phase models are capable of utilising
the stochastic model for generation object, provided they are defined as generators and
not as motors:
Synchronous machine (ElmSym) set as 'Wind Generator';
Static generator (ElmGenstat) set as 'Wind Generator', 'Photovoltaic' or 'Other
Renewable'
Asynchronous machine (ElmAsm) set as 'Wind Generator'; and
Doubly-fed asynchronous machine (ElmAsmsc) set as 'Wind Generator'
In all cases, the stochastic model object is assigned on the elements 'Generation
Adequacy' tab page, under 'Stochastic Multi-State Model', as illustrated in Figure 32.5.
Objects not considered in Generation Adequacy Analysis
External Grids (ElmXnet), voltage and current sources (ElmVac, ElmIac) are ignored in the
Generation Adequacy analysis.
32.3.2 Stochastic Wind Model
In addition to the stochastic multi-state model for generation described above, a
stochastic wind model may be defined on the elements Generation Adequacy page
(provided that the type of generation is a wind generator). To enable this, navigate to the
Generation Adequacy tab and check the option 'Wind Model'. The page will appear as
32 - 9
Fig. 32.6: Stochastic Wind Model Definition
When the Stochastic Wind Model is selected, the wind generation characteristic is
described using the Weibull Distribution. The mean wind speed, and shape factor (Beta)
of the distribution can be adjusted to achieve the desired wind characteristic for each wind
generator.
In addition to describing the Weibull distribution using Mean Wind Speed and Beta, the
following alternate methods of data input can be used:
Mean Wind Speed and Variance;
Lambda and Variance;
Lambda and Beta.
The input method can be changed by using the input selection arrow and choosing
the desired method from the input window that appears.
32.3.3 Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation
If detailed data of wind generation output over time or wind speed over time is available,
then this can be used instead of a Stochastic Model. The data can be read by Power-
Factory as either a ChaVec characteristic or from an external file using the ChaVecFile
Wind Power
Curve definition
Meteo Station
definition
Selection of Stochastic
wind model
32 - 10
characteristic. In both cases the information required is one year of data in hourly
intervals - although non integer values can also be specified in the referenced data.
If the option 'Time Series Characteristics of Wind Speed' is selected, then the actual wind
generator power output for each iteration is calculated automatically from the Wind Power
Curve. If the option, 'Time Series Characteristic of Active Power Contribution' is selected
then no power curve is required.
Data for multiple years can also be used by referencing an additional characteristic for
each year. The 'Generation Adequacy' algorithm then selects a random wind speed or
power value from one of the input data years - essentially there is more data for the
random Monte Carlo iteration to select from.
A screenshot showing a wind generator model with three years of data is shown in
Figure 32.7.
Fig. 32.7: Wind Model using Wind Output Data
Other Renewable Generation
Static Generators (ElmGenstat) of category 'Photovoltaic' or 'Other Renewable' cannot
have a Stochastic wind model definition. However, they may still have a 'Stochastic Multi-
State model'. Their output is added to the aggregated non-dispatchable generation as
described later in this chapter.
Consideration of Parallel Machines
The Generation Adequacy analysis automatically considers parallel machines defined in
the basic data of the generator object using the variable 'ngnum', as shown in Figure 32.8.
Each of the parallel machines is treated independently. For example, a random operational
state is generated for each of the parallel machines. Effectively this is the same as if 'n'
machines were modelled separately.
32 - 11
Fig. 32.8: Synchronous machine element with the parameter 'ngnum' (number of
parallel machines highlighted).
32.4 Demand definition
Unless a time characteristic is assigned to either the Active Power (plini) or Scale factor
(scale0) variables (highlighted in Figure 32.9) of the load element, then the load is treated
as fixed demand. This means that the demand value does not change during the entire
analysis. Both General Loads (ElmLod) and LV Loads (ElmLodlv) are considered for the
analysis.
Fig. 32.9: ElmLod object dialog showing the variables that can have applied time
Characteristics effecting the Generation Adequacy analysis.
More information about assigning time based characteristics to object variables can be
found in Chapter 18: Parameter Characteristics.
32.5 Generation Adequacy Analysis Toolbar
The selection of the Generation Adequacy toolbar is shown in Figure 32.10.
32 - 12
Fig. 32.10: Generation Adequacy Toolbar selection
Once selected, the available buttons are shown in Figure 32.11.
Fig. 32.11: Generation Adequacy Analysis Toolbar
32.6 Generation Adequacy Initialisation Command
(ComGenrelinc)
Before a Generation Adequacy Analysis can be completed, the simulation must be
initialised. The Initialisation dialog box with the 'Basic Options' tab selected is shown in
Figure 32.12. The available options are explained in this section.
Generation Adequacy Tool-
Initialise Generation Adequacy Analysis
Run Generation Adequacy Analysis
Stop Generation Adequacy Analysis
Create Distribution Plots
Create Draws Plots
Create Convergence Plots
32 - 13
Fig. 32.12: Generation Adequacy Initialisation Command
Network
System Losses; Here a fixed percentage of losses can be entered. This value is
subtracted from the total generation at each iteration.
Load Flow Command; This is a reference to the load-flow command that will be used
to obtain the network topology for the analysis. It must be set to 'AC load-flow
balanced, positive sequence' or 'DC load-flow'. A converging load-flow is a
requirement for the Generation Adequacy analysis.
Demand Consideration
Fixed Demand Level; If this option is selected, all load time characteristics are ignored
and the total demand is calculated at the initial iteration and used for all subsequent
iterations.
Consider Time Characteristics; If this option is selected, any time characteristics
assigned to loads will be automatically considered in the calculation. Therefore, the
total demand can vary at each iteration.
Consider Maintenance Plans
If this option is enabled then any maintenance plans (out of service or derating) in the
32 - 14
project will be automatically considered. Consequently, when an iteration draws a time
that falls within a planned outage or derating, the outage (or derating) is applied to the
target element resulting in a reduction in available generation capacity.
To define a maintenance plan, right-click the target object from the single line graphic or
from the data manager and select the option 'Define... -> Planned Outage'. For more
information on Planned Outages refer to Chapter 5.5.5 (Outages).
Time Dependent Data
Year of Study; The period considered for the Generation Adequacy analysis is always
one year. However, it is possible for load characteristics to contain information for
many years. Therefore, the year considered by the calculation must be selected. Note
that this variable does not influence the wind speed or wind power data if the wind
model for the generator references time series data as described in Section 32.3.3
(Time Series Characteristic for Wind Generation). If more than one years data is
available, this simply increases the 'pool' of available data for the analysis.
Months, Days; These checkboxes allow the user to select the time period that will be
considered for the analysis. For instance, if only 'January' is selected then the iteration
time will be constrained to within this month.
Time Intervals
The user can specify up to three time intervals for the time window in which the analysis
will be completed. The time interval starts at the 'From' hour (0 minutes, 0 seconds), and
ends at the 'To' hour (0 minutes, 0 seconds) inclusive.
Output options
The output window of the 'Generation Adequacy Initialisation Command' is shown in
Figure 32.13.
Fig. 32.13: Output options for the Generation Adequacy Initialisation
Create Plots; If this option is checked, then PowerFactory will automatically create
output plots after the simulation finishes. See Section 32.8 for details of the plots that
are automatically created. Note this will generate a new set of plots for each run of
the analysis. So, if you wish for an existing set of plots to be updated, then leave this
option unchecked.
32 - 15
Draws; If this option is checked, then the user can specify a location for the results of
the simulation to be permanently stored within the database. This is the result of each
iteration. If this option is unchecked, then the results are deleted after each
simulation run.
Distribution; Here the user can select the storage location for the distribution
probabilities for the entire analysis. This information is always retained in the
database.
Advanced Options
The Advanced Options screen is shown in Figure 32.14. Here the user can change the
option for the generation of random numbers from 'auto' to 'renew'. If the 'renew' option
is selected, then the simulation can use one of a number of pre-defined random seeds (A-
K). As the software 'pseudo-random' number generator is deterministic, this allows for the
exact sequence of random numbers to be repeated.
Fig. 32.14: Initialisation Command Advanced Options
32.7 Run Generation Adequacy Command (ComGenrel)
The 'Run Generation Adequacy Analysis Command' appears in two styles depending on
the status of the calculation. If the calculation is being run for the first time, then it
appears as shown in Figure 32.15. On the other hand, if some iterations are already
complete, then the calculation can be continued and the dialog appears as shown in
Figure 32.16.

Fig. 32.15: Run Generation Adequacy Command Dialog (new simulation)
32 - 16
Fig. 32.16: Run Generation Adequacy Command Dialog (post simulation)
Pressing Execute will run the Generation Adequacy Analysis. The button can be used
to interrupt the analysis before the set number of iterations is complete, if desired. Later,
the simulation can be resumed from the 'stop point' using the 'Run Generation Adequacy
Analysis Command'.
Max Number of Iterations
This specifies the number of iterations to be completed by the Monte Carlo Analysis. The
default setting is 100,000.
Additional Iterations
After one analysis is completed, the Generation Adequacy Analysis can be extended for a
number of 'Additional Iterations'. Especially in very large systems, it may be useful to run
the first simulation with a smaller number of initial iterations, say 20,000 and then run
additional iterations as necessary using this option.
Generation Adequacy
This reference provides a link to the 'Generation Adequacy Initialisation Command', so
that the calculation settings can be easily inspected.
32.8 Generation Adequacy Results
Result plots for the Generation Adequacy Analysis are automatically generated if the
'Create Plots' option is enabled in Initialisation Command output options. Alternatively, the
plots can be manually created using the toolbar plot icons .
32.8.1 Draws (Iterations) Plots
This button draws by default four figures for the following result variables:
Total Available Capacity in MW;
Available Dispatchable Generation in MW;
Total Demand in MW;
Available Non-dispatchable capacity in MW;
32 - 17
Total Reserve Generation Capacity in MW;
Total Demand in MW;
Residual Demand in MW
Each of the data points on the plots represents a single Monte Carlo iteration.
32.8.2 Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots

This button draws a distribution plot which is essentially the data from 'Draws' plots sorted
in descending order. The data then becomes a cumulative probability distribution. An
example is shown in Figure 32.17.
Fig. 32.17: Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots
Obtaining the LOLP from the Distribution Plots
The LOLP index can be obtained by inspection directly from the Distribution Plots if the
demand is constant. The LOLP can be read directly from the intersection of the Total
Generation curve and the Total Demand curve as demonstrated in Figure 32.18.
When the demand is variable, then the LOLP index cannot be inferred from the above
diagram. Figure 32.19 shows such a case. There is no intersection point even though the
calculated LOLP index in this case is 20 %. In such cases, the LOLP index must be inferred
from the distribution plot of the Total Reserve Generation. As shown in Figure 32.20, the
32 - 18
intersection of this curve with the x-axis gives the LOLP index.
Fig. 32.18: Inferring the LOLP index directly from the intersection of the Total
Generation and Total Demand
Fig. 32.19: Variable Demand - distribution of Total Generation and Total Demand
32 - 19
Fig. 32.20: Total Reserve Generation
32.8.3 Convergence Plots
This button creates the so-called convergence plots for the LOLP and EDNS. As the
number of iterations becomes large the LOLP index will converge towards its final value,
likewise for the EDNS. The convergence plots are a way of visualising this process. An
example convergence plot is shown in Figure 32.21.
32 - 20
Fig. 32.21: Example Convergence Plot
Note: By default, the convergence plot is zoomed to the plot extents and
due to the number of iterations it may be difficult to observe the
upper and lower confidence limits. It is suggested that the 'Zoom
Y-axis' and 'Zoom X-axis' buttons are used to observe the
confidence limits in greater detail.
On both plots, the upper and lower confidence intervals are also drawn.
The sample variance is calculated as follows:
where is the number of samples, is the sample and is the sample mean. The 90 %
confidence interval is calculated according to the following formula:
where z is the standard inverse probability for the 'Students t distribution' with a confi-
dence interval of 90 %. Note z tends to 1.645 (inverse normal) as the number of iterations
becomes large.
o
2 1
n 1
----------- - y
i
y ( )
2
i 1 =
n
=
n y
i
y
CL y
o
n
------- z =
32 - 21
32.8.4 Summary of variables calculated during the Generation
Adequacy Analysis
Table 32.2: Generation Adequacy Calculated Variables
32 - 22
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Optimal Power Flow
33 - 1
Chapter 33
Optimal Power Flow
The Optimal Power Flow (OPF) module in PowerFactory optimizes a certain objective
function in a network whilst fulfilling equality constraints (the load flow equations) and
inequality constraints (i.e. generator reactive power limits). The user can choose between
interior point and linear optimization methods. In the case of linear optimization, contin-
gency constraints can also be enforced within OPF.
An OPF calculation in PowerFactory can be initiated by one of the following means:
By going to the main menu and selecting Calculation --> Optimal Power Flow...; or
By clicking on the OPF icon on the main toolbar.
In both cases, the calculation is started by pressing the Execute button in the OPF
command dialogue.
33.1 AC Optimization (Interior Point Method)
If the AC Optimization method is selected, the OPF performs a non-linear optimization
based on a state-of-the-art interior point algorithm. The following sections explain the
selection of objective function to be optimized, the selection of control variables, and the
definition of inequality constraints. The OPF command in PowerFactory is accessible by
going to the main menu and selecting Calculation --> Optimal Power Flow... , or via the
OPF icon on the main toolbar.
The Basic Options tab of the OPF dialogue (AC optimization method) is shown in Figure
33.1.
Fig. 33.1: Basic Options Tab of OPF Dialogue (AC Optimization Method)
33 - 2
Method
To perform an AC optimization OPF study, the Method must be set to AC Optimization
(Interior Point Method) as shown in Figure 33.1.
Objective Function
The OPF command dialogue, configured for AC optimization, has a selection of three
distinct objective functions, as shown in Figure 33.2. These are:
Minimization of Losses
Minimization of Costs
Minimization of Load Shedding
Fig. 33.2: Objective Function Selection for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
Minimization of Losses
When this objective function is selected, the goal of the optimization is to find a power
dispatch which minimizes the overall active power losses.
When this objective function is selected, the goal of the optimization is to supply the
system under optimal operating costs. More specifically, the aim is to minimize the cost
of power dispatch based on non-linear operating cost functions for each generator and on
tariff systems for each external grid.
For this purpose, the user needs to introduce for each generator, a cost function for its
power dispatch; and for each external grid, a tariff system.
- Cost Functions for Generators
Imposing an operating cost function on a generator element is done as follows: on
the Optimization tab of each synchronous machine (ElmSym) elements dialogue
(see Figure 33.3), it is possible to specify the operating costs of the unit with the
aid of the Operating Costs table (which relates active power produced (in MW) to
the corresponding cost (in $/h)). This data is then represented graphically beneath
the Operating Costs table, for verification purposes (see Figure 33.3). The number
of rows that can be entered in to the table is unlimited. To add or delete table rows,
right-click on a row number in the table and select the appropriate command (i.e.
33 - 3
'Copy', 'Paste', 'Select All'; 'Insert Rows', 'Append Rows', 'Append n Rows', 'Delete
Rows', etc.). If there are more than two rows, spline interpolation is used.
- Tariff Systems for External Grids
An external grid contributes to the overall cost function by a predefined tariff
system. On the Optimization tab of each external grid (ElmXnet) elements
dialogue (see Figure 33.4), the tariffs can be edited via the Incremental Costs
table. This table relates the cost (in $/MWh) over a certain range of active power
exchange. The input data is represented graphically beneath the Incremental Costs
table. In addition, the user can enter a monthly no load cost (in $/month), which
can be interpreted as a vertical shift of the cost function (see Figure 33.4).
In contrast to a synchronous machine, where the cost curve is directly expressed in $/h,
the cost curve of an external grid is defined by means of a tariff which holds within certain
intervals. Mathematically speaking, the cost curve of a synchronous machine is calculated
as the interpolation of predefined cost points, whereas the cost curve of an external grid
is a piecewise linear function with predefined slopes in each interval.

Fig. 33.3: Editing the Operating Costs of a Synchronous Machine (ElmSym)
33 - 4
Fig. 33.4: Editing the Incremental Costs of an External Net (ElmXnet)
Note that this piecewise linear function is not differentiable at the interval limits. Since
non-differentiable functions might cause problems within the optimization routine,
PowerFactory smooths the cost function slightly over a small range around the non-
differentiable points. The width of this range can be defined by the user through the
Smoothing of Cost Function factor (also shown in Figure 33.4). A value of 0% corresponds
to no smoothing of the curve, whereas a value of 100% corresponds to full interpolation.
The default value is 5%. It is recommended to leave this value at its default setting.
Minimization of Load Shedding
The goal of this objective function is to minimize the overall cost of load shedding, such
that all constraints can be fulfilled. A typical application for this objective function is
Infeasibility Handling. For the abovementioned objective functions, it may occur that the
constraints imposed on the network are such that no feasible solution exists. This is
evidenced by a lack of convergence of the optimization. In such cases, it is highly likely
that not all loads can be supplied due to constraint restrictions. Hence it is recommended
in these situations to firstly perform a Minimization of Load Shedding.
In this (and only this) optimization scenario, all load elements which have the option Allow
load shedding enabled will act as controls. This option is enabled in the load (ElmLod)
elements dialogue on the Optimization tab in the Controls section. All loads without this
option enabled will behave as they would in a conventional load flow calculation. In order
to minimize the overall load shedding, for each individual load, the user must specify the
33 - 5
cost of shedding (in $ per shed MVA).
For each load that participates as a control in the optimization, the scaling factor will be
optimized. The optimization is such that the overall cost of load shedding is minimized.
Additionally, the user can specify the range over which the load may be scaled (options
Min. load shedding and Max. load shedding), as shown in Figure 33.5.

Fig. 33.5: Editing a Load Element (ElmLod) for Minimization of Load Shedding
Controls
The global control parameters can be selected on the Basic Options tab of the OPF
dialogue (see Figure 33.6). The user can specify which parameters might serve as poten-
tial degrees of freedom for the OPF algorithm; i.e. which parameters will contribute as
controls. The set of potential controls can be grouped into four categories:
1 Generator Active Power Dispatch (ElmSym)
2 Generator Reactive Power Dispatch (ElmSym)
3 Transformer Tap Positions (for 2- and 3-winding transformers):
- 2-Winding Transformer (ElmTr2):
Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
- 3-Winding Transformer (ElmTr3):
HV-Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
LV-Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
MV-Tap Position (continuous or discrete)
4 Switchable Shunts (ElmShnt):
Number of steps (continuous or discrete)
It should be noted that the load scaling factors will only be taken into account for the Mini-
mization of Load Shedding objective function. In this case, all loads which allow load
shedding are automatically used as controls.
These global controls determine which element controls will be considered in the optimi-
zation. The general rule is as follows: a parameter will be considered as a control if the
corresponding flag is set on the Optimization page of the elements dialogue and if, in
33 - 6
addition, the corresponding global parameter is set on the Basic Options tab of the OPF
command dialogue (see Figure 33.6).
For example, if the control parameter Tap Position HV-Side of a 3-winding transformer is
enabled (as shown in Figure 33.9), it will only be included in the OPF as a control param-
eter if the corresponding option Transformer Tap Positions is enabled in the OPF command
dialogue (as shown in Figure 33.6).
If enabled, the abovementioned control parameters serve as variable setpoints during the
OPF. However, if a parameter is not enabled as a control parameter, the OPF will treat this
parameter according to the load flow settings.

Fig. 33.6: Global Controls for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
This could be a fixed position or a position found due to the option Automatic Tap Adjust
of Transformers being selected in the load flow command. In this mode, the transformer
tap position could be found in order to control the voltage of a certain node, or to be a
slave that is externally controlled by some other transformer tap.
Setting Individual Model-Based Controls
Each control can be individually selected to take part in the optimization. Specifically, for
each generator (ElmSym), each transformer (ElmTr2, ElmTr3), and each shunt
(ElmShnt), the user can check the corresponding Controls flag on the optimization page
of the elements dialogue.
33 - 7
A synchronous machine may contribute two possible setpoints, namely active and reactive
power control (see Figure 33.7).

Fig. 33.7: Active and Reactive Power Controls of a Synchronous Machine (ElmSym)
2- and 3-Winding Transformers
If a transformer has the Tap Position option selected, the user can further select the asso-
ciated Control Mode to be used. This determines whether the tap position will be treated
as a continuous or a discrete control parameter in OPF. Note that a 3-winding transformer
has up to three tap changers which may individually be used as either continuous or
discrete control parameters in OPF.
Figure 33.8 shows the Controls section of the dialogue for a 2-winding transformer and
Figure 33.9 shows the Controls section of the dialogue for a 3-winding transformer. It
should be noted that the Optimize section with the selection of Pre- and post-fault position
or Only pre-fault position are only considered by the DC OPF.
Fig. 33.8: Tap Position Control (and Loading Constraint) for a 2-Winding Transformer
33 - 8

Fig. 33.9: Tap Position Control for a 3-Winding Transformer
Shunts
In a similar fashion to transformers, the number of steps for a shunt may serve as either
a continuous or a discrete optimization parameter (see Figure 33.10).
Fig. 33.10: Control Parameter for a Shunt (ElmShnt)
Constraints
The user can formulate various inequality constraints for certain system parameters, such
that the OPF solution lies within these defined limits. Since all inequality constraints are
considered as hard constraints, setting constraints may result in no feasible solution
being found.
The handling of OPF constraints in PowerFactory is very flexible, and various categories
of constraints exist. A constraint is considered in the OPF if and only if the individual
constraint flag is checked in the element and the corresponding global flag is enabled in
the OPF dialogue. Figure 33.11 shows the Constraints available for the AC optimization
formulation of OPF in PowerFactory.
33 - 9
Fig. 33.11: Constraints Settings for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
The optimization uses further constraints that are automatically imposed as soon as the
corresponding parameter is used as a control. Examples of such constraints are tap posi-
tion limits and the number of steps for switchable shunts.
Network elements and their available constraints are listed below:
Busbars and Terminals (ElmTerm):
- Minimum Voltage
- Maximum Voltage
Lines (ElmLne):
- Maximum Loading
2- and 3-Winding Transformer (ElmTr2, ElmTr3):
- Maximum Loading
- Tap Position range (if corresponding tap is a designated control parameter)
Shunts (ElmShnt):
- Controller Steps range (if switchable steps are designated control parameters)
Generator (ElmSym):
- Minimum Active Power
33 - 10
- Maximum Active Power
- Minimum Reactive Power
- Maximum Reactive Power
Boundary (ElmBoundary):
- Minimum Active Boundary Flow
- Maximum Active Boundary Flow
- Minimum Reactive Boundary Flow
- Maximum Reactive Boundary Flow
Branch Flow Limits (max. loading)
Branch flow limits formulate an upper bound on the loading of any branch (ElmLne,
ElmTr2, ElmTr3, etc). The user has to specify a maximum value for the loading on the
elements Optimization page (see Figure 33.12). If specified as shown in Figure 33.12,
this constraint is only taken into consideration if the corresponding flag (Branch Flow
Limits (max. loading)) in the OPF dialogue is also ticked. Loading limits are supported for
lines and 2- and 3-winding transformers.

Fig. 33.12: Max. Loading Constraint of a Line Element (similar for 2- and 3-Winding
Transformers)
Active and Reactive Power Limits of Generators and External Grids
For each synchronous machine (ElmSym) and external grid (ElmXnet), the user may
impose up to four inequality constraints: namely a minimum and maximum value for
active power generation; and a minimum and maximum value for reactive power gener-
ation (see Figure 33.13). Active power limits are specified as MW values; reactive power
limits may be specified as either absolute values or as per unit values (i.e. referred to the
types nominal apparent power). Alternatively, it is possible to directly use the reactive
power limits specified in the synchronous machines type (TypSym). Again, the user is
free to select any number and combination of the available constraints.
33 - 11

Fig. 33.13: Active and Reactive Power Constraints of a Synchronous Machine
(ElmSym)
Voltage Limits of Busbars/Terminals
The maximum and minimum allowable voltages for each terminal or busbar element
(ElmTerm) can be specified in the corresponding elements dialogue (see Figure 33.14).
Therefore, each terminal or busbar may contribute at most two inequality constraints to
the OPF. Maximum and minimum voltage limits may be imposed individually; i.e. it is
possible to specify an upper limit without specifying a lower limit.

Fig. 33.14: Voltage Constraints for a Terminal/Busbar (ElmTerm)
Boundary Flow Limits
PowerFactory boundary elements (ElmBoundary, icon ) define topological regions
in a power system by a user-specified topological cut through the network. Constraints
33 - 12
can be defined for the flow of active and reactive power in a network (over a defined
boundary or between internal and external regions of a boundary), and this constraint can
then be enforced in OPF. For detailed information on defining boundaries, please refer to
Section 15.3.
Fig. 33.15: Defining Boundary Flow Limits (ElmBoundary)
Mathematical Background
The non-linear optimization is implemented using an iterative interior-point algorithm
based on the Newton-Lagrange method. Recall that the goal of the optimization is to mini-
mize an objective function f subject to the equality constraints imposed by the load flow
equations and also to the inequality constraints defined for various power system
elements. This is summarised mathematically as follows:
subject to:
where g represents the load flow equations and h is the set of inequality constraints.
Introducing a slack variable for each inequality constraint, this can be reformulated as:
We then incorporate logarithmic penalties and minimize the function:
where is the penalty weighting factor. In order to change the contribution of the penalty
function:
min f x ( ) =
g x ( ) 0 =
h x ( ) 0 s
g x ( ) 0 =
h x ( ) s + 0 =
s 0 >
min f x ( ) log s
i
( )
i
=
33 - 13
to the overall minimization, the penalty weighting factor will be decreased from a user-
defined initial value (
max
) to a user-defined target value (
min
).
The smaller the minimum penalty weighting factor, the less the applied penalty will be for
a solution which is close to the constraint limits. This may result in a solution that is close
to the limiting constraint bounds (if necessary). However, a smaller minimum penalty
weighting factor will result in a higher number of iterations required.
Results
The presentation of OPF results is integrated into the user interface, in that the OPF solu-
tion is available via the complete set of variables available for conventional load flow
calculations. These can be viewed in the single line diagram or through a data browser.
The inclusion of the following variables in the Flexible Data tab (for synchronous machines
and grids) is suggested, as shown in Figure 33.16. The Variable Set must be set to 'Calcu-
lation Parameter' as indicated below, and the actual variable names are given in paren-
theses.
Synchronous machines:
Active Power ('Calculation Parameter' P:bus1; this parameter is highlighted in Figure
33.16)
Reactive Power ('Calculation Parameter' Q:bus1)
Apparent Power ('Calculation Parameter' S:bus1)
Voltage Magnitude ('Calculation Parameter' u:bus1)
Fig. 33.16: Definition of Flexible Data for Synchronous Machines (ElmSym)
Grids:
Total Production Cost, including costs through external grids ('Calculation Parameter'
c:cst_disp; see this parameter highlighted in Figure 33.17). It should be noted that
the production costs are expressed in the same units utilized in the production cost
tables of the individual generator elements.
Active Power Losses ('Calculation Parameter' c:LossP)
Reactive Power Losses ('Calculation Parameter' c:LossQ)
Active Power Generation ('Calculation Parameter' c:GenP)
f
pen
log s
i
( )
i
=
33 - 14
Reactive Power Generation ('Calculation Parameter' c:GenQ)
Fig. 33.17: Definition of Flexible Data for Grids (ElmNet)
In addition to these results, the complete set of variables from conventional load flow
calculations is available. For further information on defining Flexible Data in PowerFac-
tory, please refer to Section 12.5.
A text report is also available and can be generated by clicking on the Output Calculation
Analysis icon on the main toolbar. This offers various templates for detailed result
documentation.
33.1.2 Initialization
The non-linear optimization requires initialization to generate an initial starting condition.
The Iteration tab of the OPF dialogue as shown in Figure 33.18 allows the user to select
the initialization method.
Fig. 33.18: Initialization Settings for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
Initialization of Non-Linear Optimization
Load Flow
Displays the load flow command which is used for initialization in the case that no
flat start initialization is used.
Initialize by Flat-Start
The user may choose whether the initialization is performed by a load flow calcula-
tion or by a flat start. If it is known in advance that the final solution of the optimi-
33 - 15
zation is close to a valid load flow solution, initialization using a load flow calculation
results in faster convergence.
No Flat Initialization (Use Load Flow Result)
If this option is selected, the OPF checks whether an OPF-initializing load flow re-
sult has been calculated prior to the OPF. Here, OPF-initializing means that the flag
Use this load flow for initialization of OPF was enabled in the load flow command
dialogue before execution. This flag can be found on the second page of the Ad-
vanced Options tab in the load flow command dialogue. The result of this load flow
is then used as a starting point for the iterative OPF interior-point algorithm. If no
valid OPF-initializing load flow result is found, the OPF will recalculate a new load
flow.
Penalty Weighting Factor
The penalty weighting factor determines the amount by which the penalty is applied. For
example, the smaller the specified penalty weighting factor, the less the penalty will be
applied for solutions which are close to constraint limits.
Initial Value
Initial value of the penalty weighting factor.
Target Value
Target value of the penalty weighting factor.
Reduction Factor
A factor by which the current penalty weighting factor will be divided by between
the iterations.

Fig. 33.19: Penalty Weighting Factor Settings for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
PowerFactory offers the user flexibility in configuring of the number of iterations and
the convergence criteria for OPF. The available options on the Iteration Control tab of the
33 - 16
OPF dialogue are shown in Figure 33.20.
Fig. 33.20: Iteration Control Settings for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
The implementation of the Lagrange-Newton method means that the OPF will internally
minimize the resulting Lagrange function:
with the Lagrange multipliers .
The following parameters can be used to alter the stopping criteria for this iterative
process. The algorithm stops successfully if the following three criteria are fulfilled:
1 The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached.
2 All load flow constraint equations g(x)=0 are fulfilled to a predefined degree of
exactness (i.e. within an allowable tolerance), which means:
- all nodal equations are fulfilled
- all model equations are fulfilled
3 The Lagrange function L converges. This can be achieved if:
- either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or the gradient
of the objective function converges to zero.
The following parameters are used to configure these stopping criteria. The alteration of
the default values for these parameters is recommended only for advanced users.
Maximum Number of Iterations
Interior-Point Algorithm (Inner Loop)
L x s , , ( ) f x ( ) log s
i
( ) ( )
T
g x ( ) h x ( ) s + + | | +
i
=
( )
33 - 17
Maximum number of iterations for the interior-point algorithm.
Control Loop (Outer Loop)
Maximum number of iterations of the outer loop.
Convergence Criteria
Max. Acceptable Error for Nodes
The maximum allowable error for the nodal equations (in kVA).
Max. Acceptable Error for Model Equations
The maximum allowable error for the model equations (in %).
Max. Change of Objective Function
Used when Convergence of Objective Function option values of objective function
become constant is selected. The user enters a value (in %), below which the La-
grangian is considered to have converged.
Max. Value for Gradient of Objective Function
Used when Convergence of Objective Function option gradient of objective function
converges to zero is selected. The user enters an absolute value, below which the
Lagrangian is considered to have converged.
Convergence of Objective Function
Options relating to the convergence criteria for the Lagrangian function: either the
value of the function itself is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gra-
dient of the Lagrangian is required to converge, as described below.
values of objective function become constant
If this option is selected, the user is asked to enter a value for the Max. Change of
Objective Function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls
below this value, the Lagrangian is considered to have converged.
gradient of objective function converges to zero
If this option is selected, the user is asked to enter a value for the Max. Value for
Gradient of Objective Function. If the gradient falls below this value, the Lagrangian
is considered to have converged.
For reasons of mathematical exactness, it is strongly recommended to select the latter
option, gradient of objective function converges to zero. If the underlying Jacobian matrix
is numerically instable, this often results in oscillatory behaviour in the last iterations.
Therefore, the latter method provides assurance that the result is in fact a minimum.
33.1.5 Output
Prior to the non-linear optimization, the OPF informs the user (in the output window) of
the total number of constraints and controls that will be considered in the subsequent
calculation. This information is detailed such that the imposed constraints and the partic-
ipating controls are counted for each constraint and control categories separately. Two
33 - 18
options are available to select the level of detail contained in output messages. These
options are available in the Output tab of the OPF dialogue and are shown in Figure 33.21
and are described below.
Fig. 33.21: Output Settings for OPF (AC Optimization Method)
Show Convergence Progress Report
If this flag is checked on the Output page of the OPF dialogue, the user will get a detailed
report on the convergence of the non-linear optimization. For each step of the iteration,
the following figures are displayed in the output window (actual variable names are shown
parenthesized in italics):
The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Err.Nodes);
The current error of the constraint model equations (Err.ModelEqu);
The current error of the inequality constraints (eInequ);
The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (gradLagFunc);
The current value of the Lagrangian function (LagFunc);
The current value of the objective function f to be minimized (ObjFunc);
The current value of the penalty function f
pen
(PenFunc);
The current values of the relaxation factors (Rlx1, Rlx2) for the primal and dual
variables;
The current value of the penalty factor (PenFac).
Show Max. Nodal and Model Equation Error Elements
If this flag is checked, the algorithm outputs per iteration, the components which have
the largest error in the equality constraints (i.e. mismatch in the load flow equations).
33 - 19
An outer loop is wrapped around the central non-linear optimization algorithm. This outer
loop is required to perform rounding and optimization of the evaluated tap and shunt posi-
tions to discrete values (if desired by the user). The maximum number of outer loops is
defined on the Iteration Control tab of the dialogue. However, if no convergence is
reached with the defined number of outer loops, the user will be informed via a message
in the output window that further outer loop iterations are required.
33 - 20
33.2 DC Optimization (Linear Programming)
The following describes the configuration of the DC optimization formulation of OPF in
PowerFactory.
Internally, from the settings provided, a linear programming (LP) formulation of the
problem is derived. The load flow is calculated using the linear DC load flow method. For
general information regarding DC load flow, refer to Section 23 (Load Flow Analysis).
PowerFactory uses a standard LP-solver (based on the simplex method and a branch-
and-bound algorithm) which ascertains whether the solution is feasible. The result of the
linear optimization tool includes calculated results for control variables, such that all
imposed constraints are fulfilled and the objective function is optimized.
Provided that a feasible solution exists, the optimal solution will be available as a calcula-
tion result. That is, the algorithm will provide a DC load flow solution where all generator
injections and tap positions are set to optimal values. The DC load flow solution includes
the following calculated parameters (parameter names are given in italics):
For terminals:
- Voltage Angle (phiu [deg])
- Voltage Magnitude (u [p.u.]; assumed to be 1.0 p.u. in DC calculation)
- Voltage Magnitude (upc [%]; assumed to be 100 % in DC calculation)
- Line-Ground Voltage Magnitude (U [kV])
- Line-Line Voltage Magnitude (U1 [kV])
For branches:
- Active Power Flow (P [MW])
- Active Power Losses (Ploss [MW]; assumed to be 0 MW in DC calculation)
- Reactive Power Flow (Q [Mvar]; assumed to be 0 MVAr in DC calculation)
- Reactive Power Losses (Qloss [Mvar]; assumed to be 0 MVAr in DC calculation)
- Loading (loading [%]; Loading with respect to continuous rating)
The following parameters are calculated in addition to the results found by the DC load
flow:
For generators:
c:avgCosts
The fixed cost factor [$/MWh] used in the objective function (i.e.
average cost considering the costs at the generators active power
limits).
c:Pdisp
Optimal power dispatch for generator.
c:cst_disp
Production costs in optimal solution:
cst_disp = costs * Pdisp
For Transformers:
c:nntap
Optimal tap position.
For loads:
33 - 21
c:Pdisp
Optimal load shedding for load.
The Basic Options tab of the OPF dialogue (DC optimization method) is shown in Figure
33.22.
Fig. 33.22: Basic Options Tab of OPF Dialogue (DC Optimization Method)
Method
To perform a DC optimization OPF study, the Method must be set to DC Optimization (
Linear Programming LP) as shown in Figure 33.22.
Objective Function
The user can select a linear optimization objective function using the list box as shown in
Figure 33.23. These objective functions are now described.
33 - 22
Fig. 33.23: Objective Function Selection for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
Feasibility Check
Performs a feasibility check of the network considering the specified controls and
constraints (i.e. performs a constrained load flow).
The objective is to minimize generation costs. To perform a cost minimization
calculation for each generator, a cost factor needs to be entered:
Cost curve $/MWh per generator element (ElmSym, see Figure 33.3)
The (linear) algorithm uses a fixed cost-factor [$/MWh] per generator. This cost
factor is the average cost considering the costs at the generators active power
limits. The selection of this objective function provides the option of calculating the
Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs). For further information on this option refer to:
Shadow Prices and Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs).
Min. Generator Dispatch Change
Minimizes the change in generator dispatch from the generators initial value.
Controls
The Controls section of the OPF Basic Options tab is highlighted in Figure 33.24. The basic
role of each control is as described for the AC optimization method in Section 33.1.1 (Basic
Options).
33 - 23
Fig. 33.24: Controls Selection for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
The user can select from the following control variables (the names of the associated
PowerFactory elements are provided in parentheses):
Generator Active Power Dispatch (ElmSym)
In generator optimization, for each selected generator a single control variable is
introduced to the system. The total number of generator controls in this case equals
the number of selected generators.
Transformer Tap Positions (ElmTr2, ElmTr3)
In tap optimization, for each selected transformer a single control variable is introduced
to the system. The total number of tap controls in this case equals the number of
selected transformers.
Allow Load Shedding (ElmLod)
A separate control variable is introduced to the system for each selected load. The
total number of load controls in this case equals the number of selected loads. This
control variable can be selected in conjunction with any objective function.
Note At least one type of control variable in the Controls section of the
OPF dialogue must be selected.
33 - 24
Constraints
The three constraints shown in Figure 33.25 are as described for the AC optimization
method in Section 33.1.1 (Basic Options).
Fig. 33.25: Constraints Selection for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
For DC optimization the following constraint is also imposed:
Transformer Tap Constraints (implicitly imposed)
Minimum and maximum tap positions (ElmTr2, ElmTr3) for transformers are
considered. These constraints are implicitly imposed when transformer tap
positions are specified as controls in the Controls section of the dialogue (see
Figure 33.25). This means that two constraints are introduced to the LP for the
base case tap position calculation.
Handling
Active power dispatch constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox)
per generator. See Figure 33.13 for setting minimum and maximum constraints for gener-
ators for optimization. It should be noted that generator constraints are not implicitly
imposed when active power dispatch is selected as a control.
Tap position constraints will be implicitly imposed whenever the corresponding tap is a
33 - 25
designated control variable, as in Figure 33.8.
Loading constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per line element
(ElmLne), as shown in Figure 33.12. If loading constraints are included, the maximum
loading limits will be calculated with respect to the type of the element, or with respect
to a thermal rating object (IntThrating, as shown in Figure 33.26). If a thermal rating
object is selected, the limits will be calculated with respect to the Continuous Rating value.
Fig. 33.26: Thermal Rating Object (IntThrating) Ratings Tab for Setting Rating
Values
Boundary flow constraints can be chosen on an individual basis per boundary element
(ElmBoundary), as shown in Figure 33.15.
Shadow Prices and Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs)
If the option Calculate Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs) (displayed at bottom of the
dialogue in Figure 33.25) is selected, the Locational Marginal Price (LMP) is calculated.
The Shadow Price is always calculated. The LMP represents the change in the systems
total production costs based on a unit change of load at the bus. The calculation of LMP
takes into account the network constraints.
The system lambda represents the change in the systems total production costs based
on a unit change of any load in the absence of network constraints.
With the Calculate Locational Marginal Prices (LMPs) option ticked, the execution of the
OPF will (on the fly) calculate the LMP for each busbar. The following quantities (current,
voltage and powers) are available for all busbars (i.e. ElmTerm elements with Usage set
to 'Busbar'):
LMP in $/MWh (Locational marginal price)
SysLambda in $/MWh (System lambda)
33 - 26
In addition to the LMPs, the DC Optimization always computes the shadow prices. These
quantities are available per component, which introduces a constraint to the system. The
shadow price then represents the change in the objective function if the constraint is
released by a unit change. The shadow prices are available as results for the PowerFac-
tory elements listed below (result variable names are given followed by their corre-
sponding unit). These result variable names are available as 'Calculation Parameters'
when defining variable sets for each element. For more information on defining variable
sets, refer to 13.10: Variable Sets.
Line (ElmLne):
- ShadowPrice in $/MWh (Shadow price)
2-Winding Transformer (ElmTr2, ElmTr2n):
- ShadowPrice in $/MWh Shadow price (loading constraint))
- ShadTapMax in $/MWh Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint))
- ShadTapMin in $/MWh Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint))
3-Winding Transformer (ElmTr3):
- ShadowPrice in $/MWh (Shadow price (loading constraint)))
- ShadTapMaxLV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (LV)))
- ShadTapMinLV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (LV)))
- ShadTapMaxMV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (MV)))
- ShadTapMinMV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (MV)))
- ShadTapMaxHV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Maximum Tap constraint (HV)))
- ShadTapMinHV in $/MWh (Shadow price (Minimum Tap constraint (HV)))
Boundary (ElmBoundary):
- ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (max. total active power constraint)))
- ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (min. total active power constraint)))
Synchronous Machine (ElmSym):
- ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (upper limit active power)))
- ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (lower limit active power)))
External Grid (ElmXnet):
- ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (upper limit active power)))
- ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (lower limit active power)))
General Load (ElmLod):
- ShadowMaxP in $/MWh (Shadow price (max. load shedding)))
- ShadowMinP in $/MWh (Shadow price (min. load shedding)))
The OPF calculation is initialized by a load flow, which is displayed by the Load Flow
parameter on the Initialization tab of the OPF dialogue. The user can inspect the load flow
settings by clicking on the button, as illustrated in Figure 33.27. The load flow
command contained in the current study case is set here automatically. Within the load
33 - 27
flow command, the Calculation Method will be automatically set to DC Load Flow (linear)
for use by OPF (when Method is set to one of the LP variants).
Fig. 33.27: Initialization Settings for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
The Advanced Options tab of the OPF dialogue is shown in Figure 33.28.
Fig. 33.28: Advanced Options for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
Load Shedding Options
If Allow Load Shedding is among the selected Controls (see Section 33.2.1: Basic Options)
on the Basic Options tab, an additional term will be added to the objective function. The
weight of this term can be controlled using the Penalty Factor in the Load Shedding
Options section of the OPF dialogue.
The following term will be added to the objective function, where e is the specified
Penalty Factor, and is the cost factor of load : c
i
i
33 - 28
Transformer Tap Deviation Control
If tap positions are to be optimized, different solutions can yield the same optimal value
for the objective function. One can therefore impose a term to the objective function,
which forces the solution to be as close as possible to the initial transformer tap positions.
Use Penalty Factor for Tap Deviation
If enabled, the following additional term is added to the objective function:
Penalty Factor
Specifies the weighting factor for the additional objective function term above.
Calculation of Transformer Tap Positions
Discrete controls (Using direct method)
This method calculates discrete tap position values within the LP (known as the di-
rect method). This method may provide better accuracy, however will yield fewer
solutions.
Continuous controls (Using outer loop rounding)
This method calculates continuous tap position values and then rounds these values
to discrete values in the outer loop of the calculation. This method may be faster but
the values may not be optimal.
Additional Settings
Check for Constraint Violations after Optimization
If selected, the calculated solution of the Simplex method will be checked (for over-
loadings) by means of a contingency analysis (contingency constrained OPF) or a
DC load flow. If an optimized result file is written this check will automatically be
executed.
Use Presolve procedure
If selected, the LP is checked for linear dependencies of constraints. They will be
eliminated and only the corresponding (smaller) system is solved.
Two outer loop settings are available: (i) control of the number of iterations of the algo-
rithm; and (ii) definition of a constraint tolerance. These settings are shown in Figure
e c
i
Load
i
j
Load
i
curr
i 1 =
n
Load
j 1 =
n
Co
e tap
i
0
tap
i
curr
i 1 =
n
Tr

33 - 29
33.29 and are described below.
Fig. 33.29: Iteration Control Settings for OPF (DC Optimization Method)
Outer Loop
Following the solution of the LP problem, it may be the case that loading constraints are
not within their boundaries. The reason is that for taps, the algorithm uses tap sensitivities
which assume a linear change in MW flow per tap step. Since these tap sensitivities
depend on the initial tap position, the result becomes inaccurate if the optimal tap position
is far from the initial tap position. This inaccuracy can be remedied by an additional outer
loop. At each iteration, this outer loop starts with the optimized tap positions which were
calculated in the previous loop. The following Outer Loop settings can be entered on this
tab:
Max. Number of Iterations
Maximum number of outer loop iterations until all constraints are fulfilled (within a
defined tolerance).
Max. Acceptable Error for Constraints
Maximum relative error (in %) by which a constraint can be violated while still
being considered a feasible solution.
It should be noted that when Max. Number of Iterations is set to 1, the LP is solved
without outer loops.
Limitation of Branch Flow Constraints
This option is useful for avoiding long calculation times for large systems. If selected, the
LP is solved via an iterative procedure which iterates until no further constraint violations
are found (with respect to the Max. Acceptable Error for Constraints parameter). It should
be noted that the option Check for Constraint Violations after Optimization on the
Advanced Options page must be selected in order to utilise this iterative procedure. An
initial set of branch flow constraints must be selected by the user, as described below.
33 - 30
Initial Set of Branch Flow Constraints
The set of branch flow constraints to be considered can either be the set of N most highly
loaded components or a user-defined set. In the case of the set of N most highly loaded
components, the program finds these automatically either by using a contingency analysis
calculation (in the case of a contingency constrained DC OPF) or by using the initial load-
flow (for the other OPF methods). In the case of a user-defined set, the user must define
and assign a set of components. A set of components can be defined either via the single
line graphic or data manager, by multi-selecting the desired components, right-clicking
and selecting Define...-> General Set.... This set can then be selected and assigned via
the button.
Max. number of additional constraints per iteration
After solving the LP with an initial set of constraints, the solution is checked against all
loading constraints and overloaded components are added to the LP. The parameter Max.
number of additional constraints per iteration specifies the maximal number of added
components.
33 - 31
33.3 Contingency Constrained DC Optimization (LP
Method)
The Contingency Constrained DC Optimization performs an OPF using DC optimization (as
described in Section 33.2: DC Optimization (Linear Programming)), subject to various user
defined constraints and subject also to the constraints imposed by a set of selected
contingencies.
The Contingency Constrained DC Optimization also considers user-defined post-fault
actions. That is, the optimization can be carried out using contingency cases that include
any specified post-fault action. These actions include switch events, generator redispatch
events, load shedding events and tap change events.
In order for the OPF to consider post-fault actions, the contingency analysis command
that is assigned to the OPF must be set to Multiple Time Phases. The contingency cases
can then be defined to contain post-fault actions. For further information on defining
contingency cases with post-fault actions, see 30.4: The Multiple Time Phases Contin-
gency Analysis Command.
In addition to the result variables available for DC optimization, the contingency
constrained OPF offers the following result variables (as well as those provided by the DC
load flow, as described in Section 33.2: DC Optimization (Linear Programming)):
For generators:
c:Pdisp Optimal generation for each contingency case.
The optimum generation for each contingency case is stored as a
parameter event object in the corresponding contingency object
(ComOutage).
Thus, each contingency object will hold parameter events for each
selected generator (the name of the parameter event is the name of
the generator). The parameter event reflects the optimal generation for
that generator in the given contingency case.
For Transformers:
c:nntap Optimal tap positions for each contingency case.
The optimum tap positions for each contingency case are stored as a
parameter event object in the corresponding contingency case object
(ComOutage).
Thus, each contingency object (ComOutage) will hold parameter
events for each selected transformer (the name of the parameter event
is the name of the transformer). The parameter event reflects the
optimal tap position for that transformer in the given contingency case.
c:mxTpChng (_l, _m, _h)
mxTapChng is the maximum tap change deviation between the optimal
base case tap position and the optimal tap position considering all
contingencies.
For 3-winding transformers, HV-, MV- and LV-side tap changes are
calculated individually.
For loads:
c:Pdisp Optimal load shedding for each contingency case.
The optimum load shedding for each contingency case is stored as a
parameter event object in the corresponding contingency case object
(ComOutage).
33 - 32
Thus, each contingency object will hold parameter events for each
selected load (the name of the parameter event is the name of the
load). The parameter event reflects the optimal load shedding for that
load in the given contingency case.
The Basic Options tab of the OPF dialogue (contingency constrained DC optimization
method) is shown in Figure 33.30.
Fig. 33.30: Basic Options Tab of OPF Dialogue (Contingency Constrained DC
Optimization Method)
33 - 33
Method
To perform a contingency constrained OPF study, the Method must be set to Contingency
Constrained DC Optimization (LP) as shown in Figure 33.30.
This is a reference to the Contingency Analysis (ComSimoutage) command to be used
during the contingency constrained OPF. The user can select and set this contingency
analysis command via the button, and view or edit the contingency analysis command
settings using the arrow button . If the user would like the contingency cases to use
post-fault actions, the Method used by the contingency analysis command must be set to
Multiple Time Phases. See 30.4: The Multiple Time Phases Contingency Analysis
Command for further information on configuring the contingency analysis command.
Objective Function
The selection of objective function for Contingency Constrained DC Optimization includes
the same objective functions as those provided for DC Optimization (see Section 33.2.1:
Basic Options). Two additional objective functions are provided, which are shown in Figure
33.31 and described below.
Fig. 33.31: Objective Function Selection for OPF (Contingency Constrained DC
Optimization Method)
Min. Generator Dispatch Change (Pre-to-Postfault)
Minimizes the sum of the generator dispatch changes between the base case and
each contingency case.
Min. Transformer Tap Change (Pre-to-Postfault)
Minimizes the sum of the tap position changes between the base case and each
contingency case.
33 - 34
Controls
The definition of control variables for the contingency constrained DC optimization
method differs slightly from the DC optimization method, however the basic fundamental
role of each control is as described for the AC optimization method in Section 33.1.1 (Basic
Options). The Controls section of the OPF dialogue is highlighted in Figure 33.32.
Fig. 33.32: Controls Selection for OPF (Contingency Constrained DC Optimization
Method)
The user can select from the following control variables:
Generator Active Power Dispatch (ElmSym, ElmXnet)
Dispatch in Contingencies
- Use base case dispatch:
For all contingency cases, use the generator dispatch from the base case. Using
this setting, a single control variable is introduced to the system for each selected
generator. The total number of generator controls in this case equals the number of
selected generators and/or external networks.
- Allow different dispatch:
For each contingency case, allow a generator dispatch different to that used in the
base case. Using this setting, for each selected generator, a control variable is
introduced for the base case and for each contingency case. This option must be
33 - 35
selected from the drop-down box when the objective function Min. Generator
Dispatch Change (Pre-to-Postfault) has been selected. The total number of
generator controls in this case equals:
(number of selected generators) * (1 + number of selected contingencies)
Transformer Tap Positions (ElmTr2, ElmTr3)
Tap Positions in Contingencies
- Use base case tap positions:
For all contingency cases, use the transformer tap positions from the base case.
Using this setting, a single control variable is introduced to the system for each
selected transformer. The total number of tap controls in this case equals the
number of selected transformers.
- Allow different tap positions:
For each contingency case, allow tap positions different to those used in the base
case. Using this setting, for each selected transformer, a control variable is
introduced for the base case and for each contingency case. This option must be
selected from the drop-down box when the objective function Min. Transformer Tap
Change (Pre-to-Postfault) has been selected. The total number of tap controls in
this case equals:
(number of selected transformers) * (1 + number of selected contingencies)
Allow Load Shedding (ElmLod)
A separate control variable is introduced to the system for the base case and for each
contingency case. This control variable can be selected in conjunction with any
objective function. The total number of load controls equals:
(number of selected loads)*(1 + number of selected contingencies)
Constraints
The Constraints section of the OPF dialogue for the contingency constrained DC optimi-
zation method is shown in Figure 33.33.
This formulation of OPF performs a contingency analysis for a predefined set of contin-
gencies (ComOutage objects; i.e. a set of interrupted components per contingency
case). The Max. Loading (parameter name: maxload) for lines and transformers
(ElmLne, ElmTr2, ElmTr3; (one constraint per bus)) for each contingency case is
considered in the calculation. For each loading constraint, the number of constraints
added to the LP will be: 2*(number of contingencies).
In addition to the constraints provided for DC optimization (for further information see
Section 33.2.1: Basic Options), the contingency constrained DC optimization method
offers additional constraints:
Maximum Number of Tap Changes per Contingency
If this checkbox is ticked, then for each contingency, no more than the maximum tap posi-
tion change steps from the base case to the contingency case are allowed over all trans-
formers (i.e. for a given contingency, a constraint is enforced on the sum of all maximum
difference of base case to contingency case taps, over all transformers).
Transformer Tap Constraints (implicitly imposed)
Minimum and maximum tap positions for transformers(ElmTr2, ElmTr3) are considered.
These constraints are implicitly imposed when transformer tap positions are specified as
33 - 36
controls in the Controls section of the OPF command dialogue (see Figure 33.33). This
leads to two constraints in LP formulation for the base case tap position calculation, and
to: 2 x (1 + number of contingencies) constraints for contingency case calculations.
Fig. 33.33: Constraints Selection for OPF (Contingency Constrained DC Optimization
Method)
Handling
Active power dispatch constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox)
per generator. See Figure 33.13 for setting minimum and maximum constraints for gener-
ators for optimization.
Tap position constraints will be implicitly imposed whenever the corresponding tap is a
designated control variable, as illustrated in Figure 33.8. The tap position limits are
defined in the transformers assigned Type.
Loading constraints can be chosen on an individual basis (via a checkbox) per line element
(ElmLne) and per transformer element (ElmTr2, ElmTr3), as shown in Figure 33.12.
Once a loading constraint for a specific line or transformer is imposed, it will be considered
by all contingencies contained in the contingency list. If loading constraints are included,
the maximum loading limits will be calculated with respect to the type of the element, or
with respect to a thermal rating object (IntThrating, as shown in Figure 33.26). If a
thermal rating object is selected, the limits will be calculated with respect to the Contin-
33 - 37
uous Rating value.
Boundary flow constraints can be chosen on an individual basis per boundary
(ElmBoundary), as shown in Figure 33.15. Once a boundary constraint for either the
maximum total active power limit or minimum total active power limit is imposed, it will
be considered by all contingencies in the contingency list.
The list of contingencies to be considered by the OPF is selected by choosing a specific
contingency analysis command (parameter Contingency Analysis in the OPF dialogue,
Basic Options tab), which contains in its folder the contingency objects (ComOutage) to
be considered.
As described for DC optimization. Please refer to Section 33.2.2 (Initialization).
As described for DC optimization. Please refer to Section 33.2.3 (Advanced Options).
As described for DC optimization. Please refer to Section 33.2.4 (Iteration Control).
33.3.5 Output
For contingency constrained DC OPF, results can be optionally recorded for those
branches which exceed a selected limit value. This can be done for both the non-optimized
results and the optimized results. For each recording of results (i.e. with optimized or non-
optimized values) a separate result file must be chosen.
33 - 38
Fig. 33.34: Output Settings for OPF (Contingency Constrained DC Optimization
Method)
Contingency Analysis Results
Allows the selection of result files for the contingency analysis results with and/or without
optimized controls.
Results (before optimization)
The result file in which to store the non-optimized results.
Results (after optimization)
The result file in which to store the calculated (optimized) results.
The limits displayed here are set in the selected Contingency Analysis command on the
Basic Options tab of the contingency analysis command dialogue. They define the limits
outside of which results will be written to the result file(s). See Section 30.3.1 for further
information.
Reports
Following a contingency constrained DC OPF calculation, the Output of Results command
button on the main toolbar becomes active. This command allows the printing of
various reports, as illustrated in Figure 33.35. The following reports are offered:
Optimal Solution
Prints a detailed report to the output window, showing all optimal settings (including
component-wise) against the relevant contingency.
Optimal Solution (per Contingency)
Prints a detailed report to the output window, showing all optimal settings, on a per-
contingency basis.
33 - 39
Maximum Loadings
Prints a detailed report to the output window showing the maximum loadings of compo-
nents against the relevant contingency. The user may define the loading limit for which
to report violations, and may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch
components.
Loading Violations
Prints a report to the output window showing components with loading violations, against
the relevant contingency. The user may define the loading limit for which to report viola-
tions, and may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch components.
Additionally, the reporting of violations in contingency cases may be suppressed if viola-
tions already exist in the base case.
Violations per Case
Prints a report to the output window showing components with loading violations, on a
per-contingency case basis. The user may define the loading limit for which to report
violations, and may select whether to report only the highest loadings for branch compo-
nents. Additionally, the reporting of violations in contingency cases may be suppressed if
violations already exist in the base case.
Fig. 33.35: Output of Results Command for Contingency Constrained DC OPF
33 - 40
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Optimization Tools for Distribution Networks
34 - 1
Chapter 34
Optimization Tools for Distribution Networks
The objective of this chapter is to present the PowerFactory tools for the optimization
of distribution networks. By means of simple command edit dialogues it is possible to cal-
culate the optimal placement, type and size of capacitors in radial distribution networks;
the optimal separation points of meshed networks and the optimal type of reinforcement
cables and overhead lines. Each section introduces a different tool, presenting a general
description, the objective function, the optimization procedure and the command dia-
logues.
34.1 Optimal Capacitor Placement
Optimal Capacitor Placement (OCP) is an automatic algorithm that minimizes the cost of
losses and voltage constraints in a radial distribution network by proposing the installation
of new capacitors at nodes (terminals) within the network. The optimal size and type of
capacitor is selected from a list entered by the user. The algorithm also considers the an-
nual cost of such capacitors and only proposes new capacitors for installation when the
reduction of energy loss and voltage constraint costs exceeds the annual cost of the ca-
pacitor (investment, maintenance, insurance etc).
To access the OCP tool, select the OCP toolbar from the toolbar selection window as illus-
trated in Figure 34.1.
Fig. 34.1: How to select the Optimal Capacitor Placement Tools
The buttons in the OCP toolbar are as follows:
The main Optimal Capacitor Placement command is started with this button: . The
command and the various user-defined options are described in detail in
Sections 34.1.3 to 34.1.6).
This button: deletes the results (removes all placed capacitors) from a previous
OCP routine.
The button for activating the
Optimal Capacitor Place-
ment toolbar.
Optimal Capacitor Place-
ment toolbar.
34 - 2
After a successful optimisation, the list of nodes (terminals) where capacitors are
proposed for installation can be accessed using this button: .
Following a successful OCP, the list of proposed capacitors can be accessed using this
button: .
To list all results from the OCP in a ASCII text report printed to the output window use
the following button: . The report also displays the original system losses and
voltage constraint costs and such costs after the installation of the proposed
capacitors.
The sections in this sub-chapter are as follows:
34.1.1 OCP Objective Function
The OCP optimization algorithm minimizes the total annual network cost (which is a sum
of three parts: cost of grid losses, cost of all installed capacitors and fictitious penalty cost
of voltage violations) according to:
where:
CLosses is the annual cost of grid losses. Essentially, this is the I
2
R loss of all elements
in the network.
CCap
i
is the annual cost of a capacitor (investment, maintenance, insurance), as
entered by the user in the list of possible capacitors. m is the total number of installed
capacitors.
CVoltViol
i
corresponds to a fictitious cost used to penalize a bus (terminal) voltage
violation. n is the total number of feeder terminals.
Evaluating the Voltage Violation Cost
As there is no 'real' cost for a voltage violation, if the user wants to consider voltage vio-
lations as part of the OCP algorithm, they must assign a 'fictitious' cost for such violations.
The voltage violation cost is calculated based on the user specified voltage limits and pen-
alty factors. The voltage limits are defined in the 'Basic Options' tab of the OCP command
dialogue ('vmin' and 'vmax' parameters, see Section 34.1.3: Basic Options Page). The
penalty factors are defined in the 'Advanced Options' tab of the same command ('weight'
and 'weight2' fields, see Section 34.1.6: Advanced Options Page). The penalty values are
applied for voltages inside the admissible voltage band (parameter 'weight': Penalty Fac-
tor 1) and for voltages outside the admissible band (parameter 'weight2': Penalty Factor
2).
There are two possible situations for a terminal voltage and the calculation for the ficti-
tious voltage violation cost is slightly different for each situation. The two situations are
explained as follows:
TotalCosts CLosses CCap
i
( ) CVoltViol
i
( )
i 1 =
n
+
i 1 =
m
+ =
34 - 3
1 In situation one, the voltage U of a terminal is within the allowed voltage band
(between vmax and vmin) but deviates from the nominal voltage of 1 p.u. The
penalty cost is calculated as:
where:
AU is the absolute deviation from the nominal voltage in p.u. ( ).
w1 is the penalty factor (parameter 'weight') inside the admissible voltage band in
$/% from the 'Advanced Options' tab.
2 For situation two, the voltage U is outside the allowed voltage band (greater than
vmax or less than vmin) and the penalty cost is calculated as:
, if voltage is higher than max. limit:
or
, if voltage is lower than min. limit:
where:
AU is the absolute deviation from the nominal voltage U
n
in p.u.
U
n
+ AU
max
is the higher voltage limit in p.u.
U
n
- AU
min
is the lower voltage limit in p.u.
w1 is the penalty factor (parameter 'weight') for voltage inside the admissible
voltage band in $/% from the 'Advanced Options' tab.
w2 is the penalty factor (parameter 'weight2') for voltage outside the admissible
voltage band in $/% from the 'Advanced Options' tab.
The algorithm can be summarized in two sentences:
If the voltages are inside the admissible band the penalty cost applied is equal to
If the voltages are outside the admissible band the penalty cost applied is equal to
the penalty inside the band ( ) plus the factor , with
being either the maximum or the minimum limit value of the admissible band.
Figure 34.2 illustrates the concept of the voltage band violation cost.
CVoltViol w1 AU =
AU U U
n
=
U U
n
AU
max
+ >
CVoltViol w2 AU AUmax ( ) w1 AU + =
U U
n
AU
min
<
CVoltViol w2 AU AUmin ( ) w1 AU + =
w1 AU
w1 AU
w2 AU AU
lim
( ) AU
lim
34 - 4

Fig. 34.2: Fictitious cost assigned by voltage band violations
34.1.2 OCP Optimization Procedure
To find the optimal configuration of capacitors, PowerFactory applies the following
steps:
First a sensitivity analysis determines the 'best' candidate terminal; This involves
evaluating the impact on the total cost (Losses + Voltage Violations) by connecting
the largest available capacitor from the user-defined list of capacitors to each target
feeder terminal. At this stage the cost of the largest capacitor is excluded.
Terminals are ranked in descending order of total cost reduction. The terminal that
provides the largest cost reduction becomes the 'best' candidate terminal for a 'new'
capacitor.
The optimisation routine then evaluates the cost reduction at the candidate terminal
using each available capacitor from the user-defined list including the cost of each
capacitor. The 'best' capacitor is the one that reduces the cost the most when also
considering the annual cost of that capacitor.
Repeat step one but any terminals that have previously been selected as candidates
for capacitor installation are not included in the ranking of candidate terminals. The
algorithm stops when all terminals have had capacitors installed, or the installation of
capacitors cannot reduce costs any further.
Note: If Load Characteristics are considered, then the above algorithm
will be completed for every independent load state. See
Section 34.1.5 for how the load states are determined.
34 - 5
34.1.3 Basic Options Page

Fig. 34.3: Basic Options page
Feeder
Here the target feeder for the optimum capacitor placement is selected. The feeder is a
special PowerFactory element that must be created by the user before it can be selected
in this dialogue (for information about feeders refer to 5.3.3 (Network Data)).
Method
Optimization; This option calculates the optimal placement for capacitors using the
methodology described in Section 34.1.2. The output of the analysis is printed to the
output window and any new capacitors are connected to the target terminal/s if the
'Solution Action' - 'Install capacitors' is selected.
Sensitivity Analysis; Performs the sensitivity analysis that ranks the candidate
terminals according to their impact on the total loss cost excluding the capacitor cost.
The output is presented in the Output Window. This option provides a quick indication
of the most effective place for a single capacitor. No capacitors are installed if this
option is selected.
Here either a 'Balanced, positive sequence' or a 'Unbalanced' network representation can
be selected. The Load-flow command referenced below these radio buttons is automati-
34 - 6
cally adjusted to the correct calculation method based on this selection.
Constraints
Here the voltage constraint limits (upper and lower) can be entered, along with a limita-
tion for the 'Total Reactive Power of all Capacitors' that can be added by the Optimal Ca-
pacitor Placement tool. The total reactive power of all capacitors includes all existing
capacitors along the feeder plus any more capacitors proposed by the optimization tool.
Note: The voltage constraints are meaningless if penalty factors for de-
viations outside of the nominal range are not entered as discussed
in detail in Section 34.1.1: OCP Objective Function.
Energy Costs
The energy cost ($/kWh) can be entered manually or taken from an External Grid. Note,
if more than one External Grid exists in the network, the algorithm takes the first External
Grid by database ID. The calculation of the cost of the network losses is as follows:
where:
TC is the total cost per annum in $;
MC is the energy cost of losses in $/kWh; and
L is the total losses in kW.
Note that if characteristics are applied to the loads and the analysis uses the option 'Con-
sider Load Characteristics' (see Section 34.1.5), then the losses calculation becomes a
summation over each time state considered.
Note: The default energy cost units are $/kWh. However, this can be
changed to Euro or Sterling () via the project settings from the
main menu bar. 'Edit -> Project... Project Settings -> Input Vari-
ables tab -> Currency Unit'.
Solution Action
Report only (do not modify network); The result of the optimisation is a report to the
Output Window only, no modifications are made to the network model.
Install capacitors (modify network). If this option is chosen, the capacitors that the
optimization proposes for the network will be automatically installed. However, note
that the single line diagram is not automatically updated, only the network model
database. Therefore, if you want to visualize the placement of the capacitors, the
'Draw Existing Net Elements' button must be used and the capacitors placed manually
- see Section 11.4 (Drawing Diagrams with already existing Network Elements).
Alternatively, the placed capacitors can be visualized on the Voltage Profile Plot of the
Feeder, see (Viewing results on the Voltage Profile Plot).
TC MC 8760 L =
34 - 7
34.1.4 Available Capacitors Page
Fig. 34.4: Optimal Capacitor Placement - Available Capacitors Page
On this page, the user defines the available capacitors for the OCP command. One capac-
itor is entered per row. To add a new capacitor, right-click within any cell and select the
option 'Insert Rows', 'Append Rows' or 'Append n Rows'. The following fields are manda-
tory for each row:
Ignored; If this option is checked, then the capacitor specified in this row will be
ignored by the OCP command.
Q per Step Mvar; Here the nominal reactive power of the capacitor in Mvar per step is
specified.
Switchable; If this option is enabled then the algorithm can use a capacitor with
multiple steps.
Max. Step; If the 'Switchable' option is enabled, then this option specifies the
maximum number of steps available to the optimisation algorithm. The maximum
available reactive power is therefore Max. Step * Q per Step Mvar.
Technology; Specifies whether the capacitor is Three-phase or Single-phase.
Cost; Important. This is the total cost of the capacitor bank per annum. This is a
critical parameter for the OCP command as the capacitor will only be installed if the
losses offset by its installation are greater than the annual cost of the capacitor.
Available Capacitors
Allow use of each capacitor multiple times; This is the default option and it means that
every capacitor in the list can be used at more than one feeder terminal (multiple
times).
Only visible if the Network
Representation is set to
'Unbalanced' within the
'Basic Options' page.
34 - 8
Use each capacitor only once; If this option is enabled then each capacitor can only
be placed at one terminal along the target feeder.
Treatment of 3-phase capacitors
This option allows the specification of the 'technology' type for 3-phase capacitors. This
option is only available when the 'Network Representation' is set to 'Unbalanced' in the
basic options page.
34.1.5 Load Characteristics Page
Fig. 34.5: Load Characteristics Page
If load characteristics should be considered by the optimization algorithm, then the option
'Consider Load Characteristics' should be enabled on this page. For more information on
creating load characteristics please refer to Chapter 18 (Parameter Characteristics).
Load States
Two options are available:
1 'Use existing Load States'; If this option is selected then the system load state that
is active in the system (the load state observed as a result of a single load-flow at
the current point in time) will be used as the load state for the optimization
algorithm. For example, if there is a 1 MW load with a active characteristic that gives
the current load value of 0.6 MW, then the load used for the optimization will be
0.6 MW, not 1 MW.
2 'Create Load States'; If this option is selected then PowerFactory automatically
discretises all load characteristics into a number of 'states' using a special algorithm.
Basically, the algorithm iterates through every hour of the selected time period to
determine the number of unique operating load states that exist. Every operating
state is assigned a probability based on the number of times that it occurs and this
34 - 9
probability is used to determine the losses cost for each state. An example of how
the algorithm works is explained below.
Start and End Time
This option allows the user to define the time period that the algorithm uses for the de-
termining the discrete load states. The time period is only relevant if 'Load States' option
2 is selected. The time period is inclusive of the start time but exclusive of the end time.
Accuracy
This parameter affects the load discretisation algorithm. The accuracy parameter is only
relevant if 'Load States' option 2 is selected.
Limit number of load states
Limits the total number of load states. This limit is only relevant if 'Load States' option 2
is selected. If the total number of calculated load states exceeds this parameter then ei-
ther the time period of the sweep or the accuracy must be reduced.
Ignore load states with a small probability
This parameter affects the load discretisation algorithm. States with a probability less than
this parameter are excluded from the discretisation algorithm. This option is only relevant
if 'Load States' option 2 is selected.
Show Load States
This button can be used after a completed optimisation to show the calculated load states
used for the previous calculation. This button is only relevant if 'Load States' option 2 is
selected.
Example of Load Discretisation Algorithm
Consider a network of two loads with time based characteristics determining the load val-
ues shown in columns two and three of Table .
Table 34.1:Load discretisation example
34 - 10

The load discretisation process works as follows:
1 Determine the maximum value of each load for the time interval considered. In
the example table above the Load 1 peak is 5 MW and the Load 2 peak is 10 MW.
2 Determine the 'load interval size' for each load. The interval size
. Where 'Acc' is the accuracy parameter entered by the user. For the
example above using an accuracy of 10 %, the Load 1 interval size is 0.5 MW and
the Load 2 interval size is 1 MW.
3 For each hour of the time sweep and for each load determine the Load Interval:
where is the load value at hour 'i'. Load interval values for each
load are displayed in columns four and five in Table .
4 Identify all intervals that are common to both loads and group these as independent
states.
5 Calculate the probability of each state based on its frequency of occurrence. The
independent states (grouped by color in Table ) are listed along with their probability
in Table 34.2.
Table 34.2: Independent States and their Probability
L
p
Int
Int L
p
Acc =
LInt Ceil
L
i
Int
-------
\ .
| |
= L
i
34 - 11
34.1.6 Advanced Options Page

Fig. 34.6: Advanced Options page
Candidate Buses
All terminals in feeder; If this option is selected, every terminal in the feeder is
considered as a possible candidate for a 'new' capacitor.
Percentage of terminals in feeder; Selecting this option and entering 'x' percent for
the parameter means the optimization algorithm will only consider 'x' percent of the
feeder terminals as targets (candidates) for 'new' capacitors. The ranking of terminals
is according to the Sensitivity Analysis as described in Section 34.1.2.
Max. Number of Iterations
This parameter determines the maximum number of iterations of the optimisation algo-
rithm before it automatically stops. As a maximum of one capacitor is placed per iteration,
this effectively limits the total number of capacitors that can be placed by the optimisation
routine.
Max. Execution Time
This parameter specifies the maximum time the optimisation routine can run before it is
automatically interrupted.
Penalty Factors for Voltage Deviation
Factor for Deviation from 1 p.u (weight); This parameter is used to determine the
total 'fictitious cost' for terminals deviating from 1 p.u. The cost is applied to each
phase of the terminal. For example, if a three phase terminal voltage is measured at
0.95 p.u for each phase and the 'fictitious cost rate' is $10,000/% then the total cost
of this deviation is $150,000 (5% * $10,000 * 3).
34 - 12
Note If no penalty costs are to be applied within the admissible band,
this factor should be set to zero. If this value is greater than zero,
the program will add additional costs to all terminals with voltage
different than 1.0 p.u.
Additional Factor outside range [vmin, vmax] (weight2); This parameter can be used
to apply an additional weighting factor to the first deviation factor when the terminal
voltage falls outside the voltage limits defined on the 'Basic Options' page. The factor
is cumulative, so using the previous example and a additional factor of 20,000/% with
a vmin of 0.975, the fictitious cost becomes $300,000 (5% * 10,000 + 2.5% *
20,000) * 3.
Note The values for the two voltage penalties 'weight' and 'weight2'
should be carefully chosen because the target optimization func-
tion is a sum of three objective functions (losses, capacitor cost
and voltage deviation cost). If the voltage weights are too high, the
algorithm might not consider the other two objectives. Likewise, if
they are very low, the algorithm might not consider voltage viola-
tions at all.
Print report after optimisation
The automatic printing of the optimisation results can be disabled by unchecking this op-
tion.
34.1.7 Results
The last three OCP tool-bar buttons give access to the optimization results.
Show Nodes with New Capacitors
When pressing the icon , after a successful optimisation is complete, a list appears of
all terminals where capacitors are proposed for installation.
Show New Capacitors
Pressing the icon shows a list of proposed new capacitors.
Output Calculation Analysis
This icon ( ) generates a report with the results of the sensitivity analysis and the final
optimization procedure.
34 - 13
Viewing results on the Voltage Profile Plot
Following a successful optimization, the 'new' capacitors can be visualized on the voltage
profile plot of the feeder. To enable this, navigate to the voltage profile plot display after
the optimization and click the rebuild button. An example of such a plot showing the
placed capacitors is shown in Figure 34.7.
Fig. 34.7: Voltage profile plot showing the new capacitors after an Optimal Capacitor
Optimisation.
Removing Capacitors Placed by the Optimal Capacitor Placement
Routine
The capacitors placed by the OCP command can be removed at any time after the analysis
has been completed by using the button. This button is like an 'Undo' for the 'Optimal
Capacitor Placement'.
34.2 Tie Open Point Optimization
The function of the 'Tie Open Point Optimization' (TOPO) is to optimize a radial system of
connected feeders by determining the best location for network open points. An open
point can be moved by the TOPO tool by opening and closing switches on the networks
to be optimized.
This chapter is separated into three sub-sections. Firstly, the steps to access the TOPO
tool are described. Next, the background and function of the TOPO tool is presented and
finally the procedure for running a Tie Open Point Optimization is described.
34 - 14
34.2.1 How to Access the Tie Open Point Optimization Tool
The Tie Open Point Optimization Command can accessed as shown in Figure 34.8.
.
Fig. 34.8: How to find the Tie Open Point Optimisation Command
34.2.2 Tie Open Point Optimization Background
The function of the 'Tie Open Point Optimization' TOPO tool is best explained using an
example. Consider the network illustrated in Figure 34.9.
Fig. 34.9: Example network for Tie Open Point Optimization
The network consists of three feeders, one from each of the three 'stations'. Each feeder
begins at a 'station' and ends at one of the two illustrated open points.
The two open points in this network are not necessarily the optimum open points. For
example, it might be more economic (less network losses) to shift these open points by
closing the open switches and opening two switches in different positions on the feeders.
The purpose of the TOPO tool is determine these optimum open points automatically. Ad-
ditionally, the TOPO tool can automatically consider network voltage and thermal con-
Additional tools where the
Tie Open Point Optimisation
Command is found.
Button to open the Tie Open
Point Optimisation Com-
mand Dialog.
34 - 15
straints - for instance it might be economic to shift an open point in terms of reducing
systems losses, however doing so might cause a cable to overload.
34.2.3 How to run a Tie Open Point Optimization
This section describes the procedure for using the Tie Open Point Optimization Tool
(TOPO) tool. There are several steps you must complete to run a TOPO. These are:
Creating Feeders for the radial networks that you wish to optimize;
Defining a set of feeders for the TOPO tool to use for the optimization;
Selecting the basic options for the optimization;
Choosing the constraints to consider (optional); and
Configuring the advanced options (optional);
These steps are explained in the following sections.
Creating Feeders
The TOPO tool requires that feeders are defined for the section of the network that you
wish to optimize. Additionally, the TOPO tool only works on radial feeders - mesh systems
cannot be optimized automatically. Furthermore, it is recommended that the target feed-
ers for optimization do not have any overloaded components or voltage violations in the
base case.
The basic procedure for defining a feeder is to right click on the cubicle at the head of the
feeder and select the option Define -> Feeder. Alternatively, for fast creation of multiple
feeders right click the bus the feeder/s are connected to and select the option Define ->
Feeder. More information on feeders and feeder creation can be found in Chapter 15.5.
How to create a set of Feeders
The TOPO tool always requires a set of feeders to optimize. To create a set of feeders,
follow these steps:
1 Choose the Feeders icon from the 'Edit Relevant Objects for Calculation' Filters.
2 In the list of Feeders that appears, choose the feeders to optimize by multi-selecting
them using the <CTRL> key.
3 Right click one of the feeders in the selection and choose the option Define ->
General Set. A dialog will appear showing the contents of the set you just created.
4 Close the dialog.
How to configure the Tie Open Point Optimization Command
After you have created a set of feeders for optimization, the next step is to open the TOPO
tool and configure the basic options. Follow these steps:
1 Select the Additional Tools toolbar .
2 Open the dialog for the Tie Open Point Optimization tool using the icon.
34 - 16
3 Use the selection control for Feeding Points to select the set of feeders you
previously defined. Normally, the set of feeders will be found within the active Study
Case.
4 Optional: Enable the option 'Force elements on outage when not switchable. This
option allows the TOPO routine to place objects in the feeder out of service if it is
not possible to switch them out using conventional switches. For example, if placing
a line out of service could reconfigure the feeders in such as way as to optimize the
losses but the line has no circuit breakers at either end to isolate it, then the tool
could place the line out of service instead.
5 Optional: You can inspect and alter the settings of the load-flow command that is
used for determining the losses and identifying the constraints of the system by
clicking the blue selection arrow next to load-flow command.
6 Optional: Change the 'Saving of solution' option. The two options are as follows:
- Change Existing Network (Operation Scenario). This is the default option. The
TOPO tool modifies the base network model.
- Record to Operation Scenario. If you choose this option a selection control appears
and you can choose an existing operation scenario to save the results of the
Optimization procedure to. Alternatively, you can leave the selection empty and
PowerFactory automatically activates a new Operation Scenario called 'Tie Open
Point Optimization Results'. Any changes made to the network as a result of the
optimization procedure are stored within this operation scenario. You can revert to
the original network by disabling this scenario.
7 Optional: Disable the 'Report' flag. This control, enabled by default, allows you to
turn off the automatic printing of an ASCII report to the output window.
How to configure constraints for the Tie Open Point Optimization
It is optional whether you choose to consider network and voltage constraints for the Tie
Open Point Optimization. If you wish to consider constraints follow these steps:
1 Open the Tie Open Point Optimization dialog and select the Constraints tab.
2 Optional: Choose to enable or disable the option 'Consider thermal constraints'. If
enabled, the TOPO tool will automatically consider thermal constraints in the
network. Therefore, if an optimal point were to cause an thermal overload on any
system component, then this would not be considered as a valid open point for
reconfiguration of the system. There are two more options for thermal constraints:
- Global constraint for all components. This is the default option. If enabled you must
enter a maximum thermal loading percentage in the 'Max. thermal loading of
components' field. Note this option overrides the individual component thermal
limits.
- Individual constraint per component. Select this option to automatically consider
each components unique thermal rating. Note, the thermal rating for each
component is determined by the field 'Max Loading' within the Tie Open Point
Optimization tab of each component.
3 Optional: Choose to enable or disable the option 'Consider Voltage Constraints'. If
this option is enabled then each terminal in the system is checked against the Lower
and Upper limit of allowed voltage. If a particular open point causes a voltage
violation, then such an open point cannot be considered as 'optimal'. There are two
options for configuring the upper and lower voltage limits:
34 - 17
- Global constraints for all terminals (absolute value). If you choose this option then
you must enter an upper and lower voltage limit in the two corresponding fields
within this dialog box.
- Individual constraint per terminal. If you choose this option, then each terminal has
a unique voltage limit which is assigned on the Tie Open Point Optimization tab of
each terminal.
4 Choose the 'ignore all constraints for...' option. You can use these options to
optionally ignore constraints where the nominal voltage is above or below user-
defined thresholds entered here. This can be useful for example to exclude all LV
systems (say less than 1 kV) from the constraints identification process as these can
often have voltages outside the normal range.
How to configure the Advanced Options
Most of the time the options in the Advanced tab should be left on default values. How-
ever, if you wish to make changes to these then the meaning of the options is as follows:
Maximum number of outer loops. This option controls the maximum number of outer
loops which is the total number of times the optimization procedure will be repeated
when trying to find an optimal solution.
Maximum change in system losses. This option determines the threshold above which
a change in open point is considered. For example, if changing an open point causes a
reduction in losses (a more optimal point), but the change is less than this threshold,
then the original open point is retained.
34.3 Cable Size Optimization
The cable size optimization can be selected using the general tools and pressing the
icon for cable size optimization:
Cable Size Optimization
34.3.1 Objective Function
The objective function for the optimization minimizes the annual cost of the network by
choosing the optimal 'types' for the selected feeder. The cost of each line including invest-
ment, operational cost and insurance fees is also considered by the algorithm. The follow-
ing constraints are considered in the optimization process:
Maximum admissible line loading
An admissible overloading percentage can be defined by the user to avoid over-
rating of the lines. Typically any overloading can be avoided by selecting the
appropriate type of conductor for cables and overhead lines. The penalty factor for
these lines therefore is fixed and cannot be defined by the user.
Maximum voltage drop
Depending on the system topology, on the loads and on the length of the feeder, it
might not be possible to avoid voltage band violations of some nodes due to
34 - 18
voltage drop. This can be mitigated by the installation of a capacitor during a post-
processing optimization.
The specific penalty cost of the optimization therefore is a parameter that can be defined
by the user to weight the voltage loss against the line investments.
34.3.2 Optimization Procedure
The optimization process minimizes the annual cost of the network. As constraints for the
optimization it uses the admissible voltage band (in terms of max. voltage drop along the
feeder) and loading limits for the planned network. The optimization does not need a load
curve or a load forecast, as the impact of the conductor type on the cost of losses is not
considered within the function. Input data for the reinforcement optimization is a network
model that is complete for load-flow calculation. In addition to the network model, the
planner has to provide the following information:
A library section with standard line types (cable or overhead line) that are available for
the new type assignment.
A value for the max. voltage drop that is allowed for the new network topology.
The result of the optimization is a report about the recommended new cable/overhead
types for the lines in the network and the cost evaluated for the recommended upgrading.
34.3.3 Basic Options Page
The basic parameter page for the Cable Reinforcement function is shown in Figure 34.10.
The options are explained as follows:
Feeder
Specific Feeder element that supplies the network region where the cables have to
be reinforced. This must be created by the user prior to running the Cable Size
Optimisation.
Cable Types
Reference to folder that contains the allowed new types for overhead lines and
cables.
Load-Flow
This is a reference (pointer) to the load-flow command used by the optimisation
algorithm.
Cable Overloads
Defines how to deal with cable overloads detected during the optimization.
Consider Cable Overloads
If this option is enabled, then cables are allowed to be overloaded to
the maximum value specified in the 'Maximum Loading' parameter.
Max. Loading
Limit for the cable loading if the 'Consider Cable Overloads' is enabled.
34 - 19

Fig. 34.10: Basic Options page for Cable Reinforcement Optimisation
Check Consistency
This option, if enabled forces the optimisation routine to complete a final
'consistency' check. It is explained in detail later in this section.
Voltage Profile
This option forces the optimisation algorithm to consider voltage constraints.
Consider Voltage Profile
This checkbox must be 'checked' to force the algorithm to consider
voltage constraints.
Maximum Voltage Drop Limit value (in %)
This parameter defines the maximum permissible voltage drop along
the feeder. The voltage drop is calculated as the absolute voltage
difference between the source terminal of the feeder and the final
terminal of the feeder.
Output
Various output options for the optimization results are possible.
Report Only
Any new types for cables and overhead lines are listed in a pre-defined
report displayed in the Output Window.
Automatic Type Replacement
If this option is selected, the Report will be generated and the
optimisation routine will update the network model with the proposed
types. Note, this option modifies your original network model.
Report Format
This is a reference (pointer) to the result report output. For more
information about the result language format see Section 19.1.1.
34 - 20
Explanation of the Consistency Check Algorithm
The consistency check option discussed previously involves assessing the network for
'consistency' based upon either of two criteria:
1 Sum of feeding cables >= sum of leaving cables; or
2 Smallest feeding cable >= biggest leaving cable.
To explain what is meant by 'feeding cable' and 'leaving cable' consider the small example
feeder shown in Figure 34.11. This small network is defined as a single 'feeder' that be-
gins at the 'Source' terminal. Consider now 'Terminal A'. This terminal is supplied by 'Line
A' and is also connected to two other lines, 'Line B' and 'Line C'. In this case, for 'Terminal
A', 'Line A' is considered as a 'feeding cable' and lines B and C as 'leaving cables'. Consid-
ering now 'Terminal B', Lines B and C are feeding cables whereas Lines D and E are 'leav-
ing cables'. Put more formally, 'feeding cables' are defined as those cables that are the
closest to the beginning of the feeder for each terminal. All other cables are defined as
'leaving cables'.
In consistency check option 1, the cross sectional area of the feeding cables is summated
and compared with the sum of the cross sectional area of the leaving cables for each ter-
minal. If the sum of the leaving cables is greater at any terminal then the network is con-
sidered non-consistent.
For consistency check option 2, the smallest feeding cable (by cross sectional area) is
compared with the largest leaving cable for each terminal. If the largest leaving cable is
bigger than the smallest feeding cable, then the network is considered non-consistent.
Note: The consistency check can use 'nominal current' instead of cross
sectional area. This option can be enabled on the advanced options
tab of the Cable Reinforcement Optimisation command.
Fig. 34.11: Example feeder network
34 - 21
34.3.4 Advanced Options Page
The advanced parameter page for the Cable Reinforcement function is shown in Figure
34.12. The options are explained as follows:

Fig. 34.12: Advanced Options page
Voltage Profile
The voltage profile is treated as a constraint of the optimization process. A plane
with two slopes at the lower and upper limits adds penalty cost to the optimization
result in case of violations. The options are as follows:
Penalty Factor 1
Penalty cost for voltage drop lower or equal than admissible limit
defined on the basic parameter page (typically this value is set to 0).
Penalty Factor 2
Penalty cost for voltage drop higher than the admissible limit defined
on the basic parameter page. The value entered here describes the
weight of the voltage band limit in comparison to the investment cost
for the cable/OHL reinforcement. Typically this value is set very high, so
that an adequate cable will always be chosen despite a higher cable
cost.
Consistency Verification/Voltage Drop
This option is used to select how the consistency check evaluates the 'size' of the
cables.
Cross Section
In this case, the selection of types is based on the cable cross sectional
area.
Nominal Current
In this case, the selection of types is based on the rated current of the
cable/OHL.
34 - 22
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Protection
35 - 1
Chapter 35
Protection
The PowerFactory protection modeling features have been implemented with the
following philosophy in mind.
The protection modeling should be as realistic as possible
The user must be able to create new complex protection devices or alter existing ones
Although the protection models may show high complexity, their use must be kept
easy
All protection models will act on switches.
These specifications led to the following principles.
A fuse is modeled as a time-overcurrent relay acting on a switch
A distinction is made between defining or altering new relay models, which is
described in the Technical References, and the use of those models, which is
described in this chapter.
35.1 Using Protection Devices
Editing or creating protection devices in a cubicle can be done in several ways:
by right-clicking a switch-symbol in the single line graphic. This will bring a pop up
menu with the options Edit Devices and New Devices
by editing the object which is to be protected (line, transformer, load, etc.) and
pressing the button at the cubicle field. See Figure 35.1 for example. The option
Edit Devices will bring a list of all protection devices in the cubicle. New devices may
be then created with the icon.
Hint: To select the cubicle by means of right-clicking the switch, make
sure the element is previously un selected and perform the right-
click directly on the switch. If successfully done, only half of the el-
ement will be marked as selected.
35 - 2

Fig. 35.1: Editing line protection devices
In all cases, selecting the option to create a new protection device will bring a list with
the following options:
Relay Model (ElmRelay)
Fuse (RelFuse)
Current Transformer (StaCt)
Voltage Transformer (StaVt)
Each of these options will open a dialogue to specify the device that is to be created.
Newly created Devices are stored in the cubicle that was selected. Although a relay can
be stored everywhere in the grid folder, as a rule it is best stored in the same folder as
the voltage and/or current transformers which it uses.
35.1.1 The Relay Model
The relay model (ElmRelay) is a general 'frame-object' which consists of a relay frame with
slots and one or more elements which occupy those slots. All protection relays, except for
the fuse models, are modeled as relay models.
A newly created relay cant be used as-is. Without a specified type the "Slot Definition"
list is empty and the relay is not functional. After a relay type has been selected, the "Slot
Definition'' list will be filled automatically with the correct slot elements. The current and
voltage transformers, however, are not created automatically, although available CT's and
VT's are selected automatically. See Fig. 35.2 for an example of the relay model dialog.
Editing the settings of the relay model is done by editing the settings of the listed slot
elements. Double-clicking a slot element in the "Slot Definition'' list will open the dialogue
of that element. See 35.2 (Basic Protection Devices) for further information about the
different elements used in protection relays.
The "Application" and "Device Number" fields are for documentation purposes only. The
"Location" field is automatically read from the cubicle the relay is stored in.
35 - 3
Fig. 35.2: Relay model dialog with selected type
Max./Min. Fault Currents
This tab can be used to enter the minimum and/or maximum fault currents occurring at
the location of the relay. These values are used to scale the Time-Overcurrent plot
according to the given fault currents. They can be entered either manually or calculated
with the Short-Circuit-Command.
Note The currents entered on this page will not affect the relay model.
They are for plotting purposes only.
35.1.2 The Fuse Model
The fuse model is implemented as a special instantaneous overcurrent relay which does
not need a current transformer. A fuse is always located in a cubicle and will trip the phase
which current exceeds the melt curve. Optionally, all three phases will be tripped if one
of the phase currents exceeds the melt curve.
35 - 4

Fig. 35.3: The Fuse model dialogue
The calculation of the trip time is either based on the minimum melt curve or on the total
clear curve. An example of these curves are shown in Figure 35.4.
Optimization Tap
At the optimization tab, the fuse can be excluded from the open-tie-optimization-
algorithm (see 34.2: Tie Open Point Optimization). This option is to be considered only if
the "Fuse Type" is set to something different than "Fuse".
35 - 5

Fig. 35.4: Fuse melt characteristics
35.2 Basic Protection Devices
As already has been explained in the introduction of this chapter, the whole hierarchy of
objects that is used to build protection devices can be divided into
objects which are needed to define new types of protection devices
objects which are needed to define specific relay models.
The first group of objects are treated in detail in the Technical References manual. The
second group of objects are treated in this section. The explanations for the blocks are
sorted in order of appearance in most standard relay models.
35.2.1 The Current Transformer
A new current transformer (CT) can be created by right-clicking a cubicle in the single line
diagram and selecting "New Protection Device - Current Transformer'' or by using the
"Create CT" button in the relay model dialog. The dialogue as depicted in Figure 35.5 will
then pop up.
35 - 6

Fig. 35.5: The Current Transformer dialogue
A thus created CT will be stored in the cubicle that was right-clicked or the cubicle the
relay is stored in. The "Location'' fields "Busbar'' and "Branch'' will be set automatically in
both cases.
A current transformer needs a current transformer type if it is required to have a tap ratio.
Otherwise the only ratio available is 1A/1A, as depicted above.
The top "Location'' field is used either
to select a cubicle when the CT is created from outside the cubicle,
to select the preceding CT in the case of an auxiliary CT.
After selecting the type and the setting of the current transformer, its set ratio is shown
in the dialogue (Ratio). In very special cases CTs may be connected in series, that is the
output of one CT is used as the input of the second CT. In this application the second CT
will show a Ratio (the actual ratio of the CT) and a Complete Ratio, (the ratio between
the primary branch flow and the secondary CT current, which is the overall ratio of all CTs
connected in series).
The primary connection type is only available in the case of an auxiliary CT. The number
of phases can be set to 3, 2 or 1. For a 3- or 2-phase CT, the secondary connection type
can be set to D or Y. For a 1-phase CT, the phase can be set to
a, b or c phase current
N = 3*I
0
I
0
= I
0
35 - 7
The primary and secondary tap settings are limited to the values defined in the current
transformer type.
The Current Transformer Type
The current transformer type dialogue, as depicted in Figure 35.6, defines the single
phases of a CT. The information about the connection of these phases (Y or D) is defined
in the CT element that uses the CT type.

Fig. 35.6: The Current Transformer Type dialogue
The current transformer type defines the primary and secondary taps of the transformer.
The "Additional Data page'' is used only when saturation is considered, to set the accuracy
parameters:
The accuracy class
The accuracy limit factor
either
- The apparent power (acc. to IEC)
- The burden impedance (ANSI-C)
- The voltage at the acc. limit (ANSI-C)
35.2.2 The Voltage Transformer
A new voltage transformer (VT) can be created by right-clicking a cubicle in the single line
35 - 8
diagram and selecting "New Protection Device - Voltage Transformer'' or by using the
"Create VT" button in the relay model dialog. The dialogue as depicted in Figure 35.7 will
then pop up.

Fig. 35.7: The Voltage Transformer dialogue
A thus created current transformer will be stored in the cubicle that was right-clicked or
the cubicle the relay is stored in.
A voltage transformer needs a voltage transformer type, if it is required to have a tap
ratio. The "Location'' field is used either
to select a cubicle when the VT is created from outside the cubicle
to select the preceding VT in the case of an auxiliary VT
After selecting the type and the setting of the current transformer, its set ratio is shown
in the dialogue (Ratio).
The primary winding is defined by selecting a tap and a connection type. The available
tap range is defined in the voltage transformer type.
The secondary winding is defined by the secondary winding type, the tap setting and the
connection type. The available tap range is defined in the secondary winding type. A
voltage transformer has at least one secondary winding. If no type is selected for the first
secondary winding, it is assumed to be ideal and has the standard tap range 100V-130V
available. More windings can be defined by pressing the button "Additional Secondary
35 - 9
Windings''. This will bring a list of all previously defined secondary windings. New
windings can be created by pressing the icon.
The connection type "O'' for the secondary windings is the "Open Delta'' connection, as
depicted in Figure 35.8.

Fig. 35.8: The open delta (O) winding connection
The connection type "V'' for the primary and secondary windings is depicted in Figure
35.9. Selecting a "V'' connection for the primary winding automatically sets the secondary
winding to a "V'' too.

Fig. 35.9: The "V'' winding connection
The VT Secondary Winding
A secondary winding element is needed when a voltage transformer with two or more
secondary windings has to be modeled. The edit dialogue for the voltage transformer
provides parameters to define the first secondary winding.
35 - 10

Fig. 35.10: The VT secondary winding dialogue
The secondary winding element requires a type and a reference to the voltage trans-
former. The tap settings range is defined by the windings type.
The Voltage Transformer Type
The voltage transformer type, as depicted in Figure 35.11 defines the primary winding of
the voltage transformer. The secondary windings are defined in the voltage transformer
element.

Fig. 35.11: The voltage transformer type dialogue
35 - 11
The VT Secondary Winding Type
The secondary winding type, as depicted in Figure 35.12, defines the burden and tap
range for one phase of a voltage transformer. The phase connection type (Y, D, etc.) is
defined in the secondary winding element. The secondary tap settings defined in the
secondary winding type determine the available tabs for the secondary winding element.

Fig. 35.12: The VT secondary winding type dialogue
The secondary tap settings defined in the secondary winding type determine the available
tabs for the secondary winding element.
35.2.3 The Measurement Block
The measurement block uses the 'raw' signals produces by the current or voltage trans-
formers to calculate 'measured signals'.
The measurement block allows for setting the nominal current and voltage. Both are
limited by the measurement unit type. If a relay does not need a nominal voltage (i.e. in
the case of an overcurrent relay) or if there is only one nominal value to choose from, the
nominal voltage and/or current field will normally be disabled.
35 - 12

Fig. 35.13: Measurement block
35.2.4 The Frequency Measurement Block
The frequency measurement unit is used to calculate the electrical frequency for the given
"Measured Voltage''. The Nominal Voltage is needed for per unit calculations. The
Frequency Measurement Time defines the time used for calculating the frequency
gradient.

Fig. 35.14: Frequency measurement block
35.2.5 The Directional and Polarizing Blocks
The directional relay cannot be used 'as-is', but is always a part of a relay model. For more
information about relay models, see Section 35.1.1 (The Relay Model)
The directional relay calculates the angle between a 'polarization' voltage or current and
an 'operating' current. The polarization current or voltage is rotated to the amount of the
expected angle first. The relay trips if the remaining angle is smaller than 90 and if both
the polarization and the operating voltage/currents are large enough. This principle is
35 - 13

Fig. 35.15: Directional relay principle diagram
The polarization quantity A
pol
is rotated over the angle M
T
, which is the "Max. Torque
Angle'' set in the relay edit dialogue. The rotated polarization quantity A'
pol
defines a half
plane which forms the first tripping condition. Further conditions are the projection of the
operating quantity on A'
pol
, which must be larger than the operating current setting, and
the polarization quantity, which must be larger than the polarization setting.
The polarizing block also allows for settings of earth fault and mutual earth fault compen-
sation parameters, if those features are available in the relay model.
More details about the polarization methods and the tripping conditions can be found in
the Technical References manual. An example for a polarizing block can be seen in
Figure 35.16.
The choice for the type of operating and polarization quantity is made in the Directional
Relay Type object. The relay object itself allows for the setting of the tripping direction,
the polarization method when both methods (voltage and current) are available, and the
polarization criteria. See Figure 35.17.
35 - 14
Fig. 35.16: Polarizing block

Fig. 35.17: Directional block
35 - 15
35.2.6 The Starting Block
The starting block is used exclusively in distance relays, as a means to detect fault condi-
tions. It sends the starting signal to all timer blocks in the relays, if the fault conditions
are met. The selectable fault conditions range from simple overcurrent detection to
complex impedance polygons. For an example of a simple overcurrent starting block, see
Figure 35.18. For detailed information please refer to the Technical References
manual.
Fig. 35.18: Starting block
35.2.7 The Instantaneous Overcurrent Block
The instantaneous overcurrent block allows for the setting of the pickup current and the
time dial. Both entries are limited by the type. See Figure 35.19.
35 - 16

Fig. 35.19: Instantaneous Overcurrent block
The instantaneous overcurrent block is a combination of a direct overcurrent relay and an
optional time delay. The pickup time Ts is the minimum time needed for the relay to react.
Additionally, a time dial Tset may be specified. The block will not trip unless the current
exceeds the pickup current Tsetr for at least Ts+Tset. See Figure 35.20.

Fig. 35.20: Instantaneous overcurrent tripping area
The block will not reset until the current drops under the reset level, which is specified by
the relay type in percent of the pickup current: Ireset=IpsetKr/100%. See Figure 35.21
for a typical timing diagram.
35 - 17

Fig. 35.21: Instantaneous overcurrent timing diagram
35.2.8 The Time Overcurrent Block
The time-overcurrent block allows for the selection of one of the I-t curves ('character-
istic') which are available for the selected relay type. The I-t curve is further specified by
the pickup current and the time dial. Both values must be in the range specified by the I-
t curve definition. See Figure 35.22 for an example.

Fig. 35.22: Time overcurrent block
The time dial settings will scale the I-t curve in the Time vs. I/Ip plot, according to the
curve definition. See Figure 35.23 for example.
35 - 18

Fig. 35.23: I-t curves for different time dials
The pickup current defines the nominal value Ip which is used to calculate the tripping
time. The I-t curve definition states a minimum and a maximum per unit current. Lower
currents will not trip the relay (infinite tripping time), higher currents will not decrease the
tripping time any further. These limits are shown in Figure 35.24.

Fig. 35.24: I-t curve limits
The pickup current may be defined by the relay type to be a per unit value, or a relay
current. The nominal current defined by the measurement unit (see 35.2.3 (The
Measurement Block)) is used to calculate Ip in the case of a per unit value. The relay
current value already equals Ip.
Altering the pickup current will thus not change the I-t curve, but will scale the measured
current to different per unit values. The following example may illustrate this:
Suppose the minimum current defined by the I-t curve is imin=1.1 I/Ip.
Suppose the measurement unit defines Inom=5.0 rel.A.
35 - 19
Suppose pickup current Ipset=1.5 p.u.
> relay will not trip for I<1.1*1.5*5.0 rel.A = 8.25 rel.A
Suppose pickup current Ipset=10.0 rel.A
> relay will not trip for I<1.1*10.0 rel.A = 11.0 rel.A
35.2.9 The Distance Polygon Block
The distance polygon block is used to model the different zones of distance protection
relays. The kind of polygon modelled by the block depends on the block type. Available
polygons range from Mho circles, for modelling of older electro-mechanical distance
relays, to polygones with load encroachment, like they are used by modern digital
protection devices. Depending on the kind of polygon, the block allows for the setting of
reactance and resistive reach, high resistance ground fault reach and different angles for
different edges of the polygon. For an example with a rectangular polygon, see Figure
35.25. The Block can also be configured to be directional.
Note: In order to function properly, there has to be a directional block
present in the relay and connected to the polygon block. This is in-
dicated by the active button Directional Unit, next to the drop
down menu. Otherwise the block will never trip, because it cant
receive directional information.
The Impedance section at the bottom of the dialog shows the reach of the zone in
absolute values, as well as relative to the element directly connected to the cubicle where
the relay is defined. The R and X values of this element are also shown as a reference for
the setup of the zone.
Since the distance polygon block does not have a time dial itself, it needs an extra timer
block, that controls the tripping time of a zone. The timer block connected to the zone
can be selected with the Timer button.
Note: If the Timer button of a zone is greyed out, this means there is no
timer block directly connected to the zone. This can be the case, if
the zone is designed for instant tripping.
35 - 20
Fig. 35.25: Distance polygon block
35.2.10 The Timer Block
The timer block is used to either control the tripping time of distance polygon blocks or
to realize other time delays in a relay, that cant be realized inside a block. For an example,
see Figure 35.26. If the timer block is used to control a distance polygon, the delay is
started with a signal from the starting block.
35 - 21
Fig. 35.26: Timer block
35.2.11 The Frequency Block
The frequency block either trips on an absolute under-frequency (in Hz), or on a
frequency gradient (in Hz/s). Which condition is used depends on the selected type. The
type also defines the reset time, during which the frequency condition must be met again
for the relay to reset.
The time delay set in the relay element defines the time during which the frequency
condition must be violated for the relay to trip. See Figure 35.27.

Fig. 35.27: Frequency block
35.2.12 The Under-/Overvoltage Block
The under-/overvoltage relay type may define the block to trip on either
Either one of the three phase line to line voltages
One particular line to line voltage
35 - 22
The ground voltage U
0
.
The positive sequence voltage U
1
The negative sequence voltage U
2
The relay element allows only for setting the pickup voltage and the time delay. See Figure
35.28.

Fig. 35.28: Under-/Overvoltage block
35.2.13 The Logic Block
The logic block is the front end part of a relay configuration. It combines all internal trigger
signals by successive AND and OR operations and produces one single output. The block
type specifies the logical operation, the logic block itself specifies the switches which will
be opened when the relay trips. See Figure 35.29.

Fig. 35.29: Logic block
35 - 23
If the relay is located in a cubicle and no switch has been specified, the breaker in the
cubicle will be opened by default.
The following section explains the special features of the time-overcurrent plots.
35.3 Time-Overcurrent Plot
The plot VisOcplot is showing different relay and fuse characteristics in one time-
overcurrent plot. Additionally the damage curve and characteristic currents of electrical
equipment in the network can easily be shown. This will help to set the relay tripping
times and current settings and the selecting of fuses for a good and thorough protection
of the equipment.
There are several ways to create a time-overcurrent plot (VisOcplot):
The easiest way to create and show a VisOcplot is to select one switch, where
overcurrent relays or fuses are installed. Right-click the switch to open the context
sensitive menu. This will show the options Create Time-Overcurrent Plot and Add to
Time-Overcurrent Plot. PowerFactory will then create a new diagram showing the
time-overcurrent plot for all relays selected.
Another way is to right-click an path element and select Path...> Time-Overcurrent
Plot from the context sensitive menu.
Also a relay element ElmRelay can be chosen from the list of calculation-relevant
objects or in the data manager. Right-click the relay on the right side of the data
manager or in the list of relays. Then select Show > Time-Overcurrent Plot to create
a new plot or Show > Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot to add the characteristic to an
existing plot.
Additionally other elements like one or more transformers, cables or motors can be
selected and right- clicked. The context sensitive menu will show the options Show >
Time-Overcurrent Plot to create a new plot and Show > Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot
to add the characteristic to an existing plot.
Note To show the relay locations and thus to visualize the switches with
relays definitions these can be highlighted by setting the color rep-
resentation of the single-line diagram to "Relay Locations''. By
right-clicking these elements the option Show > Time-Overcur-
rent Plot is available and can be chosen.
In all these cases, it is also possible to select the option Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot.
This will pop up a list of previously defined over current plots from which one has to be
selected.
The overcurrent plot shows
the time-overcurrent characteristics of relays
the damage curves of transformers or lines
motor starting curves
the currents calculated by a short-circuit or load-flow analysis and the resulting
tripping times of the relays
See Figure 35.30 for an example.
35 - 24

Fig. 35.30: A time-overcurrent plot with short-circuit results
The time-overcurrent plot shows the results of the short-circuit or load-flow analysis as a
vertical 'x-value' line across the graph. Because the currents differ for each particular
relay, a current line is drawn for each relay. The intersection of the calculated current with
the time-overcurrent characteristic is labelled with the tripping time. A 'grading margin'
line, which shows the difference between the tripping times, may be added by right-
clicking the plot and selecting "Show Grading Margins''.
It is also possible to create an user defined 'x-value' by right-clicking the graph and
selecting the Set Constant > x-value option. The vertical line will show the values at the
intersections of all displayed characteristics. To move the line left, drag it with the mouse.
35.3.1 Changing Tripping Characteristics
The time overcurrent plots may also be used to change the relay characteristics graphi-
cally. Because a relay characteristic is normally the minimum of two or more sub-charac-
teristics, it has to be split first in order to change the sub-characteristics.
A characteristic is split by
right-clicking the characteristic
enable the split option
The relay characteristics can also be split by opening the edit dialogue of the plot and
enabling the option Split Relay in the table Relay, where all relays are listed.
The sub-characteristics are now visible. Each of them can be left clicked and dragged
along the time-overcurrent plot area. However, they cannot be dragged outside the
allowed range which has been defined for the relay type. After the relay sub-character-
istics have been changed, they can be combined again into one single characteristic by
disabling the split option again.
The plot option dialogue, which is opened by right-clicking the plot area and selecting
Options, has an option for showing the grading margins when the time overcurrent
characteristics are dragged. The grading margin may be set to a fixed time. The grading
35 - 25
margins are shown as two lines, plus and minus the grading margin above and below the
dragged tripping characteristic. See Figure 35.31 for an example: the original character-
istic is labelled "1'', the new position as "2'', and the grading margins are labelled "a''.

Fig. 35.31: Moving a characteristic with grading margins
Conductor/Cable Damage Curve
The conductor and cable damage curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination
variation and as guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics.
A damage curve can be added by
right-clicking a line object in the single line diagram or the data manager and selecting
Show > Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot
right-clicking the plot area and selecting Add...> Conductor/Cable Damage Curve
Hint: If the damage curve is added via the Add to Time-Overcurrent
PlotOption, the parameters for the curve will be read from the
Short-Circuit and Protection pages of the element type automati-
cally.
35 - 26

Fig. 35.32: Conductor/Cable damage curve
The Rated Short-Circuit Current and time of the cable can be inserted. Also typical Cable
Parameters for the conductor, insulation factor, K, are given in figures 35.33 and 35.34.
These tables show the temperature range for the cables:
T1 = maximum operating temperature in C
T2 = maximum short-circuit temperature in C
and the K factor for a cross section in mm
2
, CM, MCM and inch
2
.
35 - 27

Fig. 35.33: Typical damage parameters for copper conductor cables

Fig. 35.34: Typical damage parameters for aluminium conductor cables
Transformer Damage Curve
The transformer damage curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination variation
and as guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics.
To add an ANSI/IEEE C57.109 damage curve to a time-overcurrent plot
right-click the transformer object in the single line graphic or the database manager
and select the option Show > Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot
right-click the plot area and select Add...> Transformer Damage Curve
Plot Option, the parameters for the curve will be read from the
cally.
35 - 28

Fig. 35.35: Transformer damage curve
An example of a time-overcurrent plot with two relay characteristics and a transformer
damage curve is shown in Figure 35.36.

Fig. 35.36: Transformer damage curve
Motor Start Curve
The motor start curves are used to evaluate a protection coordination variation and as
guides for positioning the time-overcurrent characteristics.
To add a motor starting curve to the time-overcurrent plot
35 - 29
right-click the motor object in the single line graphic or the database manager and
select the option Show > Add to Time-Overcurrent Plot
right-click the plot area and select Add...> Motor Starting Curve
Plot Option, the parameters for the curve will be read from the
cally.

Fig. 35.37: Motor start curve edit dialogue
The characteristic currents and durations given in the edit dialogue result in a step wise
motor start current plot, as depicted in Figure 35.38.
35 - 30

Fig. 35.38: The motor start curve
Overcurrent Plot Settings
The time-overcurrent plot settings can be accessed by selecting the Options from the
context-sensitive menu. The dialogue shows the following options:
Current Unit
The current unit may be set to either primary or secondary (relay)
ampere.
Show Relays
This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics.
Recloser Operation
The different recloser stages can be shown simultaneously or switched
off in the diagram.
Display automatically
This option is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short-
circuit currents will be displayed. Either the current lines, the grading
margins, both or none may be selected.
Voltage Reference Axis
More than one current axis may be shown, based on a different voltage
level. All voltage levels found in the path when a time overcurrent plot
is constructed are shown by default. An user defined voltage level may
be added. Optionally, only the user defined voltage level is shown.
Cut Curves at
normally the curves of different relay zones cut at the same tripping
current.
Show Grading Margins while Drag&Drop
When dragging the curves up and down resp. right and left, the
grading margins of the curve will be shown according to the margin
entered.
35 - 31

Fig. 35.39: Overcurrent Plot Settings
The advanced options are:
Drag & Drop Step Sizes
These are used to set the step change in the relay settings when a
time-overcurrent plot is dragged with a continuous time dial or pickup
current.
Time Range for Step Sizes
Enter the tripping time range for the y-axis.
'Color for Out of Service' Units
The characteristics for units that are out of service are drawn invisible
by default. However, a visible color may be selected.
Brush Style for Fuses
This defines the fill style for fuse curves
Nr. of points per curve
The number of points can be changed to either refine the plotted
curves for more detail, or to speed up the drawing of the diagram.
35.4 The Time-Distance Diagram
The time-distance plot VisPlottz shows the tripping times of the relays depending on the
short-circuit location. It is directly connected to a path definition, so it can only be created
if a path is already defined. For more informations about path definitions, see 35.4.1: Path
Definitions.
35 - 32
How to create a time-distance diagram:
The easiest way to create and show a VisPlottz is to right-clicked an element, which
is already added to a path definition. From the context sensitive menu the option
Show > Time-Distance Diagram can be selected. PowerFactory will then create a
new object VisPlottz showing the time-distance plot for all distance relays in the
path.
Another way is to right-clicked an path element and select Path...> Time-Distance
Diagram from the context sensitive menu. Like above this will create a new object
VisPlottz.
Also path object SetPath can be chosen in the data manager under Database\
Projectname\ Paths. Select the "Paths'' folder and right-click the path object on the
right side of the data manager. Then select Show > Time-Distance Diagram from the
context sensitive menu.
Note To show the path definition, and thus to visualize the elements
contained, the path can be highlighted by setting the color repre-
sentation of the single-line diagram to "Path Definitions''. By right-
clicking these elements the option Show > Time-Distance Dia-
gram is available and can be chosen.
35.4.1 Path Definitions
A path in a single line diagram is defined by selecting a chain of two or more busbars or
terminals and inter-connecting objects. The pop-up menu which opens when the selection
is right-clicked will show a Path... option. This menu option has the following sub-options:
New
this option will create a new path definition
Edit
this option is enabled when an existing path is right-clicked. It opens a
dialogue to alter the color and direction of the path
Add To
this option will add the selected objects to a path definition. The end or
start of the selected path must include the end or start of an existing
path.
Remove Partly
This will remove the selected objects from a path definition, as long as
the remaining path is not broken in pieces
Remove
This will remove the firstly found path definition of which at least one of
the selected objects is a member
Editing, adding objects to or removing objects from path definition is only possible when
the option coloring "Path Definitions'' was chosen in the Color Representation of Graphic
dialogue (SetColgr). This dialogue is opened by pressing the icon on the graphics
toolbar.
A path may be used as a selection for a calculation by selecting one or more objects from
35 - 33
the path definition. This will select the whole path.
35.4.2 The Time-Distance Plot

Fig. 35.40: A time-distance plot
The time-distance plot in Figure 35.40 is separated in two different diagrams. The upper
diagram shows all relay tripping times in the forward direction of the path. The lower
diagram shows the reverse direction. There are three different options for displaying the
diagrams. These are:
Forward/Reverse
Both diagrams are shown.
35 - 34
Forward
Only forward direction diagram
Reverse
Only reverse direction diagram
The Path Axis

Fig. 35.41: A path axis
The path axis in Figure 35.41 shows the complete path with busbar and relay locations.
Busbars/Terminals are marked with a tick and the name. The coloured boxes represent
relays and the left or right alignment represents their direction.
35.4.3 Time-Distance Plot Settings
Methods for calculation of tripping times
There are several methods to calculate the tripping times shown in the plot. To change
the method, select the Method option in the context sensitive menu or double-click the
plot to access the time-distance plot dialogue and edit the Methods option on the Relays
page.
The methods differ in exactness and speed. The set of possible units for the x-Axis
depends on the method used. The methods are:
Short-Circuit Sweep Method
The short-circuit sweep method is the most accurate method for
calculating the short-circuit locations. A short-circuit sweep is calculated
over the branches between the first and the last busbar in the path. At
each short-circuit location the relay tripping times are established. The
disadvantage of this method is it's low speed. Whenever the rebuild
button of the graphics window is pressed the sweep is recalculated.
The possible units for the short-circuit location are position in km or
reactance in primary or relay ohm.
Kilometrical Method
This method is the fastest but most inaccurate one. Tripping time and
location are determined with the intersection of the impedances and
the relay characteristic. The impedances used for calculation are the
impedances of the device. If there is more than one intersection at the
same impedance the smallest tripping time is used. The possible units
for the short-circuit location are position in km or reactance, resistance
and impedance, each in primary or relay ohm.
35 - 35

Fig. 35.42: The Time-Distance plot edit dialogue
The kilometrical method is applicable only for the following paths
There are no parallel branches in the path.
The path is fed from only one side or there is no junction on the path.
Short-Circuit Calculation Settings
If the method for the calculation of the time-distance plot is set to "Short-Circuit Sweep'',
the short-circuit sweep command object ComShcsweep is used. There is either the
option Shc-Calc... in the context menu of the plot or the Shc-Calc... button in the "Time
Distance Plot'' edit dialogue to access the sweep command.
Some of the settings in the command are predefined by the time-distance plot. These
settings are grayed out when the sweep command is accessed through the plot. The
short-circuit command for the calculation is set in the sweep command. To change the
short-circuit method, i.e. from "IEC60909'' to "Complete'', open the sweep command and
edit the short-circuit dialogue.
Note The easiest way to recalculate the short-circuit sweep for the time-
distance plot is by simply pressing the button .
Mind that this is only needed when using the Short-Circuit Sweep
method. The Kilometrical method does not need the short-circuit
35 - 36
sweep command.
The x-Unit
There is a set of possible x-units depending on the method used. See the methods
description for details. The short-circuit sweep method needs a relay to measure the
impedance, named the reference relay. If there is no reference relay selected, the
distance is measured from the beginning of the path.
The options available for the x-unit are:
Length
x-axis is shown depending on the line/cable length from the reference
relay in"km''.
Impedance (pri.Ohm)
x-axis is shown depending on the impedance from the reference relay.
Reactance (pri.Ohm)
x-axis is shown depending on the reactance from the reference relay.
Impedance (sec.Ohm)
Here the impedance from the reference relay is measured on the
secondary side.
Reactance (sec.Ohm)
Here the reactance from the reference relay is measured on the
secondary side.
The Reference Relay
The x-Axis positions or impedances are calculated relative to the beginning of the path.
If a reference relay was set the positions/impedances are relative to the reference relay.
The sweep method needs always a reference relay. If no reference relay was set the first
relay in the diagram's direction is taken for reference relay.
The busbar connected to the reference relay is marked with an arrow pointing in the
diagrams direction.
The reference relay is set either using the graphic or by editing the "Time Distance
Diagram'' dialogue. Changing the reference relay graphically is done by clicking with the
right mouse button on the relay symbol and selecting "Set reference relay'' in the context
menu. If there is more than one relay connected to the selected busbar PowerFactory
prompts for the relay to use. In the dialogue of the "Time Distance Relay" the "Reference
Relay'' frame is located on the bottom. Change the "Relay'' reference to set or reset the
reference relay.
Capture Relays
The Capture Relays button enables the user to chose additional relays in the path to
be displayed in the time-distance diagram. In order to delete a relay from the diagram,
the respective line in the relay list has to be deleted.
35 - 37
35.4.4 Other Options
Double-Click Positions
The following positions can be double-clicked for a default action:
Axis
Edit scale
Curve
Edit step of relay
Relay box
Edit relay(s)
Path axis
Edit Line
Any other
Open the "Time Distance'' edit dialogue
The Context Sensitive Menu
If the diagram is right-clicked at any position, the context sensitive menu will pop up
similar to the menu described in Section 19.4.2 (Plots) for the virtual instruments.
There are some additional functions available in addition to the basic VI-methods for the
time-distance plot.
Grid
Shows the dialogue to modify the grid-lines.
Edit Path
Opens the dialogue of the displayed path definition (SetPath).
Method
Set the used method for calculating the tripping times.
x-Unit
Set the unit for the x-Axis, km impedances,...
Diagrams
Select diagrams shown forward, reverse or both.
Consider Breaker Opening Time
Report
This option prints out a report for the position of the relays, their
tripping time as well as all calculated impedances in the output window.
Shc-Calc...
Show "Short-Circuit Sweep'' command dialogue.
35.5 Relay Plot
The relay or R-X plot VisDraw is showing the impedance characteristics of different
distance protection relays in one or several R-X plots. Additionally the impedance of
connected lines and transformers in the network nearby the protection equipment can
35 - 38
easily be shown. Thus the impedances of the different zones of the relay and the tripping
time can easily be adjusted and checked for a good and thorough protection of the
equipment.
There are several ways to create a relay plot (VisDraw):
The easiest way to create and show a VisDraw is to select one cubicle, where a
distance relay is installed. Right-click the switch to open the context-sensitive menu.
This will show the options Create R-X Plot and Add to R-X Plot. PowerFactory will
then create a new diagram showing the R-X plot for all relays in the selected cubicle.
Another way is to right-clicked an element which is belonging to a defined protection
path and select Path...> R-X Plot from the context-sensitive menu.
Also a distance relay element ElmRelay can be chosen from the list of calculation-
relevant objects or in the data manager. Right-click the relay on the right side of the
data manager or in the list of relays. Then select Show > R-X Plot to create a new
plot or Show > Add to R-X Plot to get a selection of already created plots to add the
characteristic to an existing plot.
Note To show the relay locations and thus to visualize the switches with
relays definitions these can be highlighted by setting the color rep-
resentation of the single-line diagram to "Relay Locations''. By
right-clicking these elements the option Show > R-X Plot is avail-
able and can be chosen.
The R-X plots show
the impedance characteristics of selected distance relays including the different zones.
impedance curve of the lines and transformers near the relay location.
the location of other distance relay nearby.
the short-circuit impedance depending on the location and the fault impedances.
the tripping time of the relay.
35 - 39

Fig. 35.43: A R-X plot with short-circuit results and two relays
In Figure 35.43 an example is shown for the R-X plot, where two relay characteristics and
the transmission line impedances are displayed.
Furthermore shows the location of the short-circuit or load-flow calculation as a equivalent
impedance point in the plot. For every relay displayed in the graph also a legend is shown
containing the relevant information regarding the short-circuit calculation of each relay:
name of the relay,
measured impedances seen from the relay location,
the fault type,
the actual tripping time of the relay,
which zone is tripped.
The information shown may be changed in the relay plot settings. For details please refer
to Section 19.4.2 (Plots).
35.5.1 Modifying the Relay Settings
From the R-X plot the characteristics of the relays shown can easily be changed according
to the impedances of the electrical equipment, which is to be protected.
By double-clicking the characteristic of a relay zone the settings dialogue of the zone will
be opened and can be modified. Here the relay specific information of the impedance
characteristic can be entered. Also the information of the line branch connected to the
relay in "forward'' direction is shown in the dialogue. If the OK button is selected the
characteristic of the relay will be updated.
35 - 40
It is also possible to edit the lines or transformer elements shown in the plot. Holding the
mouse pointer over the element for a second will show the name of the element in a
balloon help box. If one of the lines is double-clicked, the edit dialogue of the element
pops up like in the single-line graphics. In this way the line impedances can easily be
accessed.
Relay Plot Settings
The R-X plot settings can be accessed by selecting the Options from the context-sensitive
menu or by pressing the Options button in the edit dialogue of the plot.
Basic Options:
The dialogue shows the following options:
Unit
The current unit may be set to either primary or secondary (relay)
ampere.
Relays Units
This option is used to display only certain types of relay characteristics.
Zones
Here the zone can be selected which is to be shown. Also All zones of
the relays can be displayed in one graph (default).
Display
This option is used to select how the calculated load-flow or short-
circuit current/equivalent impedance will be displayed. Either as an
short-circuit arrow, a cross or none may be selected.
Show Impedance
Color out of service units
Zones being out of service can be shown in a different color.
35 - 41

Fig. 35.44: R-X-Plot Settings
Additionally, the show/hide option for the starting, overreach zones, power swing units
and the complete shape of the diagrams can be selected in the dialogue.
Branch Impedances:
There are special options to modify the appearance of the branch impedances:
Number of Relay Locations
Only the branches are shown up to the x-th next relay location. If zero,
no branches are shown at all.
Branches, max. Depth
Maximum number of branches shown from each relay location. If zero,
no branches are shown at all.
Ignore Transformers
Transformer impedances are ignored when activated.
Method
Method for determining the line impedances.
Show Branch Options
Here the line style and width can be selected.
Legend:
In the legend belonging to each relay different information and calculation results are
displayed. Here the user can choose, which results are to be shown.
35 - 42
35.6 Protection Analysis Results
After all protection devices have been configured and thoroughly graded, it is often
desirable to create reports for future reference. Aside from exporting the time-
overcurrent, R-X or time-distance plots as pictures (see 19.4.9: Tools for Virtual Instru-
ments), there are several other methods to report the relay settings.
Reports
The icon "Output Calculation Analysis'' ( ) in the main menu, will open the "Output''
dialogue (ComSh). The results of the load-flow or short-circuit analysis, for a range of
relays, can be generated in the output by selecting the options
Results
Relays
To generate a report for one or more relays, or for one or more previously defined paths,
the data manager may be used to select one or more relays or paths and right-clicking
the selection. The menu will show the option Output-Results if at least one relay was
found amongst the selected objects or in one of the selected paths. If a busbar was
selected, then all relays in connection with that busbar are selected too.
Results in Single Line Graph
The names of the relays or the tripping times may be made visible in the single line
graphic by selecting the following options in the main menu.
1 Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relays
2 Output - Results for Edge Elements - Relay Tripping Times
The first option ("Relays''), which is always available, will show the names of the relays in
all cubicles. The second option will show the tripping times of the relays after a load-flow
or short-circuit calculation has been made. If a relays does not trip, then a tripping time
of 9999.99 s is shown.
Fig. 35.45:
35.7 Modelling Protection Devices
The main focus of the previous paragraphs was to describe the general handling of
protection devices. As stated in the introduction of this chapter, there is a difference
between using existing models (i.e. from the PowerFactory protection database) and
defining new models or altering existing ones.
This chapter shall provide an overview over the modelling philosophy behind protection
devices. Understanding this philosophy is vital to modelling new relays or changing
existing ones. In order for the relay to function properly with the standard functions, like
the short-circuit calculation, certain design rules have to be obeyed.
35.7.1 The Modelling Structure
Protection devices form a group of highly complex and non-uniform power system
35 - 43
devices. This places any program for modeling them for a difficult dilemma. On the one
hand, the relay models should be as flexible and versatile as possible, to ensure that all
types of protection relays can be modeled with all of their features. On the other hand,
the relay models should be as simple as possible in order to reduce the amount of work
and knowledge needed to define power system protection devices.
This dilemma is solved by PowerFactory by modelling protection devices in three
different levels. These levels are:
the relay frame
the block types
the block elements
Each of these levels fulfill a different role in the modelling process of a protection device.
Figure 35.46 shows the relation of those three levels graphically.
Fig. 35.46: Modelling structure for protection devices
35 - 44
35.7.2 The Relay Frame
The relay frame is the base of a protection device. Therein defined are the different slots
and signal pathways available to the model. It is similar to the frames of composite models
and is create in the same way. See 27.7.3 (The Composite Frame) for more information.
The only difference to the creation of a composite frame is, that you only need to define
in- and output signals and that the class name has to be defined. Figure 35.47 shows an
exemplary relay frame for a two stage overcurrent relay. As you can see, there is a slot
for each block, that can be found in the model.
The frame can be assigned to a newly created relay type in the Equipment Type Library .
To create a new relay type, click the icon in the library and select "Special Types ->
Relay (TypRelay)". Once The frame is assigned to the type, perform a slot update for the
relay type to automatically create all block types needed.
Hint: To enable the automatic creation of blocks the "Automatic, model
will be created" option has to be enabeld in the respective slot def-
inition of the frame. This should be done with all blocks, except the
ones for the meassurement transformers.
Fig. 35.47: Examplary relay frame
35.7.3 The Block Type
As already mentioned, the blocks represent the different functionalities of a relay. The
various block types (i.e. TypIoc) are stored within the relay type (TypRelay) and define
35 - 45
those functionalities. Depending on the kind of block, the user can define boundaries for
time dials and current ranges or select the available characteristics. Figure 35.48 shows
the type dialog of an instantaeneous overcurrent block as an example. Parameters that
normally can not be influenced by the user, like the Pick-up Time, are defined in the type
as well. For a detailed description of the different options and parameters for each block
type, please refer to the Technical Reference section.
Fig. 35.48: Type dialog of an instantaneous overcurrent block
If all block types for a new model have been configured, a default relay can be created.
This default relay can be used to save default settings for each block, which are loaded if
a model of the newly defined type is created in the network.
To create a default relay, use the icon in the data manager or right-click on an empty
space and select "New -> Others -> Others -> Net Elements (Elm*) -> Relay Model
(ElmRelay)"
Note: The default relay has to be saved inside the relay type. It doesnt
need meassurement transformers like CTs and VTs.
35.7.4 The Block Element
The block elements (i.e. RelIoc) represent the user frontend of the relay. They are
created if a new type is selected for a relay model (ElmRelay). Which kind of block
element is created depends on the block type (Typ*) that occupies the same slot in the
relay type (TypRelay). The settings made in a block element are only valid for the block
35 - 46
element itself, whereas changes in the block type will be applied to all blocks depending
on this particular type. Figure 35.49 shows the block element dialog belonging to the typ
dialog in Figure 35.48.
Fig. 35.49: Element dialog of an instantaneous overcurrent relay
35 - 47
35 - 48
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Network Reduction
36 - 1
Chapter 36
Network Reduction
This chapter explains how to use the PowerFactory Network Reduction tool. A typical
application of Network Reduction is when a network that is part of or adjacent to a much
larger network must be analyzed, but cannot be studied independently of the larger
network. In such cases, one option is to model both networks in detail for calculation
purposes. However, there might be situations when it is not desirable to do studies with
the complete model. For example, when the calculation times would increase significantly
or when the data of the neighboring network is confidential and cannot be published.
In these cases, it is common practice to provide a simplified representation of the neigh-
boring network that contains only the interface nodes (connection points). These can then
be connected by equivalent impedances and voltage sources, so that the short circuit and
load-flow response within the kept (non reduced) system is the same as when the detailed
model is used.
PowerFactorys Network Reduction algorithm produces an equivalent representation of
the reduced part of the network and calculates its parameters. This equivalent represen-
tation is valid for both load flow and short-circuit calculations, including asymmetrical
faults such as single-phase faults.
The chapter is separated into five parts. Firstly, the technical background of the Power-
Factory Network Reduction algorithm is explained. Section 36.2 discusses the steps
needed to run a Network Reduction and section 36.3 explains in detail each of the options
of the PowerFactory Network Reduction tool. The penultimate part, section 36.4, pres-
ents a simple example and the final section provides some 'tips and tricks' to consider
when working with the Network Reduction tool.
36 - 2
Some additional technical background on the Network Reduction tool is provided in the
following sections.
36.1.1 Network Reduction for Load Flow
Network reduction for load flow is an algorithm based on sensitivity matrices. The basic
idea is that the sensitivities of the equivalent grid, measured at the connection points in
the kept grid, must be equal to the sensitivities of the grid that has been reduced. This
means that for a given (virtual) set of AP and AQ injections in the branches, from the kept
grid to the grid to be reduced, the resulting Au and A (voltage magnitude and voltage
phase angle variations) in the boundary nodes must be the same for the equivalent grid
as those that would have been obtained for the original grid (within a user defined toler-
ance).
36.1.2 Network Reduction for Short-Circuit
Network reduction for short-circuit is an algorithm based on nodal impedance/nodal
admittance matrices. The basic idea is that the impedance matrix of the equivalent grid,
measured at the connection points in the kept grid, must be equal to the impedance
matrix of the grid to be reduced (for the rows and columns that correspond to the
boundary nodes). This means that for a given (virtual) additional AI injection (variation
of current phasor) in the boundary branches, from the kept grid to the grid to be reduced,
the resulting Au (variations of voltage phasor) in the boundary nodes must be the same
for the equivalent grid, as those that would have been obtained for the original grid
(within a user defined tolerance).
This must be valid for positive sequence, negative sequence, and zero sequence cases, if
these are to be considered in the calculation (unbalanced short-circuit equivalent).
36.2 How to Complete a Network Reduction
This section explains the process for running a Network Reduction. There are several
steps that you must complete to successfully reduce a network:
Create a boundary and define the 'interior' and 'exterior' regions.
Create a backup of the project intended for reduction (optional).
Activate the additional tools toolbar and configure the Network Reduction Tool
options.
Run the Network Reduction Tool.
You must define a boundary before you can proceed further with the Network Reduction.
This process is described in detail in Section 15.3 (Boundaries). However, to summarize,
the boundary divides the network into two regions, the area to be reduced which is
referred to as the 'interior region' and the area to be kept which is referred to as the 'exte-
rior region'.
The following section describes the process of backing up the project, running the
Network Reduction tool using the default options and describes the expected output of a
36 - 3
successful network reduction. For more information about the options available within the
Network Reduction tool, see Section 36.3: Network Reduction Command.
36.2.1 How to Backup the Project (optional)
By default, the Network Reduction tool keeps all the original network data and the modi-
fications needed to reduce the network are stored within a new expansion stage that is
part of a new variation. It will only destroy the original data if the associated option within
the command is configured for this (see Section 36.3.2: Outputs).
However, if you want extra security to guarantee against data loss, in case for instance
you accidently select the option to modify the original network, then you should make a
backup copy of the project before completing the Network Reduction. There are three
possible ways to do this:
make a copy of the whole project and paste/store it with a name different to that of
the original project; or
export the project as a *.dz- or *.pfd file (for information about exporting data please
refer to Section 10.1.4: Exporting and Importing of Projects); or
activate the project and create aVersion of the project. For information about Versions
please refer to Section 20.1 (Project Versions).
36.2.2 How to run the Network Reduction tool
This sub-section describes the procedure you must follow to run the Network Reduction
using the default options. Proceed as follows:
1 Activate the base Study Case for the project you wish to reduce.
2 Define a boundary that splits the grid into the part to be reduced (interior region),
and the part to be kept (exterior region). See Section 15.3 (Boundaries) for the
procedure.
3 Open the boundary object and use the Check Split button in the ElmBoundary
dialogue to check that the boundary correctly splits the network into two regions.
See Section 15.3 (Boundaries) for more information about boundaries.
4 Select the Additional Tools icon ( ) from the main toolbar. This is illustrated in
Figure 36.1.
5 Press the Network Reduction icon ( ) from the Additional Tools icon bar
(Figure 36.1). This opens the dialogue for Network Reduction Command
(ComRed).
6 Select the boundary you previously defined using the selection control ( ).
7 Optional: If you wish to modify the settings of the command, do so in this dialog.
The settings and options are explained in Section 36.3 (Network Reduction
Command). However, the default options are recommended, unless you have a
specific reason for changing them.
8 Press the Execute button to start the reduction procedure.
36 - 4
Fig. 36.1: The Network Reduction Button in the Additional Tools Icon Bar
36.2.3 Expected Output of the Network Reduction
This sub-section describes the expected output of the network reduction tool after
successfully executing it. The output varies depending on whether the reduced project
was created in V13.2 or earlier and contains system stages, or if it was created in V14.0
or higher. Both output scenarios are explained in the following sections. Also, the addi-
tional objects that the Network Reduction tool creates are explained.
Changes to the network model for projects created in V14.0 or
higher
The default behavior of the Network Reduction command is to create a Variation
containing a single Expansion Stage called 'Reduction Stage'. For more information see
Chapter 17: Network Variations and Expansion Stages. The Variation will be named auto-
matically according to the reduction options selected in the basic options tab of the
Network Reduction command. For example, for the default options the Variation will be
named 'Equ-LF[EW]-Shc[sym]@Boundary'. Figure 36.2 shows an example of a network
data model after a successful Network Reduction.
Fig. 36.2: Project Data tree showing the network model after a successful Network
Reduction using the default options.
Network Reduction
New Variation and Ex-
pansion Stage created
by the Network Reduc-
tion tool.
New Study Case creat-
ed by the Network Re-
duction tool.
36 - 5
The Network Reduction tool also creates a new Study Case with a name that matches the
new Variation name. To return to your original network, all you need to do is activate the
original study case that you used to initiate the Network Reduction.
Note: The Variation and Study Case created by the Network Reduction
tool are automatically activated when the tool is run. To return to
your original model you need to reactivate the 'base' Study Case.
Changes to the network model for projects created in V13.2 or
lower
For projects imported from V13.2, if they contain System Stage(s) (superseded by Varia-
tions in V14.0), then the Network Reduction does not create a Variation in the project.
Instead, a system stage is created within each active grid. Therefore, if there are 'n' active
grids when the Network Reduction process is initiated, there will be 'n' System Stages
created. The naming convention for the System Stage(s) is the same as the naming
convention for the Variations described above. The new System Stage(s) will be automat-
ically activated in the created study case.
If one or more single line graphic diagrams were in the System Stage(s) within the original
grid, these graphics will also be kept in the new System Stage(s) within the combined
(partly kept and partly reduced) grid. The first time that the new study case is activated
(automatically, at the end of Network Reduction procedure), the graphics will be
displayed. The elements contained in the part of the grid which was reduced (if any of
them were previously shown), will appear grey in colour, as 'ghost' elements. Deactivating
and re-activating the project will make them disappear permanently (they are graphic
elements only, and have no corresponding elements in the database in the new System
Stage(s)).
New objects added by the Network Reduction command
Depending on the network configuration and the options chosen within the Network
Reduction command, during the Network Reduction process some new objects might be
created. There are two possible new object types:
AC Voltage Source (ElmVac) ; and
Common Impedance (ElmZpu)
By default, there will be one voltage source created for every boundary node and one
common impedance between every pair of boundary nodes (unless the calculated mutual
impedance is greater than the user-defined threshold described in Section 36.3.3). These
objects are stored in the database but are not automatically drawn on the single line
graphic. If you need to see these objects on the single line diagram, you must add them
manually using the PowerFactory tool 'Draw Existing Net Elements', which is explained
in Section 11.4 (Drawing Diagrams with already existing Network Elements).
36.3 Network Reduction Command
In this section, the Network Reduction command options are explained.
36 - 6
This section describes the options on the Basic Options tab of the Network Reduction
command as shown in Figure 36.3.
Fig. 36.3: Network Reduction Command (ComRed) Basic Options
Boundary
This selection control refers to the boundary that defines the part of the grid that shall be
reduced by the reduction tool. Note, the project Boundaries folder might contain many
boundaries, but you must select only one boundary from this folder. This selected
boundary must separate the original grid into two parts, the part that shall be reduced
(interior region) and the part that shall be kept (exterior region). For more information
about boundaries, please refer to Section 15.3 (Boundaries).
Load Flow
Calculate load flow equivalent
If this option is enabled, the load flow equivalent model will be created by the reduction
tool. This option is enabled by default.
Equivalent Model for Power Injection
The load flow equivalent is composed of mutual impedances between boundary nodes
and power injections (and shunt impedances) at boundary nodes. The power injection
can be represented by different models. For the load flow equivalent there are three
options (models) available:
Load Equivalent: a load demand
Ward Equivalent: an AC voltage source which is configured as a
Ward Equivalent
36 - 7
Extended Ward Equivalent: an AC voltage source which is
configured as an Extended Ward Equivalent
Short-Circuit
Calculate short-circuit equivalent
If this option is enabled, the short-circuit equivalent model will be created by the Network
Reduction tool. Currently, only the complete short-circuit calculation method is supported.
Asymmetrical Representation
This option is used to specify whether an unbalanced short-circuit equivalent will be
created. If this option is disabled, only a balanced short-circuit equivalent will be created,
valid for the calculation of 3-phase short-circuits. If this option is enabled, an unbalanced
short-circuit equivalent is created, valid for the calculation of single-phase and other
unsymmetrical short-circuits. This means the network representation must include zero
sequence and negative sequence parameters, otherwise the unbalanced calculation
cannot be done.
36.3.2 Outputs
The section describes the options available on the Outputs tab of the Network Reduction
command as shown in Figure 36.4. These options define how the Network Reduction
command modifies the network model.
Fig. 36.4: Network Reduction Command - Outputs
Calculation of Parameters Only
The equivalent parameters are calculated and reported to the output window. If this
option is selected then the Network Reduction command does not modify the network
model.
Create a new Variation for Reduced Network (Default)
The equivalent parameters are calculated and a Variation will be automatically created to
store the reduced network model. If the project already includes System Stage(s) (from
PowerFactory version 13.2 or earlier versions) then System Stage(s) will be created
instead of a Variation.
Reduce Network without Creating a New Variation
The Network Reduction command will directly modify the main network model if this
options is selected. Therefore, this option will destroy data by deleting the 'interior' region
36 - 8
of the selected boundary, and replacing it with its reduced model, so this option should
be used with care. To avoid losing the original grid data, backup the project as described
in Section 36.2.1 (How to Backup the Project (optional)).
36 - 9
This section describes the Advanced Options for the Network Reduction command as
Fig. 36.5: Network Reduction Command - Advanced Options
Mutual Impedance (Ignore above)
As part of the Network Reduction process equivalent branches (represented using
Common Impedance elements) will be created between the boundary nodes, to maintain
the power-flow relationship between them. If such branches have a calculated impedance
larger than this parameter they will be ignored (not added to the network model).
By default, the number of these branches created will be N*(N-1)/2, where N is the
number of boundary nodes. A boundary node is defined for each boundary cubicle. There-
fore, the number of created branches can be very high. Normally many of these equiva-
lent branches have a very large impedance value, so their associated power flows are
negligible and the branch can be ignored.
The default value for this parameter is 1000 p.u (based on 100 MVA).
Calculate Equivalent Parameters at All Frequencies
This option enables the calculation of frequency-related parameters. By default, the short-
circuit equivalent parameters are calculated at all frequencies relevant to short-circuit
analysis (equivalent frequencies for calculating the d.c. component of the short-circuit
current):
f = f
n
f / f
n
= 0.4
f / f
n
= 0.27
f / f
n
= 0.15
f / f
n
= 0.092
f / f
n
= 0.055
f
n
is the nominal frequency of the grid (usually 50 Hz or 60 Hz).
If only transient and sub-transient short-circuit currents are important in the reduced
network, the calculation of frequency-related parameters can be skipped by unchecking
this option.
36 - 10
36.3.4 Verification
The verification tab of the Network Reduction tool is shown in Figure 36.6. The options
are explained below.
Fig. 36.6: Network Reduction Command - Verification
Check Equivalent Results
If the option Check load flow results after reduction is enabled, the load flow results at
the boundary nodes after the network reduction will be checked against the original
network results. A warning message will be given if the results do not match (within the
user defined 'Threshold for check').
The results of the comparison between the original network and the reduced network are
printed to the output window.
Check Deviation of Operating Point
If the option Save original operating point to result file is enabled, the base operating
point for the Network Reduction will be automatically saved to two result files. These two
created files are:
LdfResultforNR.ElmRes: voltage magnitudes and angles of all boundary nodes; and
ShcResultforNR.ElmRes: short-circuit level at all boundary nodes, including I
k
'' (Ikss),
I
k
' (Iks), i
p
(ip), i
b
(ib), I
b
(Ib), X
b
/R
b
(XtoR_b), and X/R (XtoR).
36.4 Network Reduction Example
This section presents a Network Reduction example using a small transmission network
feeding a distribution system from 'bus 5' and 'bus 6' as shown in Figure 36.7. The distri-
bution system is represented by Load A and Load B and the corresponding two trans-
formers. As a user you would like to study the distribution system in detail but are not
concerned with the detailed power flow within the transmission system. Therefore, the
Network Reduction tool can be used to create a equivalent model for the transmission
system.
The interior region (the area that shall be reduced) is shown shaded in grey, whereas the
non-shaded area is the exterior region that shall be kept. The procedure for completing
the Network Reduction according to these parameters is as follows (you can repeat this
example yourself using the 'nine bus system' within the demo user of the PowerFactory
database - the network used in the example is slightly modified from this):
36 - 11
Fig. 36.7: Example System with Original Network
1 Select cubicles that will be used to define the boundary. These are highlighted in
Figure 36.8. (Use the freeze mode to make selection of the cubicles easier.)
Fig. 36.8: Cubicles used for the boundary definition.
Interior Region
Bus 10 Bus 11
B
u
s

7
Bus 5
Bus 4
Bus 6
B
u
s

3
B
u
s

9
B
u
s

8
B
u
s

2
Bus 1
T
4
T
5
Load A
L
i
n
e

1
L
i
n
e

6
L
i
n
e

5
Load B
T3
G~
G
3
Line 4
L
o
a
d

C
Line 3
T2
G ~
G
2
External ..
L
i
n
e

9
L
i
n
e

2
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
B
u
s

7
Bus 5
Bus 4
Bus 10 Bus 11
Bus 6
B
u
s

3
B
u
s

9
B
u
s

8
B
u
s

2
Bus 1
Load A
L
i
n
e

1
T
4
T
5
External ..
L
i
n
e

6
L
i
n
e

9
L
i
n
e

2
L
i
n
e

5
Load B
T3
G~
G
3
Line 4
L
o
a
d

C
Line 3
T2
G ~
G
2
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
36 - 12
2 Right-click one of the selected cubicles and choose the option Define -> Boundary ...
The boundary dialog appears.
3 Alter the boundary cubicle orientations so that the 'Interior' region is correctly
defined. The cubicle orientation for the T4 and T5 cubicles should be set to 'Busbar'.
This means that the boundary interior is defined by 'looking back' at the bus from
these cubicles. The orientation for the Line 1 and Line 6 cubicles remains on Branch
(looking into the branch).
4 Open the Network Reduction command dialog and select the boundary defined in
steps 1-3 using the selection control.
5 Press Execute. The Network Reduction tool will reduce the system.
6 Optional: draw in the three new common impedance elements and three equivalent
ward voltage source objects using the Draw Existing Net Elements tool. The result of
the Network Reduction is shown in Figure 36.9.
A load flow calculation or a short-circuit calculation in the reduced network gives the same
results for the distribution network as for the original (non-reduced) network.

Fig. 36.9: Example System with Reduced Network
Bus 10 Bus 10 Bus 11
Bus 5 Bus 5
Bus 4
Bus 6
Bus 1 Bus 1 Bus 1 Bus 1 Bus 1
XW
eqVac-2
XW
eqVac-1
XW
eqVac-0
Z
e
q
Z
p
u
-
1
-
2
Z
e
q
Z
p
u
-
0
-
2
Z
eqZpu-0-1
T
4
T
4
T
5
Load A Load B Load B Load B
External .. External .. External .. External .. External .. External .. External .. External ..
L
i
n
e

9
D
Ig
S
IL
E
N
T
36 - 13
36.5 Tips for using the Network Reduction Tool
This section presents some tips for using the Network Reduction tool and some solutions
to common problems encountered by users.
36.5.1 Station Controller Busbar is Reduced
Sometimes a interior region might be defined such that it contains the reference bus of a
station controller. The generators belonging to this station controller are in the exterior
region. During the reduction process the 'reference bus' will be reduced (removed) from
the model, yet the station controller and generators will remain part of the new system.
In such a situation, attempting to run a load-flow after the reduction will fail with an error
message similar to that shown in Figure 36.10.
Fig. 36.10: Error message showing a station controller error
There are two possible solutions to this problem:
Modify the boundary definition slightly such that the station controller bus is excluded
from the exterior region; or
Set the station controller out of service and the generators to local PV mode.
36.5.2 Network Reduction doesnt Reduce Isolated Areas
By default, the boundary definition search stops when encountering an open breaker. This
means that isolated areas can sometimes be excluded from the 'interior' region and there-
fore are not reduced by the Network Reduction tool. The solution to this problem is to
disable the boundary flag 'Topological search: Stop at open breakers'. This option is
enabled by default in all boundary definitions. It is recommended to disable it before
attempting a Network Reduction.
A related problem occurs with the project setting (Edit -> Project -> Project Settings ->
Advanced Calculation Parameters) 'Automatic Out of Service Detection'. It is recom-
mended that this option is disabled before attempting a Network Reduction. However, it
is disabled by default, so if you have not made changes to the default project settings you
should not need to make any changes to this setting.
36.5.3 The Reference Machine is not Reduced
The Network Reduction tool will not reduce a reference machine defined within the inte-
rior region. It also leaves all network components that are topologically one bus removed
from the reference machine (and of non-zero impedance). For example, if the reference
machine is a typical synchronous machine connected to the HV system through a step up
36 - 14
transformer, then the reduction tool will leave the synchronous machine, the LV bus, the
step up transformer and the HV bus within the reduced network.
It is recommended that the reference machine is found within the exterior region before
attempting a Network Reduction. The reference machine can be identified by checking
the output window following a successful load-flow calculation as illustrated in
Figure 36.11.
Fig. 36.11: Output window showing the load-flow command output and the indication
of the reference machine
The reference machine
is shown in the first
line of the load-flow
command output.
DIgSILENT PowerFactory State Estimation
37 - 1
Chapter 37
State Estimation
The State Estimator (SE) function of PowerFactory provides consistent load flow re-
sults for an entire power system, based on real time measurements, manually entered
data and the network model. Before any further analysis, such as contingency analy-
sis, security checks etc. can be carried out, the present state of a power system must
be estimated from available measurements. The measurement types that are pro-
cessed by the PowerFactory State Estimator are:
Active Power Branch Flow
Reactive Power Branch Flow
Branch Current (Magnitude)
Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude)
Breaker Status
Transformer Tap Position
Unfortunately, these measurements are usually noisy and some data might even be
totally wrong. On the other hand, there are usually more data available than absolute-
ly necessary and it is possible to profit by redundant measurements for improving the
accuracy of the estimated network state.
The states that can be estimated by the State Estimator on the base of the given mea-
surements vary for different elements in the network:
Loads
- Active Power, and/or
- Reactive Power, or
- Scaling Factor, as an alternative
- Active Power, and/or
- Reactive Power
- Active Power
Static var System
- Reactive Power
2- and 3-winding transformers
- Tap Positions (for all but one taps).
37 - 2
37.1 Objective Function
The objective of a state estimator is to assess the generator and load injections, and
the tap positions in a way that the resulting load flow result matches as close as pos-
sible with the measured branch flows and bus bar voltages. Mathematically, this can
be expressed with a weighted square sum of all deviations between calculated (calVal)
and measured (meaVal) branch flows and bus bar voltages:
The state vector contains all voltage magnitudes, voltage angles and also all vari-
ables to be estimated, such as active and reactive power injections at all bus bars.
Because more accurate measurements should have a higher influence to the final re-
sults than less accurate measurements, every measurement error is weighted with a
weighting factor w
i
to the standard deviation of the corresponding measurement de-
vice (+transmission channels, etc.).
In this setting, the goal of a state estimator is to minimize the above given function f un-
der the side constraints that all load flow equations are fulfilled.
37.2 Components of the PowerFactory State Estimator
The State Estimator function in PowerFactory consists of several independent compo-
nents, namely:
1 Preprocessing
2 Plausibility Check
3 Observability Analysis
4 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization)
Figure 37.1 illustrates the algorithmic interaction of the different components. The first
Preprocessing phase adjusts all breaker and tap positions according to their measured sig-
nals.
f x ( ) w
i
calVal
i
x ( ) meaVal
i
i 1 =
n
=
x
37 - 3

Fig. 37.1: Variation of the PowerFactory state estimator algorithm
The Plausibility Check is sought to detect and separate out, in a second phase, all mea-
surements with some apparent error. PowerFactory provides various test criteria for
that phase of the algorithm.
In a third phase, the network is checked for its Observability. Roughly speaking, a region
of the network is called observable, if the measurements in the system provide enough
(non-redundant) information to estimate the state of that part of the network.
Finally, the State Estimation itself evaluates the state of the entire power system by solv-
ing the above mentioned non-linear optimization problem. PowerFactory provides var-
ious ways for copying with non-observable areas of the network.
In order to improve the quality of the result, observability analysis and state estimation
can be run in a loop. In this mode, at the end of each state estimation, the measurement
devices undergo a so-called Bad Data Detection: the error of every measurement device
can be estimated by evaluating the difference between calculated and measured quantity.
Extremely distorted measurements (i.e. the estimated error is much larger than the stan-
dard deviation of the measurement device) are not considered in the subsequent itera-
tions. The process is repeated until no bad measurements are detected any more.
In the following, the distinct components of the PowerFactory state estimator are ex-
plained in detail.
Plausibility Check
State Estimation
(non-linear Optimization)
Preprocessing
Repair Unobservability
Bad Data Detection
No Bad Measurements Exists
Still Unobservable?
Observable?
Eliminate Errornous
Measurements
OK
E
l
i
m
i
n
a
t
e

B
a
d

M
e
a
s
u
r
e
m
e
n
t
s
37 - 4
37.2.1 Plausibility Check
In order to avoid any heavy distortion of the estimated network-state due to completely
wrong measurements, the following Plausibility Checks can be made before the actual
State Estimation is started. Every measurement that fails in any of the listed Plausibility
Checks will not be considered.
Check for consistent active power flow directions at each side of the branch elements.
Check for extremely large branch losses, which exceed their nominal values.
Check for negative losses on passive branch elements.
Check for large branch flows on open ended branch elements.
Check whether the measured branch loadings exceed the nominal loading value of the
branch elements.
Node sum checks for both, active and reactive power.
Each test is based on a stochastic analysis which takes into account the measurements
individual accuracy. The strictness of the above mentioned checking criteria can be con-
tinuously adjusted in the advanced settings.
The result of the Plausibility Check is reported, for each measurement, on a detailed error
status page (see Section 37.5).
37.2.2 Observability Analysis
A necessary requirement for an observable system is that the number of available mea-
surements is equal or larger than the number of estimated variables. This verification can
easily be made at the beginning of every state estimation.
But it can also happen that only parts of the network are observable and some other parts
of the system are not observable even if the total number of measurements is sufficient.
Hence, it is not only important that there are enough measurements, but also that they
are well distributed in the network.
Therefore, additional verifications are made checking for every load or generator injection
whether it is observable or not. The entire network is said to be observable if all load or
generator injections can be estimated based on the given measurements. PowerFactory
does not only solve the decision problem whether the given system is observable or not:
If a network is not observable, it is still useful to determine the islands in the network that
are observable.
The Observability Analysis in PowerFactory is not purely based on topological argu-
ments; it heavily takes into account the electrical quantities of the network. Mathemati-
cally speaking, the Observability Check is based on an intricate sensitivity analysis,
involving fast matrix-rank-calculations, of the whole system.
The result of the Observability Analysis can be viewed using the data manager. Besides,
PowerFactory offers a very flexible color representation both for observable and unob-
servable areas, and for redundant and non-redundant measurements (see Section
37.5.4).
Observability of individual states
The Observability Analysis identifies not only, for each state (i.e., load or generator injec-
37 - 5
tions) whether it is observable or not. It also subdivides all unobservable states into so-
called equivalence-classes. Each equivalence-class has the property that it is observable
as a group, even though its members (i.e., the single states) cannot be observed. Each
group then can be handled individually for the subsequent state estimation.
Redundancy of measurements
Typically, an observable network is overdetermined in the sense that redundant measure-
ments exist, whichfor the observability of the systemdo not provide any further infor-
mation. During the Observability Analysis, PowerFactory determines redundant and
non-redundant measurements. Moreover, it subdivides all redundant measurements ac-
cording to their information content for the systems observability status. In this sense,
PowerFactory is even able to calculate a redundancy level which then indicates how
much reserve the network measurements provide. This helps the system analyst to pre-
cisely identify weakly measured areas in the network.
It should be remarked that the non-linear optimization part of the State Estimator may
highly profit from these redundant measurements; thus, redundant measurements will
not be neglected in the state estimation.
37.2.3 State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization)
The non-linear optimization is the core part of the State Estimator. As already mentioned
in the introduction, the objective is to minimize the weighted square sum of all deviations
between calculated and measured branch flows and bus bar voltages whilst fulfilling all
load flow equations.
PowerFactory uses an extremely fast converging iterative approach to solve the prob-
lem based on Lagrange-Newton methods. If the Observability Analysis in the previous
step indicates that the entire power system is observable, convergence (in general) is
guaranteed.
In order to come up with a solution for a non-observable system, various strategies can
be followed: One option is to reset all non-observable states, such that some manually
entered values or historic data is used for these states. An alternative option is to use so-
called pseudo-measurements for non-observable states. A pseudo-measurement basically
is a measurement with a very poor accuracy. These pseudo-measurements force the al-
gorithm to converge. At the same time, the resulting estimated states will be of correct
proportions within each equivalence-class.
In the remaining sections of this guide of use, the instructions related to Data Entry, Op-
tions and Constraints, and Visualization of Results are presented.
37.3 State Estimator Data Input
The main procedures to introduce and manipulate the State Estimator data are indicated
in this section. For applying the PowerFactory State Estimator, the following data are
required additional to standard load flow data:
Measurements
- Active Power Branch Flow
- Reactive Power Branch Flow
37 - 6
- Branch Current (Magnitude)
- Bus Bar Voltage (Magnitude)
- Breaker Status
- Transformer Tap Position
Estimated States
- Loads: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q), or the Scaling Factor, as an
alternative.
- Synchronous Machines: Active Power (P) and/or Reactive Power (Q)
- Asynchronous Machines: Active Power (P)
- Static var Systems: Reactive Power (Q)
- Transformers: Tap Positions
For the measurements listed above, PowerFactory uses the abbreviated names P-mea-
surement, Q-measurement, I-measurement, V-measurement, Breaker-measurement,
and Tap position-measurement. Similarly, as a convention, the four different types of es-
timated states are shortly called P-state, Q-state, Scaling factor-state, and Tap position-
state.
37.3.1 Measurements
All measurements are defined by placing a so-called External Measurement Device in-
side a cubicle. For this purpose, select the device in the single-line graphic and choose
from the context menu (right mouse button) New Devices and then External Measure-
ments... (see Figure 37.2). Then, the new object dialogue pops up with a predefined list
of external measurements. Please select the desired measurement device among this list
(see Figure 37.3).
37 - 7

Fig. 37.2: External Measurements that are located in a cubicle

Fig. 37.3: Defining new external measurements
37 - 8
The following measurement devices are currently supported
(External) P-Measurement (StaExtpmea)
(External) Q-Measurement (StaExtqmea)
(External) I-Measurement, current magnitude (StaExtimea)
(External) V-Measurement, voltage magnitude (StaExtvmea)
(External) Breaker Signalization Breaker Status (StaExtbrkmea)
(External) Tap-Position Measurement Tap Position (StaExttapmea)
Any number of mutually distinct measurement devices can be defined in the cubicle.
Branch Flow Measurements
Any branch flow measurement (StaExpmea, StaExtqmea) is defined by the following val-
ues (see figures 37.4 and 37.5):
Measured value (e:Pmea or e:Qmea, respectively)
Multiplicator (e:Multip)
Orientation (e:i_gen)
Accuracy class and rating (e:Snom and e:accuracy)
Input status (to be found on the second page of the edit object, see Figure 37.5):
E.g., tele-measured, manually entered, read/write protected, . . . (e:iStatus). It is
important to note that the state estimator takes into account only measurements, for
which the read-Status is explicitly set and for which the Neglected by SE-Status is
unset.

Fig. 37.4: Dialogue for an external P-measurement
The accuracy class and the rating are used for weighting the measurement element. In
37 - 9
case of redundant measurements, a more accurate measurement will be higher weighted
than a less accurate measurement.
Using the flag orientation, it is possible to define the meaning of the active or reactive
power sign. Load orientation means that a positively measured P or Q flows into the ele-
ment, generator orientation defines a positive flow as flowing out of an element. With the
multiplicator, a measured quantity can be re-rated. E.g., if a measurement instrument
indicates 150kW (instead of 0.15MW), the multiplicator can be set to 0.001 and the
measured value is set to 150 resulting in a correct value.
It is important to note, that External P- and Q-measurements have the additional feature
to possibly serve as a so-called (externally created) pseudo-measurement. This feature is
activated by checking the corresponding box (e:pseudo). Pseudo-measurements are
special measurements which are ignored during the regular calculation. They are activat-
ed in a selective manner only if the observability check found unobservable states in the
network (see Section 37.4.1: Basic Setup Options for details).
Current Measurements
The External I-measurement (Staextimea) plays a special role and slightly differs from
the External P- and Q-measurements (see Figure 37.6): Besides specifying the measured
current magnitude (e:Imea), the user is asked to enter an assumed (or measured) value
for the power factor cos (e:cosphi and e:pf_recapr).

Fig. 37.5: Second page Status of the dialogue for an external P-measurement
Internally, the measured current magnitude is then additionally transformed into two fur-
ther measurements, namely an active and a reactive current. This is due to the fact that
current magnitude does not provide information on the direction of the flow, which on
the other hand is essential to avoid ambiguous solutions in the optimization.
In this sense, an external I-measurement may play the role of up to three measurements:
37 - 10
1 as a current magnitude measurement.
2 as a measurement for active current.
3 as a measurement for reactive current.
The decision which of these measurements shall participate in the state estimator is left
to the user by checking the boxes (e:iUseMagn,e:iUseAct, and/or e:iUseReact).
In any case, the corresponding ratings for the used measurement types need to be spec-
ified. This is done (accordingly to the flow measurements) by entering the pairs of fields
((e:SnomMagn,e:accuracyMagn), (e:SnomAct,e:accuracyAct), and (e:SnomRe-
act,e:accuracyReact), respectively).
Voltage Measurements
Voltage measurements (StaExvmea) need to be placed in cubicles as well. The measure-
ment point then is the adjacent terminal.

Fig. 37.6: Dialogue for an external I-measurement
A voltage measurement basically has the same properties as a flow measurement, except,
for the rating, only a single value for the accuracy needs to be specified. The correspond-
ing internal reference is the nominal voltage of the terminal which serves as measurement
point.
37 - 11
Breaker and Tap Position Measurements
Both breaker and tap position measurements are assumed to measure the corresponding
discrete breaker status and tap position signal accurately. Hence, no ratings needs to be
specified.
Tap position measurements have a conversion table as extra feature. The conversion table
allows any discrete translation mapping between external tap positions (Ext. Tap) and tap
positions used by PowerFactory (PF Tap).
37.3.2 Activating the State Estimator Display Option
To access and enter data for State Estimator calculations in the appropriate elements of
the grid, the pertinent Display Options must be selected as follows:
a) Click the icon , or select from the main menu Options User Settings. Change
to the tab page Functions. The window shown in Figure 37.7 will appear.
b) Enable the Display Function State Estimator as shown below.
c) Exit the window clicking the OK button.

Fig. 37.7: User Settings for State Estimation
With this display function enabled, a new tab called State Estimator appears in the State
Estimator related elements of the grids in the activated project. The State Estimator data
37 - 12
manipulation of the different elements is indicated below.
37.3.3 Editing the Element Data
In addition to the measurement values, the user has to specify which quantities shall be
considered as states to be estimated by the SE. Possible states to be optimized whilst
minimizing the sum of the error squares over all measurements are all active and/or re-
active power injections at generators and loads and all tap positions.
Loads
For each load (ElmLod), the user can specify whether its active and/or reactive power
shall be estimated by the state estimator. Alternatively, the state estimator is able to es-
timate the scaling factor (for a given P and Q injection). The specification which parameter
shall be estimated, is done by checking corresponding boxes on the State Estimator
page of the load (see Figure 37.8). When these options are disabled, the load is treated
as in the conventional load flow calculation during the execution of the SE.

Fig. 37.8: Editing element data for loads
Similarly, for synchronous machines (ElmSym), the active and reactive power can be se-
lected as a control variable for being estimated by the state estimator. Again, the user will
find corresponding check boxes on the State Estimator page of the element.
If the corresponding check box(es) are disabled, the synchronous machine behaves as in
the conventional load flow calculation.
For asynchronous machines (ElmAsm), the active power may serve as a state to be esti-
mated. Once again, the corresponding box has to be checked on the State Estimator
page.
If the corresponding check box is disabled, the asynchronous machine behaves as in the
conventional load flow calculation.
37 - 13
Static var Systems
For static var systems (ElmSvs), the reactive power may serve as a state to be estimated.
Again, the corresponding box has to be checked on the State Estimator page.
If the corresponding check box is disabled, the static var system behaves as in the con-
ventional load flow calculation.
Transformers
In the 2-winding transformer elements (ElmTr2), the tap position can be specified as a
state to be estimated by the State Estimator (see Figure 37.9). Tap positions will be esti-
mated in a continuous way (without paying attention to the given tap limits).
For 3-winding transformers, any two of the three possible tap positions (HV-, MV-, and
LV-side) can be selected for estimation (see Figure 37.10).
The corresponding check boxes are found on the State Estimator page of the transform-
ers. If the check box is disabled the State Estimator will treat the tap position of the trans-
formers as in the conventional load flow calculation.

Fig. 37.9: Editing element data for 2-winding transformers

Fig. 37.10: Editing element data for 3-winding transformers
37 - 14
37.4 Running SE
The following steps should be performed to execute the State Estimator:
Start from a case where the conventional power flow converges successfully.
Make sure that in the toolbar selection, the icon is chosen.
Execute the SE by clicking the icon .
Select the desired options for the State Estimator run (see below).
Select EXECUTE.
37.4.1 Basic Setup Options
Recall that the State Estimator in PowerFactory consists of three different parts (Plau-
sibility Check, Observability Analysis, State Estimation (non-linear optimization)) and an
additional precedent Preprocessing step (see Figure 37.1). This variation is reflected in
the Basic Options dialogue (see Figure 37.11).

Fig. 37.11: Editing the basic options page of the ComSe
37 - 15
Preprocessing
The algorithm distinguishes between breaker- and tap position-measurements on the one
hand, and P-,Q-,I-, and V-measurements on the other hand. Breaker- and tap position-
measurements are handled in the preprocessing step, whereas the latter types are pro-
cessed in the subsequent parts or the state estimator.
Adapt breaker measurements
If this check box is marked, all measured breakers statuses will be set
to the corresponding measured signal values.
Adapt tap position measurements
If this check box is marked, all measured tap positions will be set to the
corresponding measured values.
Plausibility Check
The algorithm offers various kinds of plausibility checks to validate measurements. Each
measurement undergoes the checks selected by the user. If a measurement fails any of
the required tests, it will be marked as erroneous and will be neglected in all subsequent
steps. A complete error report can be obtained via the error status page of each measure-
ments (see Section 37.5).
The following checks can be enabled by marking the corresponding check boxes.
Consistent active power flow direction at each branch
Checks for each passive branch, whether all connected P-
measurements comply with a consistent power flow direction. More
precisely, if some flow out of a passive element is measured while, at
the same time, no flow into the element is measured, then all P-
measurements connected to this element fail this test. For this check, a
P-measurement is said to measure a non-zero flow if the
measurement value is beyond a value of , where o and
rating are the accuracy and the rating, respectively, of the
measurement.
Branch losses exceed nominal values
Checks for each passive branch, whether the measured active power
loss exceeds the nominal loss of the branch by a factor of 1 + c. This
check only applies to passive branches which have P-measurements
Pmea
1
, . . . ,Pmea
r
in each of its r connection devices. The threshold c,
by which the nominal loss shall not be exceeded, is given by:
, where o
i
and rating
i
are the accuracy and the
rating, respectively, of measurement Pmea
i
.
Negative losses on passive branches
Checks for each passive branch, whether the measured active power
loss is negative, i.e., if a passive branch is measured to generate active
power. This check only applies to passive branches which have P-
measurements Pmea
1
, . .. , Pmea
r
in each of its r connection devices.
o rating -
c o
i
rating
i
i 1 =
r
=
37 - 16
The measured power loss of the branch is said to be negative if it is
below the threshold ( ).
Large branch flows on open ended branches
Checks for each connection of the element, whether the connection is
an open end (i.e., switch is open, or it is connected to only open
detailed switches). If the connection is open and there exists a (P-, Q-,
or I-) measurement which measures a non-zero flow, then the
corresponding measurement fails the test. Again, a measurement is
said to measure a non-zero flow if the measurement value is beyond
a value of o rating.
Branch loadings exceed nominal values
Checks for each connection of the element, if the measured complex
power (which is computed by the corresponding P- and/or Q-
measurements) exceeds the rated complex power value by a factor of 1
+ s. Here, s is the accuracy of the P- and/or Q-measurement(s).
Node sum checks for active and reactive power
This check applies to P- and/or Q-measurements. Checks, for each
node of the network, if the node sum of the measured values in the
adjacent branches is zero. If this is not the case, i.e., if the P- and/or Q-
sum exceeds a certain threshold value, all adjacent P- and/or Q-
measurements fail the test. Again, not being zero means that the sum
of the measured values of the adjacent P-measurements Pmea
1
, ... ,
Pmea
r
has magnitude below the threshold (similarly
for Q-measurements).
Observability Analysis
The Observability Analysis is an optional component of the State Estimator. If activated,
it checks whether the specified network is observable, i.e., whether the remaining valid
P-, Q-, V-, and I-measurements (which successfully passed the plausibility checks) suffice
to estimate the selected P-, Q-, Scaling Factor-, and Tap position-states. In addition, the
Observability Analysis detects redundant measurements. Redundancy, in general, yields
more accurate results for the following state estimation.
Moreover, if the Observability Analysis detects non-observable states, upon user selection,
it tries to fix this unobservability by introducing further pseudo-measurements.
Check for observability regions
If the corresponding check box is marked by the user, the execution of
the State Estimator will run the Observability Analysis (prior to the state
Estimation optimization).
Treatment of unobservable areas
In case of unobservable states, the user has different options to cope
with the situation:
Stop if unobservable regions exist. The algorithm terminates with
the detection of unobservable states. The Observability Analysis groups
all non-observable states into different equivalence classes. Each
o
i
rating
i
i 1 =
r
o
i
rating
i
i 1 =
r

37 - 17
equivalence class consists of states that carry the same observability
information through the given measurements. In other words, the
given measurements can only distinguish between different
equivalence classes, but not between various states of a single
equivalence class. The results can be viewed by the user (see Section
37.5: Results).
Use P-, Q-values as specified by model. If this option is selected,
the algorithm internally drops the to be estimated flag of each non-
observable state and uses the element specifications of the load flow
settings instead. For example, if a P-state of a load is unobservable, the
algorithm will use the P-value as entered on the load flow page. Hence,
the network is made observable by reducing the number of control
variables.
Use predefined pseudo-measurements. Using this option, the
algorithm repairs the unobservability of the network by increasing the
degrees of freedom. For that purpose, at the location of each non-
observable state, the algorithm tries to activate a pseudo-measurement
of the same kind. Hence, if a P- (Q-)state is non-observable in some
element, the algorithm searches for a P-(Q-)pseudo-measurement in
the cubicle of the element carrying the non-observable state. In case of
a non-observable scaling-factor both, a P- and a Q-pseudo-
measurement are required. The introduced pseudo-measurements
remain active as long as needed to circumvent unobservable areas.
Use internally created pseudo-measurements. This option is
similar to the previous one, except the algorithm automatically creates
and activates a sufficient number of internal pseudo-measurements to
guarantee observability. More precisely, internal pseudo-measurements
are created at the locations of all elements that have non-observable P-
(Q-, scaling factor-)state. For each such element, the pseudo-
measurement value for P (Q, P and Q) is taken from the elements load
flow specification. All internally created pseudo-measurements use a
common setting for their rating and accuracy, which can be specified on
the advanced setup options page for the observability check.
Use predefined and internally created meas. This mode can be
considered as a mixture of the latter two options. Here, in case of a
non-observable state, the algorithm tries to activate a predefined
pseudo-measurement of the same kind. If no corresponding pseudo-
measurement has been defined, then the algorithm automatically
creates an internal pseudo-measurement.
State Estimation (Non-Linear Optimization)
The non-linear optimization is the central component of the State Estimator. The under-
lying numerical algorithm to minimize the measurements overall error is the iterative La-
grange-Newton method.
Run state estimation algorithm
Check this box to enable the non-linear optimization. Note that after
convergence of the method,upon user settings on the advanced state
estimation option pagePowerFactory performs a bad data check
which eliminates the worst P-,Q-,V-, and I-measurements among all
bad data. Observability Analysis and State Estimation are run in a loop
37 - 18
until no further bad measurements exist (recall the algorithm variation
as shown in Figure 37.1).
37.4.2 Advanced Setup Options for the Plausibility Check
Each Plausibility Check allows for an individual strictness setting. Note that all checks rely
on the same principle: namely, the given measurement values are checked against some
threshold. Recall, for example, that the node sum check for P tests whether the active
power sum at a node is below a threshold of . The user has the pos-
sibility to influence the strictness of this threshold. Therefore, the settings provide to enter
so-called exceeding factors fac > 0 such that the new threshold is fac c instead of
c. E.g., in the case of the node sum check for P, the user may define the corresponding
factor fac_ndSumP.
The higher the exceeding factor, the less strict the plausibility test will be. Similar exceed-
ing factors can be specified for any of the given tests.
37.4.3 Advanced Setup Options for the Observability Check
Rastering of sensitivity matrix
Internally, the Observability Check is based on a thorough sensitivity analysis of the net-
work. For that purpose, the algorithm computes a sensitivity matrix that takes into ac-
count all measurements, on the one hand, and all estimated states on the other hand.
This sensitivity matrix is discretized by rastering the continuous values.
The user can specify the precision of this process by defining the number of intervals into
which the values of the sensitivity matrix shall be rastered (SensMatNoOfInt), the
threshold below which a continuous value is considered to be a 0 (SensMatThresh) in
the discrete case, and the mode of rastering (iopt_raster). It is highly recommended
to use the predefined values here.
Settings for internally created pseudo-measurements
If, on the basic option page, the mode for the treatment of unobservable regions is set to
use only internally created pseudo-measurements or to use predefined and internally
created pseudo-measurements, the user may specify a default power rating (SnomP-
seudo) and a default accuracy class (accuracyPseudo). These default values are used
for all automatically created internal pseudo-measurements.
37.4.4 Advanced Setup Options for Bad Data Detection
Recall that the state estimator loops Observability Analysis and State Estimation as long
as no further bad measurement is found (see Figure 37.1). The following settings allow
the user to control the number of iterations performed by the loop.
c o
i
rating
i
i 1 =
r
=
37 - 19
Maximum number of measurements to eliminate
The variable iBadMeasLimit specifies an upper limit on the number of bad measure-
ments that will be eliminated in the course of the State Estimation.
Tolerance factors for bad measurement elimination
A measurement is declared to be bad, if the deviation of measured against calculated val-
ue exceeds the measurements accuracy, i.e., if
Eqn 37.1:
where calVal and meaVal are the calculated value and the measured value, respective-
ly. The user may modify this definition by adjusting tolerance factors for bad measure-
ments. More precisely, a measurement is declared to be bad, if the left-hand side in
equation (37.1) exceeds . Here facErr > 0 is a factor which can
be specified by the user for each group of measurements individually. Use the factors
facErrP, facErrQ, facErrV, facErrIMagn, facErrIAct, and facErrIReact for
P-, Q-, V-measurements, and the three types of the I-measurements (magnitude mea-
sure, active current measure, reactive current measure).
37.4.5 Advanced Setup Options for Iteration Control
Initialization
The non-linear optimization requires an initialization step to generate an initial starting
configuration.
Initialization of non-linear optimization
The user may specify whether the initialization shall be performed by a load flow calcula-
tion or by some flat start. If it is known in advance that the final solution of the optimiza-
tion part is close to a valid load flow solution, initializing by a load flow calculation pays
off in a faster convergence.
Load Flow
Specifies the settings of the load flow command which is taken for initialization in case
no flat start is used.
Stopping criteria for the non-linear optimization
The non-linear optimization is implemented using an iterative Newton-Lagrange method.
Recall that the goal of the optimization is to minimize the objective function f (i.e., the
square sum of the weighted measurements deviations) under the constraint that all load
calcVal meaVal
rating
---------------------------------------------
accuracy
100
---------------------
>
facErr accuracy 100
37 - 20
flow equations are fulfilled. Mathematically speaking, the aim is to find
under the constraint that
where is the set of load flow equations that need to be fulfilled. By the Lagrange-New-
ton method, we thus try to minimize the resulting Lagrange function
with the Lagrange multipliers .
The following parameters can be used to adapt the stopping criteria for this iterative pro-
cess. The algorithm stops successfully if the following three issues are fulfilled:
1. The maximum number of iterations has not yet been reached.
2. All load flow constraint equations are fulfilled to a predefined degree
of exactness, which means:
(a) all nodal equations are fulfilled.
(b) all model equations are fulfilled.
3. The Lagrange function itself converges. This can be achieved if
(a) either the objective function itself converges to a stationary point, or
(b) the gradient of the objective function converges to zero.
The following parameters serve to adjust these stopping criteria. The user unfamiliar with
the underlying optimization algorithm is urged to use the default settings here.
Iteration Control of non-linear optimization
The user is asked to enter the maximum number of iterations.
Convergence of Load Flow Constraint Equations
The user should enter a maximal error for nodal equations (where the deviation is mea-
sured in kVA), and, in addition, a maximally tolerable error for the model equations (in %).
Convergence of Objective Function
The user is asked choose among the following two convergence criteria for the Lagrangian
min f x ( ) { }
g x ( ) 0 =
g
L x , ( ) f x ( )
T
g x ( ) + =
g x ( ) 0 =
L x , ( )
37 - 21
function: Either the function itself is required to converge to a stationary point, or the gra-
dient of the Lagrangian is expected to converge.
In the first case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum change in value of the
objective function. If the change in value between two consecutive iterations falls below
this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be converged.
In the latter case, the user is asked to enter an absolute maximum value for the gradient
of the Lagrangian. If the gradient falls below this value, the Lagrangian is assumed to be
converged.
It is strongly recommendeddue to mathematical precisenessto use the criterion on
the gradient. The other option might only be of advantage if the underlying Jacobian ma-
trix behaves numerically instable which then typically results in a toggling of the con-
vergence process in the last iterations.
Output
Two different levels of output during the iterative process can be selected.
37.5 Results
The presentation of the State Estimator results is integrated into the user interface. The
solution of the non-linear optimization in the State Estimator is available via the complete
set of variables of the conventional Load Flow calculations. It can be seen in the single
line diagram of the grid or through the browser.
37.5.1 Output Window Report
The PowerFactory State Estimator reports the main steps of the algorithm in the output
window (see Figure 37.12).
For the Plausibility Checks, this implies the information on how many models failed the
corresponding checks. For the Observability Analysis, the report contains the information
on how many states were determined to be observable, andin additionhow many
measurements were considered to be relevant for observing these states.
37 - 22

Fig. 37.12: Report in the output window
Non-linear optimization reports, in each iteration step, the following figures:
The current error of the constraint nodal equations (in VA) (Error Nodes).
The current error of the constraint model equations (Error ModelEqu).
The current value of the gradient of the Lagrangian function (Gradient LagrFunc).
The current value of the Lagrangian function (LagrFunc).
The current value of the objective function f to be minimized (ObjFunc).
37.5.2 External Measurements
Deviations
Each branch flow measurement (StaExtpmea, StaExtqmea) and each voltage mea-
surement (StaExtvmea) offers parameters to view its individual deviation between mea-
sured value and computed value by the State Estimation. The corresponding variables
are:
e:Xmea: measured value as entered in StaExt*mea
e:cMeaVal: measured value (including multiplier)
e:Xcal: calculated value
e:Xdif: deviation in % (based on given rating as reference value)
e:Xdif_mea: deviation in % (based on the measured value as reference value)
e:Xdif_abs: absolute deviation in the measurements unit
Here X is a placeholder for P, Q, or U in the case of a P-, Q-, or V-measurement.
Recall that a StaExtimea plays a special role, since a current measurement may serve
as up to three measurements (for magnitude, for active current, and/or for reactive cur-
rent). Hence, a current measurement has the above listed variables (with X being re-
placed by I) for each of the three measurement types. In order to distinguish between
the three types, for a StaExtimea, the variables carry the suffixes Magn (for magnitude
37 - 23
measurement), Act (for active current measurement), and React (for reactive current
measurement).

Fig. 37.13: For description page for external measurements (StaExtvmea,
StaExtqmea, StaExtvmea).
Error Status
All measurements (StaExt*meas) which possibly participate in the Plausibility Checks,
the Observability Analysis, or the State Estimation provide a detailed error description
page (see figures 37.13 and 37.14) with the following information:
General Errors:
- Is unneeded pseudo-measurement (e:errUnneededPseudo)
- Its input status disallows calculation, i.e., input status does not allow Read or is
already marked as Wrong Measurement (e:errStatus)
- Measurement is out of service (e:errOutOfService)
Plausibility Check Errors:
- Fails test: Consistent active power flow direction at each side of branch
(e:errConsDir)
- Fails test: Large branch losses (e:errExcNomLoss)
- Fails test: Negative losses on passive branches (e:errNegLoss)
- Fails test: Large branch flows on open ended branches (e:errFlwIfOpn)
- Fails test: Branch loadings exceed nominal values (e:errExcNomLoading)
- Fails test: Node sum check for P (e:errNdSumP)
- Fails test: Node sum check for Q (e:errNdSumQ)
37 - 24
Observability Analysis Errors:
- Measurement is considered to be redundant for observability of the network, i.e.,
observability is already guaranteed even without this measurement. Nevertheless
redundant measurements are used in the non-linear optimization since, in general,
they help to improve the result (e:errRedundant).
- For redundant measurements, also the redundancy level is indicated on this page
(e:RedundanceLevel). The higher the redundancy level, the more
measurements with a similar information content for the observability analysis
exist.
State Estimation Errors:
- Measurement is detected to be bad, has been removed and was not considered in
last non-linear optimization loop (e:errBadData)
This detailed error description is encoded in the single parameter e:error that can be
found on the top of the error status page. Again, we have the convention that, for a
StaExtimea, the variables e:errRedundant, e:RedundanceLevel and e:errBad-
Data carry the suffixes Magn (for magnitude measurement), Act (for active current mea-
surement), and React (for reactive current measurement).
37.5.3 Estimated States
Which states participated as control variables?
Recall that depending on the selected treatment of unobservable regions not all
states that were selected for estimation (see Section 37.3.3: Editing the Element Data)
will necessarily be estimated by the algorithm: In case of non-observability, it may happen
that some control variables need to be reset.
To access the information which states were actually used as control variables, Power-
Factory provides a flag for each possible state. These flags are called
c:i{P,Q,Scale,Tap}Setp for P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, and Tap-states, respectively.
They can be accessed through the Flexible Data Page as Load Flow calculation parameters
for the following elements: ElmLod, ElmAsm, ElmSym, ElmSvs, ElmTr2, and
ElmTr3.
Observability of individual states
The Observability Analysis identifies, for each state, whether it is observable or not. More-
over, if the network is unobservable, it subdivides all unobservable states into equiva-
lence-classes. Each equivalence-class has the property that it is observable as a whole
group, even though its members (i.e., the single states) cannot be observed. The equiv-
alence classes are enumerated in ascending order 1, 2, 3, . ...
37 - 25

Fig. 37.14: Detailed error description page for external current measurements
(StaExtimea).
For this purpose, the Observability Analysis uses the flags
c:i{P,Q,Scale,Tap}obsFlg for P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, and Tap-states, respectively.
These parameters exist for all elements which carry possible states (ElmLod, ElmAsm,
ElmSym, ElmSvs, ElmTr2, ElmTr3). The semantics is as follows:
a value of -2 means that the correspond state is not estimated at all.
a value of -1 means that the correspond state is unsupplied.
a value of 0 means that the corresponding state is observable.
a value of i > 0 means that the correspond state belongs to equivalence-class i.
37.5.4 Colour Representation
In addition, PowerFactory provides a special coloring mode Observability for the sin-
gle line diagram which takes into account the individual measurement error statuses and
the states to be estimated (see Figure 37.15). The coloring can be accessed by clicking
the icon on the task bar.
The color representation is valid as soon as an Observability Analysis has been performed
37 - 26
successfully.
The color representation paints the location of measurements (of a specific type) and the
location of states (of a specific type) simultaneously.

Fig. 37.15: Coloring of measurement error statuses and estimated states.
Estimated States
The user selects to color states of a specific type (P-, Q-, Scaling factor-, or Tap position-
states). Distinct colors for observable, unobservable, non-estimated states, and states
with unclear observability status can be chosen.
External Measurement Locations
The user selects to color measurements of a specific type (P-, Q-, V-, or I-measurements).
Distinct colors for valid, redundant and invalid measurements can be chosen. A measure-
ment is said to be valid if its error code (e:error) equals 0.
Besides, measurements with a specific error code can be highlightened separately using
an extra color. To select such a specific error code press the Error Code button and
choose from the detailed error description list any AND-combination of possible errors.
37 - 27
37 - 28
Appendix
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Glossary
A - 1
Appendix A
Glossary
Appliance
A specific physical, installed, power system component: a specific generator, transformer,
busbar, etc. Example: a piece of NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable, 12.4 meters long.
Base Case
A Base Case is considered to be the basic power system design, from which one or more
alternative designs may be created and analyzed. When working with system stages, the
Base Case is considered to be the highest level in a tree of hierarchical system stage de-
signs.
Block Definition
A block definition is a mathematical model which may be used in other block definitions
or in a composite model. Examples are all default controllers (i.e. VCO's, PSS's, MDM's),
and all additional user-defined DSL models. A block definition is called "primitive'' when it
is directly written in DSL, or "complex'' when it is build from other block definitions, by
drawing a block diagram.
Block Diagram
A block diagram is a graphical representation of a DSL model, i.e. a voltage controller, a
motor driven machine model or a water turbine model. Block diagrams combine DSL prim-
itive elements and block definitions created by drawing other block diagram.
The block models thus created may (again) be used in other block diagrams or to create
a Composite Frame.
See also: DSL primitive, Composite Frame
Branch Elements
A one port element connected to a node, such as a load or a machine. See also nodes,
edge elements.
A - 2
Busbars
Busbars are particular representations of nodes. Busbars are housed in a Station folder
and several busbars may be part of a station.
Class
A class is a template for an element, type or other kind of objects like controller block
diagrams, object filters, calculation settings, etc. Examples:
The 'TypLne' class is the type model for all lines and cables
The 'ElmLne' class is an element model for a specific line or cable
The 'ComLdf' class is a load-flow command
The 'EvtSwitch' class is an event for a switch to open or close during simulation
Composite Frame
A composite frame is a special block diagram which defines a new stand-alone model,
mostly without in- or outputs. A composite frame is principally a circuit in which one or
more slots are connected to each other.
A composite frame is used to create composite models by filling the slots with appropriate
objects. The composite frame thus acts as template for a specific kind of composite mod-
els.
See also: Block Diagram, Slot
Composite Model
A composite model is a specific combination of mathematical models.These models may
be power system elements such as synchronous generators, or block definitions, such as
voltage controllers, primary mover models or power system stabilizers.
Composite models may be used to create new objects, such as protection devices, to
'dress-up' power system elements such as synchronous machines with controllers, prime
movers models, etc., or for the identification of model parameters on the basis of mea-
surements.
Cubicle
A cubicle is the connection point between a edge or branch element and a node (repre-
sented by a busbar or terminal). It may be visualized as a bay in a switch yard or a panel
in a switchgear board. Elements such as CT's, protection equipment, breakers and so
forth, are housed in the cubicle, as one would expect to find in reality.
DAQ
Abbreviation for "Data Acquisition''.
A - 3
Device
A certain kind of physical power system components: certain synchronous machines, two-
winding transformers, busbars, or other kinds of equipment. Example: a NKBA 0.6/1kV 4
x 35sm cable.
DGS
Abbreviation for "DIgSILENT Interface for Geographical Informations Systems''.
DOLE
Abbreviation for "DIgSILENT Object Language for Data Exchange''. DOLE was used in pre-
vious PowerFactory versions, but replaced by DGS meanwhile. Now, use DGS instead,
please.
The DOLE import uses a header line with the parameter name. This header must have
the following structure:
The first header must be the class name of the listed objects.
The following headers must state a correct parameter name.
DPL
Abbreviation for "DIgSILENT Programming Language''. For further information, please re-
fer to Chapter E (The DIgSILENT Programming Language - DPL).
Drag&Drop
"Drag&Drop'' is a method for moving an object by left clicking it and subsequently moving
the mouse while holding the mouse button down ("dragging''). Releasing the mouse but-
ton when the new location is reached is called "dropping''. This will move the object to
the new location.
DSL
Abbreviation for "DIgSILENT Simulation Language''. For further information, please refer
to Chapter 27.9 (The DIgSILENT Simulation Language (DSL)).
DSL primitive
A DSL primitive is the same as a primitive block definition. A DSL primitive is written di-
rectly in DSL without the use of a block diagram.
Examples are PID controllers, time lags, simple signal filters, integrators, limiters, etc. DSL
primitives are normally used to build more complex block definitions.
See also: Block Definition, Block Diagram
Edge Elements
The elements between two nodes. May also be termed 'two port element.' Source, topo-
A - 4
logical studies; picture a 3 dimensional box, the corners of the box would be called the
nodes, and the edges between corners are hence 'edges.' See also nodes, branch ele-
ments.
Element
A mathematical model for specific appliances. Most element models only hold the appli-
ance-specific data while the more general type-specific data comes from a type-reference.
Example: a model of a piece of NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable, 12.4 meters long, named
"FC 1023.ElmLne".
Graphics Board Window
The graphics board window is a multi document window which contains one or more
graphical pages. These pages may be single line graphics, virtual instrument pages, block
diagrams etc.
The graphics board shows page tabs when more than one page is present. These tabs
may be used to change the visible page or to change the page order by drag&drop on the
page tab.
See also: Virtual Instrument, Block Diagram, Page Tab, Drag&Drop
Grid
A Grid is a collection of power system elements which are all stored in one so-called "Grid
Folder'' in the database. Normally, a grid forms a logical part of a power system design,
like a the MV distribution system in a province, or the HV transport system in a state.
Object
An object is a specific item stored in the database. Examples are specific type or element
models which have been edited to model specific devices or appliances. Examples: the
element "FC 1023.ElmLne", the type "NKBA_4x35.TypLne", the load-flow command
"3Phase.ComLdf"
Node
The mathematical or generic description for what are commonly known as busbars in the
electrical world. In PowerFactory nodes may be represented by "Busbars" or "Termi-
nals" of various kinds. These are treated in the same manner in mathematical terms but
treated slightly differently in the database. As far as possible the user should use terminals
as Busbars can be somewhat inflexible. See also Busbars, Edge Elements, Branch Ele-
ments.
Operation Scenario
An Operation Scenario defines a certain operation point of the system under analysis,
such as different generation dispatch, low or high load, etc.Operation Scenarios are stored
inside the Operation Scenarios folder.
A - 5
Page Tab
Page tabs are small indexes at the edge (mostly on the top or bottom) of a multi-page
window. The tabs show the titles of the pages. Left-clicking the page tab opens the cor-
responding page. Page tabs are used in object dialogues, which often have different pag-
es for different calculation functions, and in the Graphics Board Window, when more than
one graphical page is present.
Project
All power system definitions and calculations are stored and activated in a project. The
project folder therefore is a basic folder in the user's database tree. All grids that make
out the power system design, with all design variants, study cases, commands, results,
etc. are stored together in a single project folder.
Result Object
A result object keeps one or more lists of parameters which are to be monitored during a
calculation. Results objects are used for building calculation result reports and for defining
a virtual instrument.
See also: Virtual Instrument
Slot
A slot is a place-holder for a block definition in a composite frame. A composite model is
created from a composite frame by filling one or more slots with an appropriate object.
See also: Block Definition, Composite Frame.
Study Case
A study case is a folder which stores a list of references or shortcuts to grid or system
stage folders. These folders are (de)activated when the calculation case folder is (de)ac-
tivated.
Elements in the grid folders that are referenced by the study case form the 'calculation
target' for all calculation functions. Elements in all other, non-active, grid folders are not
considered for calculation.
Besides the list of active folders, the calculation case also stores all calculations com-
mands, results, events, and other objects which are, or have been, used to analyze the
active power system.
See also: Grid, System Stage
System Stage
A system stage is an alternative design or variation for a particular grid. A system stage
is stored in a system stage folder, which keeps track of all differences from the design in
the higher hierarchical level. The highest level is formed by the base grid folder. It is pos-
sible to have system stages of system stages.
See also: Grid, Base Case
A - 6
Type
A mathematical model for devices: general models for two-winding transformers, two-
winding transformers, busbars, etc. A type model only contains the non-specific data valid
for whole groups of power system elements. Example: a NKBA 0.6/1kV 4 x 35sm cable
type, named "NKBA_4x35.TypLne"
See also: System Stage, Grid
Variation
A Variation defines an expansion plan composed of one or more expansion stages, and
which are chronologically activated. Variations, like all other network data, are stored in-
side the Network Data folder.
Virtual Instrument
A virtual instrument is a graphical representation of calculation results. It may be a line
or bar graph, a gauge, a vector diagram, etc. A virtual instrument gets its values from a
result object.
See also: Result Object.
Virtual Instrument Panel
Virtual instrument panels are one of the possible types of pages in a graphics board win-
dow. Virtual instrument panels are used to create and show virtual instruments. Each vir-
tual instrument panel may contain one or more virtual instruments.
See also: Graphics Board Window, Virtual Instrument
A - 7
A - 8
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Hotkeys Reference
B - 1
Appendix B
Hotkeys Reference
B.1 Graphic Windows Hotkeys
Combination Where/When Description
Ctrl + - Single Line Graphic,
Block Diagrams, Vi's
Zoom out
Ctrl + + Single Line Graphic,
Zoom in
Ctrl + Scrollen Single Line Graphic,
Zoom in/out
Ctrl + Double-click Busbar system Open detailed graphic of substation
Press Mouse Scroll
Wheel + Moving
Single Line Graphic,
Panning, Moving the visible part of the graphic
Alt + Rubberband Only textboxes inside the rubber band are marked, no
parent objects
Alt + Left-click Textbox Textbox und Parent-Object are marked
Alt + Left-click
(multiple times)
Element All the connected elements will be marked
Ctrl + A All elements are marked
Ctrl + Alt + Shift + P Element Dialogue Save a screenshot of the complete monitor as bitmap
under C:\Digsi\snapshots
Ctrl + Alt + Moving Marked Object Single Objects from a Busbar system can be moved
Ctrl + Alt + Moving Marked Busbar Single objects from a Busbar System can be increased
or reduced (size)
Ctrl + Alt + Moving Block The stub length of blocks in block diagrams remains
when shifting
Ctrl + Alt + Moving Marked Terminal Line-Routes will move to the terminal, instead of
terminal to the line
Ctrl + Alt + Moving Marked Node Symbol of the connected branch element will not be
centered
B - 2
Ctrl + C Marked Element
Ctrl + L Single Line Graphic,
Block Diagrams
Will open the Define Layer dialogue to create a new
layer
Ctrl +Left-click Element Multiselect elements, all clicked elements are marked
Ctrl + Left-click Inserting Loads/
Generators
Rotate element 90
Ctrl + Left-click Inserting Busbars/
Terminals
Rotate element 180
Ctrl + M Element Dialogue Mark Element in the graphic
Ctrl + Q Single Line Graphic,
Block Diagrams
Open Graphic Layer dialogue
Ctrl + X Marked Element Cut
Esc Connecting Mode Interrupt the mode
Esc Inserting Symbol Interrupt and change to graphic cursor
Esc Animation Mode Interrupt mode
S + Left-click Element Mark only the symbol of the element
S +Moving Marked Element Move only the symbol of the element
Shift + Moving Marked Element Element can only be moved in the direction of axes
Shift + Moving Marked Textbox After rotation, textbox can be aligned in the direction
of axes
Tab Inserting Symbol Change connection side of symbol
Left-click Inserting Symbol Place symbol, press mouse button and move cursor in
the direction of rotation to rotate the symbol in this
direction
B - 3
B.2 Data Manager Hotkeys
Alt + F4 Close data manager
Alt + Return Right; Link Open the edit dialogue of the element
Backspace Jump one directory up
Pag (arrow: up) Right Scroll a page up
Pag (arrow: down) Right Scroll a page down
Ctrl + (arrow: up) Edit dialogue open Call the edit dialogue of the next object from the
list and closes the current dialogue
Ctrl + (arrow: down) Edit dialogue open Call the edit dialogue of the previous object from
the list and closes the current dialogue
Ctrl + A Right Mark all
Ctrl + Alt + P Save screenshot of the data manager as bitmap
under C:\Digsi\snapshots
Ctrl + Alt + Shift + P Save screenshot of the complete monitor as
bitmap under C:\Digsi\snapshots
Ctrl + B Detail-Modus Change to next tab
Ctrl + C Marked object, marked
symbol
Copy marked object
Ctrl + C Marked cell Copy the value of the marked cell
Ctrl + D Change between normal and detail mode
Ctrl + F Call the Filter dialogue
Ctrl + G Right Go to line
Ctrl + I Right Call the dialogue Select Element, in order to insert
a new object. The object class depends on the
current position
Ctrl + Left-click Select the object
Ctrl + M Move the object
Ctrl + O Change between the display of out of service and
no relevant objects for calculation
Ctrl + Q Right; station, Busbar or
element with a connection
Open the station graphic
Ctrl + Q Right, element with more
than one connection
Call the dialogue Select Station, which lists all the
connected stations
Ctrl + R Project Activate the project
Ctrl + R Study case Activate study case
B - 4
Ctrl + R Grid Add the grid to the study case
Ctrl + R Variant Insert the variant to the current study case, if the
corresponding grid is not in the study case
Ctrl + Tab Detail-Modus Change to next tab
Ctrl + V Insert the content of the clipboard
Ctrl + W Change the focus between right and left side
Ctrl + X Marked object, marked
symbol
Cut object
Ctrl + X Marked cell Cut cell content
End Right Jump to the last column of the current row
Del Right, symbol Delete marked object
Del Right, cell Delete the content of the cell
Esc Right; after change in the line Undo the change
F2 Right; cell Change to edit mode
F3 Close all open dialogues and return the selected
object from the top dialogue
F4 Activate/Deactivate Drag&Drop-Mode
F5 Update
F8 Right, Graphic Open the graphic
Pos1 Right Jump to the first column of the current row
Return Right Call the edit dialogue of the marked object
Return links Display or close the content of the marked object
Return Right; after change in the line Confirm changes
Return Right; link Call the edit dialogue of the original object
Shift + Left-click Select all the objects between the last marked
object and the clicked row
B - 5
B.3 Dialogue Hotkeys
Ctrl + A Input field Mark the content
Ctrl + Alt + P Save screenshot of the dialogue as bitmap under
C:\Digsi\snapshots
Ctrl + Alt + Shift + P Save screenshot of the complete monitor as
bitmap under C:\Digsi\snapshots
F1 Online help
B - 6
B.4 Output Window Hotkeys
Pag (arrow: up) Page up
Pag (arrow: down) Page down
Ctrl + A Mark the content of the output window
Ctrl + Pag (arrow: up) Like Ctrl + Pos1
Ctrl + Pag (arrow:
down)
Like Ctrl + End
Ctrl + C Copy the market report to the clipboard
Ctrl + E Open a new empty editor
Ctrl + End Set the cursor in the last position of the last row
Ctrl + F Open the Search and Replace dialogue
Ctrl + F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to next same word; New searched string
becomes the word on which the cursor is currently
positioned
Ctrl + O Call the Open dialogue
Ctrl + P Call the Print dialogue
Ctrl + Arrow (up) Page up
Ctrl + Arrow (down) Page down
Ctrl + Pos1 Set the cursor in the first position of first row
Ctrl + Shift + End Set the cursor in the last position and marks the
report in between
Ctrl + Shift + home Set the cursor in the first position and marks the
report in between
Ctrl + Shift + F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to previous same word; New searched string
positioned
End Set the cursor in the last position of the row
F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to next same word of the current searched
string
Arrow (up) Set the cursor one line above
Arrow (right) Set the cursor one position after
Arrow (down) Set the cursor one line below
Arrow (left) Set the cursor one position before
home Set the cursor to the first position of the row
B - 7
Shift + Pag (arrow:
up)
Set the cursor one page up and select the in
between content
Shift + Pag (arrow:
down)
Set the cursor one page down and select the in
between content
Shift + F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to previous same word of the current
searched string
B - 8
B.5 Editor Hotkeys
Ctrl + O Open file
Ctrl + S Save
Ctrl + P Print
Ctrl + Z Undo
Ctrl + C Copy
Ctrl + V Paste
Ctrl + X Cut
Ctrl + A Select all
Ctrl + R Comment selected lines
Ctrl + T Uncomment selected lines
Ctrl + F2 Set bookmark / Remove bookmark
Del Delete
F2 Go to next bookmark
Shift + F2 Go to previous bookmark
F3 Cursor in a word Jump to next same word of the current searched
string
Shift + F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to previous same word of the current
searched string
Ctrl + F3 Cursor in a Word Jump to next same word; New searched string
positioned
Ctrl + F Open Find dialogue
Ctrl + G Open Go to dialogue
Ctrl + H Open Find and Replace dialogue
Ctrl + Y Remove current line
Ctrl + Shift + T Replace blanks by tabs in selected text
Ctrl + Alt + T Show / Hide tabs abd blanks
Strg + Shift + Space Replace tabs by blanks in selected text
Alt + Return Open user settings dialog on "Editor" page
Backspace Delete character in front of cursor
Insert Switch between insert and replace mode
B - 9
Arrow (right) One char right
Shift + Arrow (right) Extend selection to next char right
Ctrl + Arrow (right) Set cursor to beginning of next word
Ctrl + Shift + Arrow
(right)
Extend selection to beginning of next word
Arrow (left) One char left
Shift + Arrow (left) Extend selection to next char left
Ctrl + Arrow (left) Set cursor to beginning of previous word
(left)
Extend selection to beginning of previous word
Arrow (down) One line down
Shift + Arrow (down) Extend selection one line down
Ctrl + Arrow (down) Scroll down
(down)
Change selected text to lower case
Arrow (up) One line up
Shift + Arrow (up) Extend selection one line up
Ctrl + Arrow (up) Scroll up
(up)
Change selected text to upper case
home Set cursor to first pos. in line
Ctrl + home Set cursor to beginning of text
Shift + home Extend selection to beginning of line
Ctrl + Shift + home Extend selection to start of text
end Set cursor to last pos. in line
Ctrl + end Set cursor to end of text
Shift + end Extend selection to end of line
Ctrl + Shift + end Extend selection to end of text
Pag (arrow: down) Set cursor one page down
Shift + Pag (arrow:
down)
Extend selection to one page down
Pag (arrow: up) Set cursor one page up
B - 10
Shift + Pag (arrow:
up)
Extend selection to one page up
F1 Open manual and search for word in which cursor
is placed
F9 Set break point / remove break point (but no
effect)
B - 11
B - 12
DIgSILENT PowerFactory The DIgSILENT Output Language
C - 1
Appendix C
The DIgSILENT Output Language
When more than just the variable name, value and unit has to be displayed, if the use
colors is preferred, or other special formats, the DIgSILENT Output Language can be
used.
By selecting the Text Editor input mode, all entries on first page of the Form Editor disap-
pear, except for the form name, and the editor on the second page is activated (see Figure
C.1).

Fig. C.1: The Form text editor
Almost all textual output that is produced in PowerFactory, is defined by a report form.
The use of report forms range from the simple and small result forms that specify the con-
tents of the single line result boxes to large and complex forms that are used to print out
complete system reports.
In all cases, the text in the editor field of a IntForm object specifies the report that is to
be generated. For result boxes, that text is normally created automatically in the IntForm
dialogue by selecting "Predefined Variables'', or any other set of variables, and some ex-
tra's such as the number of decimals and if an unit or name should be shown. These op-
tions will automatically create a report form. That automatic form is normally used as it
is, but it may be altered manually. This is shown in Figure C.1, where report format is
changed such that the variable name of the loading factor is deleted and replaced by the
fixed text 'ld', because the variable name "loading'' is felt too long compared with the
names of the other two variables ("P'' and "Q''). The shown format will produce result box-
es like
P 12.34 MW
Q 4.84 Mvar
C - 2
ld 103.56 %
Defining single line result boxes only asks for a basic understanding of the DIgSILENT
output language. For more complex reports, many different variables from all kinds of ob-
jects have to be printed as listings or tables. Such a report would require macro handling,
container loops, selection of parameters, headers, footers, titles, colors, etc. The DIgSI-
LENT output language offers all this, and more.
The basic syntax, which is primary used for defining result boxes is given in the following
overview.
Format string, Variable names and text Lines
A standard line consists of three parts (see Figure C.2):
1 A format string, containing placeholders, macros and/or user defined text.
2 An 'end of line' character like '$N', '$E' or '$F'
3 Variable names, separated by commas, which are used to fill in the placeholders.

Fig. C.2: Basic parts of the report format
The format string is normally much longer.
Placeholders
A placeholder for strings like variable names or whole numbers is a single '#'-sign. For
real numbers, the placeholder consists of
a single '#' for the integer part
a point or comma
one or more '#'-signs for the fractional part
The number of '#'-signs after the decimal point/comma defines the number of decimals.
The '#'-sign itself can be included in user-defined text by typing '\#'.
Variables, Units and Names
The variable name can be used to display the name of the variable, its value or its unit.
The possible formats are ('xxx' = name of variable):
xxx returns the value
%xxx returns the long variable name, as used in the edit dialogues
&xxx returns the short variable name, as used in the database browser
[xxx returns the unit
xxx the object dependent name of the variable (default name)
"%width.precision,xxx''
uses special formatting.
C - 3
The special formatting %width.precision is explained by the following examples:
"%.60,TITLE:sub1z'' outputs TITLE:sub1z 60 column width, left aligned.
"@:"%1.0,s:nt'' inserts s:nt as an integer at the placeholder's position
""%1.3,s:nt'' writes s:nt with 3 digits precision at the placeholder's position
The centering code | may be used in front of the formatting code for centering at the
placeholder, for example "|%.60,TITLE:sub1z''.
The insertion code @ is used to switch to insert mode, for example,
|#|$N,@:loc_name
will output
|aElmSym|.
The cformat string may be used to alternatively reserve place for a value or text. A cformat
of %10.3' will reserve 10 characters for a number with 3 decimals. The first number can
be omitted for text: %.6' will reserve 6 characters for the text field. The cformat syntax
allows for centering text by adding the |'-sign to the `%'-sign:
|%.10' will reserve 10 characters and will center the text.
Free, language dependent text can be defined by use of the format
{E|a text;G|ein Text}. This will produce 'a text' when the user has selected the English
language (see the user settings dialogue), and 'ein Text' when the language has been cho-
sen to be German.
Special commands for access of Elements
OBJECT(cls)
Gets Element of class cls. Used to access a variable name or unit without actually
accessing such an object. Used in header lines.
argument
cls (obligatory): The name of the class
example:
[OBJECT(ElmTerm):m:Skss
writes the unit of the busbar variable Skss
EDGE
Gets an arbitrary object with at least one connection, i.e. a Load, a Line, etc. Used
to access a variable name or unit without actually accessing such an object.
example:
%EDGE:m:U1:bus1
writes description of the variable U1
CUBIC(idx)
Returns the cubicle (StaCubic) at bus index idx of branch
argument:
idx: index of branch, the currently set bus index is used when idx<0
example:
CUBIC(0):e:loc_name
returns name of cubicle at busindex 0
C - 4
TITLE
Gets the title that is set in the output command (ComSh or ComDocu)
example:
TITLE:e:annex
writes annex of title
VARIANT
Gets the active variant in which the current object is stored
example:
VARIANT:e:loc_name
writes the name of the variant
NET
Gets the grid in which the current object is stored
example:
NET:e:loc_name
writes the name of the grid
CMD
Returns the last calculation command, i.e. a Short-Circuit (ComShc), Load-flow
(ComLdf),...
example:
CMD:pabs
writes the short-circuit position on the line after calculation of a short-circuit.
CASE
Returns the currently active calculation case
example:
CASE:e:loc_name
writes the name of the active calculation case
DEF
Returns the default object. The default object depends on the currently processed
output.
example:
DEF:e:loc_name
writes the name of the default object
STALNE
Returns the station if the current object is a busbar. Returns a line if the current
object is a terminal between line routes. Otherwise, nothing is returned, and the
entry will be ignored.
example:
STALNE:e:locname
writes the name of the line or station.
RES
Returns the currently active results object (ElmRes) used by simulation, harmonics
or other calculation modules
example:
RES:e:desc
C - 5
writes the first line of the description of the results object
Color
A line can be set to another color by adding a '_LCOL(c)' command directly after the '$N,'
marker. This will color the whole line according to the color number c.
Table C.1: Color Codes
iA single item can be colored by using the '_COLOR(Variable name; color code)'.
Advanced Syntax Elements
The advanced syntax is mainly used for writing forms for larger and more complex re-
ports. An example is a short-circuit result form, which lists all the short-circuit parameters
for all busbars and for each busbar for all connected elements.
Line Types and Page Breaks
The character '$' ends a format line. A line without this ending will be interpreted as a
normal '$N' line type. The following line type are available:
'$N' Normal line
'$H' Header on the top of each page
'$F' Footer on the bottom of each page
'$T' Title line, only appears on top of the first page
'$C' Comment line (not used for output)
'$R' Marker that make that the line will only be used when the specified
results are valid
The line type '$H', '$F' and '$T' will be treated as normal ('$N') line types when used inside
a loop command. Line type codes may be made language dependent by adding a 'E', for
English lines or a 'G' for German lines, i.e. '$HG' specifies a German header line.
A report format must at least contain one normal ($N) line.
The following commands are used for page and line controls. They can only be used di-
rectly behind the line type codes '$N', '$F' or '$H'.
a black i gray
b black j light gray
c red k bordeaux
d green l dark red
e blue m dark green
f brown n light green
g cyan o marine
h magenta p dark blue
C - 6
_PAGEBREAK
Forces a page break after the current line
_AVAILBREAK
Enables page breaking after the current line (default)
_NOBREAK
Disables page breaking directly after the current line
_LCOL(c) Changes the color of the current line, c is the color code.
_OBJ(ClsNam)
The current line will only be used for objects from the class "ClsNam''.
_BUS(inum) The current line will only be used for objects which connect to exactly
inum nodes
_FIRST The current line will only be used when the loop index is 0 (first
passage)
_NFIRST The current line will only be used when the loop index is not 0 (all but
the first passages)
_IF(boolean expression)
The current line will only be written when the expression is true.
Example: _IF(m:u:bus1>0.95)
_IFNOT(boolean expression)
The current line will only be written when the expression is false.
Example: \IF(m:u:bus1<0.95)
Example:
| #.## # #.## # #.## |$R,_NOBREAK, ..
Predefined Text Macros
The following macros will produce specific names or other texts.
_DATE(c) present date: c='e' give the English format, c='g' the German one.
_TIME present time
_VERSION version number of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software.
_BUILD build number of the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software.
_VERBUILD combines _VERSION and _BUILD
_ORDER order title, if a title has been defined previously
_CLASS class name of the object
_LINE current line number in page
_ALLLINE current line number in report
_PAGE current page number
_LOCALBUS name of the local busbar
_CALC(c) name of last performed calculation. c=1 returns a long description.
_SHORT short object name
_FSHORT short name of parent object
C - 7
_CLS class name without the 'Elm', 'Sta', 'Typ', etc. part.
_ANNEX the annex number
_NGB neighborhood depth
_TEXT(E | text;G | Text)
language dependent text (E=English, G=German)
Object Iterations, Loops, Filters and Includes
To create a report that creates a table with the voltages for all busbars, command are
needed to filter the busbar objects and to create a loop that outputs a line of text for each
busbar. A loop or filter command consists of the following parts:
the keyword "$LOOP'' or "$CLOOP''
the filter or loop name
the format text
the keyword "$END''
Example:
$LOOP,_LROUTES()
| # |,$N,loc_name
$END
This example uses the filter "_LROUTES()'', which filters line route objects (ElmLner-
oute). The format text has one line, which prints the object name.
C - 8
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Element Symbol Definition
D - 1
Appendix D
Element Symbol Definition
The symbols used in the graphic windows of PowerFactory are defined by the so called
'Symbol' objects (IntSym). DIgSILENT provides a complete set of symbols to represent
any of the defined network components; additionally the users have the possibility to de-
fine their own symbols and use them in the graphical windows of their projects.
In the proceeding sections the variables used to define symbol objects are presented.
D.1 General Symbol Definition
The general definitions of the symbols are given in the 'General' page of the object's dia-
logue.
Symbol Description
The description of a symbol is shown in the list of symbols when "Show
Layer..." is used and a symbol has to be selected on the page
"Configuration"
Object Type
Class name of the element which shall be represented.
Type of Representation
Branch or node object
ID
The icon ID of the icons from the graphic toolbar. If this value is set the
symbol will be used when a new element is inserted. In case of '0' the
symbol will not be used as default.
Width/Height
The width and height is defines the range of the fang. The marking of
an element in the graphic makes this range visible.
Visible
Visibility of the symbol
Mirror
Defines if the symbol can be mirror (right mouse button entry)
D - 2
Allow Moving
Allows moving in graphic
Show Connection Attributes
Shows the square (resulting state of composite switches) at the end of
connection lines
Insertion Reference
Defines the insertion point of an element (e.g. rectangular terminal = 4
-> top left).The following matrix describes the relation between the
insertion points and the insertion numbers:
4 3 2
5 0 1
6 7 8
Additional Attributes
Only used for elements whose representation shall be able to alter via
specific changes of the element parameters (e.g. shunts, couplers)
Connection Points
Defines the position on the symbol where the connection lines start.
The number of connection points is defined by the number of lines
unequal (-9999,-9999). The points should be located on the grid, i.e.
they should be a multiple of 4.375 (mm)
Contents
Containing objects of type "SetVitxt" defining the layout of the text
boxes. The names must be unique. Labels beginning with "Label..." and
result boxes beginning with "Res...". The name of symbol must also be
part of the name of the SetVitxt.
D.2 Geometrical Description
The geometrical description of the symbol is given in the 'Geometry' page of the dialogue.
The geometry can be specified by means of geometrical primitives in the 'Geometrical
Components and Attributes' field.
Circle (C,iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts,rMx,rMy,rPx,rPy)
Defines a Circle by the center (rMx, rMy) and a point on the edge
(rPx,rPy). Parameter nPts must be 2.
Arc (A,iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts,rMx,rMy,rPx1,rPy1,rPx2,rPy2)
Defines an arc by the center (rMx,rMy) and 2 points (rPx1,rPy1)
(rPx2,rPy2) on the edge, drawn clockwise. nPts must be set to 3.
Polyline (L, iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,iRot,nPts,rPx,rPy)
Defines an open polygonal line with nPts points. rPx andrPy are the
coordinates of peg points. iRot can be defined as:
D - 3
n -> random
y -> only rotatable to the bottom and the right (used in symbols)
Polygon (G, iStyle,rWidth,iFill,iColor,iRsz,nPts {,rPx,rPy})
Defines a closed polygonal line with nPts points. rPx and rPy are
coordinates of peg points
Text (T, iColor,iRsz,iFont,iAlign,rHeight,iOri,iRot,sString,rPx,rPy)
Defines a text with the following attributes:
iFont font number ( > 0)
iAlign insertion point (0 = left top, 2 = center)
rHeight height ( > 0 )
iOri orientation ( 0 = horizontal , 1 = vertical )
iRot rotate text with object ( 0 = no, 1 = yes, 2 = vert./horiz.,3 = only to
the bottom and right, -- used in symbols only --)
sString text (max. 80 characters)
rPx,rPy coordinates of insertion point
iRsz resize_Mode (0=not possible, 1=shift only, 2=keep ratio,3=any
(RS_NONE,RS_SHIFTONLY,RS_KEEPXY, RS_FREE)
All geometrical elements have the following attributes in common:
iStyle (Line style)
1 = normal line
2 = dotted
3 = dashed
4 = dotted and dashed
rWidth (Line widht in mm ( > 0))
iFill (Fill style)
0 = not filled
1 = filled 100%
2 = horiz. stripes
3 = vertical stripes
4 = horizontal and vertical stripes
5 = diagonal from left bottom to right top
6 = diagonal from right bottom to left top
7 = diagonal grid of stripes
8 = filled 25%
9 = filled 50%10 = filled 75%
iColor (Colour)
-1 = colour of object
0 = white
1 = black
2 = bright red
D - 4
3 = bright blue
4 = bright green
5 = yellow
6 = cyan
7 = magenta
8 = dark grey
9 = grey
10 = red
11 = dark rot
12 = dark green
13 = green
14 = dark blue
15 = blue
16 = white
17 = bright grey
iRsz (Resize mode)
0 = not resizable
1 = shift only
2 = keep ratio
3 = resizable in any direction
In version 13.0 additional parameters were added:
iSB
No. of area (1..32, can only be used if set in source code, e.g. vector
groups
iLay
No. of graphic layer
iSN
Connection number (0..4)
iIP
Object is used for calculation of intersections (=1 only for node objects)
xOff, yOff
Offset used when object is inserted (optional)
D.3 Including Graphic Files as Symbols
Graphic files in WMF and bitmap format can be selected as "Symbol File". The definitions
of the geometrical primitives are not used if a "Symbol File" is defined.The picture will be
adapted to the size of symbol in the single line diagram. After selection of a WMF file in
the top entry field for the Symbol File (not rotated) a button "Create all other files" ap-
pears which allows to create automatically WMF files in the same folder with a rotation of
90, 180 and 270 degrees. Additionally pictures for open devices with the same angles can
be entered in the bottom lines.
D - 5
D - 6
DIgSILENT PowerFactory Users Manual Index
E - 1
Appendix E
Index
Symbols
(n-1) system ......................................... 31-49
(n-k) system .......................................... 31-49
A
About this Guide ....................................... 1-1
abs
DPL .................................................... 21-7
AC OPF .................................................... 33-1
Advanced Options ........................... 33-15
Basic Options .................................... 33-1
Initialization ..................................... 33-14
Iteration Control .............................. 33-15
Output ............................................. 33-17
ACCI (Reliability Analysis) ..................... 31-10
ACIF (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-7
ACIT (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-7
acos
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Active Failure ........................................ 31-48
Adequacy .............................................. 31-48
Administrator ............................................ 7-2
AENS (Reliability Analysis) .................... 31-10
AID (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-11
Analyses
General Information ............................ 9-1
Analysis
General Information ............................ 9-1
API Interface ......................................... 22-51
Appliance .................................................. A-1
Area ......................................................... 15-1
ASAI (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-8
asin
DPL .................................................... 21-7
ASUI (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-8
atan
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Availability ............................................. 31-49
B
Base Case ................................................. A-1
Base State ............................................. 31-49
Basic Project Definition ........................... 10-1
Block Definition ........................................ A-1
Block Definition Dialogue (DSL) ............ 27-51
Block Diagram ....................11-37, 27-36, A-1
Boolean
Expresions ......................................... 21-9
Boundary ................................................. 15-4
Branch Elements ...................................... A-1
break
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Busbars .................................................... A-2
C
Cable Size Optimisation
Basic Options .................................. 34-18
Cable Size Optimization ........................ 34-17
Objective Function .......................... 34-17
Optimization Procedure .................. 34-18
CAIDI (Reliability Analysis) ..................... 31-8
CAIFI (Reliability Analysis) ...................... 31-7
Calculation
Compare Results ............................. 19-12
Result .................................................. 9-3
Update Database ............................ 19-13
Calculation Time ..................................... 13-3
CASE
DIg Output Language .........................C-4
ceil
DPL .................................................... 21-7
ChaMat .................................................... 5-33
ChaPol ................................................... 25-19
ChaVec .................................................... 5-33
ChaVecfile ............................................. 18-10
CIM Interface ........................................ 22-20
Circuit ...................................................... 15-6
Class ......................................................... A-2
class .......................................................... 5-1
Classes ...................................................... 5-1
CMD
ComCabsize ........................................... 34-17
Basic Options .................................. 34-18
Objective Function .......................... 34-17
Optimization Procedure .................. 34-18
ComCamo
Available Capacitors .......................... 34-7
ComCapo ................................................. 34-1
Basic Options .................................... 34-5
Load Characteristics .......................... 34-8
ComCimexp ........................................... 22-22
ComCimimp ........................................... 22-21
ComContingency
Contingency analysis with multiple time
phases ................................... 30-3
ComDbupd ............................................ 19-13
ComDiff ................................................. 19-12
ComDocu ................................................. 19-5
E - 2
ComDpl .................................................... 21-2
ComEd ................................................... 12-22
ComExport ............................................... 22-6
ComExppsse .......................................... 22-13
ComFlickermeter ..................................... 26-4
ComFsweep ............................................. 25-5
ComGenrel ............................................. 32-15
ComGenrelinc ........................................ 32-12
ComHldf ................................................... 25-2
ComIdent ................................................ 29-1
ComImport .............................................. 22-3
ComInc .................................................... 27-4
ComLdf .................................................. 23-19
ComMerge ............................................... 20-9
ComMod .........................................28-1, 28-6
Advanced Options ............................. 28-8
How to Complete a Modal Analysis ... 28-5
ComModres ........................................... 28-18
Common Mode Failure .......................... 31-20
Common Model ..........................27-21, 27-32
Structure ......................................... 27-32
ComNeplan ............................................ 22-16
ComNew ................................................ 11-21
ComNmink ............................................. 30-32
ComOp .................................................. 12-23
ComOpf ................................................... 33-1
ComOutage ........................................... 30-18
ComPause .............................................. 12-23
Composit Frame .................................... 27-29
Composite Block Definition ................... 27-36
Composite Block Definitions (DSL) ....... 27-50
Composite Frame ..................................... A-2
Additional Equations ....................... 27-43
Block Definition ............................... 27-31
Drawing ........................................... 27-37
Multi-Signal Connection .................. 27-41
Signal Connection ........................... 27-41
Signals ............................................. 27-31
Composite Model ................27-21, 27-26, A-2
Slot Update ...................................... 27-27
Step Response ................................ 27-27
ComPr .................................................... 12-23
ComPsse .................................................. 22-7
ComRd ................................................... 12-23
ComRed ................................................... 36-1
ComRel3
Network reliability assessment ....... 31-30
ComRes ......................................19-10, 19-63
ComSe ................................................... 37-14
ComSeteval ........................................... 28-20
ComSh .................................. 19-4, 19-7, 25-7
ComShc ................................................. 24-19
ComSim ................................................. 27-20
ComSimoutage ........................................ 30-7
ComStationware .................................... 22-24
ComStepres ........................................... 27-27
ComStop ................................................ 12-23
ComTieopt ............................................. 34-13
ComUcte ................................................ 22-18
ComUcteexp .......................................... 22-19
ComVsag ............................................... 31-41
ComVstab .............................................. 23-40
ComWr .................................................. 12-23
Contact ...................................................... 2-1
Contingency .......................................... 31-48
Contingency Analysis .............................. 30-1
Comparing Results .......................... 30-35
Contingency Cases .......................... 30-18
Creating Contingencies using Contingency
Definitions ........................... 30-32
Creating Contingencies using Fault Cases
and Fault Groups ................. 30-28
Executing Contingency Analyses ...... 30-6
Result Analysis ................................ 30-37
Single Time Phase ............................. 30-7
Technical Background ....................... 30-1
Contingency Case .................................. 30-18
Contingency Constrained DC OPF ......... 33-31
Basic Options ................................... 33-32
Initialization ..................................... 33-37
Output ............................................. 33-37
Reports ............................................ 33-38
Contingency Definition .......................... 30-32
Contingency OPF ................................... 33-31
continue
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Convergence
LF Troubleshooting ......................... 23-33
cos
DPL .................................................... 21-7
cosh
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Cost Functions ......................................... 33-2
CSSL (DSL) ............................................ 27-46
CUBIC
DIg Output Language ........................ C-3
Cubicle ...................................................... A-2
Curve Input
Context-sensitive Menu ................... 19-52
Create Diagram ............................... 19-51
D
DAQ .......................................................... A-2
Data Management ................................... 20-1
Data Manager .......................................... 12-1
Database Browser ............................. 12-1
Database Tree ................................... 12-3
E - 3
Settings ............................................... 8-4
Data Model ................................................ 5-1
Database
Multi-User ............................................ 7-2
Single-User .......................................... 7-2
DataManager ........................................... 12-1
DC OPF .................................................. 33-20
Basic Options .................................. 33-21
Initialization ..................................... 33-26
DEF
Defining Element Symbols ....................... D-1
Demo Account ........................................... 7-4
Device ...................................................... A-3
DGS Interface ......................................... 22-1
Diagram Colouring ................................ 11-45
DiaGrfopts ............................................. 11-34
DiaPagetyp ............................................ 11-21
DIg Output Language
Filters ..................................................C-7
Includes ...............................................C-7
Line Types ...........................................C-5
Loops ...................................................C-7
Page Breaks ........................................C-5
Text Macros .........................................C-6
DIgSILENT Output Language ...................C-1
Format .................................................C-2
DIgSILENT Programming Language ....... 21-1
Distribution Function ............................. 31-49
do() while{}
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Documentation .......................................... 3-1
DPL .......................................................... 21-1
Access to Objects ............................ 21-11
Assignments ...................................... 21-7
break ................................................. 21-9
Constant Parameters ........................ 21-7
continue ............................................ 21-9
External Objects .............................. 21-14
Functions & Subroutines ................. 21-17
input ................................................ 21-10
Local Objects ................................... 21-12
Object Variables & Methods ........... 21-12
output .............................................. 21-10
Standard Functions ........................... 21-7
Subroutines ..................................... 21-16
Variable Definitions ........................... 21-6
DPL (DIgSILENT Programming Language) 21-
1
DPL Advanced Options ............................ 21-4
DPL Command Execute .......................... 21-4
DPL Command Libraries ........................ 21-15
DPL Command Object ............................. 21-2
DPL Command Set .................................. 21-3
DPL Internal Methods ........................... 21-17
DPL Script Editor ..................................... 21-5
DPL Script Language ............................... 21-6
DPL Script Page ...................................... 21-5
Drag and Drop ......................................... A-3
DSL ........................................................ 27-54
Advanced Features ......................... 27-50
Defining Models .............................. 27-50
Definition Code ............................... 27-57
Equation Code ................................. 27-61
Events ............................................. 27-46
Example .......................................... 27-64
Expression ....................................... 27-61
General Syntax ................................ 27-55
inc .................................................... 27-58
inc0 .................................................. 27-58
incfix ................................................ 27-58
Initial Conditions ............................. 27-58
intervalinc ........................................ 27-59
loopinc ............................................. 27-58
Macro Handling ............................... 27-62
Macros ............................................. 27-62
Model Description ........................... 27-49
newtoninc ........................................ 27-59
Output ............................................. 27-46
Structure ......................................... 27-46
DSL Block Definition .............................. 27-21
DSL Model Components ........................ 27-49
DSL Models ........................................... 27-43
DSL primitive ............................................ A-3
DSL Reference ...................................... 27-54
DSL Structure ........................................ 27-56
DSL Variables ........................................ 27-56
Dynamic Model
Concept ........................................... 27-21
E
e
DPL .................................................... 21-8
EDGE
Edge Elements ......................................... A-3
Edit
Detail Mode ..................................... 12-17
Object Mode .................................... 12-17
Editor
Settings ............................................... 8-6
EIC (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-11
Eigenvalue Bar Plot ............................... 19-25
Eigenvalue Calculation ............................ 28-1
Eigenvalue Plot .......................... 19-25, 28-11
Element .................................................... A-4
ElmArea ................................................... 5-14
ElmBmu ................................................... 5-14
E - 4
ElmBoundary ........................................... 5-14
ElmBranch ............................................... 5-11
ElmCircuit ................................................ 5-15
ElmComp ............................................... 27-26
ElmCompare ............................................ 29-1
ElmDsl ................................................... 27-32
ElmFeeder ............................................... 5-15
ElmFuse ................................................... 35-3
ElmMeteostat .......................................... 32-6
ElmNet ..................................................... 5-12
ElmOperator ............................................ 5-15
ElmOwner ................................................ 5-16
ElmRelay .................................................. 35-2
ElmRes ............................................13-9, 19-8
ElmRoute ................................................. 5-16
ElmSite .................................................... 5-12
ElmStactrl .............................................. 23-12
ElmSubstat .............................................. 5-11
ElmTerm .................................................. 5-10
ElmVac ................................................... 36-12
ElmWindzone ........................................... 32-6
ElmZone .................................................. 5-16
ElmZpu .................................................. 36-12
EMT Simulation ....................................... 27-1
EMT Simulations ...................................... 27-1
ENS (Reliability Analysis) ...................... 31-10
Equipment Type Library .......................... 14-1
Equivalent Network ................................. 36-1
Event ..................................................... 27-15
Inter-Circuit ..................................... 27-19
Load ................................................. 27-19
Outage ............................................. 27-19
Parameter ........................................ 27-18
Short-Circuit .................................... 27-18
Switching ......................................... 27-18
Synchronous Machine ..................... 27-19
Events .................................................... 27-15
EvtLod
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
EvtOutage
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
EvtParam
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
EvtShc ................................................... 24-17
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
EvtShcll
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
EvtSym
Data Model ........................................ 13-7
Expansion Stage ...................................... 17-1
Export
Curve Data ...................................... 19-63
to Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EXCEL)
............................................. 12-25
exps
DPL .................................................... 21-7
F
Failure .................................................... 31-48
Failure Effect Analysis ........................... 31-12
fault
DSL .................................................. 27-63
Fault Case .............................................. 30-30
Fault Clearing (Reliability) ..................... 31-13
Fault Group ........................................... 30-31
Fault Isolation (Reliability) .................... 31-14
FEA (Failure Effect Analysis) ................. 31-32
Feeder ..................................................... 15-6
Filter Analysis .......................................... 25-7
Flexible Data Page ................................ 12-20
Flicker Analysis
Assignment of Flicker Coefficients .. 25-26
Continuous Operation ..................... 25-22
Definition of Flicker Coefficients ..... 25-25
Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbines 25-
25
Result Variables ............................... 25-27
Switching Operations ...................... 25-23
Flicker Analysis IEC 61400-21 ............... 25-22
Flickermeter ............................................ 26-1
Calculation of Long-Term Flicker ...... 26-2
Calculation of Short-Term Flicker ..... 26-2
Data Source ....................................... 26-4
Signal Settings .................................. 26-5
floor
DPL .................................................... 21-7
for(){}
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Forced Outage ....................................... 31-47
Form Editor ............................................. 19-1
Format Editor
Predefined Variables ......................... 19-1
Text Editor ......................................... 19-1
User Selection ................................... 19-1
frac
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Frequency Dependent Parameters ....... 25-19
Frequency Sweep .................................... 25-5
Basic Options ..................................... 25-6
G
General Selection (DPL) ........................ 21-13
Glossary .................................................... A-1
Graphic
Already Existing Network Elements 11-24
Attributes ......................................... 11-32
Balloon Help .................................... 11-48
Colour .............................................. 11-45
Edit Result Box ................................ 11-49
E - 5
Imported Data ................................ 11-25
Insert ............................................... 11-31
Interconnect ...................................... 11-6
Layers .............................................. 11-41
Legend Block ................................... 11-47
Mark Element .................................... 11-5
Options ............................................ 11-34
Print ................................................. 11-31
Rebuild ............................................ 11-31
Reference Point ............................... 11-48
Remove Page .................................. 11-32
Rename Page .................................. 11-32
Result Box ....................................... 11-47
Result Boxes .................................... 11-34
Title Block ........................................ 11-46
Toolboxes ........................................ 11-23
Zoom ............................................... 11-30
Graphic Window
New ................................................. 11-21
Page Tab ......................................... 11-22
Graphic Windows
Settings ............................................... 8-2
Graphics Board ...................................... 11-16
Graphics Board Window ........................... A-4
Grid ........................................................... A-4
Grouping Objects .................................... 15-1
H
Harmonic
Filter Analysis .................................... 25-7
Harmonic Analysis ................................... 25-1
Harmonic Calculation
Definition of Result Variables .......... 25-27
Modelling
Assignment of Harmonic Injections 25-
16
Definition of Harmonic Injections 25-9
Frequency Dependent Parameters 25-
19
Harmonic Distortion Results 25-17
IEC 61000 Harmonic Sources 25-11
Magnitudes and Phase Values 25-13
Phase Correct Harmonic Sources 25-10
Waveform Plot 25-21
Modelling Harmonic Sources ............ 25-9
Waveform Plot ................................ 25-21
Harmonic Impedance .............................. 25-5
Harmonic Load Flow ............................... 25-2
Basic Options .................................... 25-2
IEC 61000-3-6 ................................... 25-4
Result Variables ................................ 25-4
Harmonic Sources ................................... 25-9
Harmonics Analysis ................................. 25-1
Definition of Result Variables .......... 25-27
Filter Analysis .................................... 25-7
Flicker Analysis IEC 61400-21 ........ 25-22
Frequency Sweep .............................. 25-5
Harmonic Load Flow ......................... 25-2
Modelling Harmonic Sources ............ 25-9
Hazard Rate Function ........................... 31-49
Help ........................................................... 3-1
Hidden Failure ....................................... 31-48
HMC ......................................................... 25-1
HmcCur ................................................... 25-9
Hotkeys .....................................................B-1
Hotkeys References ..................................B-1
I
IEAR (Reliability Analysis) ..................... 31-11
IEC 61000-3-6 ......................................... 25-4
IEC 61000-4-15 ....................................... 26-1
Data Source ...................................... 26-4
Signal Settings .................................. 26-5
IEC 6100-4-15
Calculation of Short-Term Flicker ..... 26-2
IEC 6100-4-15 Calculation of Long-Term Flick-
er ............................................................. 26-2
IEC 61400-21 ........................................ 25-22
Assignment of Flicker Coefficients .. 25-26
Continuous Operation ..................... 25-22
Definition of Flicker Coefficients ..... 25-25
Flicker Contribution of Wind Turbines 25-
25
Result Variables .............................. 25-27
Switching Operations ...................... 25-23
if(){}
DPL .................................................... 21-9
if(){}else{}
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Import
from Spreadsheet Programs (e. g. MS EX-
CEL) ..................................... 12-26
inc
DSL .................................................. 27-58
inc0
DSL .................................................. 27-58
incfix
DSL .................................................. 27-58
input
DPL .................................................. 21-10
IntCase .................................................... 13-1
The Study Case Edit Dialogue .......... 13-4
IntCbrating .............................................. 5-23
Interconnect ............................................ 11-6
Interfaces ................................................ 22-1
API ................................................... 22-51
E - 6
CIM .................................................. 22-20
CIM Data Export .............................. 22-22
CIM Data Export General Settings .. 22-22
CIM Data Import ............................. 22-20
CIM Data Import General Settings . 22-21
DGS ................................................... 22-1
DGS Export ........................................ 22-5
DGS Export General Settings ............ 22-6
DGS Import ....................................... 22-3
DGS Import General Settings ............ 22-3
DGS Structure ................................... 22-2
MATLAB ........................................... 22-23
NEPLAN ........................................... 22-15
NEPLAN Import ............................... 22-15
NEPLAN Import General Settings .... 22-16
OPC .................................................. 22-23
PSS/E ................................................. 22-6
PSS/E Dyn.Data Import .................. 22-11
PSS/E Dyn.Data Import General Settings
22-12
PSS/E Dyn.Data Import Options ..... 22-12
PSS/E Export ................................... 22-12
PSS/E Export General Settings ........ 22-13
PSS/E Export Options ...................... 22-14
PSS/E Import ..................................... 22-6
PSS/E Import General Settings ......... 22-7
PSS/E Import Graphical Options ..... 22-10
PSS/E Import Options ....................... 22-8
StationWare ..................................... 22-24
UCTE-DEF ........................................ 22-17
UCTE-DEF Data Export ................... 22-19
UCTE-DEF Data Export General Settings .
22-19
UCTE-DEF Data Import ................... 22-17
UCTE-DEF Data Import General Settings
22-18
Interior Point Method .............................. 33-1
Interruption ........................................... 31-48
intervalinc
DSL .................................................. 27-59
IntEvt ....................................................... 5-27
IntEvtshc ............................................... 24-17
IntFaultgrp .............................................. 5-29
IntFltcases ............................................... 5-26
IntFltgroups ............................................. 5-26
IntForm ................................................... 19-1
IntGrf ......................................................... 5-8
IntGrfnet ................................................ 11-32
Options ............................................ 11-32
IntLogon .................................................... 6-1
IntMon ........................................13-11, 19-14
IntMonsel .............................................. 12-20
IntNewobj ................................................ 12-4
IntOutage .......................................5-24, 5-29
Demad Transfer ................................ 5-25
IntPrj ....................................................... 10-3
IntPrjfolder ................................................ 5-2
IntQlim .................................................... 5-29
IntRunarrange ......................................... 5-31
IntScenario .............................................. 16-1
IntScensched ......................................... 16-10
IntScheme ............................................... 5-17
IntSscheduler .......................................... 17-6
IntSstage ................................................. 5-17
IntSubset ............................................... 16-13
IntSym ...................................................... D-1
IntTemplate ........................................... 11-11
IntVersion ................................................ 20-1
Iterations
LF Troubleshooting ......................... 23-33
L
LCOL
Limits (Active and Reactive Power) ...... 33-10
Linear Programming .............................. 33-20
LMPs ...................................................... 33-25
ln
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Load Flow Analysis .................................. 23-1
Active Power Control ....................... 23-21
Adv.Simulation Options ................... 23-29
Advanced Load Options .................. 23-12
Basic Options ................................... 23-19
Coincidence of Low Voltage Loads . 23-16
Executing LF .................................... 23-19
Feeder Load Scaling ........................ 23-13
Load Scaling Factors ....................... 23-15
Low-Voltage Analysis ...................... 23-28
Output ............................................. 23-27
Reactive Power Control ................... 23-20
Result Analysis ................................ 23-30
Sensitivities ..................................... 23-40
Temperature Dependency .............. 23-17
Troubleshooting .............................. 23-33
Voltage Dependency of Loads ........ 23-12
Load Shedding (Reliability) ................... 31-16
Load Transfer (Reliability) ..................... 31-16
Load-Flow
Optimizing ......................................... 33-1
Locational Marginal Prices ..................... 33-25
log
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Log-on ....................................................... 6-1
Logon
Advanced Settings ............................... 6-5
E - 7
Long-Term Flicker ................................... 26-2
loopinc
DSL .................................................. 27-58
Lost load ................................................ 31-47
LPEIC (Reliability Analysis) ................... 31-10
LPENS (Reliability Analysis) .................... 31-9
LPES (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-9
LPIF (Reliability Analysis) ............. 31-7, 31-11
LPIT (Reliability Analysis) ............ 31-7, 31-11
M
Macro
DSL .................................................. 27-62
Maintenance .......................................... 31-47
MATLAB Interface ................................. 22-23
Matlab Interface
Concept ........................................... 27-67
Matlab File ....................................... 27-70
Model Implementation .................... 27-67
max
DPL .................................................... 21-7
min
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Modal Analysis ........................................ 28-1
Exporting a Modal Analysis Plot to External
Software .............................. 28-17
Exporting Results to External Software 28-
20
How to Complete a Modal Analysis .. 28-5
Participation Factor ........................... 28-1
Plots ................................................ 19-25
Result Plots ..................................... 28-11
Showing the Modal Analysis Data Browser
28-18
Validity of Results ............................. 28-4
Viewing Modal Analysis Results ........ 28-9
Viewing Results in the Data Browser 28-18
Modal Analysis Command
Basic Options .................................... 28-6
Mode Bar Plot ........................................ 28-14
Mode Phasor Plot .................................. 28-16
Model Analysis
Theory ............................................... 28-1
Model Parameter Identification .............. 29-1
Modeling and Simulation Tools ............. 27-46
modulo
DPL .................................................... 21-7
N
NEPLAN Interface ................................. 22-15
NET
Network Model
Variations .......................................... 17-1
Network Reduction ................................. 36-1
Example .......................................... 36-10
Handling ............................................ 36-2
Options .............................................. 36-5
Network Variations .................................. 17-1
newtoninc
DSL .................................................. 27-59
Node ......................................................... A-4
NULL ........................................................ 21-7
O
OBJECT
Object ....................................................... A-4
Objects
Edit .................................................. 11-18
Filtering ........................................... 12-13
Search ............................................. 12-12
Sorting ............................................. 12-12
Objects relevant for Calculation ................ 9-3
OPC Interface ........................................ 22-23
Open Tie Optimization .......................... 34-13
Operation Scenario ......................... 16-1, A-4
Operation Scenarios
Scenario Scheduler ......................... 16-10
Operational Data ..................................... 14-2
Operator .................................................. 15-9
OPF .......................................................... 33-1
Opt, Capacitor Placement
Available Capacitors .......................... 34-7
Opt. Capacitor Placement
Basic Options .................................... 34-5
Objective Function ............................ 34-2
Optimization Procedure .................... 34-4
Voltage Violation Cost ....................... 34-2
Optimal Capacitor Placement .................. 34-1
Load Characteristics .......................... 34-8
Optimal Power Flow ................................ 33-1
Optimal Power-Flow ................................ 33-1
Optimization Tools for Distribution Networks .
34-1
Outage .................................................. 31-47
output
DPL .................................................. 21-10
DSL .................................................. 27-63
Output of Device Data ............................ 19-4
Documentation .................................. 19-6
Filter/Annex ....................................... 19-6
Output of Results .................................... 19-7
Output Window
Context Sensitive Menu .................... 4-17
Copy .................................................. 4-19
E - 8
Legend ............................................... 4-18
Settings ............................................... 8-5
Output window ........................................ 4-15
Overload Alleviation (Reliability) ........... 31-15
Owner ...................................................... 15-9
P
Page Tab .................................................. A-5
Parallel Computing ................................ 30-16
Parameter Characteristics ....................... 18-1
Parameter Identification ......................... 29-1
Application ......................................... 29-8
Comparison Slot ................................ 29-4
Measurement File .............................. 29-3
Model Creation .................................. 29-4
Performing ......................................... 29-6
Target Function ................................. 29-2
Passive Failure ....................................... 31-48
Path ....................................................... 15-10
pi
DPL .................................................... 21-8
pow
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Power at Risk ........................................ 31-15
Power Restoration (Reliability) ............. 31-15
PowerFactory Overview ............................ 4-1
Primitive Block Definitions (DSL) .......... 27-51
Print Graphic ......................................... 11-31
Probability Density Function ................. 31-49
Program Administration ............................ 6-1
Program Configuration .............................. 6-1
Program Installation .................................. 6-1
Project ...................................................... A-5
Basic Defintion .................................. 10-1
Validity Period ................................... 10-5
Project Settings ....................................... 10-4
Protection ................................................ 35-1
PSS/E Interface ....................................... 22-6
R
Reducing Network ................................... 36-1
Reduction ................................................ 36-1
Redundant Unit ..................................... 31-49
RelDir ..................................................... 35-12
RelFmeas ............................................... 35-12
RelFrq .................................................... 35-21
RelFuse .................................................... 35-3
Reliability Analysis
Basic Options ................................... 31-30
Calculated Results ............................. 31-6
FEA Options ..................................... 31-32
Glossary ........................................... 31-47
Options ............................................ 31-36
Outputs ............................................ 31-32
State Enumeration .......................... 31-11
Stochastic Models .............................. 31-4
Reliability Assessment ............................. 31-1
Reliability Model
Interruption Cost ............................. 31-24
RelIoc .................................................... 35-15
RelLogic ................................................. 35-22
RelMeasure ............................................ 35-11
RelToc ................................................... 35-17
RelUlim .................................................. 35-21
Remote Scripts (DPL) ............................ 21-15
Repair .................................................... 31-48
Reporting Results .................................... 19-1
RES
Result Box
Edit .................................................. 11-49
Result Comparison
Setup ............................................... 19-12
Result Export ......................................... 19-10
Result Object ................................... 19-8, A-5
Results ..................................................... 19-1
DIgSILENT Output Language ............ C-1
RMS Simulation ....................................... 27-1
round
DPL .................................................... 21-7
S
SAIDI (Reliability Analysis) ..................... 31-8
SAIFI (Reliability Analysis) ...................... 31-7
Scheduled Outage ................................. 31-47
Security ................................................. 31-49
SEL .......................................................... 21-7
Sensitivity Analysis ................................ 23-40
SES (Reliability Analysis) ....................... 31-10
SetColgr ......................................11-39, 11-45
SetCondmg ............................................ 35-25
SetCrvfilt ................................................ 19-62
SetCubop ................................................. 11-3
SetDisplt ................................................ 35-40
SetFilt .................................................... 12-12
SetGrfpage ............................................ 11-41
SetLevelVis ............................................ 11-42
SetMotorst ............................................. 35-28
SetOcplt ................................................. 35-30
SetPath ............................. 5-16, 35-31, 35-32
SetPrj ....................................................... 10-4
SetTime ................................................... 13-3
Settings
Data Manager ...................................... 8-4
Directories ........................................... 8-6
E - 9
Editor ................................................... 8-6
Functions ............................................. 8-5
General ................................................ 8-1
Graphic Windows ................................ 8-2
Output Window ................................... 8-5
SetTitm .................................................. 11-46
SetTrfdmg ............................................. 35-27
SetTrigger .................................... 5-33, 13-12
SetUser ...................................................... 8-1
SetValue ................................................ 12-17
SetVilytaxis ............................................ 19-67
SetVilytpage .......................................... 19-67
SetVilytplot ............................................ 19-67
SetViPage .............................................. 19-25
Shadow Prices ....................................... 33-25
Shed load .............................................. 31-47
Short-Circuit Analysis .............................. 24-1
Adv.Options ANSI ........................... 24-29
Adv.Options Complete M. ............... 24-33
Advanced Options IEC/VDE ............ 24-24
Basic Options (All Methods) ............ 24-19
Basic Options ANSI ......................... 24-27
Basic Options Complete M. ............. 24-31
Basic Options IEC 61363 ................ 24-35
Basic Options IEC/VDE ................... 24-23
Calculation Method ......................... 24-19
Calculation Options ......................... 24-19
Executing SC ................................... 24-14
Explanation ANSI Method ................. 24-9
Explanation Complete Method ........ 24-11
Explanation IEC/VDE Method ........... 24-4
Fault Type ....................................... 24-20
IEC Correction Factors ...................... 24-6
Line Faults ....................................... 24-16
Multiple Faults ................................. 24-17
Result Analysis ................................ 24-37
Verification ...................................... 24-22
Short-Term Flicker .................................. 26-2
sin
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Single Line Graphic .................... 11-37, 11-38
Single Time Phase Contingency Analysis 30-7
sinh
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Slot ........................................................... A-5
Spare Unit ............................................. 31-48
sqr
DPL .................................................... 21-7
sqrt
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Stability Analysis
Models ............................................. 27-21
Stability and EMT Simulations ................ 27-1
Stability Simulation ................................. 27-1
StaCt ........................................................ 35-5
StaCubic .................................................. 5-10
STALNE
StaSwitch ................................................ 5-10
State Enumeration ................................ 31-11
State Estimation ...................................... 37-1
Basic Options .................................. 37-14
Components of the SE ...................... 37-2
Data Input ......................................... 37-5
Executing SE ................................... 37-14
Objective Function ............................ 37-2
Result Analysis ................................ 37-21
StaExtpmea ..................................... 37-22
StaExtqmea ..................................... 37-22
StaExtvmea ..................................... 37-22
StationWare Interface ........................... 22-24
Statistic .................................................. 31-47
StaVt ........................................................ 35-7
StaVtsec .................................................. 35-9
Stochastic .............................................. 31-47
Stochastic Models
Busbar ............................................. 31-18
Cable ............................................... 31-19
Common Mode ................................ 31-20
Line .................................................. 31-19
Terminal .......................................... 31-18
Transformer .................................... 31-19
StoCommon ........................................... 31-20
StoGen .................................................... 32-4
StoTypbar .............................................. 31-18
StoTyplne .............................................. 31-19
StoTyptrf ............................................... 31-19
Study Case ...................................... 13-1, A-5
Study Time ........................................ 13-3
Study Cases ............................................. 13-1
Study Time .............................................. 13-3
Subplot (VI) .......................................... 19-32
Support ..................................................... 2-1
Symbols .................................................... D-1
Symbols of Elements
Editing and Changing ...................... 11-47
System Stage ........................................... A-5
Converting into Variations .............. 17-11
T
tan
DPL .................................................... 21-7
tanh
DPL .................................................... 21-7
Tariff Systems for External Grids ............ 33-3
The ............................................................ 6-1
The Graphics Editor ................................ 11-1
this .......................................................... 21-7
Time Phases ............................................ 30-3
E - 10
Time-Domain Simulation
3-phase EMT Simulation ................... 27-4
3-phase RMS Simulation ................... 27-3
Balanced RMS Simulation ................. 27-3
Basic Options ..................................... 27-6
Calculation Methods .......................... 27-3
Events .............................................. 27-15
Load Flow ........................................ 27-12
Long-Term Stability ......................... 27-11
Noise Generation ............................. 27-12
Reference System ........................... 27-10
Result Objects ................................. 27-13
Run .................................................. 27-20
Setup ................................................. 27-4
Simulation Results ........................... 27-14
Step-Size Adaption ...................27-7, 27-8
Time-Domain Simulations ....................... 27-1
TITLE
Toolbar Definitions .................................. 4-11
Trace ..................................................... 30-28
Transient Analysis ................................... 27-1
Transients
electromagnetical .............................. 27-2
electromechanical ............................. 27-2
long-term ........................................... 27-2
TriCont ..................................................... 18-6
TriDisc ..................................................... 18-5
TriFreq ..................................................... 18-7
TriVal ....................................................... 18-2
trunc
DPL .................................................... 21-7
TTF (Reliability Analysis) ......................... 31-5
TTR (Reliability Analysis) ........................ 31-5
twopi
DPL .................................................... 21-8
TypCt ....................................................... 35-7
Type ......................................................... A-6
Define element type .......................... 5-21
TypHmcCur .............................................. 25-9
TypPowercurve ........................................ 32-5
TypVt ..................................................... 35-10
TypVtsec ................................................ 35-11
U
UCTE-DEF Interface .............................. 22-17
User Accounts ........................................... 7-1
User Groups .............................................. 7-1
User Interface ........................................... 4-8
User Settings ............................................. 8-1
V
Validity Period ......................................... 10-5
Variable Sets ......................................... 19-14
VARIANT
Variation .......................................... 17-1, A-6
Vector Diagram
Changing the object ........................ 19-44
Changing the Variables ................... 19-44
Coordinates ..................................... 19-43
Editing the Unit/Tick ....................... 19-43
Label of Vectors .............................. 19-44
Origin ............................................... 19-43
X and Y Axes ................................... 19-43
VecVis .................................................... 19-41
Version .................................................... 20-1
VI
Constant Value ................................ 19-59
Curve Filter ...................................... 19-62
Curve Input ..................................... 19-51
Defining Styles ................................ 19-67
Edit Dialogues ................................. 19-56
Embedded Graphic Windows .......... 19-54
Export Curve Data ........................... 19-63
Export Curve Graphic ...................... 19-63
FFT Plot ........................................... 19-41
Format Label ................................... 19-58
Labelling Plots ................................. 19-56
Plot Style ......................................... 19-68
Pre-defined Style ............................. 19-69
Status Bar ........................................ 19-56
Straight Line .................................... 19-62
Styles ............................................... 19-66
Text Label ........................................ 19-57
Tools for Virtual Instruments .......... 19-56
User-defined Styles ......................... 19-66
Value Label ...................................... 19-57
Vector Diagram ............................... 19-41
Voltage Profile Plot .......................... 19-44
Waveform Plot ................................. 19-49
X-Y-Plot ........................................... 19-40
VI Panel
Automatic Arrangement .................. 19-27
Automatic Scale Buttons ................. 19-27
Background ..................................... 19-30
Context Sensitive Menu .................. 19-30
Create Virtual Instruments .............. 19-31
Default Styles .................................. 19-31
Defining Styles ................................ 19-67
Edit .................................................. 19-26
Moving and Resizing ....................... 19-28
Page Format .................................... 19-28
Plots ................................................. 19-31
Results ............................................. 19-30
Title Block ........................................ 19-29
Variables of Plots ............................. 19-28
E - 11
Virtual Instrument .................................... A-6
Virtual Instrument Panel .......................... A-6
Virtual Instrument Panels ..................... 19-25
Virtual Instruments ................................. 19-1
Types ............................................... 19-23
Types Feeders ................................. 19-25
Types Harmonics ............................ 19-25
Types Protection ............................. 19-24
Virtual Power Plant ................................. 15-1
VisDefcrv ............................................... 19-51
VisDraw ................................................. 35-37
VisEigen ................................................. 28-11
Viseigen ................................................. 19-25
VisFft ..................................................... 19-41
VisHrm ................................................... 19-49
VisLabel ................................................. 19-58
VisModbar .................................. 19-25, 28-14
VisModphasor ........................................ 28-16
VisOcplot ............................................... 35-23
VisPath .................................................. 19-44
Creating a voltage profile plot ........ 19-45
Customising a Voltage Profile Plot .. 19-46
Interpreting a Voltage Profile Plot .. 19-45
Schematic Visualization ................... 19-48
VisPlot ................................................... 19-32
Curves ............................................. 19-37
Editing Subplots .............................. 19-32
Setting the X-Axis ........................... 19-34
Setting the Y-Axis ........................... 19-35
VisPlot (2 Y-Axes) ................................. 19-39
VisPlot2 ................................................. 19-39
VisPlottz ................................................. 35-31
VisValue ................................................. 19-57
VisXvalue ............................................... 19-59
VisXYPlot ............................................... 19-40
Voltage Profile Plot
Customising the Voltage Profile Plot 19-46
How to create a Voltage Profile Plot 19-45
Interpreting a Voltage Profile Plot .. 19-45
Voltage Sag Analysis ............................. 31-41
Options ............................................ 31-41
Results ............................................. 31-43
W
Waveform Plot ...................................... 25-21
while(){}
DPL .................................................... 21-9
Z
Zone ...................................................... 15-10

PFManual 14 1 en Ed1 Vol II PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PFManual 14 1 en Ed1 Vol II PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DIgSILENT PowerFactory

DIgSILENT PowerFactory Load Flow Analysis

DIgSILENT PowerFactory Generation Adequacy Analysis

32.8.2 Distribution (Cumulative Probability) Plots

DIgSILENT PowerFactory Optimal Power Flow

DIgSILENT PowerFactory State Estimation

You might also like