THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

LECTURE 9

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. SEMANTIC ROLES. CLAUSES OF PLACE. CLAUSES OF CONTINGENCY: CONDITION, CONCESSION, AND CONTRAST 1. Adverbial Clauses of Place
Adverbial clauses of place: are introduced by the following subordinating conjunctions: - where - wherever - whence (from where) and whither (to where) are archaic forms indicate: - direction - position An overpowering smell of sweat followed him about [wherever he went] (direction) [Where I used to built sand castles] , there was now a giant manure pile (position) adverbial clauses of place introduced by where may express a combination of place and contrast [Where I saw only wilderness] , they saw abundant signs of life (Quirk, p. 1087) (=[Whereas I saw only] ., they saw ) Some temporal subordinating conjunctions (after, as, once, until, when etc.) may refer primarily to place, when used to describe movement from one place to another. (Quirk, p. 1087) Take the right fork [when the road splits into two] The river continues winding [until it reaches a large lake] The building becomes narrower [as it rises higher] The road stops [just after it goes under a bridge] [Once the mountains rise above the snow line], vegetation is sparse

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

A place relationship can also be expressed by PPs having as object/complement: o an NP the head of which is postmodifed by a relative clause: at the place that, in the direction where o where/wherever: to wherever , toward(s) where She finally arrived [at the place that had once been her sweet home] Take me [to wherever you go]

2. Adverbial Clauses of Contingency

2.1. Introduction
Contingent on/upon something: depending on something else in the future in order to happen Outdoor arrangements are, as ever, contingent on the weather. Our success is contingent upon your support. (Cambridge Dictionary online) Adverbials of contingency convey relationships such as: reason, result, concession, condition, cause, purpose There is a kind of habitual contingency conveyed by the following subordinating conjunctions: if once when/whenever where/wherever The specific meaning of these conjunctions (time, place, condition etc. ) is neutralized in certain linguistic contexts, where they could be paraphrased by in case when / in circumstances where. In other words, the situation in the matrix/main clause is contingent on the circumstances provided by the adverbial clause. Examples (Quirk (p. 1086) [When(ever)/Where(ver)/If /Once theres smoke], theres fire [When(ever)/Where(ver)/If possible], you should test all moving parts The same habitual/recurrent contingency can be conveyed by NFingCls and VlessCls [Driving at high speed], one may well miss direction signs [Fresh from the oven], rolls are delicious

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

There are three important logical relationships covered by the term contingency: condition concession contrast All these adverbial clauses convey the same general meaning: the event in the matrix/main clause is contingent upon that in the adverbial clause. However, each type conveys certain specific nuances of meaning there is also, frequently, a great deal of overlap between their meanings. These specific meanings are: Adverbial Clauses of Condition: o contingency: the event in the matrix/main clause is contingent on that in the adverbial clause [If you pass all the final examinations], (then) Ill take you with me in Europe Adverbial Clauses of Contrast: o contrast Whereas adoptive organizations such as Catholic Church have sometimes lasted for thousands of years], hereditary aristocracies have always been short-lived Adverbial Clause of Concession: o contrast and o unexpected situation: starting from what is said in the adverbial clause, the speaker does not expect the event in the matrix/main clause to happen; [Although she returned from America last week], she hasnt yet come to visit us We should also keep in mind that: - The same subordinating conjunction can introduce more than one type of adverbial clause. - Normally, these adverbial clauses occupy the initial position in the sentence.

2.2. Adverbial Clauses of Condition 2.2.1. Direct and Indirect conditions

Adverbial clauses of condition express two types of conditions:

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

direct condition indirect condition Adverbial clauses that express a direct condition: The grain of whitish dust will be shaken off [if the book is moved] o are clauses of contingency: the event in the matrix/main is directly dependent/contingent upon the event of the conditional clause; o in logical terms, the truth of the proposition in the matrix clause is a consequence of the fulfillment of the condition in the conditional clause (Quirk, p. 1088); o it is a central use of conditional clauses; o this conditional clause performs the function of adjunct; Adverbial clauses that express an indirect condition: [If I may so express it], he has a right to be proud o it is not a clause of contingency: there is no dependency/contingency between the two events; o in logical terms, the truth of the proposition in the matrix/ main clause is not conditioned by the subordinate clause; o this is a peripheral use of conditional clauses; o this is a sort of pragmatic condition; it relates the conditional clause not to the matrix, but to the speech event; this implies that the direct condition should be seen as one of a semantic nature the contingency does not concern the speech event); o these if-clauses perform the function of style disjuncts;

2.2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions that Introduce Conditional Clauses

The following subordinators introduce conditional clauses: Simple subordinators: - if (the most frequently used) - unless Complex subordinators: - assuming (that) - on condition (that) - supposing (that) - given (that) - in case - as long as / so long as / provided (that) / providing (that)

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

- they are semantically equivalent = if and only if); - provided (that) and providing (that) are more formal - just so (that) - informal Nonfinite and verbless clauses can be introduced only by - if and - unless This idea would be terrible [if realised] [If necessary], avoid her company She must not on any account think of venturing in sight of the ladies, [ unless expressly sent for] It has little taste, [unless hot] (Quirk, p. 1090) Nonfinite and verbless clauses introduced by the prepositions with or without may express a relation of contingency (condition) [Without a companion], you would feel lonely [With him in our team], well win the game Except (synonym of unless) is used in informal AmE Youll not be listened to [except you repent] The same semantic relationship (contingency) may be expressed by complex prepositions such as: In addition to the above subordinators, adverbial clauses of contingency can be introduced by complex PPs such as: - on the assumption/supposition that - on condition that - with the stipulation that - in case of - in the event of

2.2.3. Direct Condition (DCd) 2.2.3.1. Open and hypothetical conditions

The DCd may be: - open condition (real/factual/neutral condition) (OpCd) - hypothetical condition (unreal/nonfactual/counterfactual/closed condition) (HpCd)

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

Open/real condition [If they have more], they are apt to be careless and lose them using a sentence containing an OpCd, the speaker does not commit himself to either the fulfilment of the condition in the if-clause or to the truth of the matrix/main clause the speaker does not tell the hearer whether they have more or not, and, implicitly, whether it is true that they are apt to be careless) however, the condition is open to fulfillment the speaker sees it as possible

Hypothetical/unreal condition Would you like cats [if you were me?] (1) He would be very happy [if she came tomorrow] (2) I dare say I should have felt a pain in my liver, too, [if I had known where it was] (3) a sentence containing a HpCd expresses the fact that the speaker takes a stance towards the condition in the if-clause and, implicitly, towards the truth of the matrix/main clause; The speaker believes that: - a present condition is not fulfilled (1) - a future condition will not be fulfilled (2) - a past condition was not fulfilled (3) and, consequently, he expects the proposition expressed by the matrix/main clause to be improbable (1,2) or false (3); What the speaker actually communicates by the above sentences is: You are not me > I dont think/expect you to like cats I dont expect her to come tomorrow > He probably will not be happy I didnt know where it was > I didnt feel the pain in my liver There is a strong relationship between the reference time (RT) of the conditional clause and the speakers belief (in the hypothetical condition): - RT = present time > the condition is contrary to assumption - RT = future time > the condition is contrary to expectation - RT = past time > the condition is contrary to fact there is a strong connection between the hypothetical/unreal nature of the action and the tense of the verb in the conditional clause - present and future hypothetical conditions:

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

- past tense/were (past modal in the matrix/main clause) (1,2) - past reference: - past perfect/perfective (past perfect/perfective modal in the matrix/ main clause) (3)

2.2.3.2. More on subordinators for conditional clauses

a conditional clause that expresses a hypothetical condition is usually introduced by if conditional clauses introduced by if, in case, in the event that are usually accompanied by nonassertive forms [In the event that he is at all interested], Ill speak to him (Quirk, p. 1092) [In case you need any further clarification], please do not hesitate to call us on [If you had ever been there], you would understand what am talking about if only: - intensifies if - it is used esp. in hypothetical conditions - a conditional clause introduced by if only can function alone as a hypothetical wish If only they had listened to him! to introduce open conditions which he assumes are, were, will be fulfilled, the speaker can use: if, if so, if thats true, if thats the case, assuming (that), given (that), granted (that) (the last two are preferred in formal written style) [If the soldier had a wooden leg], he must have fought in the war [Given that x is an integer], state the relation representing each of the following by listing a set of ordered pairs [Granted that faith cannot be proved], what harm will come to you if you gamble on its truth and it proves false? an unless-clause is, to some extent, similar to a negative if-clause (if not); the difference is that in the former, the condition is focused as an exception (only if not); therefore there are contexts in which the two constructions are not interchangeable. You know how I detest it, [unless I am particularly acquainted with my partner] = You know how I detest it [if I am not ] I could easily forgive his pride, [if he had not mortified mine] *I could easily forgive his pride, [unless he mortified mine]

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

in case (= if it should happen that) - is normally used in real/open conditions - the reference time in the in caseclause is normally future Ill take an umbrella, [in case it rains]

2.2.3.3. More on the use of the verb phrase in the conditional clause
1) In addition to the present simple tense which is normal in an conditional clause that expresses an open condition (traditionally called type I conditional), present subjunctive is also possible in formal style, in legal contexts. [If it be possible], live peaceably with all men 2) In a conditional clause that expresses a future unreal/hypothetical condition, past simple is normally used; however, two other verb forms can be used to convey tentativeness: were + to infinitive (subjunctive - formal) was + to infinitive (past tense informal) [If I were to see you at it], I should take away your bottle directly If it was to happen again, closer to the election], who knows, it might be more damaging should + the base form of the verb It will be no use to us, [if twenty such should come], since you will not visit them 3) As we mentioned in a previous lecture, the relation of dependency can also be marked by subject-operator inversion. This may happen in a conditional clause (with the omission of if) when the operator is: had (most common) were (preferred in literary style) and should (literary style) [Had he had any compassion for me], he would not have danced half so much [Were she determined to get a rich husband], I dare say, she should adopt it [Should your daughter have a dangerous fit of illness], it would be a comfort to know that it was in pursuit of him

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

2.2.4. Indirect Condition 2.2.4.1. Introduction

We already know that indirect conditions do not refer to a relation of contingency between the two clauses; reference is made to the context in which the sentence is uttered. Being related to the speech event (which is a fact), they are open conditions Being peripheral to the matrix/main clause, they function as style disjuncts They are usually introduced by the subordinating conjunction if, but some other subordinating conjunctions can be used: in case (that), assuming (that), supposing (that)

2.2.4.2. Semantic classes of conditional clauses that express an indirect condition

Quirk distinguishes the following four types of semantic content conveyed by open conditions: 1) politeness: the speaker seems to ask the interlocutors permission to perform the speech act [If I may interrupt], people do not die of little trifling colds Other possible introductory expressions: if I may say so, if I may put it bluntly, if I may be personal, if you can keep a secret, if I may change the subject 2) Metalinguistic comment: the speaker seems - to call for the interlocutors agreement in relation to the appropriateness of the words he uses - to suggest a certain path for the interpretation of his utterance Patrick is an infidel, sir, [if this is the right word] He is highly qualified, [if you understand what I mean] Other expressions: if I may put it so, if thats the correct term, if thats the word for it, if you see what I mean, if you like etc. 3) speakers reference to his or the interlocutors uncertainty about the contextual knowledge that is necessary to correctly interpret the sentence he has produced. The wearer of this cloak was your brother, [in case you dont know] Other possible expressions: if Im correct, if I understand you correctly, if we can believe the experts, if you remember, in case you dont remember etc. 4) The condition under which the utterance is produced

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

[If youre going my way], I need a lift back

(Quirk, p. 1096)

If the condition is seen as a fact (certain), the subordinating conjunction since is used [Since youre going my way], I need a lift back

2.2.5. Rhetorical conditional clauses

There is a type of conditional clauses which, although apparently (semantically) express an open condition, their actual pragmatic function is to make a strong assertion. Quirk identifies two types of rhetorical conditional clauses: if the matrix clause (its proposition) is absurd (false), the conditional clause (its proposition) is asserted as false [If this is a learned man], Im the president of the US] (the assertion is: Im not the president > this is not a learned man) Ill eat my hat/Ill be damned / Ill be hanged [if shes marrying a man who she met yesterday] (informal, familiar style) (> She is not marrying a man who ) if the conditional clause (its proposition) is true, hence the matrix/clause (its proposition) is also true The painting must be worth a thousand dollars [if its worth a cent] (The painting must certainly worth a thousand dollars Quirk, p. 1095)

2.3. Adverbial Clauses of Concession 2.3.1. Markers of adverbial clauses of concession 2.3.1.1. Subordinating conjunctions
Concessive clauses indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is contrary to expectation in the light of what is said in the concessive clause (Quirk, p. 1098). Typically, adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following subordinating conjunctions: - although - though: informal [Although he had not quite cured him], he had greatly improved his condition

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

[Though Paul had declared that he left town secretly], a large collection of friends had assembled to greet him Other subordinating conjunctions used to introduce adverbial clauses of concession: - if [+/- finite clause] - even if [+/- finite] - even though [+/- finite] - when [+ finite ] - whereas [+ finite ] (formal) - while [+/- finite ] - whilst (BrE) [+/- finite ] Examples She came of the princely stock of M, which [if not a brilliant], was at all events, a decidedly ancient family (if = although) Its possible, [if difficult] (if = even though) He looked quite fresh, [even though he had been playing squash] I dont think I should stay [even if they were to invite me] Martin looked at Janice, [when Peter suggested for one of his sisters] (although ) [While he was broke], he wanted to buy the building Pierce, [whilst adopting a similar approach to Saussure], paid greater attention to the relationship between signifiers/signifieds and what he called their referents [Though only a five-year-old child], he knows multiplication table [Even though written in plain English], he did not understand anything [While not wanting to seem obstinate], I insist on a definite reply (Quirk, p. 1097) as and that (subordinating conjunctions) can introduce adverbial clauses of concession, but they require that the predicator in the adverbial clause be fronted [Starved as we were], we rejected his invitation to lunch (= Even if we were starved, ) [Change your mind as you will], you will gain no additional support (= Even if you will change your mind - Quirk, p. 1098) [Poor and ugly that he was], he married the wealthiest and most beautiful girl ( = Even though he was)

2.3.1.2. Non finite clauses followed by a correlative conjunct

NFingCls, NFedCls, and VlessCls without being introduced by a subordinator may express concession - they are usually correlated with a conjunct in the matrix/clause.

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

Examples (Quirk, p. 1097) [Not wanting to give offence], they did so all the same [Trained in karate], he nevertheless used a gun to defend himself [Aware of the dangers to American citizens during the crisis], she still insisted on staying with the others

2.3.1.3. Certain Prepositional Phrases

The concessive relationship can also be expressed by certain PPs containing relative clauses: - despite the fact (that) - in spite of the fact (that) - irrespective of the fact (that) - regardless the fact (that) - notwithstanding the fact (that)

2.3.2. The Semantics and Pragmatics of the AdvClC 2.3.2.1. Nuances of meaning conveyed by certain subordinators
As a rule, a sentence containing an AdvClC makes two assertions: the adverbial clause asserts something the matrix comes to break the logical expectations (consequences/outcome) of the adverbial clause by expressing some contrasting, unexpected facts [Although he had not quite cured him], he had greatly improved his condition 1. He had not quite cured him 2. He had greatly improved This semantic relation between the two clauses can have nuances of meaning contrast and unexpectedness (pure concession the example above) similarity (not necessarily contrast) conveyed, in certain linguistic contexts, by although/ though [Though his uncle had bought him a toy airplane], his aunt bought him a similar toy (anyway) contrary expectation: usually conveyed by while/whilst [While he was broke], he wanted to buy the building

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

antithesis between matrix/main clause and AdvClC, expressed by whereas But, [whereas they would have made her vaguely responsible for being born as she was], he did not

focus on unexpectedness: even though He looked quite fresh, [even though he had been playing squash] Notice: even though imposes the presupposition of factuality: he played squash)

2.3.2.2. Conditional-concessive Clauses

There are adverbial clauses that convey a combination of - condition and - concession They are normally introduced by the subordinating conjunction even if [Even if one hates animals], one must visit the Wild Animal Park - unlike even though, even if does not imply that the proposition expressed by the adverbial clause is true (one hates animals); it is open to both possibilities; Quirk distinguishes two types of condition-concession clauses: - alternative conditional-concessive clauses and - universal conditional-concessive clauses

2.3.2.2.1. Alternative conditional-concession clauses

They are introduced/expressed by: subordinating conjunctions: whether or (whether) in o finite, NF and Vless clauses o emphatic constructions: no matter whether it doesnt matter whether regardless of whether irrespective of whether NF and Vless clauses o in initial position (without being introduced by whether) o Vless clauses may function, in both final and initial position, in the pattern: with + NP or without NP / with or without NP

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

NPs in the pattern: NP or no NP

These clauses express the fact that the situation in the matrix/main clause applies under two contrasting conditions (Quirk, p. 1100) Examples: [Whether he feels more of pain or of pleasure in seeing her], he will stay here all afternoon [Whether you go East or (whether) you go West], home is best (when the correlated unit is a complete clause whether may be repeated) She will study all day in her room, [no matter whether she likes it or not [Whether married or single], he must always be her model of the amiable and pleasing [Working or playing], she is always intense (Quirk, p. 1100) [Educated or not], this man knows a lot of interesting things [With or without you], we will set out early in the morning You will win the trophy the next season, [with a center forward or without one] [Rain or no rain], well go fishing tomorrow

2.3.2.2.2. Universal conditional-concession clauses (UC-CCls)

They differ from the alternative conditional-concession clauses in that they (the former) do not limit the number of conditions to two; they indicate a free choice from any number of conditions [Whatever I say to them], I cant keep them quiet (Quirk, p.1101)

UC-CCls may be introduced/expressed by: (wh-) + (-ever) words: whatever, wherever, whoever, however constructions such as No matter/It doesnt matter (only initial) + wh- words finite clause (without introductory subordinator) + initial verb in the subjunctive Examples: [Whoever she is], Im not going to do what she says [No matter where you are], Im sure youre listening to me [Come what may], I will go there (= Whatever may happen/No matter what happens, I will)

THE SYNTAX OF THE MULTIPLE SENTENCE

Clauses of place. Clauses of contingency. Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast.

2.4. Adverbial Clauses of Contrast

The contrastive clause conveys a meaning that contrasts with that of the matrix/main clause. These adverbial clauses are introduced by the following interchangeable subordinating conjunctions: - whereas (more formal than while) - while and - whilst (BrE) As we can see, these subordinators are also used to introduce adverbial clauses of concession, hence the possibility of coexistence of the two meanings: concession and contrast. Contrastive clauses resemble clauses coordinated by but. Examples Sam went into the bedroom next to the sitting room, [while Charles stood at the window] (whereas/whilst Charles) Poetics starts with attested meanings of effects and seeks to understand what structures or devices make them possible, [whereas hermeneutics argues about what the meanings are or should be] [John likes hamburgers], but [Mary prefers hot dogs] = John likes hamburgers, [while Mary prefers hot dogs]