COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

Design Analysis And Testing

Design analysis of composite structures generally requires the use of computer software. Stiffness matrices, stresses and strains must be calculated for each ply and for the laminate as a whole. Failure criteria are calculated on a per-ply basis. Analytical programs based on laminate theory can be used for initial calculations. Design analysis of composite structures generally requires the use of computer software. Stiffness matrices, stresses and strains must be calculated for each ply and for the laminate as a whole. Failure criteria are calculated on a per-ply basis. Analytical programs based on laminate theory can be used for initial sizing of simple structures such as beams, rectangular plates and cylindrical shells. Finite element analysis is required for all but the simplest geometries and loading conditions. Many programs ha e optimization routines, but these wor! primarily on geometry. A few can optimize layups "with significant restrictions#, and e en fewer can optimize for materials. $hus, it is important to narrow down the material selections early in the design process, and to ha e a rough idea of what layups will wor!. %ecause of the inherent uncertainties in the analysis, and because composites are relati ely new materials, most pro&ects require some sort of structural testing. %uilding a full-scale prototype requires e'pensi e tooling, so testing usually begins with subscale structural models to erify the analytical models and material property data. (nce a design has been settled upon, a dedicated test prototype is built, usually on the production tooling. Any design changes from this point on should be minor, requiring no change in the tooling. $he prototype is tested under loads that simulate the field conditions as closely as possible. Models are matched against the test data, which may include strain, displacement, acceleration, temperature or other important parameters. Any discrepancies between the models and the test data must be resol ed before production can begin. $esting usually continues throughout the production process. )f a limited number of parts is being built, each one may be tested to representati e acceptance loads. For large production runs, usually only a few parts will be tested. *roduction tests should include quality control chec!s, such as resin content and fiber orientation.

Material Selection And Properties

$he design process starts with determining the functional requirements of the component part. $hese requirements include+ , Mechanical properties - tensile, compressi e and fle'ural strength. elongation, impact resistance, hardness, density. , /lectrical properties - dielectric strength, dielectric constant, arc resistance. , $hermal properties - thermal conducti ity, heat distortion, heat resistance, flammability, thermal coefficient of e'pansion. , 0hemical properties - resistance to acids, salt water and organic sol ents. degree of water absorption. resistance to ozone, ultra iolet radiation and weathering. 1ith literally dozens of fibers and hundreds of resins to choose from, the composite material choices can be o erwhelming. Fortunately, the design requirements usually dictate a narrow family of materials. Fibers determine the o erall mechanical properties of the structure, while the resin determines the o erall physical properties of the structure. $he resin matri' transfers the applied forces to the embedded high-strength fibers, helps the part resist the formation and propagation of crac!s, and protects the fibers from damage due to en ironmental conditions such as corrosi e chemicals. Stiffness or strength requirements determine whether glass, carbon or aramid should be used. 2esistance to the e'pected en ironmental conditions "chemical, fluid and temperature# determines whether polyester, epo'y, inyl ester, phenolic, thermoplastics or another resin class should be used. 0omposite structures, or laminates, are defined by the orientation, thic!ness and material type of each ply. Multiple plies are used to build up a laminate to achie e the defined performance requirements. *lies with fibers parallel to the e'pected a'ial load are generally designated as 34 orientation. fibers perpendicular to the longitudinal a'is are designated as 534. Fiber plies can be oriented in any off-a'is direction desired, to gi e strength in that direction. )f all plies are of the same thic!ness and material, a simple notation can be used to define the stac!ing sequence. $he ply angles are simply written in order, from top to bottom of the laminate. $he ma&ority of engineering laminates are balanced and symmetric, meaning that there are identical plies "same material, thic!ness and orientation# at equal distances abo e and below the laminate midplane. $he response of a composite structure to tensile loads is ery dependent on the tensile stiffness and strength properties of the fibers. 6nder compressi e load, the adhesi e and stiffness properties of the resin system are crucial, because the resin must maintain the fibers as straight columns to pre ent buc!ling and transfer shear stress between the fibers. *ly stiffness is a function of fiber angle. Ad&acent plies with different fiber orientation ha e different stiffnesses. $his mismatch means that stress is discontinuous between

the plies. $o maintain equilibrium, an interlaminar shear stress forms between the plies, in the thin layer of resin that holds the plies together. 6nder shear loads, the shear strength of the resin must be high enough to support these stresses, and must ha e good adhesion to the fibers. $he bearing strength of composites is usually lower than that of metals, and is a function of laminate layup design and torque. $he failure mode is generally a combination of localized crushing, microbuc!ling and shearout. 0omposites ha e some properties that may be non-intuiti e to engineers accustomed to wor!ing only with metals. $he two most important properties are shear coupling and bending-coupling. )n shear coupling, a pure tensile or compressi e load creates shear stresses in off-a'is plies. )n bending-coupling, a nonsymmetric laminate acts li!e a bimetallic strip. Application of a pure in-plane load, or e en a temperature change, will cause the laminate to warp or twist. %endingcoupling is easily a oided by designing only with symmetric laminates.

Laminate Design Rules

Although the final stac!ing sequence will be determined through analysis, the following general rules pro ide a starting point. $hey also co er some issues that most analyses will miss. (f course, there are always e'ceptions to each of the rules. Although the final stac!ing sequence will be determined through analysis, the following general rules pro ide a starting point. $hey also co er some issues that most analyses will miss. (f course, there are always e'ceptions to each of the rules. , Fibers should be aligned in the direction of principal loads or stresses. for e'ample, a'ially for a beam and circumferentially for a pressure essel. , 6nidirectional laminates are somewhat fragile - some off-a'is plies are necessary to hold the laminate together. , Angle plies carry shear loads. 78-9:4 plies are the most effecti e. , Shells, e en under pure a'ial loads, buc!le in both the a'ial and circumferential directions. ;oop fibers are needed for stability. , 0onstant angles are difficult to maintain, especially on doubly-cur ed surfaces. Account for ariations in the analysis, and try to use a limited number of angles. , Angle differences between plies should be minimized - <3489:485348-9:4= rather than <34853489:48-9:4= - to minimize interlaminar shear stresses caused by shear coupling. , >onsymmetric laminates hold their shape only at cure temperature. $hey will warp "for open sections# or de elop significant residual stresses "for closed sections# at other temperatures. Symmetric laminates a oid this problem. , ?uasi-isotropic plies are isotropic in in-plane stiffness only. Strength and bending stiffness are not isotropic. , ?uasi-isotropic, intermediate modulus carbon laminates ha e roughly the same stiffness as aluminum but about two-thirds the density. Accurate material properties are not always a ailable for composites. @enerating a complete set of composite performance data is e'tremely e'pensi e. Analysis of composites requires four elastic constants and fi e strength constants, determined using fi e different tests. $herefore, materials are often selected based on whether or not property data is easily obtained. Most composites suppliers ha e considerable data a ailable for designing with the materials that they offer, and can pro ide design guides and assistance, although some additional testing may be needed.

Joining
1hene er possible, multiple composite parts should be &oined together during cure. $his process is called Aco-curingB and results in the strongest composite-tocomposite bond. )t also has the ad antage of reducing part count and minimizing related machining operations Achie ing good metal-to-composite Structural tubing, such as a riser pipe, requires a traploc! fitting, in which a shaped metallic fitting is AtrappedB by the composite laminate. $his type of metal-to-composite bond increases the riserCs bending moment and a'ial compression capacity. Source+ Dincoln 0omposites 1hene er possible, multiple composite parts should be &oined together during cure. $his process is called Aco-curingB and results in the strongest composite-tocomposite bond. )t also has the ad antage of reducing part count and minimizing related machining operations Achie ing good metal-to-composite bonds is more difficult. %ecause metals usually ha e a higher coefficient of thermal e'pansion than composites, especially carbon and aramid composites, the bonds can brea! if the structure is sub&ect to large temperature swings. $hat is often why co-cured metal-to-composite bonds fail e en before the part is put into ser ice. Also, aluminum o'idizes rapidly, ma!ing it difficult to achie e a good bond to this metal. For these reasons, mechanical fasteners are often specified when &oining composites to metals. Mechanical attachment can be effecti e, but care must be ta!en in designing such &oints. Drilling damages composites by se ering fibers and reducing their length. ;eat from machining can wea!en or e en destroy the matri' locally. 0ut fibers interrupt the load path, and unidirectional plies will fray. Special drill bits designed for composites should be used to minimize heating and fraying. 6sing wo en fabrics as the innermost and outermost plies also reduces drilling damage. *roperly torqued fasteners significantly increase the bearing strength of composites. Furthermore, quasi-isotropic layups pro ide the highest bearing strength.$he ratio of edge distance to fastener diameter "e8D# should be at least E+F "e G the distance from the center of the hole to the edge of the part. D G fastener diameter#.

Structural tubing, such as a riser pipe, requires a traploc! fitting, in which a shaped metallic fitting is AtrappedB by the composite laminate. $his type of metal-to-composite

bond increases the riserCs bending moment and a'ial compression capacity. Source+ Dincoln 0omposites