Keynote Papers

Friction, Cooling and Lubrication in Grinding

E. Brinksmeier ( I ) , C. Heinzel, M. Wittmann Bremen University, Division of Production Technology and IWT Bremen, Department of Manufacturing Technologies, Bremen, Germany

Abstract It is generally considered that the heat produced during the grinding process is critical in terms of workpiece quality. Relatively high friction effects in abrasive machining cause heat generation which can lead to thermal damage in the surface layer of a machined part; cooling and lubrication therefore play a decisive role during grinding. The keynote paper shows the effect of coolant type, coolant composition and coolant supply on grinding processes and process results. Further investigations in the fields of fluid dynamic processes in supply nozzles and in the grinding zone are the key to optimization of cooling and lubricationduring grinding, thus offering the chance to minimize the amount of coolant in circulation, leading to a reduction of adverse environmental effects and cost. Keywords: Grinding, Coolant, Lubrication

1 BACKGROUND AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the last three years the topic of friction, cooling and lubrication in grinding has been discussed continuously during the meetings of STC 'G" (Abrasive Processes) of CIRP. This reflects the great interest of industry and science in the domain of grinding tribology. "Grinding is fun," stated one of our colleagues of STC 'G" (Dr. F. Hashimoto). This may be true, but we all know that as we achieve a deeper insight and understanding of grinding processes, we become more and more aware of the complexity of grinding and abrasive systems. This is true especially for cooling and lubrication and their impact on surface finish and integrity, wheel wear, economy and ecology of the process. In order to comprehensively update knowledge of the subject we have collected state of the art experiences from science and industry, surveyed ClRP activities, analyzed the literature and added information from ongoing research. Readers who are interested in gaining deeper insight are encouraged to refer to the many references at the end of the paper. Establishing the keynote paper and bringing it to its final format was only possible by the active support of many ClRP colleagues and their scientific staff. We therefore greatly acknowledge the contributions of S. Ebbrell, R. Egger, A. Giwerzew, T. Glatzel. H.-W. Hoffmeister, I. Inasaki, B. Karpuschewski, R. Kegg, F. Klocke. S. Malkin, W. B. Rowe, M. C. Shaw, H. K. Tonshoff, A. Walter, J. Webster. K. Weinert and E. WestkBmper. We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Prof. P. McKeoyn and Prof. T. Masuzawa of the ClRP Editorial CommiKee who have given us valuable advice on our paper before publication.

processes in the contact zone are defined by tribological relationships between the grain cutting edge, the grinding wheel bonding, the workpiece and the chip as it forms, so that cooling lubrication plays a decisive role during grinding with respect to heat generation and dissipation. Experience has shown that in addition to coolant type, composition and filtration, coolant supply (nozzle position, nozzle geometry, supplied flow rate and jet characteristics) can influence process productivity, workpiece quality and tool wear considerably (figure 1). For this reason, the development of universal and transferable criteria for coolant system design should be a first priority. To do this efficiently we must first develop rigorous methods for analyzing and optimizing cooling and lubrication during grinding.

Type and Composition

*Basic Fluid -Additives

Supply Conditions

Cleaning and Maintenance

Nozzle Design
Flow Rate I Pressure Flooding. Minimum Quantitv Lubrication or Dry Machining

Required Filtration Quality Type of Filtration Unit Design of Pumps and Tanks Measures of Maintenance

Figure 1: Parameters of coolant supply affecting process and process results. Often, published studies into grinding only deal marginally with matters concerning cooling lubrication. Process specific solutions which can be generalized are rare. The user has to choose from a great variety of coolants, nozzle systems and supply strategies. He must judge the different influencing factors with respect to coolant application and then consider them during construction, design and conditioning of the machining plant. Reliable data on the essential requirements for efficient coolant systems are simply not generally available.

2 INTRODUCTION The main characteristic of grinding in comparison to other machining processes is the relatively large contact area between the tool and the workpiece and the high friction between the abrasive grits and the workpiece surface. This leads to difficulties in supplying coolant to the grinding arc, thus resulting in a high risk of thermal damage to the workpiece surface layer as well as loading and wear of the grinding wheel. Thermo-mechanical

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During finish or fine grinding in particular, minimum specified component quality parameters must be achieved together with shortest possible process cycle times, the highest compatible material removal rates and overall highest production efficiency. Only recently, the reduction of coolant flow rate or even dry-machining has been considered at all widely. Very seldom are experimental or theoretical investigations made into optimizing coolant supply parameters for overall production quality and efficiency. When this is done properly, the total volume of coolant can be minimized leading to reduced environmental problems and substantially lower costs in coolant purchase, conditioning and coolantlswarf disposal. Possibilities for the disposal of grinding swarf was the and is therefore not a subject of this paper. topic of [l] This keynote paper starts by commenting on the fundamentals of friction in grinding operations. The second part addresses coolant types and composition (figure 2-a). Finally coolant supply strategies (figure 2-b) and the impact of cooling, friction and lubrication in the contact zone (figure 2 - 4 are discussed.

medium (in general, air). These elements of structure are distinguished by their tribologically relevant characteristics (material and form characteristics) as well as by the physical, chemical and technological parameters of the system components. Input parameters determine the mechanical and thermal loading of a tribological system, which, in grinding, can be described by the nature of relative motion of the surfaces (normally sliding) and by velocity, high or low, continuous or oscillating. Furthermore, they are also characterized by process features such as force, temperature, stress levels and frequencies. As is well known, output parameters in grinding are workpiece characteristics such as surface roughness, subsurface conditions and geometrical dimensions [4]. As in all processing methods, input quantities to the tribological system during grinding are mostly predefined, so that conversion of the system functions is mostly dependent on the structure of the tribological system. The conversion of input into output parameters happens by means of tribological processes, during which losses occur, caused by friction and wear (31. During grinding, new surface areas of the workpiece are continuously fed into the stressed areas of the tool, making this process method an open tribological system. It is thus material determined. Components of the tribological grinding system experience a wide range of tribological stresses, so that for optimization, understanding its friction and wear processes is essential.

3.2 Mechanisms and locations of friction in grinding

All friction processes can be classified by the friction condition of the interacting system components [5]. Process kinematics limit the nature of the friction almost entirely to sliding friction. Friction conditions, depending on the contact state, can appear as dry friction, boundary friction or mixed friction. Whereas dry friction results from direct contact, mixed friction consists of moments of solid state contact interspersed with periods of separation by a fluid film. Boundary friction is a special case of dry friction, during which the surfaces of the working partners are covered with adsorbed lubricant molecules. Sliding friction in grinding is characterized, compared to other friction types, by high tribological stress [3]. In several theoretical and experimental works Suh (et a/.) [6, 7, 81 showed, that during sliding friction, three main friction mechanisms are active: adhesion, plastic deformation and furrowing. Adhesion is characterized by constant formation and separation of atomic bindings (micro welding). Adhesion becomes important as soon as the contact zone is not, or only insufficiently,supplied with coolant. Adhesion also plays a main role during friction and wear processes. The adhesion component of friction force during grinding and boundary friction conditions can be significantly lowered by surface-active chemical additives [6]. Plastic deformation of roughness peaks at the interacting surfaces is normally responsible for motion resistance at the beginning of sliding friction. As soon as the roughness peaks have been smoothed by the relative surface motion, their significance is decreased [6]. Plastic deformation is especially important in dry grinding and is just as significant as adhesion in friction and wear processes [9]. The furrowing of hard, abrasive grains of the grinding wheel on the normally far softer workpiece surface, leads to the actual material cutting during grinding [lo]. Martin [l 11 defines the following cutting mechanisms: microcutting-peelcutting, microcutting-flowcutting, microploughing and micro-furrowing. These mechanisms

I-

b Coolant Supply Strategies c Coolina. Friction and Lubrication in the Contact Zone

W o o o s

Figure 2: Main scope of this keynote paper.

3 FUNDAMENTALS OF FRICTION IN GRINDING

OPERATIONS
3.1 Definitions of friction From a physical point of view, a grinding process can be generally characterized as a combination of different tribological actions. The word tribology is based on the Greek for science of friction. Jost [2] defines tribology as science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and of related subjects and practices. To be able to analyze friction, abrasive and wear processes from a tribological point of view, a system must be defined in which these actions can be described in total. The function of a tribological grinding system is to machine materials by abrasive material removal. This can be achieved by changing defined input parameters into output parameters governed by the structure of the tribological system [3]. The structure of a tribological grinding system consists of four elements, i.e. the grinding wheel, the workpiece, the intermediate medium (coolant) and the surrounding

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depend on grain cutting edge depth, cutting speed and orientation of the face of every single grain in relation to the grinding direction.
4

EFFECT OF COOLING AND LUBRICATION ON GRINDING PROCESS AND PROCESS RESULTS

Oil-based coolants normally provide enhanced corrosion resistance and lubrication effect in comparison to waterbased coolants. Low viscosity oils have a better crack penetration ability in comparison to higher viscosity oils. Higher viscosity oils adhere more strongly and produce less oil mist.
Water-based coolants For high cooling efficiency and washing away capabilities, water-based emulsions or solutions are employed. Their main disadvantage is susceptibility to leakage oils and micro organisms making high maintenance costs unavoidable. Furthermore, the water and oil phases must be separated before disposal. Water-based solutions consist of inorganic andlor organic substances and water and very seldom contain mineral oils. High chemical stability and transparency are further advantages in high cooling efficiency and washing away capability. Water-based emulsion concentrates contain 20-70% basic oil (mostly mineral oil). For metal grinding operations, oil-in-water emulsions are common; the amount of oil determines the lubrication ability of the emulsion. Common oil concentrations in emulsions for grinding operations are between 2 and 15%. Waterbased coolants contain up to 20 components in which, each of the components can themselves be multicomponent mixtures. Additives Additives are added to basic fluids to broadly optimize particular types of production process: each one is aimed at improving specific coolant properties. Additives can be divided into four main groups: Enhancers of physical coolant characteristics Enhancers of chemical coolant characteristics Enhancers of chemical and physical coolant characteristics Other additives During metallic solid body frictional contact, certain additives form highly stable compounds either due to their charge polarity or due to chemical reactions at the metal surface. These reactions take place within defined temperature ranges, so the process temperature is an important influencing factor in the effectiveness of the additive. Polar active substances (synthetic ester, fatty acids), extreme-pressure (EP) additives (sulphur carrier), antiwear (AW) additives (phosphorous compounds) and others (anti-corrosion additives, anti-mist additives, antioxidants, emulsifiers) are all employed as additives.

4.1 Definitions for coolants Coolants play an important role in machining. Correct application normally results in enhanced process stability, better workpiece quality and tool life. One of the main functions of coolants is to lubricate. This is achieved by reduction of the friction that develops in the contact zones between tool and workpiece as well as between tool and chip. Heat dissipation, i.e. cooling of the workpiece, and washing chips away from the contact zone are further important functions of the coolant. The combined lubrication and cooling effect reduces tool wear and enhances surface quality and dimensional accuracy of the workpiece. Cooling and lubrication requirements differ in every application and mainly depend on grinding conditions. Coolants should, ideally, be composed to suit each specific case. Every coolant consists of a basic fluid, to which are added other products such as anti-wear, anticorrosion or emulsifying agents. In Germany, coolants are divided according to DIN 51385 into oil-based and waterbased types (figure 3).

Coolants for Metal Working Processes A Wate r-based C00 lants Oil-based Coolants Basic Oils: - Mineral Oils - Hydrocrack Oils

- Coolant Emulsions

(concentrate: basic oil + emulsifier) - Coolant Solutions

Additives, Antioxidant Additives, Anti-Mist Additives etc.) Additives

Figure 3: Classification of coolants and additives.

Oil-based coolants In order to decrease friction. high pressures and temperatures during machining processes are necessary to create separation films (consisting of coolant and specific additives) between the solid surfaces of the tool and workpiece. Oil-based coolants normally consist of 80-95% basic oil and can be divided into four groups:

basic oils without additives basic oils with chemically active additives basic oils with surface active additives basic oils with chemically active additives and EPadditives (additives that form stable adsorption layers). The following basic oils are common: Mineral oil: natural C-H bonds, must be free of harmful aromatic compounds by refining Hydrocrack oils: partly synthetic, low content of aromatic compounds, improved mineral oil Polyalphaolefines: fully synthetic oil with branched hydrocarbons, thermally stable Synthetic ester: fully synthetic oil of fatty ester acids, thermally stable, biologically decomposable, useable as basic oil and as additive.

Coolant type and composition In grinding, the chip is formed, as material is deformed by the grit or grain cutting edge and displaced sideways or forward according to the orientation of the cutting edge. When the material' shear stress is exceeded, the chip flows over the face of the grain. The coolant in the contact zone influences the chip formation process by building up a lubricant film, thus lowering the friction forces, and cooling the material and tool surfaces [4, 11,121. As the lubrication effect increases, there is a corresponding increase in elastic-plastic deformation under the cutting edge of the abrasive grain, resulting in a decrease in workpiece roughness [ I I , 12, 13, 141. By reducing friction forces, friction heat is reduced and

4.2

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therefore also the total process heat. However, too much lubrication can have negative thermal effects, as the efficiency of the cutting process is reduced and relatively more energy is used in the shearing and deformation processes [11, I 31. Another important influence of coolant on lubrication is the lowering of frittion along the chip flow line, i.e. between the chip, the grain cutting edge and the grinding wheel bond. This reduces bond abrasion and grinding wheel wear [13, 15, 161. Figure 4 summarises the effects of coolant lubrication and cooling respectively; they are influenced by the type of coolant (oil, emulsion, solution) and its composition (emulsion concentration, additives) [ I 7, 181.

Figure 4: Tribology System 'Machining' Coolant type Several papers have dealt with the selection and effects of coolants. Vits carried out experiments with different coolant types (grinding oil, emulsion and solutions) and different additives with single-grain scratch tests and grinding operations [13]. He showed the effect of coolants during chip formation of materials such as 100 Cr6 (SAE - 52100) and Ck45 (SAE - 1045H) and derived directives for the usage of certain coolant types, depending on process and load type during grinding with conventional grinding wheels. Vits found that - except for very low material removal rates - the perpendicular and tangential forces of the process decrease with increasing lubrication effect in the sequence water-based synthetic solutions +.water-based emulsions + oil. Grinding wheel wear and surface roughness also reduced with increasing lubrication effect. TrSnshoff (et a/.) and Althaus indicated advantages of grinding oil when using vitrified bond CBN grinding wheels, shown by less grain and bonding wear and better workpiece roughness (19, 20, 211. Brinksmeier described increased residual compressive stresses when grinding with vitrified bond CBN grinding wheels and emulsions in comparison to the use of such wheels in oil [4]. He confirmed however the lower wheel wear when grinding with oil. Heuer investigated the use of vitrified bond CBN grinding wheels during cylindrical grinding with oil. In experiments, he was able to show the positive influence of oil on roughness and wheel wear during grinding of case hardened steel 16 MnCr 5 E (SAE 5115). In [I41 he highlighted differences of thermal surface layer influence when using emulsion and oil. Oil cooling in grinding, results in unwanted tensile residual stresses in the workpiece subsurface layer, especially at high material removal rates, whereas, independent of process parameters, the use of emulsion as coolant leads to

compressive residual stresses. He connected this to greater heat reduction of water-based emulsions than oils. In contrast, in [22] and [23] higher compressive residual stresses at the workpiece surface were found after use of oils in comparison to emulsions. Many publications refer to the advantages of grinding with oil. In [16], Boor described the advantages of oil during machining of gear tooth profiles. Also in [24] the use of oil as a coolant for high-speed grinding is advised to reduce tangential forces as well as a large part of the friction heat. Furthermore, Bmnner showed that the use of oil in comparison to emulsion in grinding with micro-crystalline aluminium oxide, leads to less tool wear and also lower roughness and residual stresses (251. The minimizing effect of oils on tool wear in comparison to emulsions and solutions was confirmed by Webster [26]. However, oil does not always reduce surface roughness in comparison to emulsion. During high-speed grinding with electro-plated CBN grinding wheels, Trefferf found higher roughness levels after use of oils [27]. Maximum workpiece temperature for different coolant types (mineral oil and coolant solution in comparison to dry grinding) was analyzed by Yasui and Tsukuda in [28]. With increasing depth of cut, the maximum workpiece temperature increases and leads, at approximately 80 "C. to evaporation of the coolant solution, so that the same temperatures as in dry grinding can be reached. This effect is called film boiling and is related to a drastic reduction of heat transfer coefficient between workpiece surface and coolant (291. This effect can also occur when using mineral oils, although at higher temperatures and above a certain temperature range, because oil exhibits an evaporation range, not an evaporation point. Due to the rise of the evaporation point (or evaporation range), increasing coolant pressure in the contact zone [30, 311 leads to a delay of the film boiling effect. This effect is especially important because film boiling is connected to thermal damage of the workpiece subsurface layer, called grinding bum [28, 321. According to Dederich, below film boiling, the lowest workpiece temperatures can be obtained by the use of oil, in comparison to emulsions and dry grinding [33]. No entirely uniform statements can be pade as to the comparison of oils, emulsions and solutions concerning workpiece roughnesses and residual stresses. Only a reduction of tool wear by the use of oil due to increased lubrication effect is clear. In recent research work the use of liquid nitrogen and graphite has been examined. Paul (et a/.) found that with the use of liquid nitrogen ('cryo-cooling') higher roughnesses occur compared with wet and dry machining, but thermal surface damage ('burning') decreases in the sequence dry + wet + 'cryo-cooling' [34]. Residual stresses also decrease in the same order [35]. In [36], this statement is confirmed by Vokogawa (et a/.), who used a cooled air jet at -91 "C to -120 "C. In [37, fewer and shorter cracks were determined at the workpiece surface during grinding of glass with liquid nitrogen. In addition, Hoffmeister (et a/.) examined the combined use of liquid nitrogen and simultaneous minimum quantity lubrication with ester oil [38]. In cornparison to flooding, oil and minimum quantity lubrication, tool wear was found to reduce. In [39], the use of pure water and water-soap as coolant is included into the comparative investigation of nitrogen cooling. Watersoap leads, together with nitrogen cooling, to the lowest process perpendicular forces. Use of graphite as dry lubrication medium was picked up by Hofheister (et a/.), also in [38], and from Weinert (et a/.) in [40]. In comparison to emulsion flooding, to minimum quantity

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lubrication with ester and to dry machining, graphite leads to comparable roughnesses with reduced tool wear (figure 5) [40]. Ographite coolants: 0 0 emulsion 4%; A Adry; 38A46 I 8 VS grinding wheel: cutting speed: v , =25mls depth of cut per pass: a , =15pm table speed: vR = 2 1 mlmin Q', = 5.25mm3/(mms) spec. mat. rem. rate: 100 Cr 6 / 52 100 (SAE) workpiece material: (750HV 10)

Pm

40 20

200 400 600 mm 1000 spec. material removal V ,

mm3

n -

Figure 5: Influence of coolant types on the process behaviour in grinding hardened steel [ 4 0 ] . lnasaki describes in [41]the idea to satisfy all aspects of fast cooling by a.gas flow instead of a liquid. High velocity jets of refrigerated gas would be directed to the grinding zone to cool the workpiece and the tool. Coolant composition Brinksmeier [4] examined the influence of additives by comparing converted grinding power and induced residual stresses for mineral oils with different additives and one emulsion. The converted grinding powers are values that indicate the total induced heat flux of the process, whereas the residual stresses in the workpiece characterize the total heat flux dissipated by the workpiece. The higher the residual stresses, i.e. the more they go toward tensile residual stresses, the higher is the thermal subsurface layer influence and therefore the heat. Compared to mineral oil without additives, and under constant machining conditions including constant contact area, the grinding power varies directly with the nature or type of additives used. Resulting residual stresses in the workpiece correlate to the grinding powers: the higher the induced total heat flux, the larger the fraction of heat dissipated via the workpiece and the higher the residual stresses at the surface. Because the levels of residual stress are mainly determined by specific grinding power, and therefore by the induced heat flux, it must be concluded that the use of additives has only a little influence on the heat distribution between coolant, workpiece, tool and chips. Grinding with emulsions leads to a different distribution of the converted heat in comparison to oil. Although Bfinksmeiefs investigations show that converted grinding powers are the same when using non-additive oils and emulsions, emulsions produce higher compressive residual stresses. This indicates lower thermal loading of the workpiece and is probably related to the better heat dissipation by the emulsion. Therefore, the basic substance of the coolant employed is the decisive factor in heat distribution. Significant differences of surface roughness [14] and grinding wheel wear [14, 211 depending on the levels of

additives in the coolant oil at high material removals were determined by Heuer and Tonshoff (et a/.). In [14] roughness and wear are increased with use of polar and chloride additives in comparison to non-additive oil, whereas a sutphur additive reduces roughnesses and tool wear. Von Brevem showed, that additive oil in comparison to non-additive oil. during grinding of carbides, gave major benefits in the wear of diamond tools and to some extent, in surface roughness [42,43]. As to the effect of additive concentration on process forces, Spur (et a/.) and Niewelt examined the grinding of lnconel with CBN [44, 4 5 1 .They showed that an increase of active or inactive sulphur concentration leads at first to a decrease and then to an increase of process forces. The usefulness or benefits of additives for certain grinding processes can be assessed by taking into account thermodynamic temperature dependant chemical equilibrium reactions of the additive components [44]. Howes refers in [46] to papers from Torrance and Gibbs, in which the levels of extreme pressure (EP)-additives, containing chloride and sulphur, directly affect the grinding forces [47.Furthemore, continuous dressing grinding is used for a comparative assessment of different coolant compositions thus excluding the influence of tool wear [48]. To sum up it can be said that a safe prediction of the 'best' additive for a machining process is hardly possible

W I .
In addition to additives, when using emulsion, the concentration influences the process and process results during grinding. Klocke showed, that with increasing oil content, process forces during thread grinding with CBN decrease [50]. It was also shown, that with rising emulsion concentration, the grinding ratio increases and 51,521. Furthermore in therefore tool wear decreases [20, (531 it is shown, that with increase of emulsion concentration, grinding energy as well as temperature in the workpiece decreases. Combined supply of different coolant types When comparing different supply methods, Efimov discovered that a combined supply method consisting of a mix of oil and synthetic water-based coolants, is especially effective for grinding of difficult to machine 5 4 ] . The oil was used for wetting of the grinding materials [ tool, whereas the water-based coolant was applied directly into the grinding arc. Yokogawa (et a/.) also described a coolant process for external cylindrical grinding, defined by a simultaneous use of oil and water [55]. The oil is added just in front of the contact zone by a so-called Makitsuke-nozzle, radially to the grinding wheel, whereas the water is only for cooling the workpiece surface. By this combined supply, surface roughnesses and material removal rates comparable to those of emulsion can be achieved. In addition, by feeding water behind the contact zone, sparks can be almost entirely avoided. Using small amounts of oil for wetting the grinding tool and the resulting high lubrication effect, as well as the use of water-based coolant for high cooling effect is not new, but was already used in the 50ies by Pahlitzsch, Appun and Lang during development of their two-component two-way cooling system [56, 57, 581. A small amount of oil (2 to 100 glmin) was fed into the porous corundum wheel from the inside via the grinding wheel flange. At the same time, flooding with water or emulsion and - in order to make comparisons - with oil, took place. In contrast to flooding with emulsion, use of the two-component two-

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way cooling system reduced surface roughness and tool wear [58]. A disadvantage of these combined supply strategies is the successive separation of oil and water that might be needed for example by a centrifuge [55].
4.3 Coolant supply Nozzle types It is not only the coolant type and composition, but the effectiveness of the supply of coolant to the contact zone by nozzles and diffusors that governs the efficiency of the cooling and lubrication in respect of workpiece quality. It is critically important that the coolant is forced into the contact zone. To achieve the highest possible cooling and lubrication effect, several nozzles have been developed for different grinding applications. Figure 6 shows some examples of these coolant supply strategies.

and air spouting in the normal direction to the wheel surface induced by centrifugal force of wheel rotation (figure7). These two air flows are merged into an air barrier along the ground groove thus hindering effective coolant entry [66]. The influence of the air barrier is clearly pictured in Rowes photo (figure 8). Because of the air barrier, the coolant is dammed up in front of the grinding wheel and not carried into the grinding arc.

conventional flooding nozzles

I 1

Figure 7:Coolant supply and air barrier in grinding [66].

Figure

..ifluence of air barrier on coolant supply.

.t.t very high,

+ high, + low, ++ very low

Figure 6: Examples for coolant supply strategies. In grinding, the free jet nozzles as well as the shoe nozzle, both belonging to the group of flooding nozzles, are most common. During supply with a conventional flooding free jet nozzle or with a spot jet nozzle the coolant jet is pointed tangentially at the contact zone. The grinding wheel is wetted with coolant which is dragged into the contact zone. Webster (et a/.) carried out experiments for optimal design of free jet nozzles [59, 601. He suggested a concave instead of a convex form for the nozzles, because the concave form, similar to special elements in front of the nozzle that homogenize the flow, produces a longer coherent jet. Sometimes, to ensure better wetting, scrapers are employed [61]. These reduce the air flow at the wheel circumference (the so-called air barrier), so that the grinding wheel surface can be more effectively wetted with coolant [63]. Ebbre//and Rowe (et a/.) simulated by means of finite element calculations the air flow near the grinding wheel shortly before entering the contact zone, and then went on to confirm the calculations by LaserDoppler-Anemometer-measurements [62]. The actual influence of the air barrier on coolant supply in the grinding arc is not clear. According to [13, 14, 151 it plays 63, 64, 65, an only minor role. In contrast to this, in [27. 661 its influence especially in high-speed grinding - is that the air heavily emphasized. Masaki specified in [66], barrier is generated through two major air flows around the wheel surface: Air flow in the circumferential direction

The obvious condition for the coolant to penetrate the air barrier and consequently reach the contact zone is that the momentum of the supplied coolant overcomes the momentum of the air barrier along the ground groove [63]. hasaki calculated this critical limit for coolant penetration [66]. Because of high costs and the danger of mist development, high coolant pressures and resulting high jet velocities for penetration of the air barrier cannot always be used. Therefore, methods to reduce the air barrier effect are being researched. One simple method for diversion of the air barrier is the use of a scraper [13, 14, 63, 65, 661, but this must be continually adjusted, so that its use is questionable. Otf tried to get around this problem by using a two-component nozzle, in which the air barrier is diverted by a second cooling lubricant jet, perpendicular to the grinding wheel [67]. Elimination or reduction of the air barrier is the subject of a large number of patents and papers open to public inspection. The patented appliances extend from scraper systems attached to the grinding wheel to air barrier suction systems. A special form of free jet nozzle is the spot jet nozzle which is defined by a small nozzle outlet cross section and therefore (at the same flow rate) higher jet velocities. Spot jet nozzles provide a much higher coolant ram pressure in front of the grinding arc, so that coolant, due to the drag effect of the grinding wheel, is drawn into the grinding arc. The special jet geometry of the spot jet nozzles enables the nozzle to be placed further from the contact zone. Another advantage is the much more economical use of coolant. In [68]. a coolant supply with a

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spot jet nozzle at very high jet velocities of up to 365 m/s and maximum pressures at the nozzle of up to 3800 bar is described and compared to a conventional flooding nozzle. In [13], free jet nozzles with different external coolant guiding systems are compared. Here, as well as photographically shown in [67] and confirmed in [61], the jet shows a good adhesion tendency to the grinding wheel when fed to it tangentially. O t t suggests, for free jet , nozzle use, coolant jet velocities VCL of 0.6 to 1.O times v (v, = cutting speed) to achieve good jet adhesion to the grinding wheel [67]. Additionally, it is recommended to achieve a laminar flow. In [l 1, 13, 631 it could be shown that laminar flows at the current jet velocities are not possible, and that turbulence and air swirls must be taken into account. Kdnig (et al.) found that at high coolant pressures, contractions within the free jet nozzle cause a significant pressure decrease which negatively influences the cooling and cleaning effect [69]. Experiments show that the elimination of sudden cross-section changes leads to an improvement of surface roughnesses by 20%. The use of a shoe nozzle (or diffusor) leads to wetting of the grinding wheel directly in front of the contact zone over a comparably large area. In addition, when using porous wheels, the coolant can penetrate the grinding wheel; the porous layer at the circumference fills with coolant [13, 53, 701. By the rotation of the wheel and the resulting centrifugal force to the coolant in the porous layer, a part of this coolant leads to cooling and lubrication in the contact zone, providing another transport mechanism for the coolant into the contact zone, in addition to the drag effect by the grinding wheel rotation. Adaptation of nozzle geometry to the grinding wheel profile is a possible further way to optimize the coolant system. Noichl showed in his investigations that an adjustment of nozzle geometry to the grinding wheel, with an opening cross section dimensioned according to flow rate, can lead to a significant increase of the material removal rate [71]. The modification of nozzle geometry, for instance a permanent adjustment of the nozzle geometry to the decreasing grinding wheel diameter is also the subject of several patents and papers open to public inspection. K6nig (et al.) showed in experiments for dressing, that the use of a ring nozzle, enclosing a nonrotating dresser, instead of a conventional free jet nozzle, leads to a significant decrease of dresser wear [72]. In contrast to external supply of coolant by nozzles, some studies address strategies for 'internal' supply through the grinding tool [73, 741. Here Graham (et a/.) distinguishes between radial holes in the grinding spindle and side holes in the grinding wheel flange. Another form of 'internal' supply is radial supply from outside via a shoe nozzle, by which the porous layer of the grinding wheel is filled with coolant [74]. This particular supply strategy presupposes a porous wheel structure (73, 751. For nonporous grinding wheels such as electro-plated or vitrified bonded CBN wheels, radial holes in the grinding wheel basic body can provide an 'internal' supply of coolant [39, 76, 77, 78, 79, 801. In this context, slots in the wheel circumference is another possible way to increase cooling and lubrication effects in the grinding arc although in [76, 77, 811 this was shown in combination with an external supply nozzle. The 'internal' supply strategies can provide economic benefits, because of lower coolant supply. Several investigations deal with the comparison of different coolant nozzle types [13, 14, 68, 821. Often, important characteristic data such as the coolant flow rate, the pressure directly in front of the nozzle or the outlet cross section are not reported, so that

comparability of results is not always possible. But the following points can be made: In comparison to free jet nozzles, shoe nozzles lead to lower tool wear [I41 and less burning [13, 831 with generally lower coolant flow rates and lower pressures [79, 84, 851. A disadvantage is that shoe nozzles are difficult to adjust and must normally be readjusted to the grinding wheel [86]. With internal coolant supply strategies, the coolant flow rate can be reduced in comparison to external flooding, leading to a similar process quality [78,82,87l. A combination of internal and external supply leads to an enhancement of quality and economy [56, 571. In contrast to flooding nozzles, nozzles for minimum quantity lubrication(MQL), that ensure drastically reduced coolant flow rates, are the subject of recent research projects. Currently, these coolant supplies are mainly used for machining processes with a geometrically defined cutting edge in the form of spot jet or spray mist nozzles [88] and are also being examined for processes 89,90, 911. in the area of grinding technology (78, Coolant flow rate and nozzle position Many papers give advice on the necessary coolant flow rates and dimensions of the flood coolant appliance, depending, for example, on the grinding power available [67, 921. Taking a closer look, it becomes clear that increasing machining efficiency demands are often met by an over-supply of coolant, instead of by an optimized coolant supply. This is especially the case when free jet nozzles are used. Okuyama (et a/.) and Engineer(et a/.) report on the effect of coolant supply depending on different influencing parameters, such as nozzle output flow rate [93, 651. In [65] the influence of different parameter variations is examined by measuring the heat transfer coefficient close to the contact zone. It can be shown that increasing coolant jet velocity can lead to a degressive incline of the heat transfer coefficient and therefore to a lower cooling efficiency. This is due to a geometrical limitation of the flow rate through the grinding arc. Vits [I31 confirmed that the contact zone limits the coolant flow rate and that in result the depth of the heat influenced subsurface layer of the workpiece is also limited. Engineer [93] describes similar examinations by measurement of flow rates through the grinding arc. He analyzed for example the effects of workspeed, of supplied coolant flow rate and nozzle position [93]. In confirmation of other work, he found that above a certain flow rate, saturation takes place. Accordingly, excess coolant is rejected resulting in a reduction of usefully delivered coolant. Most studies indicate that an increase of coolant flow rate with otherwise identical process parameters in flooding, gives enhanced surface quality of the workpiece. This means both reduced thermal subsurface damage and lower roughness [13, 27, 56, 681 and tool wear [56, 61, 94, 95). In addition K6nig (eta/.) found a reduction of nonrotating dresser wear by use of increased coolant flow rate during preparation of the grinding tool (721. Until now, the effect of increase of coolant flow rate on residual stress in the workpiece has hardly been addressed. Vansevenant and Treffert carried out experiments on this [27, 9 6 1 .Both noticed that at low coolant flow rates (0.1 to 0.8 I/(minxmm)), residual stresses at the workpiece surface decrease with increasing flow rate. Czenkusch investigated the effect of coolant flow rate and nozzle cross section on residual stresses (figure 9). Although nozzles with the smallest cross section give the lowest flow rates, they achieve low tensile residual stresses

587

because higher jet velocity provides better coolant penetration into the grinding wheel pores so that more coolant is carried in@the grinding arc [97].
ci 5 a

4-

: am= 6.5 mm spec. material rern. rate : 217 mma/(mm s) material : 20 Mn Cr 5 (SAE - 5120H) : mineral oil

a,=

-I 0 1 2 3 4 spec. flow rate Q C L

5 V(minmm) 7

10

mwer withou; coolant P, (idle grinding)

process external cylindrical plunge grinding CBN-srindina wheel M 151 VR 150 N

p:x?s- v, = 100 m/s.q = -150

-+y grindinq

Q , ' = 10 mma/(mm s)

0
0

workDiece 100 Cr 6 I 5 2 100 (SAE) hardened, 65 HRC

dressina conditions dressing wheel U 75 B. u d = 15, qd = 0.8. as= 0.5 pm, id= 3

120

140 160 wtting speed v,

iao

m/s 200

Figure 10: Power demand depending on cutting speed [ I 5 1 . One mainly dry grinding process that makes use of the heat generated in grinding, is grind-hardening, developed by Brinksrneier and Bmckhoff (figure 11) [102, 103, 104, 1051. This method utilizes the developed process heat for a short-term surface layer heat treatment, based on the martensitic transformation of the material structure and the associated increase of hardness in the surface layer. The grind-hardening process is characterized by comparably high process forces [106], as they are known from other dry grinding processes [107], as well as high tool wear and high surface roughnesses, making necessary a finishing operation in a second process step [105].

Figure 9: Effect of coolant flow rate and nozzle cross section on residual stresses [ST]. The process perpendicular force usually increases with increasing coolant flow rates at constant nozzle output cross section [61, 84, 981. This is because of pressurebuilding hydrodynamical effects in the area of the contact zone; this will be discussed in detail in section 4. Increase in process tangential force and therefore of spindle power, is related to higher flow rate [98]. Enhanced spindle power at higher flow rates is a result of the necessary acceleration of the coolant by grinding wheel rotation and the related drag effect into the contact zone. For this reason, this part of power is similar to the no-load power of the grinding spindle (idle grinding) and is therefore lost power. This power loss can amount to 80% of the total power [15, 98, 991, and increases with increasing grinding wheel circumferential speed (figure 10). Minke (et a/.) were able to show that at constant flow rate and increasing circumferential speed, process perpendicular forces, caused by hydrodynamical effects, do not constantly rise, but reach a maximum and then decrease with further increase of the circumferential speed. The position of the maximum depends on the flow rate, and increases with higher circumferential speeds at higher flow rates [98]. As has alreadybeen stated, use of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) during grinding is a subject of current research. Here, 500 to 20000 times lower coolant flow rates in respect to flooding coolant supply can be employed. Brunner showed that MQL with 4mVmin ester oil, as compared to 11Wmin mineral oil, during grinding of 16 Mn Cr 5 (SAE 5115) with micro-crystalline aluminum oxide reduces process perpendicular and tangential forces to one third, but increases grinding wheel wear and surface roughness by 50% [25, 1001. Investigations by Brinksrneier, Bmckhoff and Walter confirmed these results and showed in addition that the type of coolant used during MQL (ester oil or emulsion) can considerably influence the process result [go, 911. KIocke and Beck also corroborated the influence of coolant composition on 7 8 ] . These studies the process result when using MQL [ indicate that, in grinding, MQL can be used only for fine grinding, because of the reduced cooling and lubrication effect. Othetwise, there is a danger of thermal subsurface damage. The same applies to dry grinding of hardened steels [IOI].

5 350
"

8 a

hardness profile in the surface layer transition zone \

I m $
iii

a L

s 9 -600

residual stress profile

oaO-o-O@

I material: heat-treatablesteel (>0.4%C)]

Figure 11: Dry grind-hardening. Not only coolant flow rate, but also the position of the nozzle plays a decisive role with respect to efficiency of the coolant system, especially when using free jet nozzles. Engineer (et a/.) showed that the nozzle position has a significant influence on the useful part of supplied coolant flow rate. Corresponding to Okuyarna (et a/.) [65], Mindek and Webster (et a/.) [108, 1091, he noticed that the nozzle should be positioned as close to the contact zone as possible to ensure optimum use of the coolant

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Keynote Papers

[93]. Mindek and Webster used a test stand to examine the optimal nozzle position and were thus able to simulate the cooling effect of different coolant system configurations in the grinding arc. In addition to the distance between nozzle and grinding arc, orientation of the jet in relation to the grinding wheel is important. Vits and Ott recommended that the jet should flow in a tangential direction to the grinding wheel [I 3, 671. The free jet, however, should not be directed exactly at the grinding arc, but should hit the grinding wheel tangentially, at approximately 10" to 25" in front of the grinding arc. These results were confirmed by Briicher [611.
High pressure cooling/lubrication and wheel cleaning Lauer-Schmaltzfocused on the mechanisms of loading of conventional grinding wheels [I 101. He differentiated between 'snarl' chips, 'grain covering' and 'layer' chips and showed that changes of the cutting edge geometry that influence the grinding process significantly, are mainly caused by layer chips. To reduce loading of conventional grinding wheels, high pressure cleaning of I 10, grinding wheels with coolant jets.can be employed [ 691. On the one hand, increasing the coolant pressure with optimal nozzle geometry can help to decrease the workpiece surface roughness, whereas, using several cleaning nozzles reduces grinding wheel wear by more than 40% [69]. In addition, Spur (et al.) reported an increase in material removal limit by 400% during screw thread plunge grinding with high pressure cleaning nozzles, employed at 25 bar and 90 Ilmin, in comparison to conventional cooling with 5 bar and 60 Ilmin. The criterion he used was the appearance of burning [ I l l , 1121. In [I131 similar tests are described. Here, one coolant nozzle and one cleaning nozzle, each impinging with a pressure of up to 10 bar were used for generative grinding. Removing chips loaded in the grinding wheel provided a damage-free tooth flank surface and higher material removal rates. O f falso described high pressure cleaning of conventional grinding wheels for removing loaded chips [67]. Cleaning nozzles attached in tangential or radial direction to the grinding wheel, have to be adapted to the grinding wheel profile. Whereas the radial arrangement of cleaning nozzle requires pressures of more than 8 bar, a tangential arrangement with antirotation permits lower pressures. Grabner noticed that the specific material removal rate during internal grinding can be increased by 50% by cooling the grinding wheel at 5 bar instead of 2 bar [114]. At the same time, grinding wheel wear and residual stresses at the workpiece surface are significantly reduced. Tawakoli reached an optimal result using a flow rate of 60 Ilmin during high power grinding with a coolant cleaning pressure of 15 to 20 bar [15]. The nozzles had a diameter of 0.8 to 1.0 mm and were attached perpendicularly (radial) to the working circumferential grinding wheel surface. In [Ill standard values of cleaning pressure and flow rate for high power grinding are given with 60 to 90 bar and 60 to 100 Ilmin, respectively. Detailed quantitative relationships between grinding process parameters and necessary adjustment conditions in high pressure wheel cleaning are not yet established. Kovacevic (et a/.) reported on the use of a free jet high pressure coolant supply. He used a free jet nozzle with a diameter of 0.46 mm, from which a water jet was emitted at a maximum pressure of 380 MPa (=3800 bar), with a velocity of 365 mls and thus a flow rate of only 3.6 Ilmin. In comparison to conventional flooding coolant supply,

process forces decreased by 25% and surface roughness decreased by 50% [68]. 5 FLUID DYNAMIC PROCESSES IN COOLANT SUPPLY AND GRINDING ARC As shown in section 4, efficiency of cooling and lubrication is significantly dependent on the type and design of coolant supply. For a systematic optimization of coolant supply, several methods have been tested in the past to assess coolant supply systems. This chapter will describe primarily those methods which deliver coolant directly into the grinding arc.

5.1 Jet coherency During the use of free jet nozzles, the cohesion of the jet over a furthest possible distance from nozzle output is important for a directed supply of coolant into the contact zone. A simple method to assess coolant supply quality by Spur. Briicher and Webster, is the visual inspection of jet quality of different coolant free jet nozzles. For this purpose, different types of nozzles are analyzed by sight or for documentation by taking photos of the output jet [60, 61, 951. In [60] and [115] an experimental set-up with mechanical caliper gauges for measuring jet divergence depending on nozzle distance is introduced. Results of these investigations showed, that nozzles with sudden cross section changes or convex inner profiles [60, 1091, or nozzles consisting of only a squeezed pipe [95] lead to a dispersing coolant jet. The reason for this is turbulence in the liquid flow. Unfavourable geometry of the coolant supply to the nozzle, as for example angles or changes of cross section, adds to this effect. Turbulence influence is intensified by the lower viscosity of aqueously soluble coolants in comparison to oil [26]. Optimized nozzles lead to more favourable, less dispersed jets. Such a nozzle has, for example, an ideally round inlet, a polished flowthrough channel and a parallel output area with sharp edges at the output [95]. Another optimized nozzle has been developed similar to the geometry of fire hose nozzles. This round nozzle has a concave inner profile and also a sharp edged output opening. A similar concave profile has been used for rectangular nozzles [601. Cui included into his investigations flow elements in front of the nozzles, that reduce velocity components crosswise to the main flow direction and thus produce a better 151. jet coherency [I
5.2 Flow visualization in supply nozzles Basically, several methods of flow visualization can be employed, which Merzkirch and Oertel have divided into optical methods, methods with additives and methods with energy supply [ I 16, 1171. One method with additives, so-called tracer particles, is the light sheet method. The object to be analyzed, for example a nozzle, is built of acrylic glass. Then one plane of the nozzle is examined against the light of a thin light sheet, resulting for example from a cylinder lens of a Laser beam. Flow medium is a clear transparent liquid, for example pure water or oil, into which small solid tracer particles with good light reflection characteristics are fed. To guarantee a high flow-tracking capability of the particles, their density should be as close as possible to that of the flowing fluid. To document flow images, a CCD-camera, a camera or a video camera can be used, to record flow images perpendicular to the light sheet plane. Exposure time can be adjusted by the shutter time of the camera. One

589

special method is to choose the shutter and exposure time so that the light reflections of the tracer particles in the light sheet appear as a streak on the image during exposure time. This method is for documentation only and is equivalent to a qualitative characterization of the flow field. Above this, a quantkative evaluation of the flow images is also possible: streak direction and length can be assessed to obtain velocity rate and direction [118]. An additional pulsation of the light provides a reliable detection of velocity orientation [119]. Such a measurement of a complete velocity field, in which the particles leave streaks on the image, is called ParticleStreak-Velocimetry (PSV) [120] or Particle-TrackingVelocimetry (PTV) [121]. According to Adrian this method is a special variation of Particle-lmage-Velocimetry (PIV) [ I 221 that operates with a small amount of tracer particles in the flowing fluid (Low-lmage-Density-PIV or ParticleTracking-Mode). Radhakrishnan (et a/.) accomplished a flow visualization around a rotating grinding wheel, searching for indications of the influence of wheel topography on the development of the air barrier already discussed earlier [ M I . These experiments were carried out in a vessel filled with water as a fluid, with a rotating, horizontally lying grinding wheel under flowing conditions at the same Reynolds number. The flow around the grinding wheel proved to be significantly influenced by grain size.
Heinzel and Brinksmeier in [123, 1301 introduced the light sheet method for visualizing the flow in coolant nozzles and using this method for flow optimization of the nozzle geometry (figure 12).
h

Q ,,

= 10 llmin

Q ,,

= 20 Ilmin

cutting speed: vc = 100 mls coolant Figure 13: Shoe nozzle with straight guiding elements (1301. 600 MPa
400

b
ul
v)

Coolant Nozzle

.4

5 m
f

300 200 100

0
-100 -200 -300
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 pm200 Depth z -w- Shoe Nozzle with Straight Guiding Elements -+ Shoe Nozzle with Tangential Guiding Elements

PC for Digital Image Processing and Evaluation

Figure 12: Coolant nozzle optimization by means of light sheet method [123]. To establish an optimum flow behaviour of the coolant on the grinding wheellnoule interface, shoe nozzles with flow guiding elements have been designed. Figure 13 shows a shoe nozzle with straight guiding elements for = 10 and 20 Ilmin. For the flow coolant flow rates of QCL rate of QCL = 10 llmin an inhomogeneous flow behaviour can be observed between top and center guiding elements (flow separation) and inside the first gap at the entry side of the grinding wheel (backflow and foam). Contrary to the flow rate of QCL = 10 Ilrnin a coolant flow rate of QCL = 20 Ilmin causes a steady flow behaviour. Guiding elements of different shapes produce a different flow behaviour. The specific material removal rate, the flow rate as well as the guiding elements were found to be decisive for residual stress profiles in the ground surface. Figure 14 shows residual stress profiles for two shoe nozzle types and a coolant flow rate of QCL= 5 Ilmin with a specific material removal rate of Q , = 20 mm3/(mm s). The shoe nozzle with straight guiding elements produces a better residual stress'profile than the shoe nozzle with tangential guiding elements.

Process: external cylindrical plunge grinding CBN-Grindina Wheel: M 126 VR 100 N Dressing: q, = 0,8; asd = 10 x 2 pm; vd = 2 1 m/s v ,= ~95 mmlmin Grinding: v, = 100 m/s;q = -150; Q', = 20 mmV(mm s) & (f, = 0)= 2s;V , = 160 mmJ/mm; = 670 pm Workpiece: 100 Cr 6 / 52 100 (SAE), 62 HRC m i n Coolinq: shoe nozzles; oil Variocut G 600 SP;QCL = 5 W Figure 14: Residual stress profiles when using different shoe nozzles [130].
5.3 Process force components due to coolant Another way to assess coolant supply is to measure the forces between workpiece and grinding wheel resulting from coolant pressure in the area of the contact zone. Several methods have been described so far: A sample workpiece is surface-ground in one pass with a defined depth of cut,and the forces are recorded. After sparking-out in a second pass, the force that is generated by cooling lubricant effect alone i.e. without cutting can be recorded in a third phase [124].

Forces due to coolant influence can be more exactly differentiated by a second method that is actually a further development of the first one: first the perpendicular force during surface grinding is measured at a certain depth of cut. The measured

590

Keynote Papers

force is the sum of cutting force, pressure force in the area of the contact zone due to coolant and the force caused by ttle direct impact of coolant flow on the workpiece surface. In a next step, the workpiece is ground without a depth of cut, yet with the same cutting speed. The force measured during this step is interpreted as the sum of the pressure force due to coolant and the force generated by the direct impact of coolant on the workpiece surface. Finally the workpiece is ground again at a very low cutting speed and again without infeed. This is based on the assumption that no pressure force due to coolant is built up, so that the force measured can only result from the direct impact of coolant on the workpiece [125]. A sample workpiece is surface-ground to the middle with a defined depth of cut. The cutting speed is then initially greatly reduced, and then increased step by step: during this process the perpendicular force is measured [125]. Investigations by Ganesan, Guo and Malkin showed that the pressure force due to coolant rises progressively with grinding wheel circumferential speed. The pressure force is at least of the same magnitude as the cutting force and sometimes even higher. A smaller grain size produces the generation of higher coolant forces due to the smoother surface. According to these investigations, cutting depth and feed speed have a comparatively small influence on coolant pressure force. The low influence of the cutting depth implies that coolant pressure force is mainly built up in the wedge-shaped area before the contact zone [125].

5.4 Pressure measurements and coolant flow rate in the grinding arc Other investigations have used different methods to determine the coolant flow rate through the contact zone. A method that is difficult to do experimentally, is the separation of fluid flowing through the contact zone by means of devices attached to the workpiece and grinding wheel flanks. Coolant throughput is then caught and measured volumetrically, or weighed, to determine the rate of flow (13, 93, 1261. The contact zone flow rate proved to increase proportionally with grinding wheel I 3, 126, 1271, although according circumferential speed [ to Schumack (et a/.) a critical peripheral speed exists from which on the rate of flow decreases again [127]. Position of coolant nozzle, supplied flow rate and jet speed of coolant supply have a significant influence on the fluid flow through the contact zone [61, 1271. The rate of flow is higher, if the nozzle is positioned close to the contact zone [I261 or is pointed directly at the grinding wheel [1271. According to Krishnan (et a/.), depth of cut and feed speed exert no significant influence. In addition, Vits proved that from a certain limit on, increasing arc throughputs did not further reduce the depth of the heat affected zone [ I 3 1 .lnasaki defined an equivalent fluid film thickness of the coolant in the grinding arc that determines the cooling effect. He accomplished this with an analogous experimental setup by measuring the electrical current, conducted by the fluid film (figure 16) [=I.

I :zi

l%rinding

wheel: 8126 GYB 200 coolant: oil (v = 25 mm2/s) , = 0 mm depth of cut: a

0-5

1,0

1,5

' 2 . 0

I/(min mm) 3,O

specific coolant flow rate Q' cL Figure 15: Effect of coolant flow rate on coolant pressure force for various cutting speed [271. Investigations by Klocke (et a/.) and Treffert showed that influence of coolant pressure force can compensate or even reverse the well-known effect of process total force reduction due to increase of cutting speed [27, 841. In addition, Brinksmeier and Minke (during high-speed surface grinding with electro-plated CBN wheels), in contrast to Ganesan (during surface grinding with conventional speed and grinding wheel), found coolant flow rate to be a significant influence on coolant pressure force [98, 1251. Klocke (et a/.) and Treffert confirmed this influence during high speed external cylindrical plunge grinding, also with electra-plated CBN wheels (figure 15) [27, 851.

Figure 16: Measurement of equivalent coolant thickness [66]. Two aluminium foils are inserted as electrodes into the acrylic resin workpiece so that the electric resistance between both electrodes, indicating presence of coolant, can be measured and converted into the equivalent coolant film thickness [66]. Moreover, Engineer (et a/.) showed that a coarser dressing of the grinding wheel can increase the arc throughput [93]. Experimental studies that measured the rate of flow through the arc showed that a higher wheel porosity increases the flow rate [126]. Powell even used a special catching device to measure the amount of coolant output of the porous area of the grinding wheel, depending on the rotation angle, in relation to the coolant nozzle [70]. Flow relationships directly over the workpiece surface are mainly responsible for heat transfer from the workpiece to the coolant. Coolant in the pores of the grinding wheel will have only a minor influence on heat dissipation from the contact zone [18]. Detection of the static pressure in the area of the contact zone is a measurement method that is used to characterize the flow behaviour directly over the workpiece surface and that has already been realized in [31, 60, 61, 95, 115, 123, 1271. These studies measured the static pressure in the longitudinal grinding direction, mostly central to the ground groove during surface

591

grinding, using pressure measurement holes in the workpiece. Basic assumptions for evaluation of the measurements as t o arc throughput were that rotation and roughness of the wheel are negligible and that the flow through the arc is only pressure induced [95].For this reason, Briicher for example analysed only the maximum pressures measured [61]. The studies concluded that the maximum pressure correlates to the arc throughput and that therefore, a high maximum pressure in, or just before, the grinding arc is connected to a high arc throughput [60, 95, 1281. Campbell measured maximum pressures in the grinding arc of 70 bar when using non-porous CBN wheels with electroplated bonding [31]. Cui examined the influence of nozzle arrangement on pressure course in the grinding arc at cutting speeds of up to 40 mls with a pressure sensor that could record pressures up to maximally 3 . 5 bar. In addition, Cui could show that a side limitation of the grinding arc during groove grinding increases the pressure in the contact zone and that the acceleration of the coolant by rotation of the grinding wheel significantly influences the maximum pressure in front of the grinding I1 5 ) . To increase the efficiency of coolant systems arc [ Campbell suggested to measure the pressure in the grinding arc while at the same time measuring the temperature in the workpiece and determining the contact zone flow rate [129]. Until now Cui has been the only one to determine several adjacent longitudinal pressure distributions and to characterize static pressure over the entire contact zone, adjacent areas included, during grinding at conventional cutting speeds [115].This approach, however, has not been used to calculate the actual force generated by coolant pressure alone, which would have been possible by area integration of the obtained pressure (see previous section 5.3). Brinksmeier (et a/.) measured the coolant pressure at the interface workpiece/grinding wheel to characterize the coolant supply into the grinding arc [123].The maximum built up pressure is only one criterion in assessing coolant quantity in the grinding arc. The measured pressures can be used as input parameters for a theoretical analysis of the coolant flow rate through the grinding arc [130]. Moreover, the measured pressure distribution in the whole contact zone can be used to calculate the perpendicular force component due to coolant pressure. Figure 17 shows the coolant pressure distribution within the grinding arc which, together with additionally measured process forces, serves to classify the resulting pressure force components. Although the total perpendicular force decreases with increasing cutting speed, as is well known, the tests nevertheless showed an increase of the pressure force component. Additionally, Ebbrell and Rowe (et a/.) investigated pressure distributions over the workpiece surface in connection to air barrier influence. Here, the grinding wheel had no contact with the workpiece [62]and air pressures in relation to the surrounding pressure were only between -200Pa and +300 Pa. Taking process stability into account, measurement of coolant pressure in the grinding arc could become increasingly important: Howes and Maksoud as well as Khudobin showed in theory and experimental investigations, that with increasing coolant pressure in the grinding arc, the dynamic process stability increases and therefore formation of chatter can be suppressed or delayed [131, 1321. Finally, coolant pressure is used as a prime parameter by Chang (et a/.) and Guo (et a/.) in theoreticallanalytical observations [133, 134. 1351.Here, the rate of flow of the

coolant through the contact zone is considered as a fluid flow through a porous medium. Fluid flow and pressure distribution in the contact zone are described by a system of equations based on the Reynolds equation and are compared to experimental data [135].The result shows that for a certain nozzle with fixed position, the flow rate in the contact zone is mainly influenced by grinding wheel porosity, wheel peripheral speed, nozzle output speed and flow rate. Penetration depth of the coolant decreases with increasing grinding wheel circumferential speed, but the pressure in the contact zone increases. The effective flow rate increases at a given circumferential speed with 1351. increasing wheel porosity [133,

100 140 180

cutting speed v, in m/s

Figure 17:Local pressure distribution and resulting I301. pressure force component [
5.5 Temperature and heat balance in the grinding arc of contact Because boiling of the coolant film in the contact zone is considered to be partly responsible for thermal damage in grinding, investigation or detection of film boiling is the subject of many experimental and theoreticallanalytical studies. During film boiling, a vapour layer builds up between workpiece and coolant. that strongly impedes the heat transfer [28].The boiling temperature of the coolant increases significantly, if pressure is built up in the contact zone [30].The resulting delay of film boiling provides a longer period of lubrication and heat dissipation of the coolant, and thus helps to avoid thermal damage of the workpiece [136]. Experimental investigations of temperatures in the grinding arc are normally carried out with thermocouples integrated into the workpiece 115, 30,32,33,53,66,115,

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Keynote Papers

137, 138, 1391. lnasaki showed that the temperature elevation is suppressed when increasing the amount of coolant supply and applying a scraper, or when masking the side faces of the grinding wheel [66]. Other investigations are aimed at monitoring the heat flux. Nakajima (et al.) and Okuyama (et al.) determined heat transfer coefficients between heated wires [140] or heated workpieces [65] and the coolant. In contrast, Powell, Howes, Mindek and Webster used analogous experimental set-ups very similar to the real grinding process: thermocouples were integrated into plastic 70,1081.While a grinding wheel sample workpieces [46, is rotating over the workpiece at a certain small distance, and coolant is supplied, an electric heating element heats the artificial grinding arc up to a constant temperature. The maximum heat current is a quantity for the maximum heat amount that can be dissipated per unit of time with the coolant system configuration in use. The investigations showed for example, that a higher coolant jet speed produces a better cooling effect. Yet this effect only occurs as long as the jet rate is lower than the grinding wheel circumferential speed. If the two speeds are equal, the cooling effect becomes constant and cannot be enhanced by an increase in jet speed. Increase of nozzle distance to the contact zone worsened the 1091. cooling effect [60, Many studies, especially by Lavine, Malkin, Rowe and Guo, deal with theoreticallanalytical approaches to thermal balance in the grinding arc and temperature distribution in the workpiece provided by a moving heat source above the workpiece surface [134, 141,142,143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 1501. In several studies coolant influence is taken into account for example by higher heat transfer coefficients and therefore by its cooling effect [143,151, 152, 153, 1541. The fact that reduced friction due to the lubrication effect also decreases heat formation, is not explicitly discussed, but is indirectly referred to in assumptions concerning the intensity of the moving heat source.

6 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK This paper illustrates how important it is to expand our knowledge about coolant supply into the grinding arc or zone. Coolant types composition. nozzle design and flow rate can influence process productivity, workpiece quality and tool wear considerably. The paper gives a deeper insight into the fundamentals of friction in grinding operations, into the effect of cooling and lubrication during grinding on process results as well as into the fluid dynamic process in supply nozzles and in the grinding arc. Optimization of cooling and lubrication offers the chance to minimise the amount of coolant in circulation, thus reducing adverse environmental effects and costs. The paper also summarises current research activities in the field of coolant supply and fluid dynamic processes. These investigations are the first step in understanding the processes operating within and in front of the grinding arc. Clarifying these processes in detail will provide statements about the thermo-mechanical loads affecting the workpiece, which is essential for a more precise knowledge of surface integrity. Furthermore, chemical reactions of coolant additives can be used to adjust the surface properties in terms of chemical composition. This effect can produce an additional degree of freedom, because workpiece behaviour and subsequent surface treatment processes can be influenced. Although first results proved that chemical reactions in the surface layer caused by the coolant have an influence on a subsequent surface gas nitriding process [159],these effects have not yet been studied in detail. A further process using the electro-chemical property of the coolant is the electrolytic in-process dressing principle (ELID) for ultrafine grained metal bond grinding wheels, developed by Ohrnori and Nakagawa [160]. Here, the coolant is additionally used as an electrically conductive fluid to remove the bond material during the grinding process. This process assured a constant grain protrusion and is used for precision grinding of monocrystallinesilicon, glass and ceramics. All these ideas and ongoing developments demonstrate the importance of friction, cooling and lubrication, as well as the other aspects of the coolant for the grinding process and thus ensure the important position of grinding in machining processes today and the future.

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