Reservoir Engineering I Course Notes - Shariff University PDF

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Reservoir Engineering I, Mohsen Masihi
Sharif University of Technology

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Reservoir Engineering I
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2007
Course Notes
No. 26133
Mohsen Masihi
Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
masihi@sharif.edu
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN

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Table of contents
Course overview ....... ........................... .................................................................................................................. .. .............. 3
)-Introduction ............... ............................................. ............. .................... ............................................................................ 5
1-1 Porous media and its characteristics ............................................................................................................................ 8
1-2 Darcy's law and its range of validity ......................................................................................................................... 17
1-3 Porosity and permeability relationship ...................................................................................................................... 23
1-4 Classification of reservoir flow systems ......................... ........................................................................................... 26
1-5 Reservoir boundary conditions .................................................................................................................................. 33
Units ................................................................................................................................................................................ 37
2-Steady state single phase flow ................................................................................. .... ......................... .......................... .. 38
2-1 Steady state flow in linear reservoir geometry .......................................................................................................... 38
2-2 Steady state flow in redial reservoir geometry .......................................................................................................... 46
2-3 Steady state flow in spherical reservoir geometry ..................................................................................................... 50
2-4 Average permeabi I ity in heterogeneous reservoir ..................... ................................................................................ 50
2-5 Pressure drawdown in a well ......................................................................................... ............................................ 54
2-6 Average reservoir pressure ........................................ ......... ............................................................................. .......... 57
2-7 Altered permeability zone ......................................................................................................................................... 58
2-8 Flow dependent skin .................................................................................................................................................. 63
3-Unsteady state single phase flow ...................................................................................................................................... 66
3-1 Governing flow equations ........................ ................................................................................................................. 66
3-2 Radial oil flow in a fully penetrating vertical well .................................................................................................... 72
3-3 Radial gas flow in a fully penetrating vertical well ..... ............ .................... ....................................... ............... ....... 80
4-New flow solutions using superposition .......................................................... ................................................................ 84
4-1 Principal of superposition ................................................... ................. ... ....................................................... ... ......... 84
4-2 Effect of multiple wells ......................................................................................................................... .................... 85
4-3 Effect ofvariable flow rate .................... .. ........................................................................................................... ...... 87
4-4 Effect of nearby boundaries ...................................................... .. .............................................................................. 95
5-Pseudo steady state single phase flow ............................. ..... ............................................ ................. .... ...... ....... ............ I 05
5-I Slightly compressible fluid and redial geometry ........... ...................... ......... .. ...................................................... .... ! 06
5-2 Effect of non -circular drainage area ....................................................................................................................... 11 0
5-3 Compressible fluid and redial geometry ...................... ..................................... ..... ........... ......... ........................... ... l.l6
5-4 Productivity index and IPR curves .......................................................................................................................... II6
6-Two phase fluid flow in porous media ........................................................................................................................... 124
6-.f Buckley Leverett analysis .......................................... ................................ .............................. ... .................. ... ....... 128
6-2 Welge construction ........... .. .. ..... ............................. ................. .......... ... ...................................... ....................... ...... 138
References and further reading .......................................................................................................................................... l49

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Course overview
This course provides an introduction to the basics of reservoir engineering. This is started with an
introduction to the different classification of flow regimes in a reservoir. Pressure drop within the
reservoir as a result of production for finite and infinite reservoir will be discussed. Many important
concepts such as steady state, transient and semi steady state flow, skin effect, Dietz shap factor,
productivity index, IPR etc will be introduced. Moreover, some simple models of single phase liquid
flow using diffusion equation will be set up and the solution to the model equations will be found.
Basics ingredients of the diffusion equation such as mobility and storativity will be introduced. We will
also introduce other useful technique such as superposition concept to find the solution of complicated
well configurations using the previously derived solution of the simple well configurations. These ideas
will . also be extended to gas flow in porous media. Finally the analysis of flow behavior of two
immiscible fluids in one dimension will be presented.
The style of the course will be a mix of geology, physics and mathematics in order to work out the
governing diffusion equations in porous media and to find the solution for them. For this, a good
understanding of calculus and differential equations are recommended.
At the end of the course, you will learn how to model different flow systems in porous media. You will
also be familiar with many important concepts used in reservoir engineering.
These prepared course notes follow closely the sequence of material that will be presented. However,
these are further suggested materials:
1-L. P. Dake, Fundamentals of reservoir engineering (Elsevier, 1998)
2-B. C. Craft and M. F. Hawkins, Applied Petroleum Engineering (Prentice Hall, 1991)
3-R. E. Collins, Flow of fluids through porous materials (REC Publishers, 1991)
4-C. S. Matthew and D.G. Russell, Pressure build up and flow test in wells (SPE, 1967)
5- G. de Marsily, Quantitative hydrogeology (Academic Press, 1986)
Syllabus
I. Introduction to the flow behaviour in porous media. Basic definitions such as porosity, permeability,
definition of Representative Elementary Volume (REV), Darcy's law, conservation of mass.
Different flow systems based on geometry, compressibility of fluids, phases and time
dependence, different boundary conditions.
2. Steady state single phase flow. Solution to these systems under different fluid compressibility
assumptions and various geometries. Pressure drawdown into a well. Definition of skin and its
various types.
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3. Unsteady state single phase flow. Deriving the governing flow equati.on for slightly compressible
and presenting the solution to this known as line source solution. Logarithmic approximation to
line source solution. Finding solution to the compressible fluids .
4. New solution using superposition. Definition of superposition principal. Using this to find new
solutions in the case of multiple wells and for a well producing with variable flow rates. Also
- this helps to find the effect of the nearby boundaries.
5. Semi-steady state single phase flow. Solution to these systems under different fluid compressibility
assumptions in radial geometry. The effect of non-circularity of the drainage area and definition
of the Dietz shape factor. Concepts of productivity index (PI) and inflow performance
relationship (IPR)
6. Two phase flow. One dimensional diffuse flow conditions. Theory of Buckley Leverett used to
analyze this. Breakthrough and recovery calculation
Course structure
The course will consist of approximately 16 sessions (each one 3 hours) of lectures. The course will be
assessed by a series of homework as well as a Mid term and a final examinations.
The notes in some places cover more material than can reasonably be covered during the course and in
other places have deliberate gaps for more discussions. Please feel free to ask questions during the
course.
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1-Introduction
Reservoir engineering is at the heart of the other activities
(such as geology, geophysics, petrophysics, production
process, economics etc) that receive information, process it
and then pass it on to others.
In reservoir engineering courses we aim is to:
a) understand the nature of rock-fluid interaction.
b) investigate the nature of fluid displacement.
c) develop a flow model consistent with geology, rock and
fluid property and past performance characteristics.
d) predict the future reservoir recovery.
e) develop improved recovery methods of fluids.
In "reservoir engineering (II)" course we will use a very
sitnplified reservoir model called Material Balance
:Equation

However, we often want to have reservoir behavior due
to fluid injection or production from a well as a function of
time which requires a time and/or flow rate dependent
model of reservoir and this is the things that we will
discuss in this course, "reservoir engineering (I)".
The subject of flow in porous media is an important
subject in reservoir engineering. Note that this is a very
complex phenomenon and cannot easily be compared with
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flow throl!gh pipes or conduits. It is rather easy to measure
the length and diameter of a pipe and compute its flow -:-
capacity as a function of pressure; however, there are no
clear flow paths in porous media to be evaluated.
Understanding the flow characteristic within a reservoir is
necessary for:
a) determining the productivity of a reservoir.
b) deciding the optimum strategy to maximize recovery.
c) interpretation of the well test data.
The analysis of flow in porous media has extensively
investigated either or real
. cores) or analytically in various disciplines including

hydrology and petroleum engineering. The aim was to
. formulate laws and correlations that can then be utilized to
make reliable predictions.
'LA- el-. l2t
. /'
For example, as a result of experimental studies on the
flow of water through unconsolidated sand filter _in
1856, Darcy found _____ ___ a
homogenous fll!id __ in porous medium is proportional _to
the driving_ force InverselY -proportloilaltofluid
viscosity (Darcy's law}\ However, this only--m
------------------ - -- .. .
laminar. flow regime; --In turbulent flow, which occurs at
higher velocities, the pressure gradient increase at
thal}_g_oe.s_the flq_w. _ Fortunately, except for large
production or injection rates in vicinity of the well bore,
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flow in the reservoir and in most laboratory tests is by
design, streamlined and Darcy's law is valid.
To investigate the flow behavior in a reservoir we need an
appropriate flow model (governing differential equation)
along with necessary initial and boundary conditions that
can be solved(ip order to Imd the flow_chara.cJ:ecistii) The
governing flow equation can be developed by using the
conservation of m.ass, transport phenomena (Navier-Stokes
or simple Darcy 1aw_)___and __ <?f
-----
The resulting partial differential equation especially in the
case of multi phase flow may not be solved analytically, so
_may methods such as fin!!_e
(this is the subject of "reservoir modeling. and simulation"
course). However, il_l case of single phase_flQW __ withsi_mple
boundary_ one can rn._e_thods in
- -- - -- I
order to find the solutionl
The resulting mathematical formulas will vary depending
. -- :::: c:: . --. - . - ... - S=:::::;::::
upon the characteristics of the reservoir (such as reservoir
_ ____ of fluids in the
reservoir). As can be seen later there exists 3 cases for
reservoir geometries 3 _ types of fluids and 3 cases for
reservoir regimes;' hence there rna exist _27 types _ gf
reservoir flow formulations. Before describing various
-- .. -
reservoir flow fonnulations let us first review the main
characteristics of a porous medium (such as porosity and

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. permeability), Darcy's law and its limitations and various
flow systems.
1-1 Porous media and its characteristics
The reservoir rocks may range from very loose and
unconsolidated sand to a very hard and dense sandstone,
limestone, or dolomite. The grains may be bonded together
with a number of materials (such as silica, calcite, or clay).
Knowledge of the physical properties of the rock and the
existing interaction between the hydrocarbon system and
the formation is critical in understanding the flow behavior
in the reservoir. Porous media refers to any geological rock
that comprised of grains and void spaces between grains as
shown in figure below,
flow

Non-interconnected
pore space
A pore structure where the pore space is black
This exhibits two essential characteristics:
a) capacity for storage of fluids: needs void space within
the rock (i.e. porosity).
b) transmissvity capability to the fluids: needs continuity
of the void spaces (permeability).
, _

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Porosity
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity
(pore volume) that is capable of holding fluids] It is related
to the void spaces that are the inter-granular pore spaces
between sedimentary particles at the microscopic scale.
Mathematically porosity is defined as,
V V. -V
t/J = pore X
1
OO = bulk grain X
1
00

The porosity of a cubical packing (the least compact
of spheiiCal-grau:ls with the_ sa_me , .. $!?;e i_s
47.6% (i.e. the maximum porosity). In reality reseryoir
( ----------------- --- ------------ .
rocks are not regular.
1
pegree _of _
__ a.p.d __ _to
\ylilChlliey are exposed.\ Hence grains sorting/shape and
---------=------- ------------------------- .
size distribution, compacting due to overburden and
cementation at grain contacts affect the porosity.
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being
formed, some void ypace. from the _
Thus, many of the void spaces
are interconnected -while some of the pore spaces are
completely isolated. This leads to two types of porosity,
absolute porosity and effective porosity.
Absolute porosity: it is defined as the ratio of the total
------ . ....,
spst_ce illlhe to the bulk volume regardless of the
pore type- may have--
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absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to fluid for
lack of pore.
Absolute porosity .
= void space
a
Effective porosity: it is the ratio of interconnected pore
space to the bulk volume,
Effective porosity
A. = T';nterconnected void
'f'eff
Vz,ulk
The porosity is the value that is ____ in all
reservoir engineering calculations because it represents the
space that _ _tbe __ .
-hydrocarbon flu1 s. \See the table below for the porosity
ranges of various rock types.
35-45%
Sandstone more consolidated 20-35%
15-35%
5-20%
10-30%
5-40%
One application of the effective porosity is its use in
detennining the original hydrocarbon volume in place.
Consider a reservoir with an areal extent of A acres and an
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average thickness of h feet. Bulk volume of the reservoir
and the reservoir pore volume can be determined from,
Total reservoir bulk volume= 43560 Ah (fe) or 7758 Ah (bbl)
Reservoir pore volume PV = 43560 Ah (fe) or 7758 Ah (bbl)
Example: Calculate the initial oil in place for an oil
reservoir with the following available data:
A= 640 acres, h = I 0 ft, Swc = 0.25, = 15%, Boi = 1.306 bbl /STB
Solution:
Pore volume= 7758 (640) (10) (0.15) = 7,447,680 bbl
Initial oil in place=l2,412,800 (1-0.25)/1.306=4,276,998
STB
Representative Elementary Volume
When we talk about the flow in porous media we do not
assign the property to a point which may lie in a sand grain
or void spaces. Pro erties such as
and pressure are assigne - in averaged form to a certain
region of porous media (typlcally--abourro: grains), called
representative elementary volume (REV). The REV is
to be large enough in comparison with a pore,
in with regional variations in properties
of the medium. - ----- - --
See figures below which show the effect of volume
considered on computed porosity.
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Adopted Pn:.n B<:u 11972)
Permeability .
...............................
..................................
.............................
...... , ............... .... .
..................................
................................
...................................
..............................
..........................

..........................

............................

..........................

.............................
.........................
..........................

.............................
.........................
.........................
.........................
is a measure of the flow cap(:lg_ity __ Qf a PO!QYS
medium. To defiiie--tlll:s-;-coiislder the macroscopic flow in
a porous medium. Historically, Henry Darcy, 1856 was the
first person who a_n for:. this by
vertical filtration through sand It end up
with a linear mathematical equation called Darcy's la\v
(analogous to other linear laws such as Ohm's law in
electrical conduction, Fourier's law in heat conduction and
Pick's law in solute diffusion),
J.vtvt'I'J
f (
0
rciV
Q l11h Q kM
-oc--- :::::> -----
A J.1 L A
J.1 L
jllliifjl!m
'
L :
'
'
'

water

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Darcy also changed the type of sand packs, which affected
the value of the proportionality constant. Later the effect of
the fluid viscosity was also included. Permeability is a
proportionality constant relating __
differential across the sample. It is a rock property (not
depend on the fluid).
Remember that the porosity varies between 0-48% .
. -.
However, there is a 2-4 orders of magnitude variation in
the permeability (see table below). For example, the value
of permeability in sandstones depends on
orientatio_n, contents-
cementation and water composition.
fractured rock masses 1-10000
non consolidated > 1000
sandstones 100-500
carbonates < 10
shales < 1
Using dimensions of parameters Q (L
3
/T ), A (L
2
), L(L),
P(M/T
2
L) and JL (MILT) into Darcy's equation results ip,
M
L3 = kL2 T2L k =
T L
si!filar to the area
( unlt--Df m_In SI system). Also a Darcy un1t can be used; a
------------

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Reservoir Engineering l, Mohsen Masihi
------- ------- -------- - .----------------------------------- . .
--- ------ ,
/ rock mass having permeability of 1 Darcy under 1 atm/cml
1
pressure gradient would transmit fluid of 1 cp viscosity
with velocity of 1 crn/s. The interchange of these units can
be seen by, - ---
(
3)
L
(10-
3
Pa.s)(10-
2
m)
k (Dare ) = QJ.l = s = 0.987 x 10-
12
m
2
=

. y !J.PA (101325Pa)(10-4m2) __ ____ ---------- --- --- -- -"
To get insight into these units, let compare Darcy law
(
u = t.P) with the Poiseulle' s equation (u = R
2
ap) of the fluid
Jl L BJI az
flow in a pipe which gives, k = R8
2
m
2
= 0.1266 X 10
12
R
2
Darcy . In
other words, a pipe with a radius of 1 J.lffi has permeability
of 126.6 mD! that one Darey-Ts-aliigllpermeability
. - -- - ---- --- - -- - -
In practice, the .-permeability of most rocks much
lower than this so the term millidarcy, 1 mD is used.
Example: Brine of JL = 1 cp is flowing at arate of 0.5
cm
3
/sec under a 2 atm pressure differential into a core plug
of 4 em long and . 3 cm
2
cross section. Calculate the
absolute permeability.
Solution: we use Darcy units for the calculation.
Q = -k (P2 -PI) "'
A j.J L /// // I.
05 k 2 1/ [/.
i"- = lx 4 => k = 0.333 Darcy =======c=======:::;!
Now let's find the Darcy equation in field units with Q(
k (mD), A (ft
2
), J.l (cp), tJ.P (Psi) and L(ft).
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Q(cm3
1
s) = k(D)A(cm
2
)
J.L(cp) L(cm)
. k(D)(lOOOmD)A(cm
2
)( 1 ft
2
2
J !1p(atm)(14.7 psi)
Q(cm
3
1
s)( 1 bbl/day ) = lD 929 em 1 atm )
1.84 cm
3
/s J.L(cp) L(cm)( 1ft
30.48 em
Q = 1.127 X 10-
3
JcA f1p
J.l L
Example: Brine of J.l = 1 cp is flowing at a rate of 0.3
bbl/day under a 30 psi pressure differential into a core plug
of 0.1 ft long and 0.0215 ft
2
cross section. Calculate the
absolute permeability.
Solution:
k= QpL =413 md
0.001127 tJ.A
law can be obtained for an
inclined reservoir) In this case the difference
(P
1
- P
2
) is notthe only driving force in .!Jilted
the force is
-- - ' - .. ___:.--
sum two are- necessary. Note that the gravitational
forcels always 1rec ve downward while the
force that results from an applied pressure drop may be in
any direction. In practice, we introduce a new parameter
called fluid potential, <D. The fluid potential at any point
in the reservoir is defined as,
([). = p.- (L) LlZ
L L 144 l
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where is the vertical distance from a point i in the
reservoir to the datum level. In terms of the specific
gravity of fluids this is <Pi= Pi- oA33 r Llzi. Now we can write
the Darcy' equation in the potential form as,
kA cp - <P
= -1.127 X 10-
3
2 1
q L
Replacing the potentials at the upstream and downstream
flow into the above equation gives the Darcy' law in field
units for a tilted reservoir,
U = = 0.001127 [ P,P'"am -: 0.4335ysi.,J
u: apparent velocity (bbVd.ft
2
)
L : distance along flow path ( ft)
y: fluid specific gravity
L
Lsina
Datumlcrel
a : angle of fluid flow .measured counter-clockwise
Exercise#! A fluid is flowing in the following inclined
porous sample ofdiameter 183ft, dip angle 8.43 with the
given data ( r = 0.693psil ft,k = I45md,J1 =0.32cp,Swc = 0.25, = 20% ).
Calculate the flow rate, apparent velocity and actual
velocity.
F' = 3400J'sia
P = 3380Psio
l(!(i'
i
II _ ___.J

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a
1-2 Darcy's law and its range of validity
Darcy's law has been established based the following
assumptions:
a) steady state flow: i.e. no transient flow as is usually the
case in reservoirs (it take months to even years). For lab
measurement can be assumed.
b) One one fluid
flow!QS.J this can be true in the laboratory test by cleaning
cores; however, in the reservoir there will be a certain
connate water saturation, or gas, oil and mobile water
flowing through the same pore space).
c) No reaction- between the fluid and rock: i.e. inert and no
-- f . - --
change to the p9re structure with timeT note that hydraulic
fracturing, reaction of COz_ in nresence of water with
---------------
rockin_C0
2
flooding .may alter this).
i.e. the pore structure and the
material properties are similar everywhere and not vary (in
reality, the layered nature and large areal extent of a
reservoir rock will produce variations in the vertical and
horizontal permeability).
e)( Laminar Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow
regime i.e. no turbulent flow. In practice, Reynolds
number Re = p.u.d I J1, a dimensionless number which
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compares the strength of inertial and viscous forces is used
to characterize the laminar flow regime, where d the
mean pore __ __ the me_an From
_later _for
1
b < 1 o . \
am1nar regnne can _ e wntten as, \ = :__/

f) assumed over the period of the
reservoir development. -
Later we will discuss some remedies to critical violation
from Darcy's law assumption such as the case of turbulent
-----==--------------
flow around a well in the reservoir.
--
Differential form of Darcy' s law
The differential form of Dare 's law for one di ensiQnal,
horizontal flow in artesian coordinates in field units is:

' '
A _ J1 dx wt .... d
The velocity u that is not the actual velocity of the flowing
fluid but the apparent velocity determined by dividing the
flow rate area acros_s which the fluid
, ___ -------------- --.... -
is flowing. However actual velocity was ___ by
dJviding of apllli[ent Note
that the negative sign shows that the pressure increases in
one direction while the length increases in the opposite
direction.
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In radial coordinates the difference ap should be changed to
ax
aP and also since the radius is measured positive in the
ar
direction opposite to the flow (see below figure) so the
negative sign in the Darcy equation disappears.
Cen!e<

Hence the differential form of the Darcy's law for one
radial flow in cylindrical coordinateS/in field units is:
, _______ ....----- ---------- - - --- --- --- .
u = Q = dP
A JL dr
Darcy's law in higher dimensions
Darcy's law described in one dimension can be extended
to two and three dimensions by using projection of
velocity vector in each direction as shown below, .
ux = - u = - ky 8P, uz =- kz ( 8P + p gJ
r A y JL By f.1 az
z f
X
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Due to directional nature of permeability, the l ~ w can be
modeled (see figure below) considering a permeability
tensor with 9 scalar components
----ax-- --
c=J high penneability lamina
- low penneability lamina
In commercial simulators the nondiagonal elements are
often ignored (for efficient solution) so its form becomes:
Remember that reservoir is called homogenous if rock
properties are the same at different points otherwise it is
called heterogeneous. Also a reservoir is called isotropic
if rock properties in the single point of the reservoir are the
same in all direction otherwise it is called anisotropic. In
terms of permeability property these can be shown as,
Isotropic reservoir
. Anisotropic reservoir
Homogeneous reservoir
kxi -=I= kyi * kzi
kxi = kxj' kyi = kyj' kzi = kzj
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Heterogeneous reservoir
Where are two different points_ in ___reservoir.
Notethat the environment of deposition, diagenesis (e.g.
solution and dissolution) and fracturing are major factors
that control the anisotropy.
Deviation from Darcy's law
Darcy's law was established based on some assumptions.
Deviation from Darcy's law behavior occurs if those
assumptions(violated .

Let's consider the first case; in most areas of the reservoir
the laminar flow regime, Re <
- _ the well bore when yelocity is high (such as gas production
-or flow through fractures) then there may turbulent flow
occur which also termed non- Darcy flow.
Darcy's law is replaced_ by a non linear Forchheimer
equation which is al_so an empirical law,
dP f1
2
--= -u + (J.p.u
dx k
where fJ is inertial (non-Darcy) flow term which shows an

due effects. __ js
related to kinetic energy per unit volurrieCii fluid which is
considerable at high flow rates.
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. ,
,
.,
,
,
,
,
. -., ' . .
,'

' .
"'
Now consider the second case. Darcy's law considers a
continuum type behavior with mean velocity (average over
a large number of molecules) in a porous medium.
In normal situation fluid molecules collide with the pore
wall a!}d due to friction velocity of the fluid at the pore
, "' wall is zero. Low pressure ases have longer mean free
c,;J ' - --
/ (AtP( path \\'_i!_h the
frequently tlian ot er Thts 1mphes
/ I that the gas flow through the pores as Individual molecules
and not as a fluid continuum. This is called slip flow in
which the gas velocity at pore wall is not zero which leads
to an additional flux and increase in permeability.
LiQuid Gas
V(wall) =0 Finite Velocity at Wall

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Klinkenberg ( 1941) showed k measured during gas flow
- through a capillary tube can be corrected by,
kooreotOO = 1( I+!)
where b is directly proportional to temperature and
inversely proportional to molecular diameter and capillary
radius. This effect is noticeable if b/P>O.l (see figures
be low). ---------------------------
300 1
I
I
250
I
- i
1
i

m I
CU I
E :
- '
j
!
501
. intercept = k,o"
0 200
0
400 600 800 1000
11Pressure(1/atm)
Klinkenberg effect is usually negligible for flow in the
reservoir (b in the range 0.2-2 psi) while in laboratory
condition as we often use low pressure gas (safer/quicker/
cheaper than reservoir condition)
1-3 Porosity and permeability relationship
Macroscopic flow in can be compared with
flow in microscopic ca:-pillary tubes. Assume a bundle of
capillary tubes representing a rock.

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Actually, tubes are not straight

Note that surface chemistry such as capillary force, surface
tension may be dominant in small tubes especially when
there is multi-phase flow. Flow through a tube is governed
by Poiseulle's law,
du
f------ ---------- --- ---..--f-rt/,\ Fy = J-LA-dr
Laminar flow
\-----------------------------\V
L
F p(2;rrrL)du => u= 2MJ1L(R22_r2J. A D = P.. _ P. _ _ Y _ . . . dr
ur 2 1- -
nr2 nr2
dQ=u.dA=- 21rrdr Q=--
M (R
2
-r
2
) 1rr
4
M
2pL 2 8J1L
For n capillaries with the mean radius r and tortuosity
coefficient t,
Q = n1rr
4
M Poiseulle's law
8J1(tL)
This is comparable with Darcy's law with:
-4
k = n!l.r
8At
This comparison helps finding k, relationship

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From definition of Porosity,
V
-2L -z
= void = nnr t = nnr t
AL A
Use specific surface M of the solid material,
M =As= n (2nr)Lt = 2
(l-)AL r.(l-)
Combination of this with permeability relation gtves
Carmen-Kozeny relationship, ______
.
. M2 .(1- )2
where C depends on tortuosity. There
may exist, for example, a rock with high porosity of fine
due to the good sorting but low permeability as M is high.
Note that surface to volume ratio Mrxl/d and so k

\ ---- - ---- -- -- -- - -
See figure below for the relation of permeability and
porosity in different rock types.
,
Sue rosie
Dolomite
E

:0
liS
Cll
E
....
:

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1-4 Classification of reservoir flow systems
The mathematical relationships that are used to describe
the flow behavior in the reservoir will vary depending
upon the characteristics of the reservoir. Various flow
systems can be considered based on, types of fluid in the
reservoir, flow regimes, the reservoir geometry and the
existing phases in the reservoir.
Types of fluids in the reservoir
The isgtherm 1 corn ressibility coefficient is con!roJling
factor in identifying the type of the reservoir fluid. In
general, reservoir fluids are classified into incompressible
fluids, slightly compressible fluids and compressible
fluids. The isothermal compressibility coefficient C is
described mathematically/
In terms of fluid volume
1
;c=-
In terms of fluid j)
Where V and P are the vOlume and density of the fluid,
respectively ..
a) Incompressible fluids: An incompressible fluid is
defined as the fluid, whose vq_lume (or dens it does not -
----...__ .. ___ ___
dV = dp =O
___ i.e., dP dP In reality,
incompressible fluids do not exist; this behavior, however,
may be in some cases to simplify the derivation

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and the final form of many flow equations. We may
assume this for oil-water displacement in reservoirs.
b) Slightly compressible fluids: These exhibit small
volume or density,
Most reservoir crude o1ls and water systems are of tli1s
type. Knowing the volume Vi of a slightly compressible
liquid at a reference (usually initial) pressure pi, the
changes in the volumetric behavior of this fluid as a
function of pressure P can be mathematically described.
Consider reservoir pressure drops from to P ,
P v dV
- JcdP J-
Pi V V
I
V = V; ec(P;-P) V; ( 1 + c ( - P))
Vl (
c) Compressible fluids: These large changes in
_as a function of pressure. fAll
con1 ressibJe these cases by using real gas law,
v =znRTi f.J, the isothermal con1pressibility of a compressible
.. . --- ----------
fluid is described by this expression, .

with a simple cg = 11 p for ideal gas. Typical values for the
compressibility of various fluids are:
cw cf 10-
6
psia
lOx 10-
6
psia
cg 500xl0-
6
psia
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, SharifUniversity ofTeclmology, Tehran, IRAN 27

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Figures below show schematically volume and
changes against pressure for the above types of fluids.
Slightly tumpressiblc
Fluid flow regime

t
""
Hilghly Cornpreuible
SGgltly compressible
Ltcomprusible
Prcsswc
There are basically three of flow __ .. must .
be recognized in order __ !Q __ _fl9w .
and reservoir funct!Qn_ of tirpe.
These are steady-state flow, Pseudosteady-state flow and
unsteady-state flow.
a) Steady state flow: this is the case if the pressure at
every location in the reservoir remains constant, i.e., does
not change with time. Mathematically, this condition IS
expressed as,
dP .
-=0
dt
This states that the rate of change of pressure P with
respect to time t at any location is zero. In reservoirs, the
steady-state flow condition can only occur when the
reservoir is completely recharged and supported by a

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strong aquifer or with
withdrawal rate matches injection rate.
b) Pseudosteady state flow: when the pressure at different
locations in the reservoir is declining linearly as a function
of time, __ i.e._, at a constant declining rate, the flowing
condition is characterized as the pseudosteady-state flow.
Mathematically, this states that the rate _ of change of
pressure with to
dP I dt = cte ----
It should be pointed out that the pseudosteady-state t19_w_is
con1monly referred to as setni steady-state flow and quasi
steady-state --An -exanipfe -is -a well at -a
period of at
the hnear reservOir w1th l>"' t
c) Unsteady state flow: this is also called transient flow
and is defined as the fluid flowing condition at which the
rate of change of with respect to time at any
position in the reservoir is not zero or constant. This
definition suggests that the pressure derivative with respect
to ti1ne is essentially a function of both position and time,
thus,
dP I dt = f(x,t) ..
An exa1nple is a short period after a well producing at
fixed rate in the middle0f linearreservoir before the n0=
- -----------
flow boundarx. is felt- appears infinite in extent.
-- -- - ----- ---

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Figure below compares. the pressure declines as a function
of time of these three flow regitnes.
Time
Reservoir geometry
Steady-State Flow
Sernisteady-State
Flow
Unsteady-State Flow
The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on the flow
behavior. Most reservoirs have irregular boundaries and a
rigorous tnathematical description of the geometry is often
possible only with the use of numerical simulators . .For
many engineering purposes, however, the actual flow
geometry may be represented by radial flow, linear and
spherical or hemispherical geometries.
a) Linear fluid flow: this occurs when flow paths are
parallel and the fluid flows in a single direction. In
addition, the cross sectional area to flow must be constant.
Figure below shows an idealized linear flow systen1.
~ ~
~
-. ---- . ~ . :
-- - - -----
.....
~ --- ....... -- ......... ,.
........

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A co1n1non application of linear flow equations is the fluid
flow into a vertical hydraulic fracture as shown in figures
below.
Isomeoic View
Han View
Fracture
!
i -----
--'+ i
t- j
c::> wellbore
___,. l
.--
---+I
I -4----"'-
'-----+ 1
b) Radial fluid flow: in the absence of severe reservoir
flow into or away from a wellbore will
follow radTaf flow lines from a substantial distance from
the well bore. Becaus-e -fluids-move toward the welffrom all
directions and coverage at the well bore, the term radial
flow is given to characterize the flow of fluid into the
wellbore.
Figures below show idealized flow lines and iso-potential
lines for a radial flow system
weBbore
. . ... . ---. ---
Side View "i P w! tc FlowLines
!oc---------
--------10-i
-----------.-; 4-----

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c) Spherical and hemispherical flow: depending upon the
type of well bore completion or a very thick formation may
be better described by using the spherical geometry; it is
possible to have a spherical or hemispherical flow near the
wellbore (see figure below).
""Ubore
Sid.eView
A well that only partially penetrates the pay zone (figure
below) could result in hemispherical flow. The condition
could arise where coning of bottom water is important.
WeHhore
Side View FlowLines
Existing phases in the reservoir
The mathematical formulations of the flow vary in forms
and cotnplexity depending upon the number of mobile
fluids in the reservoir. There are three cases of flowing
systems, single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas), two-phase
flow (oil-water, oil-gas, or gas-water) and three-phase flow
(oil, water and gas). The description of the fluid flow and
the subsequent analysis of pressure data becomes more
difficult as the number of mobile fluids increases.
DepartJ11ent of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN
32

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A relevant parameter related to the problem of multi phase
flow is fluid saturation. Saturation is defined as that
fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a
particular fluid (e.g. the oil, gas, or water). This property is
expressed mathematically by the following relationship,
Total volume of fluid
fluid saturation = p l
ore vo ume
Applying above relationship concept of saturation to each
reservoir fluid gives,
S = Volume of oil S =Volume of gas S = Volume of water
0
Pore volume ' 9 Pore volume ' w Pore volume
the sum of saturation is
------ -------- ---- _ 5
0
+ Sw +5
9
= 1 _
Note that we mostlyus g e phase in this c9urse and
analyzing multi phase flow will be discussed in "numerical
simulation" course.
1-5 Reservoir boundary conditions
The flow equation to describe the flow behavior in the
reservoir, as can be seen later, is a POE of a second order
in position but first order in the time therefore it _
6oundary conditions and one initial conditiop_ tQ __
the formulation. The two boundary conditions are Inner
boundary condition and outer boundary condition.
a) Inner boundary condition: two different physical
conditions may exist:
i) constant terminal rate (CTR) such as the case of a
constant wellbore production,

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kAaPI
qS/ = ---
jiB ar T=rw
where, A =2nrh in the case of radial systems and qs
1
is the
flow rate at the sandface level.
ii) constant terminal pressure (CTP) as applied to the
wellbore.
P = Pwf atr =rw
where, Pwr is a constant bottom hole pressure or a fixed
pressure at initial water oil contact aquifer flow rate varies.
b) Outer boundary condition: the specification of the
pressure. behavior at the external boundary depends on the
type of reservoir considered.
i) Volumetric reservoir: a closed system characterized by
no fluid flow across the outer boundary aPI = o.
or r
. e
ii) associated or_ is
featured by constant pressure at the external boundaries,
p =pi at -;--Te. In this case .. the -pressure distribution-does
not change with time i.e. steady state condition is reached.
iii) re.s_ervoir: This is a mathematical
-----------
concept which is very useful during the initial condition
stages of well production when the pressure disturbances
do not travel far enough to reach the boundary limr-?oo P = Pi.

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In the reservoir boundary may __
vgy complex (see_ figure below). There may exist various
faults such as faults.
Complex boundaries
(Cross Section)
(Upper and lower boundaries)
PRESSURE
MOBILITY CHANGE
(lrom no-flow to pressure)
NO FLOW
However, some simple boundary conditions with which
we can find the analytical solutions can be used in this
course (figures below).
A well close to a fault

...,.,

d
"' - w -""
well
. "
""

I
A well inside a corrzer '\)
'.\'tll
-;_---
Department of Chemical & Petrolew1i Engineering, Sharif University ofTeclmology, Tehran, IRAN
35

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A well in a channel
A well in a rectangular reservoir
A well in an open rectangle
I
. a ~
I
t
d, I
--- --- -. we11
a ~ :
'
Two wells close to a fault
Note that, in reality, for a more complex configuration we
have to use numerical simulation. Generally, actual flow
pattern in the reservoir is very complex due to:
a) shape of oil bearing formations and aquifers are quite
irregular.
b) heterogeneity ( , k, Swc) in oil-bearing and water- bearing
formations.
c) deviated well bore result in an irregular well pattern
through the pay zone.

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d) different drainage area due to different production rate
in wells.
e) partially penetrated the pay zone due to not fully
perforated wells.
Units
There are different set of units including SI units and field
units. The following conversion factors is used to convert
different units.
Parameter SI unit Field unit a r e ~ unit
Length, L m 3.28 ft ?em
Area, A
mz
1o.16 fe ?cm
2
Volume, V
m3
6.293 barrel ? cm
3
Time, t sec hr ? sec
Pressure, p Pa
. 6
1.45x10-
4
psi 9.87xl o- atm
Flow rate, Q m
3
/s 7.41x10-
5
bbl/day ? cm
3
/s
Mass, m kg 2.2lb ? gr
Density, p kg/m
3
6.24 x10-
2
lbm/ft
3
? gr/cm
3
Permeability, k
m2
1.01 x10
12
Darcy 1.01 x10
9
mD
Viscosity, 1.1 Pa.s 1000 cp 1000 cp
Compressibility, c 1/Pa 6896 1/psi
1 Acres.ft=43560 ft
3
1 bbl=5.615 ft
3
37

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2-Steady state single P.hase flow
This is the simplest flow regime in which the pressure
throughout the reservoir does not change with time. Note
that steady state condition holds after a sufficient time to
let the external sources come to action. Before that it is
either unsteady state or pseudo or semi steady state.
This section uses the steady-state flow to describe the flow
behavior of several fluid types in the reservoir. These
include steady state flow in linear reservoir geometry (for
incompressible, slightly compressible and compressible
fluids), in radial reservoir geometry (for incompressible,
slightly compressible and compressible fluids) and also in
spherical reservoir geometry (for incompressible, slightly
compressible and compressible fluids).
2-1 Steady state flow in linear reservoir geometry
a) Incompressible fluid:
In the linear system, it is assutned the flow occurs through
constant cross-sectional area A, where both ends are
entirely open to flow. It is also assumed that no flow
crosses the sides, top, or bottom as shown in figure below.
~ I f :
[71
'"! - -- L - -
...
38

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If an incompressible fluid is flowing across the element dx,
then the fluid velocity and the flow rate are constants at all
points also viscosity is pressure independent. The flow
behavior in this system can be given by Darcy's equation.
Then separating the variables and integrating over the
length ofthe.linear system gives,
u = (j_ = -k dp => (j_ r dx = -k r dp
A J.1 dx A fL Pt
q = kA (p
1
- p
2
) . or q = 0.001127 kA(p
1
- p
2
) (STB/D)
pL BpL
A : fe, L : ft, K : md, p : psi, p : cp
The variation of pressure against x is found by,
qpB
p =PI- 0.001127kA X
Note that in the case of inclined reservoir the extended
......__ .--
s law using_1he fluid )
b) Slightly compressible fluid:
. Previously we found that for slightly compressible fluids
there is linear dependency of volume (or flow rate) to
pressure p. Substituting this equation in Darcy's equation,
separating the variables and integrating gives,
{
v = v, [ 1 + c(p, - p) J
q = q, [1 + c(p, - p) J

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kA ln(l+c(pr-P2)J or qr=0.001127 kA ln(l+c(p,-pz)J
. qr =peL l+c(p,- p
1
) BpcL l+c(p,- P
1
)
\ _,_ ' \f'l4C- I) - - p -- \)
I I I - Y'"')-
upstream pressure p
1
and q
1
as reference
pressure and flowrate respectively and substituting gives,
q1 = !n(l + C(P1 - Pz)]
Then usingJaylor-serieS)approximation, In(l + x) ::: x gives,
= [0.001127kA] (P1 - P2 )
q L
This is exactly in the form of the related equation derived
for incompressible fluids.
Example: For a linear reservoir, compare the flow rate
under steady state regime assuming a) incompressible b)
slightly compressible fluid and conclude.
A= 45 ft
2
, Bo = 1.127 bbl/STB, L _ 450ft, J-1 = 2.5 cp,
c = 65 x 10-
6
psr
1
, M=IOO psi, k = 250 mD, p
1
=ref
Solution:
Using available data for incompressible fluid then
q = 1.123 bbl/d; for slightly compressible fluid we get
q = 1.131 bbl/d. This shows that the volume is not a strong
function of p for slightly compressible fluid.
Department & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 40

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Exercise#2 assume a vertical well .with bottom hole
pressure of 27 50 Psia in a horizontal layer under steady
state flow regime as shown below. The available data are:
r = 0.693 psi I ft' k = 145md, J1 = 0.32cp, swc = 0.25, = 20%, c = 5 X 1 o-
4
psC
1
' Bo = 1.356
Determine the flowrate and pressure distribution in the
reservoir considering the reference pressure as a) external
pressure, b) well bore pressure and c) 1000 Psia.
c) Compressible fluid:
For the flow of gas in a homogeneous-linear system, the
real-gas equation-of-state can be applied . to __
--- -----
pressure, temperature, and volume at__ av_y state to the
- --- - --------
CQrresponding at standard conditions (as flow rate
has a unit of bbl in field .so5 .615 appears in
Day
. \,V
the formula),
6
s rn
n v t r / d
V
-
- z p sc sc ' z p sc q sc -"")
or q
PT:c P
Where q is gas flow rate at pressure ( bbl ), qsc: gas flow
Day
rate at standard conditions z: gas compressibility
factor, Tsc: standard temperature, R and Psc: standard

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pressure, Psia. Replacing the gas flow rate in the Darcy's
law, and separating the variables gives,
q == (Psc) (zT) ( Qsc ) == -0.001127 kA dP
Tsc P 5.615 J1 dx
zT Pscqsc = - 0.001127! dp => qscTPsc f dx =- fP2 _f!_dp
p 5.615AT:c J1 dx 0.00633T:cAk P1 ZJl
The gas viscosity and compressibility factor are pressure
dependent (as .can be seen in the following figures); hence,
appropriate techniques for evaluating the above integral is
necessary.
Gas f<lctol pleSStue
1 l l ; l
1.1 . . ---- j -- .... ----- i. --- -( .... ----- l -----i--; ___ __ _
1.05 ...... ; ... . . ..; ... .. : .. ! ........ .) ........... ] ........ .
; : : : - : : :
] 1 L .. __ _____ _ j __ : _________ _ _
1 1 1 i io-t.m i
1 .95 ....... +-- ]--.. .... .. t------+ -- -+-- --- --+---- -
= : : : : I :
; 0.9 -------- ---- --- --- -1-----------t' --- H--r------- .. l------- - t--------
t! : : : : : :
0.85 ---- :- - j--------i--------:
0.8 -----+-----:--- : ------+-----+------:+-------
0.015 ----:--- j .. j--- -- -:------ :j ...
o.u ----;-----j----t-----t-j- j----

l ; : ; j
o.oz -----:-------;-- ---- - -:------r------r-- ---:----
O.Oli --- --;- . . -.. i--... t ...... -. r.- ... -- ... .......... t ....... -.
; l - l l
: : : : :
0
'
75
o'-- ---:lrooo

1000 2000 lOOO 5000 6000 7000
Pressure (Psia)
We can use either the averaging technique (p2 method) or
real pseudo pressure variable to deal with this.
6' _ tbJ..e.t<do r;{fRjjv.,y(. --\'itrtft\bJ(e / ";f; ./ _:.. .
CD r .. ----------- --- Jr J? tfdtJ>if/
metho.<J;')
1
''------.. . .
For---a low pressure gas ( < 2000psi) we have ideal gas
behavior, also at high pressure the variation of JlZ is not
too much so we expect to see a linear relation as shown in
figure below.

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p
Exercise#3 consider typical values for gas molecular
weight and temperature then by using appropriate
correlations plot gas compressibility, gas viscosity andpz
versus pressure.
The above integral may then be approximated by,
P2 1 2 2
f
_p_dp = _ P2 - P1
z II z II - J p2 + p2 2
PI r r p= 2 I
--------------
/
q sc = r;::;- -L
Psc
1
z J1
''----------------
This means that in the case of gas flow there is a similar
solution to _that derived for liquid cases except_
we use p
2

Example: A natural gas with a specific gravity of 0.72 is
flowing in linear porous media. The available data are:
T = 140 f,p
1
= 2100psi,p
2
= 1894.73psi,A = 4200 fe,L = 2500ft,k = 60 mD
Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day.
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engmeering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 43

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Solution:
P==
p2 + p2
1 2
2
2100
2
+ 1894.73
2
------== 2000 Psia
2
Using the following equation, gas pseudo-critical
properties are,
Tpc . 168 + 325y
9
- 12.5yJ == 168 + 325(0.72)- 12.5(0.72)
2
== 395.5 R
Ppc == 677 + 15.0y
9
- 37.5yJ == 677 + 15(0.72)- 37.5(0.72)
2
== 668.4 Psia
The pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature are,
2000
Ppr ==
668
.
4
= 2. 99
600
Tpr == 395.-5 == 1.52
. Using Standing-Katz chart for gas compressibility factor
gives, z=0.78. Then using Lee-Gonzales-Eakin 6orrelation
for gas viscosity gives,
J1 = 0.0173 Cp
0.003164(520)(4500)(60)(2100
2
- 1894.73
2
)
qsc == (14.7)(600)(2500)(0.78)(0.173)
Scf A1A1Scf
= 1224242 -D = 1.22
ay Day
.
/For intermediate pressure the linear assumption used
/
/ previously may not be accurate enough. In this region, we
can define pseudo pressure variable as (see figure below),

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p
lP(P) = 2 J !_dP
f.lZ
0
Plz
The previous integral equation can be separated in two
parts as,
[
qscPscT ] JPz P 1 ( JP
1
P JP
2
P )
0.006328kT
5
cA L = - P, ZJl.g dP. 2
2
0
ZJl.g dP -
2
0
ZJl.g dP
Inserting the new pseudo pressure variable results in,
0.003164kTscA ( ljJ(P1) - $(Pz))
qsc = PscT L .
This is similar to the solution observed for liquid flow
provided except we use pseudo pressure.
Exercise#4 for the previous example, evaluate the gas
flow rate using pseudo pressure technique in your
calculations and compare the results.
Example: To account for non-laminar flow near the
wellbore, use Forchheimer's equation to find 11p by
assuming steady state, incompressible, single phase flow
into a fully penetrating well.

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Solution:
u = q & __ dP_ = _JL u + f3.p.u2
21lrh dr k
dP _ JL ( q ) f3 ( q )
2
_ JLq (_!_) + f3.pq
2
(-1 )
- dr - k 21lrh + .p. 21lrh - k21lh r 47r
2
h
2
r
2
P r ( A B ) JLq ln r fJ.pq
2
( 1 1 J
-J dP = J ---;+--;> dr => Pw- p 2:rkh rw + 4:r
2
h
2
rw -;
Pw r,.
2-2 Steady state flow in redial reservoir geometry
a) Incompressible fluid:
In a radial flow system, all fluids move toward the
producing well from all directions so the .. pressure in the
formation at the wellbore (known as the bottom-hole
flowing pressure BHP., Pwt) must be less than the pressure
in the formation at some distance from the well.
The formation is considered to have a uniform thickness
and a constant permeability. As fluid is incompressible;
the flow rate and the fluid viscosity must be constant at all
radii. Due to the steady-state flowing condition, the
pressure profile around the wellbore is maintained constant
with time. Let Pwr represent the maintained bottom-hole
flowing preSSUre at the Wellbore radiUS rw and Pe donate the
external pressure at the external or drainage radius.
Darcy's equation for the flow rate at any radius is,
u = !L = !5:_ dp where: A = 27rrh
A fL dr
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN . 46

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f I I I i
! - t - H t-
t f J I v
I
Taking integral form both sides
simplifying it gives,
of above equations and
r
e q dr - _-k r dp
w 21rrh f1 Pw
27rkh(pe- Pw)
q = ---'----
,u In ( re I r w )
or
q = 0.00708 kh Pe - Pw (STB/D)
B ,U In ( re I rw)
The external (drainage) radius re can be determined from
the well spacing (A: in acres) as,
Te = J435:0A
In practice, neither the external radius nor the wellbore
radius is generally known with the precision. Fortunately,
they enter the equation as a logarithm, so that the error in
the equation is not that much.
Finally, the previous equation of flow rate can be arranged
to find the pressure distribution,
p - p + [ q B
11
] In (r I r )
- . wf 0.00708kh w

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Example: For an incompressible fluid flowing under
steady state conditions and with Pw = 100 atm and
Pe = 500 atm, rw = 0.25 ft, re = 1500 ft, k = 70.6 mD,
bbl
f1 = lcp, h = 150 ft and Bo=1.306- calculate the flow
STB
rate in the reservoir and pressure distribution (P vs. r) and
the velocity distribution (V vs. r) in the reservoir.
Solution:
_ _
3
(70.6)(150) (500- 100) x 14.7 _ STB
q - 7.08 X 10
06
1500
- 38803.27 -D
1.3
1
( ) ay
n 0.25
Pressure distribution in the reservoir,
. [(38803.27)(1)(1.306)] ( ( r ))
P(Psia) -
1470
+ 0.00708(70.6)(150) ln 0.25 -. _
P (atm) = 100 + 45.97ln (-r-) .
. 0.25
The f]QW __ for the fluid ___ _ is ___ QQnstant
through reservoir--so -the velocity is, -----
q q 38803.27 5.615 2.05 X 10-
3
ft
v--- - x -----
- AB -:-_ 2rrrhB - 2rr(150)(1.306)r 86400 - r s
Pt*"-111& ve1sus IHiius iu 101di4l !JeOineuy

: :
--------------- -- - ; ------ ---- j
toO --- -- -+ - ---- - -1 - -'
/ : :
rr: _:::::::::::-:::.::r::-_::_:::::::::::::::::::1::::.:::::::::::::.::.:::::

200 --- . -- . -- --- .- :. i ... -- . -- .. -... -... ------ .. --. ........ : .. ---
ISO - - --- ------j- ------ -:-.. ---1-------
100
0

..-'
1100
X 10-J Veftlclfy \'81SII5 lo'tliUS

! l l : : : : :
8 -----:--------i--...... : ..... ..... -------:- ... -i ..... .
: : : : : : : : :
1 --- -.- i- ----- --l- ....
: : : : : ; : : :
, - -- .. -i---- ... ; - -1- ------ i ...... .
I,I.IJIFI
z ---: .... ...j ...... ), .... ) ........ ....... . ; .......
f . J. .. ... ! ...... L. .. ..i. ....... l ...... J ..... ) ....... l ...... 1 ...... .
l : ; : : : : :
9 10
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, SharifUniversity ofTeclmology, Tehran, IRAN 48

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This shows that 25.56 percent of pressure drop occurs only
in 2.25 ft away from the well center which show that the
most of the pressure drog occurs near the _ well bore: Also,
the nearer tg __ the wellb9_re the highcr_the velocity.
b) Slightly compressible fluid:
The flow equation for radial flow of slightly compressible
fluids at steady state conditions using linear pressure
dependency of the flow rate can be derived as follows.
c) Compressible fluid:
The flow equation for radial flow of highly compressible
(gases) fluids at steady state conditions using the p
2
formulation can be derived as follows.
f.1 dr
or

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2-3 Steady state flow in spherical reservoir geometry
Depending upon the type of wellbore completion
configuration, we may have a spherical or hemispherical
flow near the wellbore. The method used to develop the
flow rate equation is the same as that of the radial flow
except for cross-sectional area of the flow which is A= 4;rr
2

Exercise#5 derive the equation for steady state flow rate of
an incompressible, slightly compressible and compressible
fluid in the spherical coordinate system.
2-4 Average permeability in heterogeneous reservoir
It is rare to have a homogeneous reservoir in reality. Often,
reservoir contains distinct. layers, blocks, or . concentric
rings . of varying porosity and permeability so we need
appropriate averaging methods. As porosity is scalar so a
simple average method e.g arithmetic average can be used.
However, as permeability is a tensor so we need an
appropriate average of permeability for the reservoir
depending on how the permeability values were distributed
as the rock was deposited. This section describes how we
can use Darcy's equation in such cases in spite of
assumption of homogeneity of rock in Darcy's equation.
Consider the following simple cases:
a) ow )
-- --------... -------------------- . --r

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Suppose there ex-ist tlrree horizontal layers in series In
which an incompressible fluid flows through them,
As considered fluid is incompressible, so flowrate which
passes through the layers are equal, Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3
but total
pressure drop is f).Pt = flP
1
+ f).P
2
+ f).P
3
We can replace the
three layers with a single layer with the same fluid
condition shown above. Writing Darcy's equation for the
layers and simplifying gives,
or K = ~ L ~ ~ ~
ave L...J 1 L...J K
I I i
K = L,+L2+L3
ave .. L. L2 L3
-+-+-
Kl K2 K3
Hence for constant thickness beds, the harmonic average is
obtained.
Example: Determine the average permeability of three
beds placed in series with equal width and thickness the
following length (permeability) are 6 (1 0), 18 (50), 36
(1000 mD).
Solution:
- L
1
+ L
2
+ L
3
6 + 18 + 36
k- - = 60.24mD
- L
1
L
2
L
3
- 6 18 36
k
1
+ k
2
+ k
3
10 +SO+ 1000
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Exercise#6 show that the average permeability for flow
through radial beds in series is given by,
Center

Example: Determine that the average permeability for
flow through spherical beds in series.
Solution:
Similar approach is used as before.
1 1
- - -
k
_ rw re
- 1 1
. b J:!low
S ifnilar approach can be used here except pressure drops
are the same but flow rate are different.

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n n

Q=IQi => KH=
I
=
n n
i=l
IA; I hi
Thickness weighted average of layer permeability g1ves
permeability in direction of flow.
Example: Determine that the average permeability for
flow through radial beds in parallel.
Solution:
. Similar approach is used as before .
. k =

2:f=1 hi
. Geometric mean
V$ .
Pressur<! solvcr
k 2 , hl
k,.h,
k p
In this case both geometric average or pressure solver (fine
grain) is applicable

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n
I( hi lnki}
or lnK = --=
1
---
Example: A reservoir has five distinct formation segments
with the same thickness that are connected in series. The
length (permeability) are: 150 (80), 200 (50), 300 (30), 500
(20), 200 ft (1 0 md). Use these to calculate the reservoir
average permeability by assuming (i) linear flow and (ii)
radial flow system.
Solution:
with linear flow Kav==22.18 md
with radial flow Kav==52. 72 md
2-5 Pressure draw down hi a well
Let's consider the problem of steady state flow into a well
producing at fixed rate q. The pressure at outer boundary re
is assumed asp Pi This may be realistic where pressure
maintenance exists such as water injection/aquifer feed.
Again using Darcy's law in appropriate form gives,
Q= 27rrhk dp
f.1 dr
=>
Jdr = J 2Jrkh dp
r JLQ
r,.. Pw
r+dr r
I I
Q

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P
- p = pBQ In (r I r )
w 0.00708kh w
d _) _9 (- j_. Lsr-
Dupuit-Thiem equation( 1865)
This shows that most of the pressure drawdown (p-pz)
occurs close to the well (logarithmic behavior)
Example: To increase the well productivity, a well is
stimulated with the steam injection for some times. This
h
. . . .t::: T. T
causes t e reservoir temperature to Increase 1rorn ro to s
and oil viscosity to change from f-Loo to fls for rw < r < rs '
Assume steady state radial flow condition holds and the
productivity index to be defined asPI=qi(Pe-Pw) where q
is the well flow rate and Fe and Pw are the pressure at the
external boundary and the wellbore respectively.
Plstimulated well .
Determine the ratio PI t.
1
t d
11
use the following data
uns 1mu a e we
T
00
= 110 f, T
5
= 500 f, Jloo = 600 cp, Jls = 3 cp, rw = 0.2 ft, r
5
= 70 ft, re = 400 ft .

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Solution:
P,- Pw = :;;:h In(r, I rw) for rw < r < r,
p,- p, = ;;:h In(r.f r,) for r, < r < r,
Pe - Pw = Jlooq ( lls ln re J Stimulated well
2trkh Jloo rw rs
Pe- Pw = qJloo Unstimulated well
2trkh
PJStimulated = --=- q- - ltrkh l
well Pe- Pw fLoo lls ln rs + ln re
floo rw rs
q . 2trkh 1
p J Unstimulated = - ----
well Pe- Pw Jloo In re
ln ln 400
P/Stimulatedwell . rw 0 2 4 29
- __ __:..:.__- 3 70 . 400 = .
P/Unstimulatedwell lls ln rs +ln re -ln-+ln- .
Jloo rw rs 600 0.2 70
Exercise#7 Consider the following two reservoirs: (left) a
single layer of thickness and permeability of 25 ft and 7.5
md and (right) two distinct horizontal layers. Assuming
steady state flow regime compares the oil production rate
for 2000 psi drawdown pressure in these two reservoirs.
Available data are:
= 20%, B
0
= 1.2 bbl/stb, fL = 5cp,rw = 10 in,re =660ft
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7.5md
1,\
I
15ft:
I
I
'!I
7.\
10ft:

2-6 Average reservoir pressure
q2
10 md
5 md
Outer boundary pressure is not economic to be measured
by drilling another well so average reservoir pressure is
often used, which can be estimated from well This
is using Dupuit-Thiem equatiol) (figure below).
h
element or vOlume. dV,. at radius, rand at pressure. P

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Hence the average
Example: A well produces oil at a fixed rate of 13 m
3
/d.
from a reservoir with P = 13.2 bar at bottorri hole flowing
pressure Pw=125 bar. Use these data to calculate the
permeability.
. 3
=23%, Bo =1.36, h=23m, p=l4x10- Pa.s, rw =0.15m, re =210m
Solution:
J5- P = JLQ
w 2Jrkh rw 2
=>
2-7 Altered permeability zone
In reality permeability around the wellbore may be higher
or lower than the rest of reservoir due to:
a) formation damage during drilling and completion.
b) Infiltration of drilling mud into the well bore, change of
wettability, pore blockage.
c) . during production (sand or precipitation from the
hydrocarbon fluid or from formation brine) alter
wettability or plug pores.
d) well bore intersect fractures enhance permeability.
e) hydraulic fracturing/acidizing during \Vork over

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Skin effect is a term that refers to the permeability
alteration around the wellbore. This effect is referred to as
a wellbore damage and the region of altered permeability
is called the skin zone. This zone can extend from a few
-----
inches to several feet from the w__cljb_ur_e. Thus, the
- - --------
permeability near the wellbore is always different from the
permeability away from the well &!here the formation has
not been affected by drilling or
Damaged zone
Undamaged Zone
K
Prenwe-Proflle

,_____ ___
The total skin is to be m;de
1
ue
components: -....___/
1
:r;J!t/cfv;J// -+:.
Jgamage s@ this is caused by mechanical reduction of
the formation in the vicinity of a wellbore. The mud filtrate
invades the formation adjacent to the wellbore carrying
fine materials responsible for plugging the pores. Also,
some clays may swell upon contacting the filtrate.
skin); many oil and gas wells are
completedover a fraction of the total productive interval.
Perforation over a portion of the producing zone restricts

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Reservoi r Engineering l, Mohsen Masihi
the flow entry and causes pressure reduction at the
producing well sandface.
Mobilit skin: Lower pressure within the vicinity of an oil
well producing from a servoir
gas libration in that region. around ____ the
wellbore thus is dependent on distance from the ;ciL
Consider an altered zone of uniform permeability ks with
an outer radius of rs . b.fls is the difference in the bottom
hole flowing pressure at the well when skin is present and
not present then from Dupuit- Thiem equation (1865):
( )
pq 1n rs
p-pw noskin = -
. 2trkh rw
P
- ( h k" ) Jlq In rs
- Pw wzt s m = -
. 2trksh rw
11pskin = Pw( with skin)- Pw(no skin)
11p . = pq In!- Jlq In!= flq (!_-lJln!
skm 2trksh rw 2trkh . rw 21lkh ks rw
S = J-Lq
2
1rkh
21fkh ks rw J-Lq
S = ( kk -IJ In !L in dimensionless form
\ s rw

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Note that the positive skin indicates that the permeability
around wellbore has been reduced. The skin effect may be
interpreted by using a conce wellbore
radius, which is defined = Incorporating
this into the flow equation gt s,-----------,
2trkh p- Pw
q=
J-1 I rs
n-
,
rw
Example: Calculate the skin factor due to radial damage
for wellbore radius 0.328ft, permeability impairment
k I ks = 5 and amage _penetration . . 5 ft.
0
1
<,J
0. . ;:/ , 0/
Solution:

328
+0.S =3.7
ks rw 0.328
For this system as the pressure drops are additive then the

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Exercise#8 calculate oil production rate bbl/d from a
well with the following data: re = 500', Pw = 500 psia, k = 250md
Pe =1500psia,J.io =2cp,h=l0',rw =O.S',Bo =1.35bbl/stb The rock is
fractured to improve permeability. The fracturing job
resulted in an effective ten fold increase of k around the
well out to a radius of 20
1
What is the flow rate after
fracturing? Calculate the average reservoir permeability.
1- f .. r .\
I 7 . - 0 <-'- ' I .;)' ' -)<
- - s i'l)''v ' -
L>jlf/u' - . -} 0 tf 1</. PI { -.1 V
Exercise#9 show that the skin factor in spherical flow
. . . . (( k ) ( 1 1 ))
regime lS S . ks - 1 rw - rs
Note that once a numerical value of the skin factor is
determined, it must be converted into actual pressure loss
across the zone of altered permeability as the final impact
of skin on the well productivity cannot be judged by the
absolute value of the skin factor itself. A _p_arameter
-- ..
showin_g_Jhe alteration of well productivity due to well
or datnage is __ fto.w efficiency, FE, damage
a m.agexat-ia(DR) __ defined as,
FE == Pe-Pwt-llPskin DR == __!__ DF == 1- FE
Pe-Pwt ' FE'
If 11Pskin is positive FE is less than one but in the case of
negative value of the pr_essure__drop FE is positive.

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Exercise#lO A well is producing 100 srs oil at a measured
. Day
flowing bottom hole pressure of 17 50 Psia. Recent
pressure survey and well test analysis show that the
external reservoir pressure is 2000 Psia. Logs indicate a
net sand thickness of 10ft. the well has a radius of 0.25 ft
and produces from 90 acres drainage area. Fluid satnples
indicate that oil viscosity is 0.5 cp and FVF is 1.5 bbL and
STB
finally core analysis showed that permeability is
Determine the average permeability of the reservoir,
effective wellbore radius, skin factor, damage zone radius,
additional pressure drop because of the skin, flow
efficiency, damage ratio and damage factor. t
.:-.. "t
2-8 Flow dependent skin
As mentioned before, the flow around wellbore may
become turbulent results in an increase of the total
drop. In such cases nonlinear Forchheimer's equatioiJ can
be used. Assuming radial steady state, I incompressible,
phase flo}V into a f!!llY penetrating well have,
dP ... 11 ( q ) ( q )2
dr == 0.001127k 2rrrh + {Jp 2rrrh
Separating the variable and integrating gives,
Pe re
J dP = J fo.oo:127k (2:rh) + flp (2;h)
2
} dr
Pw rw
re re
J
11 (q J q 2
== 0.00112 7 k 2rrrh) dr + {J p (2rrrh) dr

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P.-P. = Jlq
e w 0.00708kh rw 4rr
2
h
2
rw re .
P. -P. = /lQ ln(re)+F 2
e w 0.00708kh rw q
Pe - Pw =
11
q
8
In (re) + F B
2
q
2
with flow rate in STB,
0.00708kh rw Day
- JlqB ( (re) FBq)
Pe- Pw = 0.00
7
0Bkh In rw + 0.00708kh-;;-
. kh Pe -Pw
q = 0.00708 ( (r: ) . .. )
J1B ln _g_ + Dq
rw
Where, D is called turbulancy factor. -Incorporating
damage skin into above equation results,
. -kh Pe- Pw
u q = 0.00708 ( (r. ) )
:P ,'t=tf<4,JlB In r: + S + Dq
-:- fb Ycr D jt I? (o .. ;rP . ) J
,( !! . Yf. . .::1.

1
Tl).1nk about the aimension oft factll!!
" And the apparent skin factor is defines as, S' = s + Dq.
of steady state and incompress_ible
for radial geoll;letry .oJflu_Lqftow--is;---------- --. -.
// kh Pe- Pw . ...
0.00708 JiB (zn (;e) + S'))
.... ' 11. ,/
jfo>-f-.tW(
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Exercise#ll A new drilled well completed at the depth .of
3000 ft from the surface with a 7.5"casing in a high
permeable gas reservoir with gas specific gravity of 0.78
and reservoir temperature of 190f. Recent pressure survey
and well test analysis shows that the external reservoir
pressure is 5000 Psia. Log analysis indicates a net sand
thickness of 200 ft. The well produces from 450 acres
drainage area. Surface temperature and pressure are 60 oF
and 14.7 Psia respectively. And primary core analysis
showed that gas relative permeability is 200mD. Some
cores were taken from drilled well by gun shooter and
showed near wellbore permeability changes to lOOmD. A
simple test was done on the well for evaluation of
approximately required acid to remove skin caused by well
completion and drilling fluids. The well flowrate versus
wellbore pressure for the well after the test is,
Flow rate (
da
Wellbore pressure (Psia)
4.103 2000
3.774 2500
3.384 3000
2.929 3500
2.385 4000
1.68 4500
0.748 4900
0 5000
Evaluate the skin and turbulancy factors, gas flowrate if
the desired wellhead pressure is 3600, flow efficiency,
damage factor and damage ratio for the well. Finally
calculate the value of required acid if acid dissolving
power is 0. 082
Reqwred aczd volume

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3-Unsteady state single phase flow
This regitne, at which the rate of change of pressure with
respect to time at any position in the reservoir is a function
of time and position, occurs for example for the flow
movement in the middle of a reservoir before the no-flow
boundary is felt- or when the reservoir appears as infinite
in extent. Here we start first with deriving the governing
flow equations in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.
We shall that the reservoir is homogenous and
isotropic, reservoir thickness is constant, flow is horizoJ?.tal
and laminar pressure gradient is small
applica e . / !:li 1s s 1 tl com ressible but porosity,
permeability fluid viscosity are pressure independent.
3-1 Governing flow equations
Let's start with. deriving the flow equation in Cartesian
coordinates.
Cartesian coordinates:
Under the steady-state flowing condition, the same
quantity of fluid enters the system as leaves it. In unsteagy
regime.,__ the flow iqtQ _an __ el_ement of
of a porous media may not be the same as the flow rate .out
of that element in the Other the fluid content of the
----
porous medium changes with time. The mathematical
formulation of the transient-flow equation is based on
cotnbining the following equations/laws and setting of
boundary and initial conditions:
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a) __ The continuity equation is
essentially a material balance equation that accounts for
every pound mass of fluid produced, injected, or remaining
in the reservoir.
b) Transport equation: The continuity equation is
combined with the equation for fluid motion (transport
equation such as Darcy's equation) to describe the fluid
flow rate "in" and "out" of the reservoir.
c) Equation of state: The fluid compressibility equation is
used which describes the changes in .the fluid volume as a
function of pressure.
of continuity equation) is: . .
Input- Output+ Gen- Cons=Accumulation
,'-:1 A
I o
' '
1 I
1 I
x' x'+dx
p.u.Aix dt- p.u.AL+dx dt = p.A.dx.1t+dt - p.A.dx.1
1
p.u.AI dx - p.u.AI p.A.dx.1 d - p.A.dx.1
_ x+ x = 1+ t t
dx dt
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a(p.u) a(p.)
for one dimension
ax at
In three dimensions,
a(p.u) a(p.u) a(p.u) a(p.) . ( )
__ ..;._x + Y + z =- =dzv p.u
ax ay az . at
This is called the continuity equation and it provides the
principle of conservation of mass in Cartesian coordinates.
The transport equation must be introduced into the
continuity equation to relate the fluid velocity to the
pressure gradient within the control volume.
We use Darcy's law,
k aP
u=---.-
.f.l ax
For equation of state, assume constant compressibility
(i.e. assuming slightly compressible fluids) .
. 1 av 1 ap
c = ---- = --- oil compressibility
0
v ap pap
1 8
c = - -- rock compressibility
f ap
Inserting these into the diffusivity equation and expanding
g1ves,
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a(p.u) _ a(p.)
ax at
-(p au +u ap) = (p 8 + ap)
ax ax at at
-(p au+ u ap apJ = (p a ap + op apJ
ax ap ax ap at ap at :/
-(-p!_ a2; (p..cf ap +.p.co ap)
p k)) & &
/ \ / \ . \
/ jc,<;.. \{(IJV' t5 )'"\..}) J
Assume small pressure small fluid
CQ_ll!Qressibilit and constant k, , f.1 . The second term is
l).egligible. Hence the nQ!liilearj:erm is negligible in terms
' ___ .. ...---..._____ . --....:..__....
of-total compressibility ct = ( c
1
+co). . . .
. . . SOVl
!..._ a
2
p _ ( ) ap a
2
P _ 1 .. .. \
P 2 - Pcr c J +co --r 2 - \ \ L J_...
J1 at x .
;ll =. k
1
is hydraulic diffusivity(m
2
Is) /T
\,, f.1..ct ) /
___ /
This is called the diffusivity equation. The next step in
completing the formulation of the problem is to choose the
appropriate initial and boundary conditions.
Radial coordinates:
Consider the flow element shown in figure below. The
element has a width of dr and is located at a distance of r
from the center of the well. The porous element has a
differential volume of dV.

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Center tlte well
h
According to the concept of the material-balance equation:
Input- Output+ Gen- Cons Accumulation
p.u.Aj dt- p.u.Aj d dt == p.A.dr.1 d - p.A.dr.j
r r+ r t+ t t
A== 2:rrh
a(r.p.u) a(p.)
- == r ,....--_ -=----=--
ar . at
This is called the continuity equation and it provides the
principle of conservation of mass in radial coordinates.
The transport equation (Darcy's Law) must be introduced
into the continuity equation to relate the fluid velocity to
the pressure gradient within the control volume dV.
- B(r.p.u) o(p.)
- ==r ---
or at
BpJ == (p 8 Bp + BpJ
r or J1 Br ap Bt at
1 o ( k BpJ ( Bp BpJ
- r Br r.p. J1 or == p..c1 at+ at
This is the general partial differential equation used to
describe the flow of any fluid flowing in a radial direction
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Reservoir Engineering I, Mohscn Masihi
in porous media. Compressible and slightly compressible
fluids, however, must be treated separately in order to
develop practical equations that can be used to describe the
flow behavior of these two fluids. Let us now continue our
derivation for slightly compressible fluids (oils).
(
a(r.u) apJ ( ap apJ
- p +r.u.p.co- =r p..c
1
-+.p.co-
8r ar at at
(
(
J
(
J
2J
ka ap k ap ap
- --p- r.- --r.p.C
0
- =r.p.(c +co)-
J.l or ar J.1 or f at
Assume a small pressure gradient, and a small fluid
compressibility and constant k, , J.l, h the second therm will
be negligible and then by using the definition of total
.compressibility we can have.
ap J = J-1..ct ap
r or or k ot
This is called the diffusivity equation. It is one of the most
important equations in petroleum engineering. The
equation is particularly used in analysis well testing data.
The form of this in field units with time t recorded in hours
becomes - -
// ' ---.
1
/r a ( ap J J-L. .c
1
ap -, __
lr ar r. ar =
-------------- - --
with c:Psr
1
, k:mD, r: ft, P: psi, t: hr, J-L: cp

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The term 1J == k/ fUf!C is called the diffusivity constant or
hydr(!uli_g __ _d_i_ffl!sivity that is the ratio of the mobility to
--- ----- -

Exercise#12 derive the diffusivity equation 1n spherical
geometry.
3-2 Radial oil flow in a fully penetrating vertical well
Consider a shut-in well that is centered in a homogeneous
circular reservoir of radius re with a uniform pressure Pi
throughout the reservoir. This initial reservoir condition
represents the zero producing time (see figures below).
q=O
A)Shutin
allowed to _flow_at a constant rate ofq, a
pressure disturbance will" be created ___ face. The
pressure at the well bore, P wr, will drop instantaneously as
------- ---- - -- --- - ..
the well is opened. The disturbance will move
"froni-the -wellbore at a that--is ___ deieffilmed by the
rock and fluid properties. Figure below shows that at time
t r: the pressure disturbance has moved a distance r 1 into
the reservoir. Notice that the pressure disturbance radius is
continuously increasing with time. This radius is called
commonly radius of investigation and referred to as rinv It
is also important to point out that as long as the radius of
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investigation has not reached the reservoir boundary, i.e., .
re, the reservoir will be acting as if it is infinite in size.
During this ti111e we say that the reservoir is infinite acting
the outer drainage radius re can be mathematically
infinite.
,,
...
,,
P;

I

v--
,, \
.
CB)Constant Flow

A similar discussion to the above can be used to describe a
that is producing at a constant bottom-hole flowing
Figure below illustrates the propagation of the
radius of investigation with respect to At time -t4, the
pressure disturbance reaches the boundary, Le., rinv = re.
This causes the pressure behavior to change.
P;

C) Constant Pv.f
For the problem of a single _phase flow In a ful!_y
penetrating vertical weq located in an infinite
ho-Elogeneous and isotropic reservoir of fixed thickness,
the governing flow equation in cylindrical coordinates is,
apJ = JL..cl ap or apJ = JL..c{ op
r ar ar k at r ar ar 0.000263k at

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To obtain a solution to this it is necessary to specify an
initit;tl condition und impooc t"YYo boundcuy Tlle
initial condition simply states that the reservoir is at a
..._________ . . . -
uniform Pi when productiol!_!?egins. The two
boundary conditions require is Rroducing at a
constant production rate_and that the reservoir behaves as
if it were infinite in size, i:e.;-0oo. Mathematically these
are:
r
I

p t=O = P;
-
I.C:
/
fi. -1-re. /; . . - .
B C#l
P; f'i'/;.1" .r:!J

<
. . : /
k (2 h)
. / I _,-- .
trr p \ , . (fl
B C#2
. q = - ' / u . ./d {(. .::>
. . a I - .
J1 --.Y-cv-/
A simpler version of this problem is .when well bore radius
is infinitely 11 rw =saO) In practice this is applicable
radius tion of ressure ulse is reater than
;:-_::;;:;. . ----
w llbore radius. Solution to this in terms of Ei-function is
called line source /Kelvin/Theis solution which- is work
for infinite reservoirs (Matthews and Russell 1967).
= . - qJ.L Ei(J.Lcr2 J qpB E'( J.lcr2 J
p p, 47rkh 4kt or
p: psi,q: stb I d,_fl: cp, B: bbl I stb, k: md, h,r: ft,c: psr
1

--
The exponential integral function is defined by,
00
J
e-udu
Ei(-x) ==- u
X
74

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And can be approximated as below,
[
x xz x3 ]
Ei( -x) = ln(x) + 0.5772- l! +
2
(
2
!)-
3
(
3
!) +etc
Values of this exponential integral function can be found
from a table or a graph. Graph of the Ei-function for 0.01 <
x < 10 is shown below (Craft 1991).

EXPONENTIAl. INTGRAL VALUES
al -u
, , ' ' Ej{- XI = -J e (,1 du
lC.
i

. .
-......f I """""_,..,..._
2 I ........ f I l
' i I i ._ f
I I ; I I I _._ I !
( j I . I I I I j ! I j ,-+-I i
t---1-':''<H-+-+-+- o -.o2 -.04 -.os -.oa -.1o +
I.OIII'II'II'i'illj II' I
E;t-xl
0.8
0.6
0.4--
0.3
' '
0.2
1
.....
I I ! I I
l ! I
I I I

.08

" ;
.0
4
11111'111' 1"1; 11'1
.03
.02 ,,
\
I i I i \
t i l I I !
-1.5 -2.0 -2.5 -3.0 -3..5
Ejl-xl

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The exponential integral function can be approximated by
a logarithmic function as for x<O.Ol
Ei(-x)=r+lnx+ LC-lf xn (
n!n n!n
When the parameter (x) in the Hi-function is less than 0.01,
the semi-log radial flow approximation can be found,
P = P;- Jlq (1n( kt
2
]+0.8091] Jit/Jc
1
r
2
< 0.01
4iCkh . Jlc
1
r 4kt or:
p(r,t) P;-
70
6
qBp(ln( kt
2
J-4.254J for 39.51 Jlc,r
2
<0.01
kt
j:d( IJ lA.-J) -? t J W]
Applying skin damage effect results in,
70.6qBJ1(ln(. kt 2J-4.254+2SJ
kh f1c
1
r
Note that in the well test analysis where units are same
as field unit except for the time that is in hours, the above
------- ....
___ Qecomes, oClfrt.
P = P;-
162
6
qB f1 (log( kt
2
J- 3.23 + 0.87 sJ for f1c
1
r
2
<0.0 1
kh pc
1
r 0.001 05kt
Range of application and limitation:
cannot initial flow into a
( a .Ii11e) so some !i.l}!e has to be
elapsed "for Hie feiat1ve- -s1ze- -o{. have a
negligible effect on flow so:
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J.'he reservoir must be infinite acting.
1
From real reservoir

rmance behavior Ei is va 1d or:
Example: Use semi-log approximation with these data to
estimate k and
r w = 4 in, J1 = 0. 3 c p, q = 2 0 0 b b 11 d, h = 15 ft
t( min) 1 5 10 30 60
Pw (psi) 4761 4673 4633 4573 4535
Solution:
First we plot the pressure against In (t),
4800
!-Ri __________ ___ ___________ ib"-------- . . . __.-- ol
4750 1 : -.__ ,/ ----, \
1
j . __ __ Y = -55.284Ln(x) \5J---1
4700 i -.
r " ., ;
- i...-\b
(/) I - - -- - - ;,_-
- -
,e; 4650
5: !
Q_ '
I
4600
!
.. t - \ oj
iu/ o{--
y
f)
i
4550
r-t
4500 -'---'---'--'-..__._,.._,_.u..____,__..l-L..L.LU...u...___._...L.-L..LJ...J..JLJ...I..-_--'--'---'-...L...Jj...L.LU
0.01 0.1 1
t(rnin)
qJ-L ( 4kt J
Pw = Pi - In
2
+ 2S
4Jrkh rpcrw
10
,. b
100
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1
-jlq
55 3
. 6895 Pa
s ope= =- . pst---
4:rrkh psi
-0.3cp 0.001 Pa.s
200
bbl 0.1589m
3
day
cp d bbl 3600 x 24s

4x3.14xkxl5ft
0
3048
m
ft
kh= 0.3x0.001x200x0.1589 m
2
4x 3.14x 55.3x 6895x3600x 24x15x 0.3048
-t5 2 mD
kh = 5 x 1 0 m
15 2
= 5.1 mD
0.987xlo- m
At t* we should have Pw =pi
p(r,t) pi
70
'
6
qBp[ln( kt
2
J-4.254J for 39.51 pc
1
r
2
<0.01
kt
k t*==e
4
254
=>

f1c
1
r},
Example: An acidized well was produced for 6 days at a
rate of 400 srB. The following information on well,
Day
formation and fluid properties are available,
rw = 0.25 ft, B 0 = 1.12, pi =2800psi, =0.2, k=30mD, f.1 = 0.4 cp, c, = 3 X w-s psi-!' h = 40 ft
Calculate P(rw) and P(r=800 ft)
Solution:
(fEst check the validi!v of Ei functTqn?
(30)t
(0.4)(3 X 10-
5
)(0.20)(0.25
2
) >
3950
69
> 1.97 x lo-s Days
yields
-----7 t
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check the validity of logarithmic approximation.
(3 0) t . yields
(0.4)(3 X 10-
5
)(0.20)(0.25
2
) >
15802
8
~
> 7.90 x lo-s Days
t
As t = 6 days so logarithmic approximation can be used.
(400)(0.4)(1.12) { ( (30)(6) )
p = 2800- 70.6 (30)( 40) ln (0.4)(3 x 10-5)(0.20)(0.252)
-4.2537 + 2(0:)} [lL.;l ~
- - - - - - - - ~ ' ~ 7 C" vl V
~ l> c"
At a distance of 800 ft the Ei function is valid to s o ~ _ _thj_s
- --- .---
problem.
~ (400)(0.4)(1.12) . ( - (800
2
)(0.4)(3 X 10-
5
)(0.2))
p- 2800 + 70.6 . (
3
0)(
4
0) . EL 39.51 (
3
0)(
6
)
. . (400)(0.4)(1.12)
P _;_ 28oo + 7o 6 E c-o 3371)
. (30) ( 40) l .
(400)(0.4)(1.12) .
P = 2800- 70.6 (
3
0) (
40
) (0.821) = 2791.34 Psra
Exercise#l3 A well is producing 100 stb/ d oil. The
reservoir initial pressure is 2000 psi. Logs indicate a net
sand thickness of 50 ft. The well has a radius of 0.25 ft and
drains an area of 1000 ft. Other data are:
= 20%, B
0
= 1.5 bbl/ stb, J.l = 0.5 cp, c = 2 x 10-
9
Pa-
1
, k = 50md.
Calculate the pressure after 0.1 hr, 1 hr and 10 hr at the
well bore, the points r= 10 ft, 100 ft. Then plot the pressure
profile within the reservoir versus time

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Exercise#14 A well with the following data producing at
266 sTm
3
faces a well pressure from initial value at
Day
2 77 bar to 192 bar after 6 min. calculate the skin factor.
rw = 0.15ft, re = 61 OOft, Bo =1.39, =0.28, k=lOOmD, Jl = 0.8 cp, ct = 2.3 X 10-
9
pa"
1
' h = 8.5 ft
3-3 Radial gas flow in a fully penetrating vertical well
al_!__d density vary _jgnificantly
and theJ:d'ore the used in derivation of liquid
flow equation are not valid for gas systems.
Equation of state (EOS) and gas compressibility for a gas
IS,
pM 1 1 dz zd(p!z)
p = zRT and cg = p --; dp = p dp
the above two basic gas that of
general partial differential equation useq __ _!o describe the
flow of any fluid flowing in a radial direction gives, -
- - - ----- --- -
opJ = _E_c op
r or z Jl or zk t at
To resolve the nonlinearity in flow equation, there are two
methods:
a) Ci@i:C8aSQSeudo (Al-Hussainy, Ramey,
Crawford 1966)
btp-squared Goodrich et al)
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Real gas pseudo pressure:
Using pseudo-pressure defined as,
p2 d
lf(p) = J1dp or __1!_ = _p_
o ZJ.l dp ZJ-1
the PDE with pseudo-pressure gives,
1 a ( a lf) f-1c1 a lf/ 1 a ( a lf/ f-1c1 a lf/
-;or r or = k at or -;or r or = 0.000633k at
This is the governing diffusivity equation for a gas flow in
porous media. J
This differential equation relates the real gas pseudo
pressure (real gas potential) to the time t and the radius r.
Ramey, and Crawford 1966 ointed
that in gas well tes_ting analysis; the constant-rate solutio
---------------
has more practical applications than that provided by the
constant pressure solution. jThe authors provided with the
exact solution to this that is commonly referred to as the
solution method. the constant-rate condition, Al-
Hussainy, et al. (1966) p!Q_Q9sed the following exa<?t
s,o.tut!on to the3fiffusivity equatiffi? .
.>jV /lil.J'c./-
/ . 0{11
[
57895.3Psc] [c(9 T] [- ( kt ) ]
1/J(Pwf) = l/J(Pi)- _ T kh log - 3.23 + 0.875
Pwt< Psia, Pe: Psia\qsc k: mD, Psc= Psia,
rw:

f1i:_9.?_, Cti: . .._____:/ . - . "'
/
/), \1/
\"" 'l /T'

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Exercise#lS A well with a wellbore radius of 0.25 ft is
producing at a constant flow rate of 120 MMscr under
Day
transient flow conditions from a gas reservoir with gas
specific gravity of 0.78 and skin factor of 2.67. The initial
reservoir pressure (shut-in pressure) is 5000 Psia at 240F.
The formation permeability and thickness are 100 mD and
10 ft, respectively. The porosity is recorded as 1 7 .5%.
Standard temperature and pressure are 60 oF and 14.7 Psia
respectively. Plot sandface bottom hole versus
------------
time for one day us!_gg exact solution metho__d. Initial rock
compressibility and turbulancy factor are Psia-
1
.
. . T} .5
. .
There ts also other solution that approximate the exact
solution (the pressure-squared method)
p-squared method:
The first approximation here is to remove the pressure-
dependent term (11z) outside the integral that defines l/J(Pwr)
and 1/J(PJ in previous problem to give,
2 p
lf/(p) = =-= f pdp
ZJl 0
The bars over and z represent the values of the gas
viscosity and compressibility factor as evaluated at the
p?-+p2
average pressure p = t 2 wf
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Combining this with the previous exact solution gives,
2 2 [1637q
9
Tjlz] [ ( kt ) ]
Pwf =Pi - kh log q;fliCtir.J - 3.23 + 0.875
The solution forms
product 11z) is assumed constant at the avera e res sure?.
l;his effective y 1m1ts the applicability of the P method to
pressures (P < ). It should
be pointed out that when the P
2
method is used to
determine p wf an iterative procedure should be done, do
you know how?
/
_.,
\

;,.I

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4-New flow solutions using superposition
The solutions to the diffusivity equation presented
previously appear to be applicable only for describing the
pressure distribution in an infinite reservoir that was
caused by a constant production from a single wei[ Since
--- ------
reservoir s stems usually have several wells th'!!_are
--------- -- ----- --
OQerating at Erying a m2Ee generalized approach is
needed to study the fluid flow behavior during the
unsteady state flow period. The principle ()f -siip-eq)osition
-------
is a powerful concept that can be applied to remove the
restrictions that have been imposed on various forms of
solution to the transient flow equation.
4-1 Principal of superposition
Mathematically the superposition theorem states that any
sum of individual solutions of a second order linear
differential equation is also a solution of the equation. This
concept can be applied to account for the of
change and nearby boundary.
A differential operator L that operates on function y is
linear if it satisfies the following conditions:
L(y,,y
2
) = + L(y
2
)
L ( cy) = cL ( y)
An equation is nonlinear if it contains pressure or its
derivative to a power higher than one and/or multiplies by
one another.
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SEperposition allows us to find new solution to the
diffusivity equation by adding the solution of two
solutions provided that the both I.C and
B.C are satisfied. Note that if we superpose the pressure
then, Pinew = p; + p;' = 2 Pi. However, if we use drawdown then
they have the same initial and outer boundary condition.
Hence we superpose (Pi - P) instead of P .
4-2 Effect of multiple wells
Frequently, it is desired to account for the effects of more
than one well on the pressure at some point in the
reservoir. The superposition concept states that the total
.rressure drop at any point in the reservoir is the sum of the
pressure changes at that point caused by flow in each of
--
the wells in the reservoir.
---Ap------------------
Ll Total at r* .
. = b.Pnrop due to well (1) + b.Pnrop due to well (2) +
+ b.Pnrop due to well (n)
either
q11B . ( r
2
)
11P = P- P = -70.6-Et --
l kh 41}t
or logarithmic approximation, in the range of their validity,
for pressure drop of each well
qJ1B { ( kt \ ,Q
!JP == 70.6 kh ln J1cf>Ctr2)

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For better understanding let's consider below field
three producing wells and one shut-in well we are going to
see what would be the pressure at the shut-in well when
well (1), well (2) and well (3) produce for t
1
, t
2
and t
3
with the flowrate of q
1
, q
2
and q
3
respectively,
_. -----------
... ...
'
" ...
" '
, '
/, ,\ .. ................................................ ,,,_
I / ' ''-. I ,/
I / "'-, . 1:'
. I "- t:'
\ 1. '
3
.
./
\, . .. __
. . ... d, ... Actin

. . w'RI (1)
' Actin ... .12 " ;
' . ' ;,.-/ , / d .
., ;.
"-------"" .1\
l \.
\
'\ / .
' / ./
....... . .._._ . .....- -.......................
flPTotal at observed well
== flPvrop due to well (1) + flPDrop due to wel_l (2)
+ 11PDrop due to well (3)
flPTotal at observed well

' v
r)' ; ,\
i \
J-- t\ 'J;
B ( d
2
) B ( d
2
) == 70.6 q
1
J1 Ei -
1
+ 70.6 qz!l Ei -
2
. kh 47Jtl kh 47Jt2
B ( d
2
) + 70.6 q
3
J1 Ei -
3
kh 41Jt3
I
Note that when the weU is a producing well; the flow arte
9 appears in abov; form . the
Qtherwi_se 1n the case of injection well; negative sign must
For example assume well (2) was an injection
well in the previous figure !1P must be evaluated as below,

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Reservoir Engineering I, Mohsen Masihi /
- - ---- J/
( d2 ) B ( d
2
)
- = 70.6 q
1
/1 Ei -
1
- 70.6 q
2
f1 Ei -
2
kh 4ryG kh 4ryG
+ 70.6 q
3
f1B Ei (- )
kh 4ryt3
Exercise# 16 Suppose an injector well with flow rate q
located between two producers with rates q/n. For wells of
the same radii prove that the following expression is true
for the relation between q and the injector and producer
pressure wells.
kh
0.00708-(P
1
-P2)
q
- J.l
- - ( n+l)
l 1 d
!1: nJZCw)
of variable flow rate .
li!!_Prncfice-:--n1e wells produce at varying rates --and so 1fls
im ortant that we be ab e to redict the res sure behavior
rate changes. concept of
superposition states flow rate change in a well wi r-
result in a pressure response which is independent of the
responses caused by other previous rate changes/
Accordingly, the total pressure drop that has occurred at
any time is the summation of pressure changes causes
separately by each net flow rate change.

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Consider the case of a well, i.e., q . 0, that was then
allowed to produce at a series of constant rates for the
different time periods shown in the figure below. To
---
calculate the total pressure drop of
wellbore after t, the composite solution is obtained by
adding the individual constant-rate solutions at the
specified rate-time sequence, or,
Flow
Rate
t1Protal == + ll.Pqz + ... + D.Pqn
l
I
I
t, Time
To 11Pq; first of all assume there exists only
flowrate (i.e.,q
1
) therefore piessure __ drop due to flow
rate is,
--
As the flow rate changes from q
1
to q
2
at t
1
, we can
assume that the well continues to produce with the
previous flowrate but another well with the same
characteristics and with the flowrate of q
2
- q
1
starts to
flow at the same location (see figure below).
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,,
11Pq
2
is evaluated as below,
== 70.6 (qz - q1)J1B Ei (- dz )
qz kh 41](t- tl)
Using this idea for the other periods gives,
== 70.6 (q3 - qz)JlB Ei (- dz )
q
3
kh 4r](t - t
2
)
== 70.6 (qn - qn-1)J1B Ei (- d2 )
qn . kh 41](t- tn-1)
Now as the total pressure drop is the sum of these then by
substituting we get,
q
1
J1B . ( d
2
)
l:lPTotal == 70.6 kh EL - 47Jt
+ 70.6 (qz- q1)J1B Ei (- dz )
kh 4ry(t- t1)
+ 70.6 (q3- qz)JlB Ei (- dz ) + ...
kh 4ry(t - t
2
)
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This idea can be simply extended to any rate history (as
shown below) when we approximate the rate history into
some time intervals ( qt for
0
< t < ti ; q2 for ti < t < t2 ).
time
..
Note that with this the cumulative production must be
maintained. In the limit of infinitely small time intervals
the drawdown can be found by using convolution integral
(Duhamel's principal).
Exercise#17 A well is opened to flow at 150 srB for 24
Day
hours. The flow rate is then increased to 360 STB and
Day
lasted for another 24 hours. The well flow rate is then
STB
reduced to 310 - for 16 hours. Calculate the pressure
Day
drop in a shut-in well 700ft away from the well given:
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= 3000 psi,= 15%, Bo = 1.2 bbl/ stb, J1 = 2 cp,.
c = 12 X 10-6 Psi"
1
' k = 1 OOmd, h=20ft, rw = 0.25 ft
Example: A special case of the variable rate is known as
buildup test when n = 2, q! = q, qz = 0, b.tl = t (figure below).
Find the solution for this case.
Solution:
\
Pw ,
'vr
.
'<------------:;>
: At
..
t
time
First consider the semi-log approximation for drawdown
due to production period from time zero up to time equal
to t +
2
1rkh (pi- p
1
) = !_(ln ( k
2
(t + L1t )J + 0.8091]
pq 2
we start at timet injecting fluid at the rate q.
The drawdown due to this has the same form as before
that the elapse-timeisTMj and -q must be used for
injection.
-2trkh (pi- P2 )=!_(ln( kL1t 2 J + 0.8091]
jlq 2 pctr..v

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Now we superimpose the two solutions,
(p;-p)= JLq -JLq (In( k!it
2
]+0.8091]
4Jrkh JltPC
1
rw 4Jrkh JltPC
1
rw
Simplifying this results in,
Jlq ( (k(t+L1t)J ( kl1t JJ
p.- p = In -In
( ' } 41ikh
= _ JLq (rn t + 11t)
p Pi 4Jrkh At
Horner (1951)
Exercise#18 Consider two producing wells which are 50 ft
apart. Well (A)flows at for 8 hours, then the rate is
increased to 80 STB. Well (B) produces at the initial rate of
Day
. STB . STB
70 - for 7 hours and then the rate IS decreased to 25 -.
Day Day
Estimate the pressure at the well (A) after 9 hours. The
available data are:
30%, Ba = 1.2 bbJ/stb, J-1 = 1.5 cp,c
1
= 10-
5
Psi"
1
, k = 80md, h=30ft, Pi= 2000psi
Well A: rw = 0.5ft, S=4
Well B: rw = 0.4ft, S=2
Pressure penetration into porous media:
Let's use superposition to find pressure propagation in a
porous medium by assuming flow with rate q is injected
for a short period of time 8t into a well In an infinite

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1be solution of drawdown pressure for a ell
producing\at the constant rate q was, _ _.
'-..... . J .....-------- ---cx:5"------
.. ____ t::..P == -70.6 quB J e-u du ---"J
kh u . /1'1

/
I:luid injection is mathematically equivalent to fluid
production except for the sign. Injection at a rate q for the
elapse time 8t is equivalent to inject at rate q at 0
then produce at rate q at time 8t.
q ' :- - - - - - - - - production

0 &,t t
__ - ...... - - - - - - - -
injection
Using superposition principal the solution to the problem
will be, t::..Protaz == f::..Pwell (1) + f::..Pwezz (2)
For injection well,
00
M = -70.6 J du
For production well,
qJ1B
11P == + 70.6 kh
rZ
00

e
-u
-du
u
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, SharifUniversity of Technology, Tehran, IRAN
93

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Substituting these in total pressure gives,
qJlB
l:1Protal = 70.6 kh
co co
e-u J e-u
-du- -du
u u
r2
4
17
(t-ot) 41]t
41](t-Ot)
For small elapse time Jt this integral can be
by,
qJlB
l:1Protal = 70.6 kh
41](t-Ot)
e-u
-du
u
r2
706--X ------
qJlB e -4rJt ( rz rz ) .
- . kh r
2
4T}t 4ry(t- ot)
41]t
which then by simplification gives,
qJl.B ( _ _c_) (1 1 )
llProtal = 70.6 kh X te 41]t t- t- ot
qfiB ( ( -at )
= 70.6 kh X e 41]t (t-ot)
r2
qJiB ( (1 1 ) qJl.B e-41Jt
llProtal = 70.6 kh X te
4
1Jt t t _ ot = -70.6ot kh X t
Pressure drawdown is a function of two time related terms:
increase with lit
drawdown increase and then decrease and face a maximum

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value in between.(The time for pressure pulse to reach ~
@:axtmum value at posthon r= /1.1 can he found bY'i)
(
r
2
e -:;t) t- e-::t
a 11Protal 4ry t
2
---------= 0
at r=A t2
Az yields Az 1 '4=-t
-- 1 = o t = _ or /1, = '\/ '+l]t
~ t ~
0.006328k
7]=
J1Ct
where k: md,Jl: cp,ct: psi-t .
Example: We wish to run a flow test on an exploratory
well for a sufficient time to. ensure that the well will drain
a cylinder of n1ore than I 000 ft radius. Well and fluid data
analysis St1ggests that k:100md,J1:0.5cp,c, :2x10-
5
psr
1
,=0.2.
What time flow do you recommend?
Solution:
A.= J4iii
0.006328(100) mD
11
= (2 x 10-
5
)(0.2)(0.5) =
316400
cp. Psi-
1
yields
1000 = vf4(316400 )t t = 18.96 hours
4-4 Effect of nearby boundaries
Reservoirs are often transected by nearly vertical faults,
mostly impermeable to flow due to various reasons
including geological process or deposition. These faults act

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Engineering I, Mohsen Masihi
as a no flow boundary condition on the nearby wells. The
superposition theorem can also be extended to predict the
pressure of a well in a bounded reservoir.
A well close to a sealing fault
Consider figure below which shows a well that is located a
distanced from the non-flow boundary, e.g., sealing fault.
Sealing fault
barrier is equivalent to the pressure
cJisturbance produce<!J?y a secondJ___mage well
the same rate and liaving the same production history as
'-._ .. --- - . . - -
the real well with both of the wells in aiili1fiilite acting
reservoir. Assume there is no fault_then due to the
--- ----- ---
symmetry no flow will cross __ Qlane of the fault.
'-----. ..
\ / ()
op ) l '
! - =o /-(//r ':.r,
'Cir ,
"f-q
, I
ll
I
Actual Well ...
1
. \ i . _j Image Well
I ' u ! ,, . v'
;u'r "J 0 "'/ (J 'ttr
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, SharifUniversity ofTechnology, Tehran, . 96

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Hence using the superposition, the drawdown is the sum of
the drawdown due to the actual well and the image well.
The solution for the pressure in well is,
b..Protal = b..PActual well + b..Pnute to image well
qJ1B- . ( r
2
)
ll.Protal = -70.6 kh El - 4 t
7] r=rw
-70.6-Ei --
q
11
B ( r
2
)
kh 41}t r=Zd
This solution can be clq_s.sified based on the /!me re
1-Early time regime: the full expansion
exponential integral function should be used.
2-Intermediate time: approximation can be
used for the actual well but there is no response yet from
if!!_age well to the actual well (practically for the image
well Ei<O .01 ). The solution for this regime is the
drawdown for the well in the absence of the fault because
the pressure pulse has not reach the slope of
. . . . : . . _..)!q
drawdown curve on a semi log plot IS, m 7 4.1{kl;z.
ti!!ii] approximation is valis!J9r
b.oth wells. The slope of drawdown curve on a semi log
plot is, . Here the system is semi-infinite rather
than infinite (expect to produce half so to fix rate
drawdown will be doubled). Hence the occurrence of

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0
!!_ol!bling of __ is an of a
impermeable fgult. __
-- ----... ------ -------------------,

)>9'1/
' -..
'
j -ft; /
\o z_ -t vv(zy, -\--\.yQ '( e i .._,
Moreover, the distance "d' can be estimated from the
time =
l
c-z.J.) :::.. 1-.

1[-tt
Example: Well (A) is located 1500 ft apart from a sealing
fault and is completed in a huge reservoir. Well (A) is
opened to flow 340stb/d. What pressure drop theoretically
will occur at observation well B (700 ft apart) from. the
fault after 216 hrs of flow? Other data are:
P; = 4000 psi,= 10%, Bo = 1.07 bbl/ stb, Jl = 0.8 cp,
c = 5 X I0-:-
5
Psi-l' k = 75md, h=100ft, rw = 0.5ft,SA = 0.2
........... ..... I 5001\
;e. -. 700 ft
'
Aci ual wdl B Irnagcwdl

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'
I r\L '
\
o()b'7", CQ
\). eX
Reservoir En:in.<eclg I, ' .. 1 o .. h. s.e.n Mas . ih. i. .. /// ./7 \(/ r ;
Solution: /--
Ei can be used, check it!
/
7
0.006328(75) ) mD
= (0.8)(5 X 10-
5
Y(if.l) =
118650
cp. Psi-1
-70.6 Ei (-
= 2.7396i(-0.1498)
=4.014 Psi
(340)(0.8) (1.07) . ( (2200)
2
)
b.Plmage well at B . -70.6 (75)(100) El - 4(118650) (9)
= 2.7396i(-1.3311)
=0.483 Psi
l:lPTotal = 0.483 + 4.014 Psi
J
'- -- . -
fa_ctor of well !A} did nQj considered in the
calculation, why?
Exercise# 19 For the following two producing wells close
to a sealing fault derive an expression for the wellbore
pressure of well (2) versus time. Solve above problem with
typical values of the reservoir parameters
99

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A well close to two perpendicular sealing faults
The method of using image wells can also be used under
other well configurations. Consider a well located
equidistant from two perpendicular sealing faults. Again
we try to have a no flow boundary for location of sealing
faults. We should use three image wells (not two?) as
below in order to get the proper symmetry in its flow field.

. ,
, ' #2
J I ,,'' l

. ' c . .,fL.,
') . \. }f
. .\_,
) "/ f; .) d : ,/
Jl.._b '?J.( : /
:)f.> . '. J j I .-:: ___ [ __ _
,'( ::r well
v ' i
The solution for draw down is,
------ -0'
#I
llProtal = llPactual well + llPwell (1) + llPwell (2) + llPwell (3)
.
. qJlB . ( r
2
)
llPactual well = -70.6 kh Ez. - 41]t -
. T-Tw
q11B . (. r
2
)j
llPwell (l) = -70.6 kh Ez -
4
t
1J r=2d
q
11
B . ( r
2
)
llPwell (Z) == -70.6 kh Ez -
4
t
1J r=2Vid
qJlB . ( r
2
)
11Pwell (3) == -70.6 kh El -
4
t
1J r=2d
. Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 100

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llProtal = -70.6 q:: Ei (- ;:t) _
r-rw
- 70.6 q:: Ei (- ;;t) .
r=2d
-70.6 qJ1B Ei - 70.6 qJ1B Ei (- r
2
)
kh 41]t r=Z..fid kh 41}t r=Zd
This solution shows that using logarithmic approximation
the slo_pe of the well bore pressure versus time curve on the
se111i_:!og be four times greater in magnituae than the
corresponding slope for the well when there is not any
fault! .
. with the following data check the Ei
applicability, ln approximation for the real and image wells
and determine the wellbore pressure after 32 days.
= 22%, Bo = 1.5res m
3
I ST m
3
, h =36m, JL = 10-
3
Pa.s, = 240bar
c=9x 10-
9
Pa-
1
, k = 89mD, rw = 0.15m, re = 6000m,q = 100stm
3
I day
Solution:
70n1,
I
I
I
Gt------------------
120m
well
For real well Ei applicability:
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN !Ol

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100 ;upc
1
r!;, ;upc
1
re
2
_.;:,._,;__...:._;;_ < t < -'----'---'-=--
k . \
50 sec < t < 2317 OK \
. . 25J1c,r!;,
In approximation: t > k
t > 13 sec OK
25J1c (2d)
2
For Image well# I : t >
t > 126 days not valid
P;- Pwf =!?well+ /Jimage#l + /Jimage#2 + /Jimage#3 => Pwf = 230.5bar
Exercise#20 How many image-wells should be considered
in the case of a well close to two sealing fault with the
angle of e = 60 and e = 45 as below. Using logarithmic
approximation compare the slope of the well bore pressure
versus time curve on the semi-log with the corresponding
. slope for the well when there is not any fault.
/. 0 -
/. 0 l
(
/
lj)
ii I
A well close to two parallel sealing faults ' ,
Consider a well located within a. channel. Again we try to
have a no flow boundary for
1
Iocation sealing faults.
How many image wells should we use in order to get the
proper symmetry in the flow field? Since Ei function has
. little influence above certain distance from actual well then

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we can consider a certain number of image wells with no
error in the approximation.
Fault#! Fault#2
<- ................ ............. >< > -< > -<>

Exercise#21 Assume a well located in the center of
rectangular shape reservoir. Consider sufficient number of
image wells and find pressure at the well for typical values
of t>O. 02day.
2oort
= 22%, B
0
= 1.78res m
3
/ ST m
3
, J.1 = 1.5x 10-
3
= 3000psi
c=5x10-
6
Psr', k = 80mD, rw = 0.25ft, q = 300stb/ day
A well close to constant pressure boundary
A -similar as before can be used for the case
where an active well is close to a constant pressure

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boundary (e.g. fanned by a gas cap borders a slightly-
dipping oil reservoir). In that case the Image well should
be an injection well (-q) rather than producer.
Exercise#22 show that for a well close to a constant
pressure boupdary for the late time solution using semi-log
-------------- --- . ----=-----------
approximation the slope of draw down curve log
------------------------------------------ ... --- - -.. ... .. ------
plot is zero.
1
,
-----....._.....- - Y 1 .,.,._ z) r4! be v.
L.O Vi vf.' 1
_ .. (! . '{;; J6 P,a Cj
-- ----------.
-----
)_
Department of Chemical & Petrolewn Engineering, Sharif University ofTe<;hnology, Tehran, IRAN .. C <>' 9 < ___.. 104 ' , ___ __ ___ __.
--- l
- - - -... --

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5-Pseudo steady state single phase flow
(pseudo steady state or sen1i steady state flow represents
the condition that exists when the pressure throughout the
changes linearly with time.) As said before this
does not occur in the reservoirs with incotnpressible fluid
therefore applications of the semi-steady state flo\v to
describe the flow behavior include slightly compressible
fluids (either linear, radial or spherical geometries) and
compressible fluids (linear, radial or spherical geometries).
Here we only study the problem of slightly cotnpressible
fluid under radial geometry. For a well located in a large
reservoir and producing at a constant rate under unsteady-
state regime, there is a pressure disturbance in the reservoir
that travels throughout this infinite-size reservoir. During
this transient flow period, reservoir boundaries have no
effect on the pressure behavior of the well. As soon as the
pressure. disturbance reaches all drainage boundaries, this
ends a different flow regime begins that is called pseudo
steady (semi-steady) state flow (see figure below).
No-flow Boundry
__ ..,...... ---. -_{/'/

'l_.!/
'.l;'-1
1//
I'I_,

/.,:,-
'/,
j ........_ _____ .........___ _____ ____.,.--
. rw r r,
A)Pvs.r

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Reservoir Engineering I, Mohscn Masihi
At radius r
-
-
(OP\
----:- ) . =Constant
OL ' '
tl t2 . t3 Time
B)P vs.Tinie
5-1 Slightly compressible fluid and redial geometry
Consider radial flow regime with semi-steady state
condition into a well which leads to an equation for
pressure drawdown in a well.
q =constant
Pressure t r--...,;..._ .
f h
I..____._ _ ____,
r.,

For a well producing at a constant flow rate under semi-
steady state the drainage volume is related to the pressure
decline through material balance. . Consider material
balance on reservoir (tank model) with an average pressure-
p where the total amount of oil is M
dM = pV r/Jc
1
dp =-pq =mass flow rate out of reservoir
dt dt
-ldV dp dV
c, = V dp => c,Vdp=-dV => ctV dt =- dt =-q
dp- -q - -5.615q
dt - V c
1
= trre
2
hcr
A = tr re
2
drinage area
Department of Chemical & Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 106

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Because the pressure at every point in the reservoir is
changing at the same rate so, it leads to the conclusion that
the average reservoir pressure is changing at the same rate.
Substitution in diffusivity equation gives:
= p..ct op = -5.615qp
r ar or 0.00633k at rcre
2
kh
Integrating gives (r. opJ = -
8873
q; r
2
+c.
. or kh 2
Using outer boundary condition (no flow):
C = 141.2 qB,U
l kh
Substitute C
1
into the equation and integrating once again,-
op = 141.2 qBJl
or kh r re
q J1 ( r r
2
)
p- Pw =141.2- ln---
2
kh rw 2re
2
where negligible
re
for r=re
. /
/ I I . / :-'--- -
J I . ./' 0 ...,:f.-e.-If
. .__-o/ .;.. /' (:) ,, :
-
/ .-- \:,,.- c\c"J
r /
-,..., 1 l--.. k p
___. u - r:
; I c. 1
The outer boundary pressure cannot be measure directly so
it used to write the
obtained the
as: -f-
107.
/

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ReseiVoir Engineering I, Mohsen Masihi
Note that P-Pw and P-Pw do not changing but P,Pw,P do
change.
Note that the skin factor, if exists, can be accounted for by
having an artificially changing well radius (called effective
wellbore radius due to skin
The alternative solution for semi steady state flow regime
can be obtained by solving diffusivity equation provided
the appropriate boundary and. initial conditions for a well
in a circular drainage area. a well located at t
of a circular servoir with no flow at the outer
boundary and___Q_onstant flow rate into the wellbore; then,
tile governing PDE with initial and boundary conditions
are,
1 a ( aP) ct11 aP
r ar r ar == 0.006328k at

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BC# 1: constant flow rate at the well bore
khrw apl yields ap
q = o.oo7os a
J1B r r=rw ar r=rw
qJ1B
0.00708khrw
BC#2: no flow boundary
aP
=0
ar r=re
IC: initial pressure
P ( r, t = 0) = Pi
(ijgrst an van Everdngell) ( 1949 found the solution of

_(i.e. late time when the boun
pressure disturbance) as,
J u:'
!.,'
\ / 'Ai I''
.j\ \ J''
':'/' 0' / c 11
@ Y- /.
141.2qj1B ( re 3) qB
Pwf =Pi- kh -1.79 h
2
t
rw 4 Ct re
---- -- ---- - -- -----------------
\)' .:i ", \f
Sn"" .. c:1
{J
This shows that pr-essi!re- lineatJ.y_ with /'
-- \ ... '-'
. .. dpw _ qB ) . \,;):
tune dt - -1. re2 hsr '-which shows that
the slope of the derivative curve atlate time can gives the
drainage We also remember frotn material balance
the time t is,
CtAh(Pi- Pr) Ct(nrl)h(Pi- Pr)
t= =-------
5.615qB 5.615qB

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Hence, by substitution we get the same equation as before,
kh P- Pwf
q == 0.00708 [ r. ]
JiB ln _g_- 0.75
. rw
5-2 Effect of non -circular drainage area
Often we see the cases where the drainage area is not
circular and/ or the well is not located at the center of the
drainage area.l A simple case rriay be a well bounded
set of linear faults which may have a polygon drainage
area./ As before, for this case we can use the superposing
solution of image wells.
d well d

For a well in a rectangular reservoir, we can use an infinite
array of image wells arranged Of1 a lattice to find
. the solution by -thepressure
pu_lse the
behavior as,
P. = P + 70 6 qJ1B Ei (- )
w l kh 41]t
the long-!ime sellll_steaAY_ state solution as
below, -

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p = p. _ 141.2qpB (ln re _ _ 1.
79
qB t
wf l kh rw 4 Ctcf>hri
With re = -JA/rr
And except that the constant term may be different so,
incorporating the constant in the logarithm term yields,
2
1141.2qJ1B ( re ) qB
Pwr =Pi-
2
kh ln -
3
- - 1.79
2
t
-4 Cthre
e rw
1141.2qJ1B 4A qB
Pwf =Pi-
2
kh ln
3
- 5.615 Ctcf>hA t

3
Defining t = 1.781 (Euler's number2 and cA =
4
:ez (well
centered in the circular reservoir) and replacing them into
the above equation gives,
70.6qJ1B 4A qB
Pwf =pi- kh ln yCArJ- 5.615 Ctcf>hA t
Pi: Psia, Pw
1
: Psia, q: STB' 11= cp, B: bbl, k: mD, h: ft, A: te, rw: ft,
Day STB
tt: Psi-
1
, t: Day ;}
z . / r/ _ , r/
t y) r:-
the same units except for the tlme which expresses in
hours we have, - --
P 162.6qJ1B l 4A 5 5 qB If). 5 .S
wf = pi - kh og yCArJ - '
61
CthA t
Hence, rather than developing a separate equation for each
geometry; a correction factor that is called the Dietz shape
factor, CA, is used. t to be the time for whic_h
well
4
has been at a reasonably steady state rate of
production then using average reservoir pressure this is,

Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN Ill

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70.6qi1B 4A
Pwf == Pr- kh In
Using the material balance and rei?lacing the average
with initial reservoir pressure gives,
5.615qBt ------

(__ r - ;(- 70:;JlB :if
Pwf == pi - CtAh - kh In 1.781CArJ
This shows that for a well at the center of a circular
reservoir,
3
4rre2
CA == == 31.6
y
The values of shape factors for other simple geometry are,
CA = 12.9
EB
CA =22.6
[- ------- -f _________ ,,
'
__________ j __________ _
'
'
'
'
'
112

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Magnitude of CA depends on shape of area being drained
andJ_he po.s-itien respect to the boundary.
Shape factors decreases as:
-drainage area become more non-circular
-location of the well become off center
CA
Hence, by determining J?ieJz----s-h -- -
reasonably estimate th drainage vo u e.
one can
Example: a well has been on production in an oil reservoir
for 100 hrs. Available data are:
= 21%, Bo = 1.4 rm
3
I stm
3
, h = 15m, )1 = 2 x 10-
3
Pa.s,
C=2x10-
9
Pa"
1
,-P;=240bar, q=200stm
3
/day, rw =0.l5m
thr 0 1
. 3
5 8 15 30
50 .
70 100
Pw(bar) 240 201 199 198 196 193 185 176 170 159
(a) Check the applicability of_Jine source solution and
validity.
lL s VU--
(b) Estimate the permeability, skin and drainage area using
provided data. ---- ... t'- . ?'
. 6' )'l 1 \ (
1\ \o C.."
\) . 0
--?
Solution:

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Th 1 m- -jlq
e s ope Is -
4
trkh
= -1.857
=>
k = 185mD
210
y = 1.8571x + 201.01
200
190
3:
a..
180
170
160
150
0 2 3 4 5
Ln t
To determine the skin:
2S =Pi - _Pw (t = lhr) kt 2-0.8091 => S = 3.6
m . J.-U)c
1
r iP
To the drainage area we look at the late time
behavior of semi steady state regime
- pq ( 2trk 1
1
( 4A J sJ
p=p.- t+-n +
w
1
2trkh pc
1
A 2 yCAr; .
From the following graph the slope is,
= -q = -0.36
___ .. hc
1
A
:::> A= 51440m
2
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, S]larifUniversity ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 114

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Reservoir Engi neering I, Mohsen Masihi
210 .----------------.
200
190
180
170
y = -0.3645x + 195.28
160
150
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
time
To determine CAwe extrapolate this line to t=O which
gives Pw =Po= 195bar. Hence the equation becomes:
Po= P;- Jlq (In
-InCA+ 2SJ
47rkh rrw
which gives CA=2.08
Exercise#23 For a well situated at the centre of a regular
drainage area find an approximate transition time
from transient regime to semi steady state regime in terms
f d
. . l . d fi d 0.006328k
o a new Imension ess time e 1ne as tvA == t
J1Ct't'A
(hint: equate the transient and semi steady state solutions).
Then with the following available data, estimate this
transition time for a well situated at the centre of a square
drainage area of side size (1OOft or 200ft).
=30%, k = 50mD, JL = lcp,c=l5xl0-
6
psi-
1
,CA=30.9, rw = 0.3ft
Depanment of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 115

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Example: Compare the time to reach pseudo steady state
for a well producing in an oil reservoir (with
f1 = 1.5cp, c
1
= 15 x 1 o-
6
psr) and a well producing in a gas
reservoir (withJL = 0.015cp,cr = 400xl0-
6
psr
1
).
5-3 Compressible fluid and redial geometry
Again for compressible fluids such as gases, the definition
of semi steady state regime is the same except instead
the value of is conStant. Hence the same
methodology as described for steady state flow regime can
be potentially applicable here.
Exercise#24 Derive an expression_for radial flow of highly
compressible fluids under semi steady state condition.
Show all steps clearly.
5-4 Productivity"index and IPR curves
used of the well to
th_e __ J) This is defined as tlie
ratio of the total liquid flow rate-to._Uiepressure drawdown,

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0
ReseiVoir Engineering I, Mohsen Masihi
J =- q_
(P- Pwt )
It_ is obvious _fl_ow period, the
calculated values of the productivity index will vary
depending upon the time at which the measurements of
Pwf are made. Hence, practically this productivity index
shows the well productivity potential tneasured at pseudo-
steady state conditions. f.gr_this_flo_w_r_e_gime in presence__.9f
datnage . . ..
P - Pwr --,,"\
q- I
' - J1B ln re - 0. 7 5 + S )
rw
The above equation is combined with the productivity
/"'
index to give, .
_____.-'" <'
I F' . 5 . 1 ;(-
' lr' / . --
0.00708kh STB .--- r:(Jt/Jcs_Y ,(Q 1'
1
-'- _
PI- . .-
- J1B (In re - 0.75 + s) Day. Psi /0t ---u;- (r:v
rw ' ..-e:_
Since most of the well life is spent' in a flow regime that is
approximating the pseudo steady-state, the productivity
il)dex is_a valuable tnethodology for predicting the future
well per_formance.
index during the life of a well, it is possible to see if the
well has-become __ .. damaged due to completion, workover,
production, injection operations, or mechanical problems.
A comparison of productivity indices of different wells in
the same reservoir should also indicate some of the wells

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Reservoir Engineering I, Moi1Sen Masihi
might have experienced unusual difficulties or damage
during completion. Productivity index can be increases by:
a) removal of skin (acid treatment)
b) increase of permeabthty
c) viscosity reduction (thermal
d) reduction ofBo (choice of separator)
Since the productivity indices may vary fro1n well to well
-------
because of the variation in thickness of the reservoir, it is
helpful to Pofmalize by dividing each by the
..._____ - -
thickness of the wei . 1s Is defined as the specific
........

f>. - ... _ -
r _ _ q o.oo7oak
ils-------
1 5
Assuining that the well's productivity index ts __ const'!nt
and rewriting, _:.r
fD ) - (1) /I Gi!(L;_,,.L ;,'L
q = ]\..r - Pwt or Pwt = P- ] q 7/.
The above expression shows that the plot Pwt against q is
a straight line with a slope of -1/J as shown in below .
. .
; &te. S . .... .. . .. 7--


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This graphical representation of the relationship that exists
between the oil flow rate and botto1n-hole flowing pressure
is called the Inflow Performance Relationship and
referred to as IPR.
'
Lvt ) f(.,L "j1 CL{
/', A or: J7Q l-en ll Ctt ----" r I .,.> L/
J'iote tha. __ . __ .f nd !!.' = AOF absolute open flow which
is ___ or formation potential. Although in
practice this may not be a condition at which th_e well can
-
produce, it is a useful definition that has widespread
applications in the petroleu1n industry (e.g., companng
flow potential of different wells in the field).
Example: Assume pseudo-steady state and drainage radius
is 2980 ft in previous example. What portion of the
pressure drawdown is lost in the skin zone?
Solution:
3.7 0 3 0
--::-----:---- - 1 or 31 Yo
In (
2980
J' -I+ 3. 7 - .
0.328 4
Example: Assume that the well has been stimulated
( acidized) and the original permeability restored in the skin
zone. By 'Nhat percent PI increases?
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 1!9

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Solution:
ln(-re )-l_+s In(
2980
)-l_+ 3.7
rw 4 _ 0.328 4 = 1.
44
ln( 2980) _l_
4
0.328 4
rw
or 44%
Exercise#25 A well-reservoir system is given with the
following data: re = 1100
1
,pi= 4200psia,k = 75md,J.1o = 30cp
h = 48
1
, rw = 3.5
11
, Bo = 1.25bbl I stb, f1p = 900 psia What is the rate
of production at ideal condition (no damage)? What is the
&ate if the well is damaged so that the average rock
I
/
damaged radius if damaged zone permeability is reduced
' to 12% of its original value? What is the flow efficiency
(FE=PiactuaiiPiideat) of the well?
Example: A productivity test has been conducted on a
well. The test results indicate that the well is capable of
P
roducing at a stabilized flow rate of 110 STB and a
.. Dey
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 900 Psia. After shutting
the well for 24 hours, the botton1-hole pressure reached a
static value of I 300 Psia. Calculate the productivity index,
AOF, oil flow rate at a bottom-hole flowing pressure of
600 Psia and wellbore flowing pressure required to
produce 250 ST B 1 d.
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN . 120

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Solution:
110 STB
J = = 0.275---
1300 - 900 Day. Psi
STB
AOF = 0.275(1300- 0) == 357.5 -
Day
STB
q = 0.275(1300- 600) = 192.5 _. -
Day
. yields
250 == 0.275( 1300- Pwr) Pwr == 390.9 Psia
The effect of skin can also pro4!:tctivityjndex as
seen in figure below:
IPR for saturated oil/gas wells may not be a straight line
and it may exhibit some curvature. Then J can be defined
as the ratio of the rate to the drawdown. A decreasing
productivity ___ in rate may hap_Qen. (;
Several __ _ __ suggested to _ repLesent)
in presence of gas and two phase (e.g.0
Vogel, Standing, Wiggin and Fetkovich etc.). For example,
Vogel equation (1969) is:
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 12!

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Knowledge of IPR behavior need in the regulating
allowable production in a well and correct forecasting of a
well and field producing potentiality. In a radial flow most
of pressure drop occurs close to wellbore. Suppose a
reservoir with Pres> Ph but with P w <Psat then as oil
approaches the wellbore gas come out of solution so GOR
is increased and J decreased as the drawdown pressure
. increases. As long as P w remain about the psa\ J will
remain fixed so this portion .of IPR curve is straight line.
In the case of stratification (layer reservoir) the IPR curve
can also be obtained. Consider 3 different zones with
k1=IO, k
2
=100 and k
3
=1 md. Figure below shows the
individual IPR's of these zones. The composite IPR will be
some of three curves.
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 122

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ISOO
1200

.,j
1\
I \
I \
t- \

I \"',
I I ',
I \ '
I I ',
1 I '
I 1 '
I \ '
I I ',
I I \.
: ' ',
'1-md '\ IOOrtld
' IM< I '\
: I '\
I I \
l \
\ I \
I \ \

Product;on rate

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6-Two phase fluid flow in porous media
So far we have studied a single phase flow; however, in
reality there is multiphase flow in any reservoir such as
oil/water or gas/oil etc. N_Qte that we have represented the
conductallce of a porous media by a
we define f!!ective kef!
as a measure of the conguctance of the porous medium to
one_f!uid _g_hase in the presence of the others]Aiso relative
permeability kr is defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability of one fluid and the base permeability (e.g. at
100% saturation) that depends on the phase saturation.
With the concept of the effective permeability to each
phase and the associated physical properties _Ft;; CilD extel)g
the applicability Q-f-W Darcy's equation to rnu1ti
a radial system, the generalized form of the
Darcy's equation is,
Water phase Flow:
Oil phase Flow:
Gas phase Flow:
Vw = 0.001121_kkrw o:w
Jl.w vX
V = 0.001121 kkro oPo
o Jlo ox
Vg 0.001121 kkrg oPg
Jl.g ox
that pressures in at each point in reservoir
are related by capillary pressure (defined as the
pressure difference between non-wet and wet fluid) where
kro, krw and Pcap =Po- Pw are functions of Sw and reflect
the surface and wettability forces of the fluid-rock system.

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0
k';o
I .
' I
I
lrre.:ludble
vVater
Saturation
End point
relative
k'rw parrnabihty .
f
1
..
Residual
OH
Saturation
Also the definition of Ct is different from single phase as it
.
IS,
Ct = SwCw + S
0
C
0
+ S
9
C
9
+ Cr
Water flooding is one of the most important with which
we can describe multiphase flow. For _this case and also for
the gas injection process, analytic methods are used for
analyzing displacement-type reservoir. Water flooding
were done under fixed reservoir pressure (above the
bubble point), at a fixed oil rate or total rate (oil and water)
until decline. But availability of injection fluid makes the
water injection as the main intervention method used in
reservoir development; however disposal of produced oily
water to the sea is one of the challenging and need a
recycle process where rather than a once through process
the water is re-injected into the formation. In this chapter

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we develop analytical methods for estimating the oil
recovery in such situations.
B_cl_Qif3 start let's __ some_ of water injection:
Zone with an with energy
support faulting can result in isolated zones.
Sealing Faull
. . kmu
Oil viscosity: the endpoint water/oil mobility ratioM=
<...... _____ .. ----- ---- - .--- ---- .... ... ----- .. . . . - ro f.Lw
affe9t flo_w__hehavior. __at_microscopic scale as shown below
but at
-- -------------
lnrection PrOduction Injection ProrJuction
Oil
M<1 M>l
Stable Dispfacernenl Unstable .Displacement
The residual oil __ __ js_ ____ b_o_ld _ _l2y the
competition between the
- ---- - ____ _____ ... _ ......... . . . -- --- . - - - -------

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viscous flow forces with fluid flow 10-
40% of the pore space).
S.vept
Zonr::
At the field scale formation and well locations causes some
of the rock to be unswept by the water leads to two
residual oil saturations in the swept portions oil at Sor and
in the unswept portions oil at Swc
\Natt2r
Oil at Flosidu<::.l
We the governing PDE flow equation at larger scale
___ of](r
and Pc curves.
Department of Chemica(& Petroleum Engineering, ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN 127

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6-1 Buckley Leverett analysis
__
relative permeability that is _ used to the diffuse
flow-- __ -- Iilcompressib Ie
flow with no capillary pressure ( field-scg.l.e=waterflooding)
in lD. This also called From
M.B on an element in lD can be written and solved to find
the saturation profile as a function of distance and time.
,'"1 A
I I
I I
' '
x' X
1
+dx
PwUwAix dt- PwUwA/x+dx dt = PwSwA.dx./t+dt PwSwA.dx./,
- apwUw = do apwSw _rP
ax 'jf at _ 1 (\ .
For constant density,

!l
OSw + Ouw =O
at ax
Similarly for oil: -< /:v
as 0 + auo = 0 >./
at ax
Adding these equations gives:
a( Sw +Sa) a( Uw + Ua)
+ =0
ar ax

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Defining total velocity a s ~ gives,
,_ aut ;ax ;!6 ~ Ut = cte
Means that 1 velocity in every cross section is constant
in lD.Using Darcy's law or water an oil g1ve: ~ - - - - -
~ ~
. _ Kkrw (apw )
Uw- --+pwgx
Jlw ax
Kkro (8P
0
J
uo = -
8
+pogx
J.lo X

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Defining fw as the water fractional flow, uw = fw.ut
Rewriting the above equation,
Uw = Aw + AwA
0
K[ 8Pcap ( _ )]
1 1
a gx Pw Po
Ut '"1 '"tUt
gx(Pw-Po)JJ
For a reservoir with constant dip this fractional flow
equation become, ........ c -- .,,.:_ .
fw = _Aw (1 + Ao K[OPc- JJ .. \field units)
At Ut ax 1.0133 X 10
6

1
', _.
It shol!ld. beJJoted allthe have Darcy's unit
. .- - . - -----2--- --------------------
system in above equation) (i.e., g in em and u The
---- s s --
gravity term is for oil in updip
direction 8>0 and negative fo(4owndip
-------- --- ---- - - - .

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pefine a gravity number:
N
_ { edge water drive (North sea)
G- e.g.
put bottom water drive (piston like) N G = 10.3
No =0.22
This term not only considers gravity effects but also
term. Rewnte water mobility to -total
mobility and inserting it in the fractional flow equation,
a) If water injected downdip then the gravity number IS
i.e. reducing the fractional flow of water.
.
( ape - ape
b) The capillary pressure term_.- ax - asw ax is positive i.e.
increasing the fractional flow .. very
I
I
I jO
1 L C
I
I
I
' r
l
I
I
I
I
I
X
131

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= 0) as a function of
.
endpoint mobility ratio M = .
1
fw
0
0 Swc
Viscous fingering can take place if the mobility of
displacing phase is much greater than the mobility of the
displaced phase. typical fractional flow curve as __ a
function of n = NGk;;ax sinB fo!__M 1.
0
0
132

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For sufficiently strong gravity (fw >1 and fo <0)
counter-current flow of oil and water i.e. water moves
downhill while oil moves uphill. -- that the relative
permeabi tio rna be expressed as a
------ . !k -bS
saturation b ' krw ro = ae - w)
Buckley-Leverett solution
_ for the fractional flow equation (where the
total- flow is constant) under the diffuse flow conditions
means that the saturations at any point in the
4irection of linear displacement are uniformly
over the thickness can be easily obtained.l Thi_s __
lD analysis for the flow modeling .
... _.____ ------------------------
This is where the injection rates are high preventing the
establishing of vertical equilibrium and for low injection
rates where the thickness of the reservoir is small
compared to thickness of transition zone.
\
\
133

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Re-writing the saturation equation,
8Sw + OUw = 0 => asw +!i_ atw = 0
at ox at ax
8Sw+v8fw=O
at ax
where v = uw I is an is,

asw +v ofw 8Sw = O
at 8Sw ax
I.C & B.C are:
{
Sw(t = 0) = Swi = Swc
Sw(x = 0) = Swo = 1- S
0
r &fw(x = 0) = 1 at well
Using dimension less variable xn =xI L
; JytD = 1 vdt= 1 1 qdt
1
1 ' the eore volumes of flui<!_ Dimension less
form of the equation will be,
8Sw +v 8fw asw O => 8Sw + Bfw 8Sw =O
at asw ax - 8tv asw 8xn
Define the new variable as, vn = xn I tn
asw 8vn + Bfw (asw BvnJ=O
Ovn 8tn asw Ovn &n
dSw(- vn + 1 dfwJ=O =>
dvn tn tn dSw _
dSw ( dfw J-o
- - -vn+ -
dvn dSw
134

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Non-trivial solution is,
This is B.l,_ equation which is velocity of a plane of
Sw moving through the linear system. Hence, for
a constant rate of Water injection the velocity of a plane of
constant water saturation is directly proportional to the
dei1Y.ative of the fractional flow equation evaluated for that
saturation.
a)Very viscous oil
f.::: 1
I
I
I
. I
I
I
s _ __.... 1 - s.,

\
!\
.. .____ __ .)
'
___ maximum is at Sw just greater than Swc and
decreases to a minitnum at Sw==l-Sor.
Breakthough in very viscous oil occurs with low Sw (just
greater than Swc) and then gradually increases.

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VVater
Producer
X
b)Very light oil and gravitationa! force:
f.,= 1
-------------------.7:
I :
/
I I
I
L
s... s. -- 1 . s.. S . --+- 1 S,
The max velocity is at highest saturation Sw = 1-S
0
r related
to a _guick build up of a shock so until the shock front
arrives only water free oil is produced.
Water
Injector
X
Producer
136

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c) Typical medium viscosity oil I density. (S shape):
f .. = 1

I
I
I . \b
..
Water saturation profile in the displacement path indicates
that multiple water saturations can co-exist at a given point
in the reservoir which is physically impossible
What actually occurs is that the intermediate yalues of the
water saturation which have the maximum velocity, will
imtrnlly tend to overtake the lower saturations resulting in
. of a saturation discontinuity or shock front.
To draw the correct water saturation profile using the BL
requires the determination of the vertical dashed line such
that shaded areas A and B are. equal.
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN !37

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v\latcr
Injector
. .
ProducEH
l
X
Capillary and gravity may modify the sham front as shown

in figure below. It is clear that these cause a smearing
effect on the interface .
. 1_-

Gravity
.
... ,...-
Ct. '""-
v .,,; ..,._ _____ __,_...;;...__ __ _

Because of this discontinuity BL approach which assumes
that saturation Sw is continuous and differentiable; wilf f?e
1nappro priate to describe .the.._situatiQll_Jl_!_!he __ tse I f.
a shock moving at sj)eed Vsh-:j
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnolqgy, Tehran, IRAN 138

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X
Considering the change in mass as the shock moves in a
time dt and writing M.B,
ut (Pwlt- = Vsh( )Pw
u
1
(1t- u
1
!lfw
vsh = =
( - l'hlw
(Rankine-Hugoniot condition)
R{Sw =Swc
r -0
Jw-
Swr is the saturation of the shock front. This can be found
from the following graph.
J):f fwls
_ Yw _ wf
1

Sw lfw =1 - Swc
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Teluan, IRAN
139

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. sw1, f,.. . Is 4' II
. . c
. I
: I
l I
: I
I
I
1 - s ...
Breakthrough occurs when x=L or xn= 1 so,
1 Swf -Swc
vn=- 'n= I
tn. fw s
wf
_ _(1952) construction of integrating the
over the distance from the iQjection
point to front thus obtaining the 9.:_yerage water
. ront used to ....
Water saturation at the front (Swr) and average saturation
behind the fluid front can be determined graphically.
I S., t----
s ..
s...:t--------+o--,--.,..---
Department ofChem.ical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University ofTechnology, Tehran, IRAN !40

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Consider the saturation path at a fixed time
The average saturation behind x1D is:
xn dfw
but we had vD = tn = dSw
One case at front shock,
_ 1- fwls
Sw(tD) = Swf + wf
dfw
dSw S
wf
dfw
dSw S
wf

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Previously we have shown that,
dfw 1
VshD =-d'-(ll - S I S
uw s s w ~ w = l we
w= wf ;,
dfw
1- fwls
wf
1
dSw S - Sw-Swf - Swlr =1-Swc
wf Jw
Graphically the extension of the tangent to fw == 1 gives the
average saturation behind the front
1- S"'
Before breakthrough oil recovered is simply equal to the
volume of water injected no water production during this
-
phase so Sw = Swc + t D . At breakthrough time the flood front
saturation reaches the producing well and the reservoir
water cut increases suddenly from zero to fwlsw
1
which
confirms the existence of a shock front.

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Exercise#26 Neglecting gravity, find the Buckley-Leverett
shock speed, the water saturation at the shock, and time to
breakthrough if Sor = 0.3, Swc = 0.2, kr:ax = 0.8, kr;:vax = 0.5,
f.iw =10-
3
kgm-
1
s-
1
, f.io =10-
3
kgm-
1
s-
1
, k=l0-
13
m
2
,
= 10-
2
ms-
1
, L = 0.4 m
(
1-S -S )
2
(s S )
2
k = kmax or w k = kmax w we
ro ro ( 1 - S or - S we ) 2 ' rw rw ( 1 - S or - S we ) 2
----------------- --- ----------....... .
of
= 0.3
'
Welge's work enables us to e ermine oil recovery). Plot
of oil recovery versus time (Npn vs. tn). We know that,
Sw = Swc + N pD . --Choosing different saturation points __ Swt
(e.g. every 5% above the saturation at breakthrough) then
from t D = l I find Sw and hence Npn - . -
_ _ 1- fwls
N pD = Sw- Swc = ( Swl -Swc )+( Sw -Swl )=(Swl -Swc )+ r
- . . dfwl dSw swl
t
f;,

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Recovery can be plotted as a function of time. Before tbr .
recovery is linear (oil recovered=water injected) after that
recovery depend on fractional flow curve above the
breakthrough saturation.
Brcaktlrrough
Time ---.-
Exercise#2 7 For each of the cases below provide a graph
of: (i) Sw as a function of v
0
=x
0
/t
0
; and (ii) pore volumes
of oil produced Npn as a function of t
0
. In all cases
Swi=Swc=0.2. There is no gravity and the relative
permeabilities are given by:
k = kmax (Sw -Swcr k = kmax (1-Sor -Sw t M =.&_ e ~ a x
rw IW ( 1- sor - SWC r , ro ro ( 1- sor - swc t ' Jlw k,:ax
a) A strongly water-wet rock with a= 3, b = 1, k ~ a x = 0.18,
k':oax =0.9, Swc = 0.2, Sar = 0.4 and Pw =f-Lo (M = 0.2).
b) An oil-wet rock with a= 1, b = 3, k::Vax= 0.9, k::ax=0.18,
Swc = 0.2, Sar = 0.1 and l1w = Jlo (M = 5).
c) Repeat part (a) forM= 5 and M =50.
d) Repeat part (b) forM= 0.2 and M =50.
e) Comment on the results. Is it better to waterf1ood a
water-wet or an oil-wet reservoir? What is the effect of
mobility ratio on recovery?

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Example: For a constant rate water injection 1,200
bbl/d/well in a direct line drive in a reservoir assuming that
diffuse flow conditions prevail and that the. injection
project starts simultaneously with oil production from the
reservoir, determine:
1) Time when breakthrough occurs
2) Cumulative oil production as a function of both the
cumulative water injected and the time.
Data Sumnmr)
Sw
Krw
/
"ro
Watl'r visl:osit) u ::::
0.5 cp
0.20 0.000 0.880
\\'
0.25 0.002 0.671
()j!
\'JSCOSilY ll =: 4.5 Cj)
0.30 0.010 0.517
'6
luitial H atu s.al urat i on $\\(:::::
0.20
035 0.021 0.401
oil saw ration Sor=
-o ?('
0..40 0.0:35 0.314
.... J
0.45 0.054 0.242
I t\ <.p:::: 0.22 0.50 0.079 0.179
Dip angle 0::::
oo
0..55 0.105 0.132
0.60 0.139 0.089
rhickmss h:::: 50 fl 0.65 0.1/9 0.055
Di\lilllC\.' bri\H'CJI ir1jrctiun wdl \\ 800 ft
0.70 0.218 0.030
-
0 "" 0.264 0.011 _/0
- irl_jrctors it ltd producrrs
f.;;:.:
2.000 ft O.BO 0.315 0.000
Solution:
Viscosity ratio is Jiw I Jlo = 0.11 and fractional flow equation
/, -11(1 + krof-lw J
(horizontal flow) w_- krwf.lo can be calculated and
plotted versus Sw. From this graph:
Water saturation at breakthrough is: Swbt = 0.45
Fractional flow at breakthrough is: fwbt = 0.665
Extrapolated Savg at fw = 1 is: Savg = 0.572

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Fractional flow versus water satmat.ion
1
. .
: ...
. ..
0.9
I I I I I
------,------T-----r------, -------r -
I I I I
0.8
, Water breiaktrougb ::-
t I 1 I I I
............. .................... ....... ..... ................. L .................. I ................... ............. ..
I 't I I . I I I
: : ' Sw : :
1 , 1 I I t I I I
0.7 -- - - - - -- - - - - t - - ... - -- - -:- - - - - - - - --- - - .. - - - -- - -- - -- - - .. - - - - - -:- -- - ---- - - - - -- -
1 1 1 I I I I I
1 I I I : ; : : :
1 I I I I I I I I
0.6
0

0.5

...
{;
0.4
Lt
1 I I I. I I I I I
0 0 0 I I I I I
1 I I I I I I I
1 1 I I 1 I I I
1 I I .. I I I I I
........ - ..... .., ....................... ,. ... ..................... , ................ .. ... ... ... ........ r- ......... - - - ... , ......... - ......... - r ..................... , ....................... " ............... ...
1 I I # I I I f I
.6 I I I "t I I
,.- I I I I I I
I I I I I I
-- .. -- .. .! .. ------ ... :- .. ---- ... :..: .. -- _J_ ... -- .. ... :.. ... -- ... -.-- ..! .. --- ... --- .. : .. - ..... ----!-- ... -- .....
1 I I .. I I I I I I
1 1 I 1 1 I I I
1 I I I I I I I
t I I .. . I I I I I
0.3
I .I I I I I I I I
-- ... - ..... -.t- ..... ... --- -.. -.. ... -.. -.. --:-- .. -.-...... --: .. --- ..... -.. ...... ---- !- ............ --- t------ -
: : . f : : . : : : :
1 I ..... I I t I I I
I t. I I I I I I I
0.2
-- ....... --\- ------T- .......... ..;. .. : ................. ; --- ........... :.. ................ ..: .. :. ............ --- ......... -:-- .. ----- ....... ----
1 I I I I 1 I I I
I I .6 I I I I I I
0.1
I I ,.- I I I I I I
: : ! : : : : : : :
- .. - .. --., .. - ............. "" .. .. .., ..................... , .. .. .. .. ...... ,.. ............... ., .................. r- .. - ........... , .................... .., ............... ..
: : : . : : 0 45 : : ' :
: : : I ' : : :
0
0 0.1 0.2 .. 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 1
Water saturation
Oil recovery is: N pD =. Sw- Swc = 0.372(PV)
PV = hLW = 1.76 X 10
7
ft
3
q = 1200 bbl/d
tbr = Recovered oil 0.372PV =
971
days
Flow rate q
calculation after breakthrough,
Allow Swe water saturation at producing end of the block
to and _g!aphically obtain Save then
USe rt.--;: r I ;
' vJ.;.J--:-, t 0 JvU.)
../ . rl
-.. ......... _ V\0 '-\
Npv = Sw- Swc .... .....__ _______ __./
(Sw- Swe) + (Swe- Sw3Cswe- SwJ + f'we
dSw S
we
Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN . 146

#_>
http://cea.ir
AtSw = 0.6
Since we must approximate dfwf with two known
dSw S
we
. . 1 1 t d t
0
'
6
+
0
.
55
0 575
saturation so, It may ca cu a e . a Swe ==
2
= . as,
dfw fw,at sw=0.6- fw,at sw=0.55 0.934- 0.878
dSw Sw=0.
575
""' 0.6 - 0.55 = 0.6 - 0.55
= 1.12
But according to above table fw,at sw=o.
575
= 0.905 therfore,
1-0.905
Npv = (0.575- 0.2) + = 0.4598
. 1.12
But as mentioned after breakthrough we have,
1 1 1
tv = Vv == dfw I = 1.12 = 0.8928
. . dSw Swe
Water injected yields
R . . = 0.8928 water injected
eservozr pore volume
= 0.8928 X 3134461.2 = 2798446.9 bbl
2798446.9
t = ----= 6.389 Years
1200
One can do above procedure for other saturation and
construct below table.
Department of Chemical & Petrolewn Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 147

#_>
http://cea.ir
.
f J
J
_J
J
.J
Sw:c ....... .., .:.\S\'Ie .:.\1\v</ Swe:
0.45 0.665 <" At . brcak!h:ougtl
0.05 O.t34 2.68 0.475
0.5 0.799
0.05 0016 1.52 0.525
0.55 0.875
o:os 0.051 1.14 0.575
0;6 0.932
0.05 0.033 0.65 0.625
0.65 O.<t>5
0.05 0016 0.32 0.675
0.7 0.981
0.05 0.013 0.25 0.725
0.75 0.994
0
0.05 (t0Q6 0.12 0]75
0.8 l.OOO
Cumulative
tv
Cumulative
fw
dfwl
Oil
1 Water t
Sw
dSw Swe
Npv
Production
-
dfw
Production (Years)
(MSTB)
dSw
(MSTB)
0.475 0.735 2.62 0.376 6617.6 0.382 6723.2 2.734
0.525 0.841 1.58 0.426 7497.6 0.633 11140.8 4.53
0.575 0.905 1.12 0.46 8096 0.893 15716.8 6.391
0.625 0.950 0.66 0.501 8817.6 1.515 26664 " 10.842.
0.675 0.975 0.36 0.544 9574.4 2.778 48892.8 19.88
0.725 0.988 0.2 0.585 10296 5 88000 35.782
0.775 0.9975 0.1 0.6 10560 10 176000 71.563
12000
Curnml.uivc <dl culnmul.uive Wdltl Injecte-d
12000
10000 - -----. .: . --.-. - .!. -.
0 0 ' ' : j
,
10000 ________ -------- -r---r--------(-----
!
V\
8000

, 000

.,
>
--: ----:----- --- -: --- --i
-- - ..... --- ----. ----- .... .... ... ; ........ .: ......... : ... . ... .
-_-_;==-
lOOO ----j -f---j- -- ----f - - y--- ----1----y- - ----j--- -- --
V i Btt.lktl,jough 1 i ; : ;
. . . : : : :
2000
0
0
: . ! . : : f
L __
20 JO GO 80 100 1l0 UO 1GO lBO
J : .:_c_c .r :.c_c ._ i
i ooo
.
d - , , :: ; : ....... .
Cuuuuul.uive water iujC14HI (ldMSTBt Time (ye.liSI
Department of Chemical & Petwleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, IRAN 148

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