Indoor Environment Control - MEL413 Indoor Environment Control - MEL413

Topics
Introduction: Air conditioning, HVAC systems
Classifications
Applications
Indoor Air quality (IAQ)
Working substance Working substance
Methods for estimating properties of moist air
Gibbs-Dalton Law for a mixture of perfect gases
Important psychrometric properties
Psychrometric chart
M f h i i Measurement of psychrometric properties
Calculation of psychrometric properties from p, DBT and WBT
Psychrometer Psychrometer
Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature or adiabatic saturation
temperature
Air conditioning
Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to
simultaneously control its simultaneously control its
Temperature
Moisture content
Cleanliness
Odor
Circulation Circulation
as required by occupants, a process, or products in the space.
Air conditioning
The science and practice of creating a controlled climate in The science and practice of creating a controlled climate in
indoor spaces.
HVAC systems
A complete heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC)
systemhas the facility to system has the facility to
Heat
Cool
Humidify
Dehumidify
Clean Clean
Distribute
the conditioned air into the room so as to meet the indoor
year-round human comfort or industrial applications.
Large buildings or in large installations like
shopping complexes, academic complexes, research laboratories and shopping complexes, academic complexes, research laboratories and
office complexes
Diff i i diff l l f Different areas requiring different levels of
temperature, humidity and cleanliness
Hotel rooms with each room requiring a different level of temperature
and humidity
The regions with different requirements are divided into
different zones of similar requirements and the system is
integrated for energy optimization.
Conditioned air from a single unit cannot be economically
transported to various locations of a far spread building
complex .
Fan power requirement and the size of the duct to carry
conditioned air and return air will occupy enormous space.
Remedy: Chilled water (summer air conditioning) and hot water
(winter air conditioning) are generated at central place and (winter air conditioning) are generated at central place and
transported in underground insulated pipes to individual
buildings.
Classifications
There are 3 major ways of classifying the air conditioning
systems: systems:
Based upon the arrangement of equipment
Central HVAC system (beyond 20 tons)
U i k d (5 20 ) Unitary or packaged systems (5 to 20 tons)
Windowand Split air conditioner (up to 5 tons)
Combination systems
Based upon the major function
Comfort air conditioning
Industrial air conditioning
Based upon the season
Summer air conditioning systems
Winter air conditioning systems g y
Year-round air conditioning systems
Central HVAC Systems
Based upon the arrangement of equipment
y
components like compressor,
condenser, pumps, cooling tower,
etc. are installed in a central
l t power plant room
This type of system is not really
suitable for hotel or office suitable for hotel or office
buildings where individual room
control is necessary
Also not suited, if the area to be
served is spread out or if it is a
high-rise building
Capacity of the plant depends on
the type of compressor used
R i ti
Fig. 1 Central HVAC system
Reciprocating compressor
Screw compressor
Centrifugal compressor
g y
Unitary or Packaged systems
Based upon the arrangement of equipment
y g y
These are factory assembled or
packaged units
C b t d fl ft Can be mounted on floor or on rooftop
Different types of condensers used ff yp f
Air cooled condenser for smaller capacity
Water cooled condenser for larger capacity
Unit may be hung from the ceiling
Very convenient for single storey
buildings or to serve a single floor of
high-rise buildings.
Fig. 2 Unitary or packaged system
Combination systems
Based upon the arrangement of equipment
Central plant where the water is
chilled in a refrigeration system
and there is a facility such as a and there is a facility such as a
boiler or furnace to heat the
water.
Ideally suited for large buildings,
large installations like shopping
complex, academic complex,
research laboratories and office
complex, etc.
Various control strategies are
used to carry out energy used to carry out energy
optimization by microprocessors
Fig. 3 Combination system
Based upon the major function
Comfort air conditioning
To create indoor conditions conducive to human health, comfort and
efficiency
For the comfort of workers in offices and for the comfort of customers
in stores, restaurants, theatres, hospitals and schools , , , p
Industrial air conditioning
Provides a partial measure of comfort to workers in a hostile
environment
To create an environment conducive to research and industrial
operations in order to maintain manufacturing tolerances in
electronics, space and computer industries and all high speed
automated manufacturing operations
Applications
Industrial Air Conditioning
Laboratories
Comfort Air Conditioning
Residences
Printing
Manufacture of Precision Parts
Textile Industry
Offices
Shopping centers
Stores and super markets Textile Industry
Pharmaceutical Industries
Photographic Material
Stores and super markets
Theatres
Auditorium
Farm Animals
Computer Rooms
V hi l Ai diti i
Operation theatres
Restaurants
L b ildi Vehicular Air-conditioning Large buildings
Indoor Air Quality
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) refers to the ways and means of reducing
and maintaining the pollutants inside the occupied space within
t l bl l l tolerable levels.
IAQ involves specifying suitable levels of
fresh air supply (ventilation),
suitable air filters,
use of proper materials of construction use of proper materials of construction,
furniture,
carpets,
draperies etc.
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Sick building syndrome is very common in poorly designed air
conditioned buildings due to inadequate ventilation and use of
i t i l improper materials.
Sick building syndrome is characterized by the feeling of
nausea,
headache,
eye and throat irritation and the
general feeling of being uncomfortable with the indoor environment.
Working substance
An important aspect in air conditioning is the study of
working substance.
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every
type of air conditioning system.
Th h d di f h i f h i i Thorough understanding of the properties of atmospheric air
and the ability to analyze various processes involving air is
fundamental to air conditioning design. fundamental to air conditioning design.
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of Psychrometry is the study of the properties of
mixtures of air and water vapour, i.e . moist air
Atmospheric air is a mixture of
many gases
water vapour and
a number of pollutants
Above an altitude of about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of
only dry air.
Below this, the amount of water vapor and pollutants vary
d h i t th th f and reaches a maximum near to the earths surface.
Hence the pollutants have to be filtered before processing Hence, the pollutants have to be filtered before processing
the air.
What we process is essentially a mixture of various gases
that constitute air and water vapour.
This mixture is known as moist air.
The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and
i moisture.
F ll ti l th iti f d i b For all practical purposes, the composition of dry air can be
considered as constant.
After filtration
Moist air for conditioning
Fig. 5 Atmospheric air
Composition of standard air
Constituent Molecular weight Mol fraction
Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
Nitrogen 28 016 0 7809 Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809
Argon 39.944 0.0093
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003
The molecular weight of dry air is found to be 28.966 and the gas constant
R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
The amount of water vapour present in the air may vary from zero to a
maximumdepending upon the temperature and pressure of the mixture
(d i + t ) k i th d i iti t t (dry air + water vapour), keeping the dry air composition constant.
When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as
t t d i saturated air.
Methods for estimating properties of moist air
Estimating various properties of air are essential for
performing air conditioning calculations.
Exact property values of moist air is difficult to estimate as it
is a mixture of several permanent gases and water vapour.
However, moist air upto 3 atm. pressure is found to obey
perfect gas law with accuracy sufficient for engineering
calculations calculations.
Goff and Gratch tables (for higher accuracy) Goff and Gratch tables (for higher accuracy).
These tables are based on statistical mechanics that take into
account the real gas behavior of dry air and water vapour
Limitations: Goff and Gratch tables are valid only for a
barometric pressure of 1 atm. barometric pressure of 1 atm.
Mixture models can be used to estimate moist air properties
even for other pressures also, despite of quite complex
calculations involved.
However, since in most cases the pressures involved are low,
one can apply the perfect gas model to estimate
psychrometric properties.
Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture of perfect gases
The total pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum
of partial pressures of the constituent gases.
According to this law each constituent gas is conceived of as According to this law, each constituent gas is conceived of as
existing separately at temperature T and total volume V of the
mixture.
Each gas obeys perfect gas equation Each gas obeys perfect gas equation.
Hence, the partial pressures exerted by each gas, p
1
,p
2
,p
3

and the total pressure p
t
are given by:
p
1
=n
1
R
u
T/V ; p
2
=n
2
R
u
T/V ; p
3
=n
3
R
u
T/V .. (1)
p
t
= p
1
+ p
2
+ p
3
+
where n
1
,n
2
,n
3
, are the number of moles of gases 1,2,3,
Applying this equation to moist air.
p = p
t
= p
a
+ p
v
(2)
where p = p
t
= total barometric pressure
i l f d i p
a
= partial pressure of dry air
p
v
= partial pressure of water vapour
Important psychrometric properties
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist
air as measured by a standard thermometer or other
temperature measuring instruments.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the temperature of the moist
air recorded by a standard thermometer when its bulb is air recorded by a standard thermometer when its bulb is
covered with wet wick or cloth over which air is moving at a
velocity of 2.5 to 10 m/s. y /
Dry bulb temperature simply tells us the temperature of dry air,
b t th f t l d d h idit i t but the comfort also depends on humidity i.e. water vapour
present in the air.
Wet bulb temperature indicates the humidity in the air. Because p y
the evaporation of water in the bulb wick depends on the relative
humidity of surrounding air.
Saturated vapour pressure (p
sat
) is the saturated partial
pressure of water vapour at the dry bulb temperature.
This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts.
Relative humidity () is the ratio of the mass of water vapor Relative humidity () is the ratio of the mass of water vapor
in a given volume of air at any temperature and pressure to
the maximum amount of water vapour which the same p
volume of air can hold at the same temperature and pressure
conditions.
Imp.: The air contains maximum amount of water vapor at the
saturation conditions.
Let v
v
and v
s
be the specific volumes of water vapor in the actual
and moist saturated air at temperature T and in a volume V and moist saturated air at temperature T and in a volume V.
RH () = m
v
/m
s
= (V/v
v
)/(V/v
s
) = v
s
/v
v
= p
v
/p
s
p
v
Partial pressure of water vapor
p
s
Partial pressure of water vapor when the air is fully saturated (This can be p
s
p p y (
obtained from steam tables corresponding to the DBT)
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage When Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When
is 100 percent, the air is saturated.
RH has great influence on evaporation of water in the air and
therefore on the comfort of human beings.
One kg of water vapor is equal to 15,430 grains
Humidity ratio (W) (or specific humidity): is the ratio of the mass
of water vapor to the mass of dry air in the given volume of moist of water vapor to the mass of dry air in the given volume of moist
air. Assuming both water vapour and dry air to be perfect gases,
the humidity ratio is given by:
= =
v
a
mass of water vapor inair
m
W
mass of dry air inair m
=
v
M =18.015
R 461 52 J/kg K
= = = 0.622 0.622
v v
v v
a a a v
p M
p p
p M p p - p
=
=
v
a
a
R 461.52 J/kg.K
M 28.966
R 287.035J/kg.K
For a given barometric pressure p, given the DBT, we can find the
saturated vapour pressure p
t
fromthe thermodynamic property tables saturated vapour pressure p
sat
from the thermodynamic property tables
on steam. Then using the above equation, we can find the humidity ratio
at saturated conditions, W
sat
.
Wis a function of both total barometric pressure and vapor pressure of Wis a function of both total barometric pressure and vapor pressure of
water.
Dew Point Temperature (DPT) : It is the temperature of air
recorded by a thermometer when the moisture present in it recorded by a thermometer when the moisture present in it
starts condensing. Denoted by T
dp
or DPT.
T
Unsaturated moist air holding
T
water vapor at superheated
state
A
T
1
The DPT (saturation
temperature) can be found
from the steam table
corresponding to the partial
DPT (Dew point temperature)
B

corresponding to the partial

pressure of water vapour p
v
s
Dew point temperature
In the case of dehumidification of air, the temperature of the cooling coil
is required to be maintained well below DPT
Degree of saturation ():
= =
v
s
humidity ratio of moist air at temperature T W
humidity ratio of saturated air at the same temperature T W
p
=
)
)
v
v s v
s
s v
p
0.622
p (p - p p - p
=
p
p (p - p
0 622
where W
v
and W
s
are specific humidity of air and saturated air respectively.
p is the partial pressure of water vapor when air is saturated
)
s v
s
p (p p
0.622
p - p
p
s
is the partial pressure of water vapor when air is saturated
p
v
is the partial pressure of water vapor in a moist air
p is the total pressure of moist air
The degree of saturation represents the capacity of moist air to
absorb water vapor
Relative humidity, RH() = p
v
/p
s
= 0 when moist air is totally dry, i.e.
which does not contain water vapor.
If the moist air is saturated, then p
v
= p
s
, then RH = 1 and =1.
Degree of saturation varies from 0 to 1.
Enthalpy of air (h): Air is a homogeneous mixture of dry air and water
vapour. The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air
and the enthalpy of the water vapour and the enthalpy of the water vapour.
Enthalpy of air/kg of dry air = Enthalpy of dry air
+ Enthalpy of Wkg of water vapor
h Wh = h
a +
Wh
v
Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value.
For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0
o
C, and
h
a
= c
pa
T
db
= 1.005 T
db
kJ/kg
Enthalpy change for a perfect gas is a function of temperature only.
For water vapour the enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at
0
o
C.
The enthalpy of water vapor at point A in below figure is expressed as,
h
v
= c
pw
T
dp
+ (h
fg
)
dp
+ c
pv
(T
db
T
dp
)
Enthalpy of moist air
T
Enthalpy of moist air
to be determined
A
T
db
C
A
B
T
dp
c
pw
= specific heat of water (kJ/kg -K)
T
db
= dry bulb temperature
T
dp
= dew point temperature
Reference point
T
dp
0
0
C
(h
fg
)
dp
= latent heat of vaporization
at dew point temperature
c
pv
= specific heat of water vapour
s
Enthalpy of air
p
(kJ/kg -K)
From reference state as 0
0
C,
h = h
a +
W h
v a + v
h = c
pa
T
db +
W [c
pw
T
dp
+ (h
fg
)
dp
+ c
pv
(T
db
T
dp
)]
The reference state of water vapor is 0
0
C, T
d
= 0 The reference state of water vapor is 0 C, T
dp
0
The enthalpy (h
f
) is zero for water at 0
0
C, hence the enthalpy of saturated water
vapor is equal to the enthalpy of evaporation h
fg
at 0
0
C which is approximately 2500
g
kJ/kg. The specific heat of water vapour is 1.88 kJ/kg-K.
Hence, the enthalpy of water vapor at a point which is at temperature T
db
is: , py p p p
db
h
v
= 2500 + 1.88 T
db
Therefore, h = 1.005 T
db
+ W[2500 + 1.88 T
db
]
where W= specific humidity in kg/kg of dry air
Psychrometric chart
A Psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic
properties of moist air.
Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb
temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or humidity temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or humidity
ratio (ordinate).
The Left Hand Side of the psychrometric chart is bounded by the
saturation line.
Psychrometric charts are readily available for standard barometric
pressure of 101.325 kPa at sea level and for normal temperatures p p
(0-50
o
C).
DBT lines
WBT lines
RH lines
Specific humidity lines
DPT lines DPT lines
Specific volume lines
Specific enthalpy lines
Measurement of psychrometric properties
Based on Gibbs phase rule, the thermodynamic state of moist air is
uniquely fixed if the barometric pressure and two other
independent properties are known independent properties are known.
At a given barometric pressure, the state of moist air can be
determined by measuring any two independent properties. dete ed by easu g a y t o depe de t p ope t es
One of them could be the dry-bulb temperature (DBT), which is
fairly simple and accurate to measure.
The accurate measurement of other independent parameters such
as humidity ratio is very difficult in practice.
Since measurement of temperatures is easier, it would be
convenient if the other independent parameter is also a
temperature temperature.
Of course, this could be the dew-point temperature (DPT), but it is
observed that accurate measurement of dew-point temperature is p p
difficult.
In this context, a new independent temperature parameter called , p p p
the wet-bulb temperature (WBT) is defined. Compared to DPT, it is
easier to measure the wet-bulb temperature of moist air.
It is possible to find the other properties of moist air by knowing
the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures from measurements. y p
Calculation of psychrometric properties from p,
DBT and WBT
For a given barometric pressure, knowing the dry bulb and wet
bulb temperatures, all other properties can be easily calculated
fromthe psychrometric equations from the psychrometric equations.
The following are the empirical relations for the vapor pressure of
water in moist air
i) Modified Apjohn equation:
p
v
= p
w
- 1.8p(T
db
T
wb
)/2700
ii) Modified Ferrel equation:
p
v
= p
w
- 0.00066p(T
db
T
wb
)[1+(1.8T
db
)/1571]
iii) Carrier equation: iii) Carrier equation:
p
v
= p
w
- 1.8(p - p
w
) (T
db
T
wb
)/(2800-1.3(1.8 T
db
+ 32)
p saturation pressure of water vapor corresponding to wet bulb p
w
saturation pressure of water vapor corresponding to wet bulb
temperature (from steam tables)
Psychrometer
Any instrument capable of measuring the psychrometric state of air
is called a psychrometer.
In order to measure the psychrometric state of air, it is required to
measure three independent parameters.
G ll t f th th b t i d i d b lb Generally two of these are the barometric pressure and air dry-bulb
temperature as they can be measured easily and with good
accuracy.
1) sling psychrometer
2) aspirated psychrometer: the thermometers remain stationary, and a
ll f bl h h h small fan, blower or syringe moves the air across the thermometer
bulbs.
Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature or
adiabatic saturation temperature adiabatic saturation temperature
The temperature at which water, by evaporating into air, can bring
the air to saturation adiabatically at the same temperature as the y p
water.
Ultimately the water and saturated air temperatures are the same y p
Infinitely long duct containing water
At the exit, there would exist perfect
equilibrium between air and water at
steady state
Air at the exit would be fully saturated
and its temperature is equal to that of
Unsat ur at ed Sat ur at ed
and its temperature is equal to that of
water temperature.
Make-up water has to be provided to
compensate for the amount of water
t d i t th i
Fig. 1 The process of adiabatic saturation of air,
adiabatic saturator
evaporated into the air
T
dp
< T
twbt
< T
db of air
Based on a unit mass flow rate of dry air, the energy balance
equation can be written as equation can be written as
h
2
= h
1
+ (W
2
W
1
) h
f
where h
f
is the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the sump or thermodynamic wet-
bulb temperature, h
1
and h
2
are the enthalpies of air at the inlet and exit of the
adiabatic saturator, and W
1
and W
2
are the humidity ratio of air at the inlet and
i f h di b i i l exit of the adiabatic saturator, respectively
Unlike thermodynamic WBT the WBT of wet bulb thermometer is Unlike thermodynamic WBT, the WBT of wet bulb thermometer is
not a thermodynamic property as it depends upon the rates of
heat and mass transfer between the wick and air.
Thus, in psychrometric equations and psychrometric charts where
the wet bulb temperature appears it is always the thermodynamics the wet bulb temperature appears, it is always the thermodynamics
wet bulb temperature that is considered.
Gibbs Phase rule: Gibbs Phase rule:
F = C P + 2
where P is the number of phases in thermodynamic equilibrium with
each other and
C is the number of components C is the number of components.
F is the number of degrees of freedom, which means the number of
intensive properties such as temperature or pressure, which are
independent of other intensive variables independent of other intensive variables
Typical phases are solids, liquids and gases.
A system involving one pure chemical is an example of a one-component system.
Two-component systems, such as mixtures of water and ethanol, have two
chemically independent components..