EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 83

Signal Constellations, Optimum Receivers and Error Probabilities

mi Modulator (Transmitter) si (t )
r(t )

Source

Demodulator (Receiver)

Estimate of mi

w (t )

There are M messages. For example, each message may carry = log 2 M bits. N bit - dimensiona observatio n space If the durationl is Tb , then the message (or symbol) duration is Ts = Tb . r1 , r rN ) ,dierent The messages( in two time slots are statistically independent. 2, The M signals si (t), i = 1, 2, . . . , M , can be arbitrary but of nite energies 1 Ei . The a priori message probabilities are Pi . Unless stated otherwise, it is Choose s1 (t ) or m1 assumed that the messages are equally probable. The noise w(t) is modeled as a stationary, zero-mean, and white Gaussian process with power spectral density of N0 /2. The receiver observes the received signal r(t) = si (t) + w(t) over one symbol duration and makes a decision to what message was transmitted. The criterion 2 M for the optimum receiver is to minimize the probability of making an error.
Choose s M (t ) or m M

Choose s2 (t ) or m2

Optimum receivers and their error probabilities shall be considered for various signal constellations.

t = kTs

si (t )

r(t )

kTs

( )dt

r1

( k 1) Ts

Decision Device

Decision

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 84

Binary Signalling
Received signal: On-O Orthogonal Antipodal H1 (0): r(t) = w(t) r(t) = s1 (t) + w(t) r(t) = s2 (t) + w(t) H2 (1): r(t) = s2 (t) + w(t) r(t) = s2 (t) + w(t) r(t) = s2 (t) + w(t) Ts 0 s1 (t)s2 (t)dt = 0 Decision space and receiver implementation:
Choose 0 s1 (t )
0

Choose 1 s 2 (t )

1 (t ) =

s2 ( t ) E

r (t )

Tb

( )d t

E 2

E 2

1 (t )
(a) On-Off

E 2 E r1 < 2 r1

1D 0D

r2 2 (t )
s 2 (t ) E

Tb

( )d t

r1 r2 r1 r2 < r1 1D 0D

Choose 0 Choose 1
E
0 s1 (t )

r (t )
r1

1 (t )
Tb

1 (t )
(b) Orthogonal

( )d t

r2

2 (t )
r1 0 r1 < 0

Choose 0
s1 (t ) 0 E

Choose 1
s 2 (t )

1 (t ) =

s2 ( t ) E

r (t )

Tb

( )d t

1D 0D

(c) Antipodal

1 (t )

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 85

Error performance: On-O From decision space: Q With the same Eb : Q

E 2N0 Eb N0

Orthogonal Antipodal Q Q
E N0 Eb N0

Q Q

2E N0 2Eb N0

1 The above shows that, with the same average energy per bit Eb = 2 (E1 + E2 ), antipodal signalling is 3 dB more ecient than orthognal signalling, which has the same performance as that of on-o signalling. This is graphically shown below.

10

10

OnOff and Orthogonal 10

3

Pr[error]

Antipodal
4

10

10

10

6 8 E /N (dB)
b 0

10

12

14

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 86

Example 1: In passband transmission, the digital information is encoded as a variation of the amplitude, frequency and phase (or their combinations) of a sinusoidal carrier signal. The carrier frequency is much higher than the highest frequency of the modulating signals (messages). Binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK), binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) and binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK) are examples of on-o, orthogonal and antipodal signallings, respectively.
(a) Binary Data 1 (b) Modulating Signal 0 t 0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb 6Tb 7Tb 8Tb 9Tb 1 0 1 1 0
0

V (c) ASK Signal 0 V V (d) PSK Signal

0

V
V (e) FSK Signal
0

BASK a0 = 1 a s1 (t): 01 = 1 s2 (t): V V cos(2fc t) n tT fc = T (a) QPSK0 Signal 0b b n is an integer

V
0

V cos(2f2 t) V cos(2fc t) n f2 + f1 = 2n fc = T Tb b f2 f1 = 2m n is an integer Tb

4Tb a4 = 0 a3 = 0 a5 = 1 6Tb a6 = 1 a7 = 1

a6 = 1 a 2 BFSK a 4 = 0 BPSK =0 1 a7 = = 0 f1 t) a5 =1 Va3 cos(2 V cos(2f ) ct t 8Tb

2Tb a0 = 1 a1 = 1 a2 = 0

V
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(b) OQPSK Signal

EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 87

Example 2: Various binary baseband signaling schemes are shown below. The optimum receiver and its error performance follows easily once the two signals s1 (t) and s2 (t) used in each scheme are identied.
Binary Data
Clock

Tb V (a) NRZ Code 0 Time

V
(b) NRZ - L
0

V V (c) RZ Code 0 V

(d) RZ - L

V V (e) Bi - Phase 0 V

(f) Bi - Phase - L

V V (g) Miller Code 0 V

University of Saskatchewan (h) Miller -L 0

0
EE810: Communication Theory I

2 M

1 (t )
Page 88

M M -ary Pulse Amplitude Modulation

s (t )

si (t) = (i 1)1 (t),

i = 1, 2, . . . , M

(1)

s1 (t )
0

s2 (t )

s3 (t )

sk (t ) (k 1)
f (r1 sk (t ) )

sM 1 (t )

sM ( t )

( M 2) ( M 1)

1 (t )

r1
0

(k 1)

Choose s1 (t )
Choose sk (t )

Choose s M (t )

Decision rule:

f (r1 sk (t ) )

3 1 choose sk1 (t) if k 2 < r1 < k 2 , k = 2, 3, . . . , M 1 3 choose s1 (t) if r1 < 2 and choose sM (t) if r1 > M 2

The optimum receiver computes r1 = signal r1 is closest to:

kTs

kTs (k 1)Ts

r(t)1 (t)dt and determines which

r1

t= kT s
r (t )

()dt

r1
2

( k 1) Ts

Decision Device
3 2

1 (t )
2

3 2

1 (t )

1 (t )

0
t = Ts

Ts

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0

( )dt

r1

Compute
2 2

EE810: Communication Theory I

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Probability of error:

f (r1 sk (t ) )
f (r1 sk (t ) )

r1

r1

(k 1) (k 1)
Choose s M (t )
Choose sk (t )

Choose s1 (t )

Choose s M (t

For the M 2 inner signals: Pr[error|si ( 2 Q / 2N0 . ft ()] r1 s= ( t ) ) k For the two end signals: Pr[error|si (t)] = Q / 2N0 Since Pr[si (t) = 1/M , then
M

Choose sk (t )

f (r1 sk (t ) )

Pr[error] =
i=1

The above is symbol (or message) 2 error2probability. If each message carries

Pr[si (t)] Pr[error|si (t)] =

2(M 1) r1 / 2N Q 0 M

= log2 M bits, the bit error probability depends on the mapping and it is r1 often tedious to compute exactly. If the mapping is a Gray mapping (i.e., the ) 1 (t 3 3 0 mappings of the nearest signals dier one bit), a good approximation 2 in only 2 2 2 is Pr[bit error = Pr[error]/M .

1 (t ) A modied signal set to minimize the average transmitted energy (M is even): 2

0

3 2

T 0 2 0 ()dt
s

t = Ts r1

3 2

1 (t )
Compute

Decision (t ) for i = 1, 2, , M If 1 (t) is a sinusoidal i.e., 1 (t) cos(2fc t), where 0 t 1 1 (carrier, t) 2 2choose 0 and Ts the scheme is also known as M -ary amplitude Ts ; fc = k/Ts ; k is an integer, r2 the smallest d t ( ) shift keying (M -ASK).
2 = t = Ts Ts
0

r(t )

(r1 si1 )2 + (r2 si 2 )2

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Ts

( )dt

2 (t )

t = Ts r1

EE810: Communication Theory I

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To express the probability in terms of Eb /N0 , compute the average transmitted energy per message (or symbol) as follows: Es = =
M i=1 Ei

M
2

2 = 4M

M i=1

(2i 1 M )2 (2)

(M 2 1)2 1 M (M 2 1) = 4M 3 12

Thus the the average transmitted energy per bit is (M 2 1)2 Es = = Eb = log2 M 12 log2 M Pr[error] =
10
1

(12 log2 M )Eb M2 1

(3)

2(M 1) Q M

(6 log2 M )Eb (M 2 1)N0

(4)

10

M=16

Pr[symbol error]

M=8 10
3

M=4 10
4

M=2 10
5

10

10 Eb/N0 (dB)

15

20

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 91

M -ary Phase Shift Keying (M -PSK)

The messages are distinguished by M phases of a sinusoidal carrier: si (t) = V cos 2fc t (i 1)2 , 0 < t < Ts ; i = 1, 2, . . . , M M (i 1)2 (i 1)2 E cos = 1 (t) + E sin 2 (t) M M si1 si2

(5)

where E = V 2 Ts /2 and the two orthonormal basis functions are: 1 (t) = M = 8: V sin(2fc t) V cos(2fc t) ; 2 (t) = E E (6)

2 (t )

s3 (t ) 011 s2 (t ) 001 E

010 s4 (t )

110 s5 (t )
0

s1 (t ) 000

1 (t )

111 s6 (t ) s7 (t ) 101

s8 (t ) 100

Figure 1: Signal space for 8-PSK with Gray mapping.

2 (t )

s2 ( t )
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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 92

Decision regions and receiver implementation:

r2
Region Z 2 Choose s2 (t )
s 2 (t )

E
0

s1 (t )
Region Z1 Choose s1 (t ) sM ( t )

r1

Ts

()dt

r1

Compute

r(t )

(r1 si1 )2 + (r2 si 2 )2

for i = 1, 2, , M and choose

Decision

1 (t )
Ts

()dt

r2

the smallest

2 (t )

Probability of error: 1 Pr[error] = M

M i=1

Choose m2=01 2 (t ) s2 | (s t )i (t)] = Pr[error|s1 (t)] Pr[error r

2

(t ) 2

= 1 Pr[(r1 , r2 ) Z1 |s1 (t)]

Choose m3=11

2 (r1 0 E ) 2 + r2 1 exp . where p(r1 , r2 |s1 (t)) = N0 N0

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s3 (t )

(r1 ,r2 )Z1

s1 (t )

1 (t )

s4 ( t )

r 1

(t ) 1

Choose m1=00

= 1

p(r1 , r2 |s1 (t))dr1 dr2

(7)

EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 93

2 + r 2 and = tan1 r2 (polar coordinate sysChanging the variables V = r1 2 r1 tem), the join pdf of V and is V V 2 + E 2 EV cos p(V, ) = exp (8) N0 N0

Integration of p(V, ) over the range of V yields the pdf of : p() =

0

p(V, )dV (9)

2 E 1 N V 2E/N0 cos /2 sin2 = Ve dV e 0 2 0 With the above pdf of , the error probability can be computed as: Pr[error] = 1 Pr[/M /M |s1 (t)]
/M

= 1

p()d
/M

(10)

In general, the integral of p() as above does not reduce to a simple form and must be evaluated numerically, except for M = 2 and M = 4. An approximation to the error probability for large values of M and for large symbol signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) s = E/N0 can be obtained as follows. First the error probability is lower bounded by Pr[error] = Pr[error|s1 (t)] > Pr[(r1 , r2 ) is closer to s2 (t) than s1 (t)|s1 (t)] E/N0 = Q sin M The upper bound is obtained by the following union bound:

(11)

Pr[error] = Pr[error|s1 (t)] < Pr[(r1 , r2 ) is closer to s2 (t) OR sM 1 (t) than s1 (t)|s1 (t)] E/N0 (12) < 2Q sin M Since the lower and upper bounds only dier by a factor of two, they are very tight for high SNR. Thus a good approximation to the error probability of M -PSK is: E/N0 Pr[error] 2Q sin M (2Eb /N0 ) sin = 2Q (13) M
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1 (t )
EE810: Communication Theory I
Ts

for i = 1, 2, , M and choose

()dt

r2

the smallest

Page 94

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK):

2 (t )
Choose m2=01 2 (t ) s 2 (t )
2 r

(t ) 2

Choose m3=11

s3 (t ) 0

s1 (t )

1 (t )

s4 ( t )

r 1

(t ) 1

Choose m4=10
2

Pr[correct] = Pr[ r1 0 and r 2 0|s1 (t)] = 1 Q

E N0 E N0
2

Choose m1=00

(14)

Pr[error] = 1 Pr[correct] = 1 1 Q = 2Q E N0 Q2 E N0

(15)

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 95

The bit error probability of QPSK with Gray mapping: Can be obtained by considering dierent conditional message error probabilities: Pr[m2 |m1 ] = Q Pr[m3 |m1 ] = Q2 Pr[m4 |m1 ] = Q The bit error probability is therefore Pr[bit error] = 0.5 Pr[m2 |m1 ] + 0.5 Pr[m4 |m1 ] + 1.0 Pr[m3 |m1 ] = Q E N0 =Q 2Eb N0 (19) E N0 E N0 E N0 1Q E N0 1Q E N0 (16) (17) (18)

where the viewpoint is taken that one of the two bits is chosen at random, i.e., with a probability of 0.5. The above shows that QPSK with Gray mapping has exactly the same bit-error-rate (BER) performance with BPSK, while its bit rate can be double for the same bandwidth. In general, the bit error probability of M -PSK is dicult to obtain for an arbitrary mapping. For Gray mapping, again a good approximation is Pr[bit error] = Pr[sumbol error]/. The exact calculation of the bit error probability can be found in the following paper: J. Lassing, E. G. Str om, E. Agrell and T. Ottosson, Computation of the Exact BitError Rate of Coherent M -ary PSK With Gray Code Bit Mapping, IEEE Trans. on Communications, vol. 51, Nov. 2003, pp. 17581760.

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 96

Comparison of M -PSK and BPSK Pr[error]M -ary 2Q (2Eb /N0 ) sin 2Eb N0 2Eb /N0 ) Q2 , M 2Eb N0 (M > 4)

Pr[error]QPSK = 2Q Pr[error]BPSK = Q(

10

10

M=32 M=4 M=16 M=8

Pr[symbol error]

10

10

M=2

10

10

10

Lower bound Upper bound 5 10 E /N (dB)

b 0

15

20

M 3 4 5 6 8 16 32 64

M -ary BW/binary BW sin2 (/M ) M -ary energy/binary energy 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 0.44 0.15 0.05 0.44 3.6 dB 8.2 dB 13.0 dB 17.0 dB

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 97

M -ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

In QAM modulation, the messages are encoded into both the amplitudes and phases of the carrier: si (t) = Vc,i = 2 2 cos(2fc t) + Vs,i sin(2fc t) Ts Ts 2 0 t Ts cos(2fc t i ), Ei i = 1, 2, . . . , M Ts (20) (21)

2 1 where Ei = Vc2 ,i + Vs,i and i = tan (Vs,i /Vc,i ).

Examples of QAM constellations are shown on the next page. Rectangular QAM constellations, shown below, are the most popular. For rectangular QAM, Vc,i , Vs,i {(2i 1 M )/2}.

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 98

Examples of QAM Constellations:

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 99

Another example: The 16-QAM signal constellation shown below is an international standard for telephone-line modems (called V.29). The decision regions of the minimum distance receiver are also drawn.

1011 5

1100

1010 3

1110

r2
0101 -5 0100 -3 0000 -1 0001

0010 1 0011 1 -1 0111 0110 5

Region Z 2
3

Choose s2 (t )

s 2 (t )
1111

E1000
0

1001

-3

s1 (t )
Region Z1

r1
Choose s1 (t )

1101

-5

sM ( t )

Receiver implementation (same as for M -PSK):

Ts

()dt

r1

Compute

r(t )

(r1 si1 )2 + (r2 si 2 )2

for i = 1, 2, , M and choose

Decision

1 (t )
Ts

()dt

r2

the smallest

2 (t )
Choose m2=01 2 (t )
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s 2 (t )

2 r

EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 100

Error performance of rectangular M -QAM: For M = 2 , where is even, QAM consists of two ASK signals on quadrature carriers, each having M = 2/2 signal points. Thus the probability of symbol error can be computed as Pr[error] = 1 Pr[correct] = 1 1 PrM [error] is the probability of error of M -ary ASK: 1 PrM [error] = 2 1 M Q 3 Es M 1 N0
2

(22)

where PrM

(23)

Note that in the above equation, Es is the average energy per symbol of the QAM constellation.
10
1

10

M=64 Pr[symbol error] 10

3

M=16 10
4

M=4 10
5

10

10 Eb/N0 (dB)

15

20

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EE810: Communication Theory I

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Comparison of M -QAM and M -PSK: Pr[error]PSK Q 2Es sin N0 M Q 3 Es M 1 N0 (24)

1 Pr[error]PSK PrM ASK [error] = 2 1 M

(25)

Since the error probability is dominated by the argument of the Q-function, one may simply compares the arguments of Q for the two modulation schemes. The ratio of the arguments is RM = 3/(M 1) 2 sin2 (/M ) (26)

M 10 log10 RM 8 1.65 dB 16 4.20 dB 32 7.02 dB 64 9.95 dB Thus M -ary QAM yields a better performance than M -ary PSK for the same bit rate (i.e., same M ) and the same transmitted energy (Eb /N0 ).

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 102

M -ary Orthognal Signals

si (t) = Ei (t), i = 1, 2, . . . , M 2 (t ) (27)

2 (t )

2 (t )
sE 2 (t )

s 2 (t )

2 (t )s 2 (t )
E E s1 (t )

s 2 (t )
E

1 (t )
s 3 (t )

s1 (t )

E
E

1 (t )

E
0
(a) M=2

s1 (t )

1 (t )
3 ( t ) s 3 (t )

E
(b) M=3

s1 (t )

1 (t )

The decision rule of the minimum distance receiver easily: t = Ts follows (a) M=2 (b) M=3 T (t ) Choose si (t) if ri > rj3, j = 1, 2, 3, . . r .1, M ; j = i
s

( )dt

(28)
Decision

Minimum distance receiver:

r(t )

s (t ) 1 (t ) = 1 Ts E
0

t = Ts

( )dt T
s

( )dt

t = Ts r1 rM

Choose the largest

r(t )

s (t ) 1 (t ) = 1 EsM (t ) (t ) =
M

t = Ts

Choose the largest rM

2 (t )
s 2 (t )

Decision

E Ts
0

( )dt

2 (t )

s (t ) M (t ) = M s 2 (t ) E
s1 (t )
s1 (t )

s1 (t )

E (Note : Instead of i (t) one may use si (t))

s3 (t )

2 (t )

1 (t )

2 (t )
E

s1 (t ) E

1 (t )

s Saskatchewan University of 2 (t )

s3 ( t )

s 2 (t )

EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 103

When the M orthonormal functions are chosen to be orthogonal sinusoidal carriers, the signal set is known as M -ary frequency shift keying (M -FSK): si (t) = V cos(2fi t), 0 t Ts ; i = 1, 2, . . . , M (29)

where the frequencies are chosen so that the signals are orthogonal over the interval [0, Ts ] seconds: fi = (k (i 1)) 1 2Ts , i = 1, 2, . . . , M (30)

Error performance of M orthogonal signals: To determine the message error probability consider that message s1 (t) was transmitted. Due to the symmetry of the signal space and because the messages are equally likely Pr[error] = Pr[error|s1 (t)] = 1 Pr[correct|s1 (t)] = 1 Pr[all rj < r1 ) : j = 1|s1 (t)]
M

= 1 = 1 = 1

j =2

Pr[rj < r1 ) : j = 1|s1 (t)]

M

R1 = j =2 R1 =

Pr[(rj < R1 )|s1 (t)]p(R1 |s1 (t))dR1

R1

(N0 )
R2 =

0.5

2 E) ( R 1 (N0 )0.5 exp N0

R2 exp 2 N0 dR1

dR2

M 1

(31)

The above integral can only be evaluated numerically. It can be normalized so that only two parameters, namely M (the number of messages) and E/N0 (the signal-to-noise) enter into the numerical integration as given below: 1 Pr[error] = 2

1 y

1 2 2E N0

e
2

x2 /2

dx

M 1

exp
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1 2

dy

(32)

EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 104

The relationship between probability of bit error and probability of symbol error for an M -ary orthogonal signal set can be found as follows. For equiprobable orthogonal signals, all symbol errors are equiprobable and occur with probability Pr[symbol error] Pr[symbol error] = M 1 2 1

There are k ways in which k bits out of may be in error. Hence the average number of bit errors per -bit symbol is

k
k =1

21 Pr[symbol error] = Pr[symbol error] 2 1 2 1 k 21 Pr[bit error] = Pr[symbol error] 2 1

(33)

The probability of bit error is the the above result divided by . Thus (34)

Note that the above ratio approaches 1/2 as .

Figure 2: Probability of bit error for M -orthogonal signals versus b = Eb /N0 .

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 105

Union Bound: To provide insight into the behavior of Pr[error], consider upper bounding (called the union bound) the error probability as follows. Pr[error] = Pr[(r1 < r2 ) or (r1 < r3 ) or, . . . , or (r1 < rM )|s1 (t)] < Pr[(r1 < r2 )|s1 (t)] + . . . + Pr[(r1 < rM )|s1 (t)] = (M 1)Q E/N0 ) < M Q( E/N0 < M e(E/2N0 )
2

(35) has been used. Let

where a simple bound on Q(x), namely Q(x) < exp x 2 M = 2 , then

Pr[error] < e ln 2 e(Eb /2N0 ) = e(Eb /N0 2 ln 2)/2

(36)

The above equation shows that there is a denite threshold eect with orthogonal signalling. As M , the probability of error approaches zero exponentially, provided that: Eb > 2 ln 2 = 1.39 = 1.42dB (37) N0 A dierent interpretation of the upper bound in (36) can be obtained as follows. Since E = Eb = Ps Ts (Ps is the transmitted power) and the bit rate rb = /Ts , (36) can be rewritten as: Pr[error] < e ln 2 e(Ps Ts /2N0 ) = eTs [rb ln 2+Ps /2N0 ] The above implies that if rb ln 2 + Ps /2N0 > 0, or rb < (38)

Ps the probability 2 ln 2N0 or error tends to zero as Ts or M become larger and larger. This behaviour of error probability is quite surprising since what it shows is that: provided the bit rate is small enough, the error probability can be made arbitrarily small even though the transmitter power can be nite. The obvious disadvantage, however, of the approach is that the bandwidth requirement increases with M . As M , the transmitted bandwidth goes to innity. Since the union bound is not a very tight upper bound at suciently low SNR 2 due to the fact that the upper bound Q(x) < exp x for the Q function is 2 loose. Using a more elaborate bounding techniques it can be shown that (see texts by Proakis, Wozencraft and Jacobs) Pr[error] 0 as , provided that Eb /N0 > ln 2 = 0.693 (1.6dB).

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( )dt
0

EE810: Communication Theory I

M (t ) =

s M (t ) E

Page 106

Biorthognal Signals
2 (t )
s 2 (t )

2 (t )
s 2 (t )

s1 (t )

E 0

s1 (t ) E

1 (t )

s1 (t )

E 0

s3 (t )

s1 (t ) E
s 2 (t )

1 (t )

s3 ( t )
s2 (t )

3 ( t )

(a) M=2

(b) M=3

A biorthogonal signal set can be obtained from an original orthogonal set of N signals by augmenting it with the negative of each signal. Obviously, for the biorthogonal set M = 2N . Denote the additional signals by si (t), i = 1, 2, . . . , N and assume that each signal has energy E . The received r(t) is closerthan si (t) than si (t) if and only if (i) signal Ts Ts Ts 2 2 0 [r (t) Ei (t)] dt < 0 [r (t)+ Ei (t)] dt. This happens i ri = 0 r (t)i (t)dt > 0. Similarly, r(t) is closer to si (t) than to sj (t) i ri > rj , j = 1 and r(t) is closer to si (t) than to sj (t) i ri > rj , j = 1. It follows that the decision rule of the minimum-distance receiver for biorthogonal signalling can be implemented as The conditional probability of a correct decision for equally likely messages, given that s1 (t) is transmitted and that r1 = E + w 1 = R 1 > 0 (40) is just Pr[correct|s1 (t), R1 > 0] = Pr[R1 < all rj < R1 ) : j = 1|s1 (t), R1 > 0] = (Pr[R1 < rj < R1 |s1 (t), R1 > 0])N 1
R1

Choose si (t) if |ri | > |rj | and ri > 0,

j = i

(39)

=
R2 =R1

(N0 )

0.5

R2 exp 2 N0

dR 2

N 1

(41)

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EE810: Communication Theory I

Page 107

Averaging over the pdf of R1 we have

2 R2 (N0 ) exp Pr[correct|s1 (t)] = dR 2 N0 R2 = R1 =0 2 E) ( R 1 dR1 (N0 )0.5 exp N0 0.5 R1 N 1

(42)

Again, by virtue of symmetry and the equal a priori probability of the messages the above equation is also the Pr[correct]. Finally, by noting that N = M/2 we obtain
2 R2 0.5 Pr[error] = 1 (N0 ) exp N0 R2 = R1 =0 2 (R1 E ) dR1 (N0 )0.5 exp N0 R1

dR2

M 2 1

(43)

The dierence in error performance for M biorthogonal and M orthogonal signals is negligible when M and E/N0 are large, but the number of dimensions (i.e., bandwidth) required is reduced by one half in the biorthogonal case.

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Hypercube Signals (Vertices of a Hypercube)

2 (t )

2 (t )
s1 (t )
s3 (t )

s 2 (t ) s1 (t )

s 2 (t )
s 4 (t )
0

s1 (t )

s 2 (t )

0
2 Eb

1 (t )

1 (t )

3 ( t )
s6 (t ) s7 (t )
2 Eb

1 (t )
s5 (t ) s8 (t )

s3 (t )
2 Eb

s 4 (t )

(a) M = 2

(b) M = 22 = 4

(c) M = 23 = 8

Here the M = 2 signals are located on the vertices of 2an -dimensional hypers 2 (t ) geometrically above for cube centered at the origin. This conguration is shown = 1, 2, 3. The hypercube signals can be formed as follows:
s 2 (t ) 0

(t )

si (t) =

Eb
E j =1 2

s1 (t ) 0 ( t ) bij j (t), 1 bij {1}, i = 1, 2, . . . , M = 2 1 (t ) (44)

E 2 E 6

s1 (t )

E 2

Eb . Thus the components of the signal vector si = [si1 , s si(2t, . . . , s ] are i 3 ) To evaluate the error probability, assume that the signal
(a) M = 2 (b) M = 3 = s E , E , . . . , Eb triangle) 1 b b (binary antipodal) (equilateral 2 (t )

2E

(45)

is transmitted. First claim that no error is made if the noise components along j (t) satisfy s 2 (t ) wj < Eb , for all j = 1, 2, . . . , (46) The proof is immediate. When 2 rE= x = s1 + w x si is: 0 w , j (xj ssij )t )= 3( 2 Eb w j , 2
s 4 (t )
2E

is received, the j th component of if sij = Eb (t ) if sij = + 1Eb

s1 (t )
2E (c) M = 4 (regular tetrahedron)

(47)

3 ( t ) Since Equation (46) implies:

Eb wj > wj for all j,

(48)

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EE810: Communication Theory I

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it follows that

|x si | =

j =1

(xj sij ) >

j =1

2 wj = |x s1 |2

(49)

for all si = s1 whenever (46) is satised. Next claim that an error is made if, for at least one j , wj > Eb (50) This follows from the fact that x is closer to sj than to s1 whenever (50) is satised, where sj denotes that signal with components Eb along the j th direction and Eb in all other directions. (Of course, x may be still closer to some signal other than sj , but it cannot be closest to s1 ). Equations (49) and (50) together imply that a correct decision is made if and only if (46) is satised. The probability of this event, given that m = m1 , is therefore: Pr[correct|m1 ] = Pr all wj <

Eb ; j = 1, 2, . . . , Eb = 1 Pr wj Eb

=
j =1

Pr wj <

= (1 p) in which, p = Pr wj Eb = Q 2Eb N0

(51)

is again the probability of error for two equally likely signals separated by distance 2 Eb . Finally, from symmetry: Pr[correct|mi ] = Pr[correct|m1 ] for all i, hence, Pr[correct] = (1 p) = 1 Q 2Eb N0

(52)

(53)

In order to express this result in terms of signal energy, we again recognize that the distance squared from the origin to each signal si is the same. The transmitted energy is therefore independent of i, hence can be designated by E . Clearly

|si | =

s2 ij = Eb = E
j =1

(54)

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EE810: Communication Theory I

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Thus p=Q 2E N0 (55)

The simple form of the result Pr[correct] = (1 p) suggests that a more immediate derivation may exist. Indeed one does. Note j th coordinate of that the the random signal s is a priori equally likely to be + Eb or Eb , independent of all other coordinates. Moreover, the noise wj disturbing the j th coordinate is independent of the noise in all other coordinates. Hence, by the theory of sucient statistics, a decision may be made on the j th coordinate without examining any other coordinate. This single-coordinate decision corresponds to the problem of binary signals separated by distance 2 Eb , for which the probability of correct decision is 1 p. Since in the original hypercube problem a correct decision is made if only if a correct decision is make on every coordinate, an since these decisions are independent, it follows immediately that Pr[correct] = (1 p) .

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