Word formation

Part I 21 November 2007

Word formation

Important part of Lexicology By word-formation processes we mean the different devices which are used in English to build new words from existing ones. Each word-formation process results in the production of a specific type of word word. Consequently Consequently, an understanding of these processes is one way of studying the different types of word that exist in English.

Word formation
Here we have to recall some terminology gy already y introduced: e.g. g Free forms are forms that occur alone, bound forms are those that cannot occur alone. Stems are forms that carry the basic meaning of the word; affixes add dd meaning i to the h stem. If a stem consists i of f a single i l morpheme h it i is also called a root or a base. Roots constitute the innermost core of words and carry their basic meaning. meaning Stems and roots may be bound or free but affixes are always bound. The affixes may be further classified as prefix, suffix, or suprafix, depending on whether they occur before before, after after, or simultaneously with the stem.

Inflection and derivation

Inflection is a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes (always suffixes in English) to produce alternative grammatical forms of words. E.g. The plural morpheme is an inflectional morpheme. This implies that the plural form flowers, does not represent a lexical item fundamentally different from the singular form flower, it is simply an inflectional variant of the same word. INFLECTION is a general grammatical process which combines words and d affixes ffi to produce d alternative l i grammatical i l forms f of f words. d Inflectional affixes: -S (plural) -ER (comparative) -EST (superlative) -IA, -IM, ... (irregular plural)

Inflection and derivation

On the other hand, derivation is a lexical p process which actually y forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix to a stem. E.g. Resign, departure + suffixes ation, ure give resignation and departure. E.g. the stem ACTIV +ate activate +ation activation +ely actively +eness activeness +ity activity +ism activism +ist activist

Inflection and derivation

From all said, said we can see that the distinction between inflection and derivation is mainly morphological. morphological While the application of inflection leads to the formation of alternative grammatical forms of the same word, application of deri ati n creates new derivation ne lexical le ical items. items

Derivation

Derivational e vat o a affixes: a es: English g s has as over ove 60 common co o derivational affixes, and there is no theoretical limit to their number. Unlike inflectional affixes, affixes derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to. If both inflectional and derivational affixes are used, then the derivational affixes are inner, inner closer to the stem, stem and inflectional affixes are outer, furthest from the stem. E.g. fright + en + ed = frightened resign + ation + s = resignations

Derivational affixes

They are usually divided into class-changing class changing and class-maintaining d.a. Cl Class-changing h i d derivational i i l affixes ffi change h the h word class of the word to which they are added. dd d They Th are usually ll suffixes. ffi resign (verb) + ation = resignation active (adjective) + ist = activist.

ClassClass -changing der.affixes der affixes

NOMINALIZERS (noun derivational affixes) -age (leak+age=leakage) -ee (refer+ee= referee) -ment (argue+ment=argument) -ure (depart+ure=departure) -ation (resign+ation=resignation) -ance (disturb+ance=disturbance) -ist (social+ist=socialist) -dom (free+dom=freedom) VERBALIZERS (verb derivational affixes) -en (f i ht+ (fright+en=frighten) f i ht ) -fy f -ize (pressure+ize=pressurize) -en (soft+en=soften) en en(en+able=enable)

(glory+fy=glorify) ( l +f l if ) en(en+title=entitle) -ify (pure+ify=purify) -ize ize (legal+ize=legalize)

ClassClass -changing der.affixes der affixes

ADJECTIVIZERS J (adjective ( j derivational affixes) ) -al (season+al=seasonal) -an (suburb+an=suburban) -en (gold+en=golden)-ful (hope+ful=hopeful) -less (care+less=careless) -ish (child+ish=childish) -ive (create+ive=creative) -ent (depend+ent=dependent)

ADVERBIALIZERS (adverb ( d bd derivational l affixes) ff ) -ly (slow+ly=slowly) (obvious+ly=obviously) -ward (home+ward=homeward) ( ) -wise (clock+wise=clockwise)

ClassClass -maintaining der.affixes der affixes

C ass a ta g derivational Class-maintaining e vat o a affixes a es do o not ot change c a ge the t e word class of the word to which they are added. They are mainly prefixes: anti+malaria anti-malaria anti malaria dis+agree disagree scholar + ship p scholarship p un + tie untie ex + wife ex-wife green + ish greenish re + open reopen

Compounds

Compounding is the largest, and therefore the most important, source of new words. d A compound is a lexical unit which consists of more than one lexical stem. On the surface, there appear to be two, or more, lexemes present, but in fact the parts are functioning as a single item, which has its own meaning and grammar. E.g. we have compounds such as bedside, black market, car-wash, flower-pot, and so on. Compounds are usually distinguished as SYNTACTIC And LEXICAL compounds. Syntactic compounds are formed by regular rules of grammar and are not listed in a dictionary Their meaning is easily understood: e.g. dictionary. e g shoemaker, shoemaker bookkeeper bookkeeper, washing machine, candlelight. Lexical compounds usually have a meaning which cannot be understood just from the rules of grammar, and they are usually listed in a dictionary. E.g. girlfriend, sweetheart highlight, sweetheart, highlight ice cream, cream crybaby. crybaby

Classification of compounds

Co pou s consist Compounds co s st o of more o e than t a o one e root, oot, but different roots need not belong to the same word class. When two parts of a compound belong to the same word class, the compound also belongs to the same group. But when two parts of a compound belong to different word classes, classes the compound will belong to one of these classes. As a general rule, the word class of the last element of the compound determines the class of the compound.

Compounds
NOUN COMPOUNDS: any root+noun N+N: ash-tray, arm-chair, text-book; V+N: dare-devil, pick-pocket ADJ+N: black-bird, black bird blue-collar; blue collar; ADV+N: after-thought, back-talk

Verb compounds
N+V: baby-sit, baby sit brain-wash, brain wash house-keep; house keep; V+V: dive-bomb, drop-kick ADJ+V: dry-clean, sweet-talk; ADV+V: down-grade, down grade over-do. over do

ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS
N+ADJ: earth-bound, earth bound ox ox-eyed, eyed ADJ+ADJ: blue-green, south-west ADV+ADJ: near-sighted, off-white;

ADVERB COMPOUNDS

ADV+ADV: in-to, in to through-out. through out