ABSTRACT

The available electromagnetic radio spectrum is a limited natural resource and getting crowded day by day due to increase in wireless devices and applications. It has been also found that the allocated spectrum is underutilized because of the static allocation of the spectrum. Also, the conventional approach to spectrum management is very inflexible in the sense that each wireless operator is assigned an exclusive license to operate in a certain frequency band. And, with most of the useful radio spectrum already allocated, it is difficult to find vacant bands to either deploy new services or to enhance existing ones. In order to overcome this situation, we need to come up with a means for improved utilization of the spectrum creating opportunities for dynamic spectrum access. The issue of spectrum underutilization in wireless adio !C " communication can be solved in a better way using Cognitive technology. Cognitive

adios are designed in order to provide highly reliable

communication for all users of the networ#, wherever and whenever needed and to facilitate effective utilization of the radio spectrum. Cognitive adio is a form of wireless communication in which a transceiver can intelligently detect which $ communication channels are in use and which are not, and instantly move into vacant channels while avoiding occupied ones. %pectrum sensing is a fundamental requirement in Cognitive adio networ#. &any signal detection techniques can be used in spectrum sensing so as to enhance the detection probability. The results presented in this thesis will help out in developing clear understanding of spectrum sensing techniques. There are three ma'or categories of spectrum sensing techniques( transmitter detection, receiver detection and interference based detection. This thesis presents a survey of techniques suggested in the literature for spectrum sensing with a performance analysis of transmitter) based detection techniques. An algorithm for minimizing sensing time has been proposed in which under high %* values we can minimize sensing time. Its results are also reliable in comparison with other transmitter detection techniques. All simulations are done in &AT+A, and -ilinx I%..

Table of Content

ii

List of Figures List of Tables Glossary 1. INTRODUCTION /./ Introduction /.0 &otivation of the pro'ect /.1 %cope of the pro'ect /.2 3rganization of the thesis INTRODUCTION TO COGNITI!" RADIO 0./ 3verview of Cognitive adio 0././ Traditional adio 0./.0 %oftware 5efined adio 0./.1 %5 and its relationship with Cognitive adio 0./.2 Cognitive adio 0.0 9hy Cognitive adio 0.1 :ow is a Cognitive adio 5ifferent from 3ther adios 0.1./ Application 0.1.0 5esign 0.1.1 %oftware 0.2 :ardware of Cognitive adio 0.4 5efinitions of Cognitive adio 0.6 The Cognitive adio *etwor# Architecture 0.6./ <rimary *etwor# 0.6.0 Cognitive adio *etwor# 0.7 Cognitive adio Challenges 0.= Characteristics of Cognitive adio 0.8 Cognitive adio $unctions 0./; %pectrum :ole 0.// Cognitive adio Applications, Advantages and 5rawbac#s 0./0 Important Institutions and forums wor#ing on Cognitive adio S%"CTRU& S"NSING T"C'NI(U"S 1./ Introduction 1.0 Classification of %pectrum %ensing Techniques 1.0./ Transmitter 5etection

Pag e v viii ix 1 / 1 1 1 # 4 4 6 7 8 8 /; /; /; // // /1 /4 /4 /6 /7 /7 /= /8 0/ 00 $ 01 01 02

$.

iii

).

#.

1.0././ &atched $ilter 5etection 1.0./.0 .nergy 5etection 1.0./.1 Cyclostationary $eature 5etection 1.1 +imitations of Transmitter 5etection 1.2 eceiver 5etection 1.2./ Two approaches to cooperative spectrum sensing 1.4 Interference ,ased 5etection 1.6 &odeling of %pectrum %ensing Techniques 1.6./ <rimary >sers Transmitter 1.7 <roblem 5ecomposition into &odules 1.7./ <rimary >sers 9aveform 1.7.0 <rocessing on 9aveform 1.7.1 5etection of 9aveform 1.7.2 $eature .xtraction 1.7.4 Classification 1.= &inimizing %ensing Time for 5etection I&%L"&"NTATION 2./ Introduction 2.0 Transmitter of <rimary >sers 2.1 .nergy 5etection 2.2 &atched $ilter 2.4 Cyclostationary $eature 5etection 2.6 .nergy 5etection Technique using ?erilog 2.6./ 5escription of Implementation 2.7 Implementation of Cognitive adio using &AT+A, SI&ULATION R"SULTS 4./ Introduction 4.0 esults of Transmitter detection programming done in &AT+A, 4.0./ .nergy 5etection %imulation esults 4.0././ 3C Curves for .nergy 5etection 4.0.0 &atched $ilter %imulation esults 4.0.0./ 3C Curves for &atched $ilter 4.0.1 Cyclostationary $eature 5etection %imulation esults 4.1 esults of .nergy 5etection programming using ?. I+3@ done in -ilinx I%. 4.2 esults of Cognitive adio %imulation done in &AT+A, iv

04 06 07 08 08 1; 1/ 1/ 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 $* 16 16 1= 2; 2/ 21 21 24 )* 26 26 27 4; 4/ 4/ 41 46 48

*.

+.

CO&%ARISON OF S%"CTRU& S"NSING T"C'NI(U"S 6./ Introduction 6.0 Comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques 6.0./ %ensing Time 6.0.0 5etection %ensitivity 6.0.1 .ase for Implementation CONCLUSION AND FUTUR" ,OR7./ Conclusion 7.0 $uture wor# <ublications eferences

*$ 61 61 61 62 66 *+ 67 67 68 7;

List of Figures
Title $igure /./ %pectrum >tilization AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure /.0 %pectrum &easurement across the 8;; B:z )/ @:z band AAA... $igure 0./ +ogical diagram contrasting Traditional, %oftware defined, and Cognitive radios AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 0.0 Illustration of the relationship between the %5 and the Cognitive adio AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA... $igure 0.1 ,loc# diagram of %5 Transceiver AAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 0.2 ,loc# diagram of C Transceiver AAAAAAAAAAAAA. $igure 0.4 <hysical architecture of the Cognitive radioC !a" Cognitive adio transceiver and !b" wideband $Danalog front)end architecture AAAAAA $igure 0.6 Cognitive adio *etwor# Architecture AAAAAAAAAAA $igure 0.7 5ynamic changes in all +ayers AAAAAAAAAAAAAA. $igure 0.= ,asic Cognitive cycle AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA $igure 0.8 %pectrum :ole Concept AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA $igure 1./ Classification of %pectrum %ensing Techniques AAAAAAA... $igure 1.0 ,loc# 5iagram of &atched $ilter AAAAAAAAAAAAA. $igure 1.1 ,loc# 5iagram of .nergy 5etector AAAAAAAAAAAA... $igure 1.2 ,loc# 5iagram of Cyclostationary $eature detection AAAAA... $igure 1.4 eceiver >ncertainty and &ultipathD%hadow $ading AAAAA... $igure 1.6 Classification of Cooperative %ensingC !a" Centralized, !b" 5istributed AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 1.7 ,loc# 5iagram of 5igital Communication Transmitter AAAA... $igure 1.= %ystem <rocess 5iagram AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA... $igure 1.8 Algorithm for minimizing sensing time for detection AAAAA.. 1/ 10 11 14 /0 /4 /= /8 0; 02 04 06 0= 1; 7 = 8 6 Pag e/ 0

vi

$igure 2./ $low chart for Implementation of <rimary Transmitter AAAAA $igure 2.0 $low chart for Implementation of .nergy 5etector AAAAAA.. $igure 2.1 $low chart for Implementation of &atched $ilter AAAAAAA. $igure 2.2 $low chart for the Implementation of Cyclostationary $eature 5etection AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA. $igure 2.4 Architecture of .nergy 5etection without A& AAAAAAA.. $igure 2.6 5igital Implementation of an .nergy 5etector AAAAAAAA. $igure 4./ .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4.0 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4.1 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4.2 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4.4 3C curves of energy detection scheme with different %* AA... 4.6 &atched $ilter 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B AAAAAAAA $igure $igure 4.7 3C curve for &atched filter detection at %* F1d, AAAAA. $igure 4.= 3C curve for &atched filter detection at %* F/;d, AAAAA $igure 4.8Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4./; Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA. $igure 4.// Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for E<%B when <rimary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4./0 Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4./1 %imulated wave form for <rimary user is present AAAAAA... $igure 4./2 T+ view/ of the implemented algorithm AAAAAAAAA... $igure 4./4 T+ view0 of the implemented algorithm AAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4./6 T+ view1 of the implemented algorithm AAAAAAAAA..

17 18 2; 20 22 24 27

2=

2=

28 4; 4/ 40 40 41

42

42

44 46 47 4= 4=

vii

$igure 4./7!a" used bands !/st and 2th", unused bands !0nd, 1rdand 4th" AAA.. $igure 4./7!b" /st unused band is assigned to %econdary user/ AAAAAA. $igure 4./7!c" 0nd unused band is assigned to %econdary user0 AAAAAA $igure 4./7!d" All of the %pectrum bands are in use AAAAAAAAAA. $igure 4./7!e" %* F4d, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA $igure 4./7!f" %* F/2d, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.. $igure 4./7!g" AttenuationF/;G AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA.... $igure 4./7!h" AttenuationF/4G AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA $igure 6./ Comparison metrics of Transmitter 5etection techniques AAAA $igure 6.0 Comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques when <rimary >ser is <resent AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA $igure 6.1 Comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques when <rimary >ser is absent AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA..

48 6; 6; 6/ 6/ 6/ 60 60 61 64 64

viii

List of Tables
Table 0./ Comparison of Cognitive adio with Traditional adio and %oftware 5efined adio in application point of view AAAAAAAAAA Table 0.0 Comparison of Cognitive adio with Traditional adio and %oftware 5efined adio in design point of view AAAAAAAAAAA... Table 0.1 Comparison of Cognitive adio with Traditional adio and %oftware 5efined adio in software point of view AAAAAAAAAAA Table 4./ 5evice >tilization %ummary !estimated values" AAAAAAAA Table 6./ %ensing time for Transmitter 5etection Techniques AAAAAA.. Table 6.0 %ummary of comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques AA. // 47 62 66 // /;

ix

Glossary
C %5 5%A $ :5 $CC I... A5C 5AC I$ +*A ?C3 <++ A@C <> %> A9@* ,<%B E<%B %* %C$ $$T 5$T Cognitive adio %oftware 5efined adio 5ynamic %pectrum Access adio $requency :ardware 5efined adio $ederal communication commission Institute of .lectrical and .lectronic .ngineers Analog to 5igital Converter 5igital to Analog Converter Intermediate $requency +ow *oise Amplifier ?oltage Controlled 3scillator <hase +oc#ed loop Automatic @ain Control <rimary >ser %econdary >ser Additive 9hite @aussian *oise ,inary <hase %hift Beying Euadrature <hase %hift Beying %ignal to *oise atio %pectral Correlation $unction $ast $ourier Transform 5iscrete $ourier Transform

C.a/ter 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Intro0u1tion
The growing demand of wireless applications has put a lot of constraints on the usage of available radio spectrum which is limited and precious resource. If scanning of a radio spectrum including revenue rich urban areas, shows that some frequency bands in the spectrum are largely unoccupied most of the time, some other frequency bands are partially occupied and the remaining frequency bands are heavily used. This leads to an underutilization of radio spectrum. This underutilization of radio spectrum is minimized by the Cognitive adio. Cognitive adio is a promising technology which provides a novel way to improve utilization of available electromagnetic spectrum efficiently. Cognitive adio refers to wireless architectures in which a communication system does not operate in a fixed band, but rather searches and finds an appropriate band in which to operate. %pectrum sensing helps to detect the spectrum holes !underutilized bands of the spectrum" providing high spectral resolution capability. In todayHs wireless networ#s static spectrum allocation policy is used, that gives inefficient utilization of spectrum as shown in $igure/./I/J. Cognitive radio technology provides efficient utilization of electromagnetic radio spectrum.

$igure /./ %pectrum >tilization /

The concept of C is proposed by Koseph &itola in /88= may also be defined as a radio that is aware of its environment and the internal state and with #nowledge of these elements and any stored pre)defined ob'ectives can ma#e implement decisions about it. In many spectrum bands, spectrum access is a more significant problem than physical scarcity of spectrum, in large part due to legacy command)and)control regulation that limits the ability of potential spectrum users to obtain such access I0J. The underutilization of the electromagnetic spectrum, referred to as spectrum holes as shown in $igure /.0 I1J, can be defined as a band of frequencies assigned to a primary user, but, at a particular time and specific geographic location, the band is not being utilized by that user. Cognitive adio is viewed as a novel approach for improving the utilization of the electromagnetic radio spectrum. The Cognitive radio, built on a %oftware)defined radio, is defined as an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its environment and uses the methodology of understanding)by)building to learn from the environment and adapt to statistical variations in the input stimuli, with two primary ob'ectives in mindC /. :ighly reliable communication whenever and wherever needed. 0. .fficient utilization of the radio spectrum.

$igure /.0 %pectrum &easurement across the 8;; B:z )/ @:z band

1. &oti2ation of t.e /ro3e1t

The present availability of spectrum is already reaching its limits. Cognitive adio designs are vital to mitigate this scarcity. In order to ensure efficient spectrum utilization, users of several services need to be given freedom to access a free spectrum within certain limits called 5ynamic %pectrum Access !5%A". A new class of radios which can ma#e 5%A possible are Cognitive adios. Cognitive adios sense the spectrum over a wide band, detect the legacy primary users and accommodate secondary users in the free bands of the spectrum without causing interference to the primary users.

1.$ S1o/e of t.e /ro3e1t

Cognitive adios can be used to ma#e mobile radio networ#s capable of adapting themselves to spatial and temporal variations in user traffic and serve eligible secondary users, in order to increase the overall throughput. Cognitive adios are envisioned to operate on wireless nodes with small size and power, the spectrum sensing implementation should be #ept as small as possible. Cognitive adios will also provide the basis for implementation of future generation of technologies such as the fifth generation mobile technology !4@". 1.) Organi4ation of t.e t.esis The thesis is organized into 7 chapters C.a/ter 15 Introduction)In which we describe the problem of underutilization of electromagnetic radio spectrum within a different geographical area. To avoid this problem we used Cognitive sensing concept. C.a/ter 5 Introduction to Cognitive between the Traditional of Cognitive adio. This chapter discusses difference adio and Cognitive adios. adio, %oftware 5efined adio. Cognitive adio is the technology to provide the efficient utilization of electromagnetic radio spectrum using the spectrum

%oftware 5efined adio and its relationship with Cognitive adio, various stages adio. Also describes the Cognitive adioHs hardware, definitions, networ# architecture, challenges, characteristics, functions and %pectrum hole concept, its emergent behaviour, applications, standards, and various research organizations dealing with Cognitive radio.

C.a/ter $5 %pectrum %ensing Techniques. This chapter discusses the %pectrum %ensing Techniques, overview of various spectrum sensing techniques and the performance of transmitter detection algorithms in Cognitive adio also limitations of the transmitter detection and described the receiver and interference temperature detection, the modelling of the %pectrum %ensing and how the problem is decomposed, minimization of the sensing time. C.a/ter )5 Implementation. This chapter describes the implementation of the algorithms explained in Chapter 1, one of the transmitter detection technique .nergy 5etection is implemented using ?erilog and Cognitive radio using &atlab software is included. C.a/ter #5 %imulation esults. This chapter presents the simulation results of various spectrum sensing techniques, energy detection technique T+ schematics and Cognitive adio simulation results are discussed. C.a/ter *5 Comparison of %pectrum %ensing Techniques. This chapter presents the comparative analysis after tests conducted on the sensing algorithms. C.a/ter +5 Conclusion and $uture 9or#. This chapter provides a logical conclusion and enumerates the scope for future wor# that can be carried out.

C.a/ter INTRODUCTION TO COGNITI!" RADIO

.1O2er2ie6 of Cogniti2e Ra0io
9ireless communication is not a new paradigm to the technological world of today. It may be viewed in different ways and generically defined as the means of conveying a message from one pointDperson to another by means of some tool that may be understood by the receiver of said message. This opens the concepts of wireless communication to literally mean without wires and have an addition of some type of tool or device to convey the message from sender to receiver. This wor# will delve into the world of radio)based communication with the transmission of an electrical signal via the air from sender to receiver. The evolutionary trac# of the wireless communication will also be based with the technological usage of the 0/st century computer)based devices. This brings forward and introduction of the %oftware)defined and Cognitive radios. adios. $igure 0./ is an illustration I2J, of the Traditional, %oftware)defined, and Cognitive

.1.1Tra0itional Ra0io
The term radio refers to the wireless transceiver device, used the adio $requency ! $" as a part of the electromagnetic spectrum to transfer of information. Traditional :ardware 5efined adio !:5 " can perform only a single or a very limited set of radio functionality, and can only be modified through physical intervention, all of modulation and demodulation is performed in the analog domain. This results in higher production budgets and smallest flexibility in supporting multiple signal standards. Traditional adio logical daigram is shown in the $igure 0./. Compare to other radios it consists most of the main bloc#s are implemented in hardware ! $, &odulation, Coding" and remaing bloc#s are implemented in software !$raming, <rocessing" based as shown figure.

$igure 0./ +ogical diagram contrasting Traditional, %oftware defined, and Cognitive radios

.1. Soft6are Define0 Ra0io

%oftware 5efined adio !%5 " served as the predecessor to Cognitive adio. 5ue to the diversity of opinions in the research arena regarding the definition of an %5 , even for the sa#e of conversation, the %5 group established several definitions for %5 The resulting definition of %5 $orum collaborated with adio terminology. the Institute of .lectrical and .lectronic .ngineers!I..." </8;;./ wor#ing and Cognitive is a Lradio in which some or all of the

physical layer functions are software defined!)) radio system software processing for operational functionality but not control functionality."MI4J. The $CC defined %5 as LAa transmitter in which the operating parameters of frequency range, modulation type or maximum output power Acan be altered by ma#ing a change in software that controls the operation of the device without ma#ing any changes in the hardware components that affect the radio frequency emissionsM I6J. The $CCHs definition is more specific with regards to the physical layer aspects of operations( however, this definition is basically the same as that derived by the %5 $orum and I....

.1.$ SDR an0 its relations.i/ 6it. Cogniti2e Ra0io

<reviously there was discussion about the adaptability of being the main property of the Cognitive radio where frequency, power, modulation and bandwidth can be changed according to the current radio environment. To avoid analog circuits and components, %5 basically a %5 provides variable radio functionality. The Cognitive radio is which already #nows the condition, state, position and and the C can be demonstrated in $igure 0.0. It is

automatically ad'usts its functions according to the desired ob'ectives. The relation between the %5 %5 clear from the below diagram that the Cognitive adio encompasses the %5 . The is developed in software based on digital signal processing with the is a generic radio modifiable radio frequency components. :ence, the %5

platform which has the capability to operate in different bandwidths over a large number of frequencies as well as using different modulation schemes and waveform formats. As a result of this, the %5 T5&A, 3$5& and %5&A etc. can support multiple standards such as @%&, 9C5&A, 9I&A- etc., and multiple access schemes such as

$igure 0.0 Illustration of the relationship between the %5 and the Cognitive adio 7

3ver the past two decades, analog radio systems are being substituted by digital radio systems for several radio applications in military, civilian and commercial spaces. As a result, invented the idea of %oftware 5efined adio. %5 $orum defines %5 technology as N adios that provide software control of a variety of modulation techniques, wideband or narrowband operation, communications security functions !such as hopping", and waveform requirements of current and evolving standards over a broad frequency rangeM. %5 technology facilitates implementation of some of the radio functionality such as modulationDdemodulation, signal generation, coding etc. in software modules running on a common hardware platform. %5 contains the same basic functional bloc#s as any other digital radio, but most, if not all, are implemented in software instead of hardware !e.g. mixer, filters, modulators, demodulators". %5 architecture !physical layer" consists of three main units, which are software tunable $ front end, wideband Analog to 5igital Converter !A5C" and $requency !I$" section and software reconfigurable digital 5igital to Analog Converter !5AC" conversion the implementation of the Intermediate baseband radio, as shown in $igure 0.1I7J

$igure 0.1 ,loc# diagram of %5 Transceiver A Cognitive adio transceiver is sense radio environment and capable of adapting its physical layer parameters according to the environment. In order to achieve the highly flexible reconfigurable physical layer where communication features, thus an %5 with all the latest communication techniques is the core of Cognitive adio. In $igure 0.2 is evidenced the strict relationship between %5

architecture and C %5

oneC by adding an artificial intelligence module to an

architecture, is feasible to obtain an adaptive, flexible device able to learn

independently and to react to the external stimuli in a suitable mannerI4J.

$igure 0.2 ,loc# diagram of C Transceiver

.1.) Cogniti2e Ra0io

Cognitive adio refers to wireless architectures in which a communication system does not operate in a fixed band, but rather searches and finds an appropriate band in which to operate. There have been several definitions as well as concepts that are involved in the introduction of Cognitive adio or intelligent radios. The %pectrum %ensing involved in the 5ynamic %pectrum Allocation concepts is truly diverse( however, they are all rooted with dynamic ad hoc spectrum manipulation while remaining non)obtrusive to the primary users.

. ,.y Cogniti2e Ra0io7

The available electromagnetic radio spectrum is a limited natural resource and getting crowded day by day due to increase in wireless devices and applications. It has been also found that the allocated spectrum is underutilized because of the static allocation of the spectrum. Also the conventional approach to spectrum management is very inflexible in the sense that each wireless operator is assigned an exclusive license to operate in a certain

frequency band. And with most of the useful radio spectrum already allocated, it is difficult to find vacant bands to either deploy new services or to enhance existing ones. In order to overcome this situation, we need to come up with a means for improved utilization of the spectrum creating opportunities for dynamic spectrum access. The issue of spectrum underutilization in wireless communication can be solved in a better way using Cognitive adio technology. Cognitive radios are designed in order to provide highly reliable communication for all users of the networ#, wherever and whenever needed and to facilitate effective utilization of the radio spectrum.

.$ 'o6 is a Cogniti2e Ra0io Different fro8 Ot.er Ra0ios7 .$.1 A//li1ation

Table 0./ Comparison of Cognitive adio with Traditional adio and %oftware 5efined adio in application point of view Traditional adio /.%upports a fixed number of %ystems 0. econfigureurability decided at the time of design 1. &ay support multiple services, but chosen at the time of design %oftware 5efined adio /.5ynamically support multiple variable systems, protocols and interfaces 0.Interface with diverse %ystems 0.Can negotiate new Interfaces Cognitive adio /.Can create new waveforms on its own

1.<rovide a wide range of 1.Ad'usts operations services with variable Euality of %ervice to meet the Euality of %ervice required by the application for the signal environment

.$. Design
Table 0.0 Comparison of Cognitive 5efined adio in design point of view adio with Traditional adio and %oftware

/;

Traditional adio /.Traditional $ design 0.Traditional baseband design

%oftware 5efined adio /.Traditional adio O %oftware Architecture 0. econfigurability 1.<rovisions for easy upgrades

Cognitive adio /.%5 O Intelligence

0. econfigurability O Awareness 1.<rovisions for easy upgrades O +earning 3bservations

.$.$ Soft6are
Table 0.1 Comparison of Cognitive Traditional adio /.Cannot be made as future proof 0.Typically radios are not upgradeable adio with Traditional adio and %oftware 5efined adio in software point of view %oftware 5efined adio Cognitive adio /.Ideally software /.%5 upgrade radios could be future proof 0.&any different external upgrade mechanisms &echanisms 0.Internal upgrades and Collaborative upgrades

$rom the above tables it is observed that how a Cognitive radio is different from other radios in the scenario application, design and software. $rom this it is observed that Cognitive upgradation mechanisms. adio is most suitable for upcoming new wireless communications because of its intelligence, awareness, learning observations and

.) 'ar06are of Cogniti2e Ra0io

The architecture for a generic Cognitive adio transceiver is shown in $igure 0.4!a". The Cognitive adio transceiver unit consists of the radio frequency ! $" front)end and the baseband processing unit. A control bus is used in controlling each component to ma#e the radio adaptive to the $ environment. The $ front) end first amplifies the received signal, then mixes it to a lower band and, finally, the analog signal is converted to a digital signal. The baseband processing unit

//

modulates or demodulates and encodes or decodes the signal depending on whether a signal is transmitted or received. The baseband signal processing unit is similar to common transceivers, but the $ front)end is specifically designed to suit the need of the Cognitive adio. Cognitive adio transceiver is required to be capable of sensing over a wide spectrum range and preferably in real time. The wide spectrum range is accomplished by using $ hardware technologies li#e $ hardware is wideband antennas, power amplifiers, and adaptive filters. The

needed to be able to tune in to any part of the frequency spectrum I/J.

$igure 0.4 <hysical architecture of the Cognitive adio !a" Cognitive adio transceiver and !b" wideband $Danalog front)end architecture. The main components of the Cognitive 0.4!b" and are as followsC RF filter5 The $ filter selects the desired operating band by band pass filtering the received $ signal. Lo6 noise a8/lifier5 The +*A amplifies the received signal without adding remar#able amount of noise. &i9er5 The mixer is used to mix the received signal with locally generated frequency and then convert it to the baseband or the intermediate frequency !I$". $ adio $ front)end are shown in $igure

/0

!oltage:1ontrolle0 os1illator ;!CO<5 The ?C3 generates a signal at a specific frequency depending on the control voltage. The generated signal is then used to convert the incoming signal frequency to the baseband or intermediate frequency. %.ase lo1=e0 loo/ ;%LL<5 The <++ ma#es sure that the signal of ?C3 is loc#ed accurately on the specific reference frequency. C.annel sele1tion filter5 The channel selection filter selects the desired channel and re'ects ad'acent channels. Auto8ati1 gain 1ontrol ;AGC<5 The A@C is used to #eep the gain or output power level of an amplifier constant over a wide range of input signal levels. Analog:to:0igital 1on2erter ;ADC<5 The A5C converts the analog input signal to a digital signal.

.# Definitions of Cogniti2e Ra0io

After &itola coined the word LCognitive radioM its definition is also growing as research interest in C is increasing. egulatory bodies, prominent researchers and forums define it in different ways. According to &itola I1J, C digital assistants is defined as The point in which wireless personal !<5As" and the related networ#s are sufficiently

computationally intelligent about radio resources and related computer)to) computer communications toC !a" detect user communications needs as a function of use context, and !b" to provide radio resources and wireless services most appropriate to those needs. :owever the concept of C is not limited strictly to wireless devices such as <5As. %imon :ay#in defines Cognitive adio, it as follows I/JC LCognitive radio is an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its surrounding environment !i.e., outside world", and uses the methodology of understanding)by) building to learn from the environment and adapt its internal states to statistical variations in the incoming $ stimuli by ma#ing corresponding changes in certain operating parameters !e.g., transmit)power, carrier)frequency, and modulation strategy" in real)time, with two primary ob'ectives in mindC a. :ighly reliable communications whenever and wherever needed. b. .fficient utilization of the radio spectrum.

/1

The regulatory bodies focus on the operation of transmitter li#e $CC defines the Cognitive radio asC A radio that can change its transmitter parameters based on interaction with the environment in which it operates I7J. 9hile assisting the $CC in its efforts to define Cognitive adio, I... >%A

offered the following definition I=J.A radio frequency transmitter or receiver that is designed to intelligently detect whether a particular segment of the radio spectrum is currently in use, and to 'ump into !and out of, as necessary" the temporarily)unused spectrum very rapidly, without interfering with the transmissions of other authorized users. %5 C forum which is mostly associated with C and %5 , that wor#s on I=J application defines C asC An adaptive, autonomous radio, multi)

dimensionally aware !system" that learns from its experiences to reason, plan, and decide future actions to meet user needs. %o among all definitions it is found that following terminologies are common L3bservationM, LAdaptabilityM and LIntelligenceM. >sing following terminologies C is defined as I=J L adio whose control processes permit the radio to leverage situational #nowledge and intelligent processing to autonomously adapt towards some goal. 5epending on the set of criteria ta#en into account when deciding on the changes transmission and reception, there are two main types of Cognitive adiosC 1. Full Cogniti2e Ra0io ;&itola ra0io<5 In which every possible parameter observable by a %econdary >ser !%>" ta#es into account. . S/e1tru8 Sensing Cogniti2e Ra0io ;'ay=in ra0io<5 In which only the radio frequency spectrum is considered.

.* T.e Cogniti2e Ra0io Net6or= Ar1.ite1ture

/2

%ome part of the wireless spectrum is licensed for different tas#s and few bands are still unlicensed. In this section, there is discussion about all the possible scenarios for a better description of the communication protocols. The components of the Cognitive adio architecture are illustrated in $igure 0.6I0J. In figure it is clear that there are two main groups, the primary networ#s and the Cognitive adio networ#s !the next generation networ#s".

$igure 0.6 Cognitive adio *etwor# Architecture.

.*.1 %ri8ary Net6or=

The primary networ#s have special rights to specific bands. The primary networ# includes the primary user and the primary base)station. %ri8ary user5 <rimary users also called licensed users, operate in specific spectrum bands. This operation is entirely controlled by the only primary base) station. These primary users do not require any further enhancements for the coexistence of the primary base)stations and the primary users. %ri8ary base:station5 The primary base station has a fixed infrastructure. <rimary networ#s do not have the ability of Cognitive adio for sharing the

/4

spectrum with Cognitive users but it can be requested to have both legacy and Cognitive adio protocols for primary networ# access of Cognitive radio users.

.*. Cogniti2e Ra0io Net6or=

Cognitive adio networ#s do not have the permission to operate in the required networ#s can be deployed both with infrastructure and without band. The C

infrastructure networ#s as illustrated in $igure 0.6. The components of the networ# are as followsC Cogniti2e Ra0io user5 The C user !the unlicensed user" has no spectrum license, so extra functionalities are needed for sharing the spectrum band. Cogniti2e Ra0io base:station5 The C base)station !the unlicensed base station" has a fixed infrastructure component with C abilities. Cognitive adio can access the different networ#s by providing the single hop networ# connection to C user I4J. %ingle hop connection is used to reduce the propagation delay( it has now become essential to have single hop networ# connection which connects the user terminals. The C networ# architecture in $igure 0.6 shows different types of networ#s networ#, without networ#s operate networ# !ad)hoc networ#".The C primary networ# access, with infrastructure based C infrastructure based C are three access types areC CR net6or= a11ess5 The C users can access the C base)station not only the licensed bands but also the unlicensed spectrum bands. CR a0 .o1 a11ess5 The C users communicate with different C users through the ad hoc connection on licensed and unlicensed bands. %ri8ary net6or= a11ess5 The licensed bands are means for the C users through which they access the primary base)station.

both in licensed and unlicensed bands !mixed spectrum environment". There

.+ Cogniti2e Ra0io C.allenges

/6

Common receivers are capable of processing narrowband signals with low complexity and low power processors for digital signal processing. In order to utilize any opportunity, the Cognitive radio terminals need to process significantly wider bands. <>s are entitled to claim their frequency bands anytime when Cognitive adio is operating at that band. In order to prevent interference to and from <>s, Cognitive adio needs to identify the presence of a <> as quic#ly as possible and vacate the spectrum immediately. Consequently, detection algorithms need to sense the <> during a certain time period. This sets stringent requirement for the sensing method, forming a design challenge for Cognitive Challenges of Cognitive adio can be listed as followsC /" 5esigning an efficient spectrum sensing algorithm 0" Implementation complexity as Cognitive and system flexibility 1" 3peration in multiple secondary user environments to not compromise the signaling channel. 2" &ultipath fading and shadowing of user signals. 4" 5esigning a resource efficient cooperative scheme for spectrum sensing and information sharing between Cognitive radios. 6" obustness, low power. adio has requirement of frequency adios.

.> C.ara1teristi1s of Cogniti2e Ra0io

Cognitive adio dynamically selects the frequency of operation and also dynamically ad'usts its transmitter parameters. The main characteristics of Cognitive adios are Cognitive Capability and econfigurability. 1< Cogniti2e 1a/ability5 Cognitive capability refers to the ability of radio to sniff or sense information from its environment and perform real time interaction with it. The cognitive capability can be explained with the help of three characteristics( %pectrum %ensing, %pectrum Analysis and %pectrum 5ecision. The spectrum sensing performs the tas# of monitoring and detection of spectrum holes. The spectrum analysis will estimate the characteristic of detected spectrum hole. In the spectrum decision, the appropriate spectrum is selected by determine the parameters li#e data rate, transmission mode etc. < Re1onfigurability5 the Cognitive econfigurability refers to the ability of radio that allows adio to ad'ust its parameters li#e lin#, operating frequency, /7

modulation and transmission power at run time without any modifications in the hardware components. In other words econfigurability of C is %5 . 5oing so we dynamically change all the layers of communication as shown in $igure 0.7. 9e can use different technologies depending on their spectrum availability with the same hardware.

$igure 0.7 5ynamic changes in all +ayers

.? Cogniti2e Ra0io fun1tions

Cognitive adio mainly does four functions. 1< S/e1tru8 Sensing5 It continuously loo#s for the unused spectrum which is #nown as the spectrum hole or white space as shown in the figure. This property of Cognitive adio is termed as spectrum sensing. < S/e1tru8 &anage8ent5 3nce the spectrum holes or white spaces are found, Cognitive adio selects the available white space or channel. This property of Cognitive adio is termed as spectrum management. $< S/e1tru8 S.aring5 It allocates the unused spectrum !spectrum hole" to the secondary !Cognitive" user as long as primary user does not need it. This property of Cognitive adio is termed as spectrum sharing.

/=

)< S/e1tru8 &obility5 Cognitive spectrum mobility.

adio vacates the channel when a licensed adio is termed as the

!<rimary" user is detected. This property of Cognitive

These four functions are included in the basic Cognitive cycle is shown in $igure 0.=

$igure 0.= ,asic Cognitive cycle

.1@ S/e1tru8 'ole

A spectrum hole is a band of frequencies assigned to a primary user, but, at a particular time and specific geographic location, the band is not utilized by that user. <rimary users are those who hold the licensed channels or primary bands. According to the $CC study of the spectrum utilization shows that licensed spectrum with utilization ranges from /4G to =4Gin the bands below 1 @:z I/;J, which indicates that there is significant scope of improving spectrum utilization. As a solution for the spectrum used inefficiently problem, C and 5ynamic %pectrum Access !5%A" are proposing an opportunistic spectrum usage approach I7J. The basic idea of 5%A is in which frequency bands that are not being used by their licensed users,!also #nown as <rimary >sers !<>s"", are utilized by C s, !also #nown as %econdary >sers !%>s"" as long as they do not cause any harmful interference to <>sI//J.:ence, the #ey enabling technology of 5%A techniques is C .

/8

The C

enables the usage of temporally unused frequency bands which are

commonly #nown as spectrum holes. >sually spectrum holes are generally categorized into temporal spectrum holes and spatial spectrum holes. A temporal spectrum hole is unoccupied by the <> during the time of sensing. :ence, this band can be used by %>s in the current time slot. %pectrum sensing of this #ind does not require complex signal processing. A spatial spectrum hole is a band which is unoccupied by the <> at some spatial areas( and therefore can be occupied by %>s as well as outside this area. %patial sensing of a <> needs complex signal <rocessing algorithms I/0J. In terms of power spectra of incoming three broadly defined types I/1J. 1. Bla1= s/e1tru8 .oles5 9hich are fully used and dominated by high)power Llocal L interference some of the time. . Gray s/e1tru8 .oles5 9hich are partially used and dominated by low)power interference. $. ,.ite s/e1tru8 .oles5 9hich are not fully used and free of $ interference except for 9hite @aussian noise. Among these three, 9hite spectrum holes and @ray spectrum holes are can be used by unlicensed operators if accurate sensing technique is designed, and ,lac# spectrum holes cannot be used because usage of this space will cause interference to the <>. If the band is used more by a <>, the C moves to another spectrum hole as shown in $igure 0.8I/2J. $ is classifying the spectrum holes into

0;

$igure 0.8 %pectrum :ole Concept

.11 Cogniti2e Ra0io A//li1ationsA A02antages an0 Dra6ba1=s

The Cognitive radio does the same advantages and disadvantages of %5 . The Cognitive radio has the more benefits than a conventional radio. The following are the applications, advantages and disadvantages of Cognitive radio. So8e of t.e i8/ortant a//li1ations of CR are as follo6s Improving spectrum utilization P efficiency Improving lin# reliability +ess expensive radios Advanced networ# topologies .nhancing %5 techniques Automated radio resource management

Four 8ost /ro8ising a//li1ations are /. &ultimedia downloads 0. .mergency communications !with priority flag" 1. ,roadband wireless services 2. &ultimedia wireless networ#ing. A02antages of CR Cognitive radios are expected to be powerful tools for mitigating and solving general and selective spectrum access issues

0/

Improves current spectrum utilization !$ill in unused spectrum and move away from occupied spectrum" Improves wireless data networ# performance through increased user throughput and system reliability &ore adaptability and less coordination required between wireless networ#s.

Dra6ba1=s of CR %ecurity %oftware reliability Beeping up with higher data rates +oss of control egulatory concerns $ear of undesirable adaptations %ignificant research remains to be done to realize commercially practical Cognitive radio.

.1

I8/ortant Institutions an0 foru8s 6or=ing on Cogniti2e

Ra0io
%ome of the important institutions, forums and research organizations where extensive research is going on are listed below I/4J I/6J. DAR%A) is exploring many different aspects of Cognitive radio as part of the -@ program and other ongoing programs. >nfortunately, many of the results of the 5A <A programs are not currently in the public domain I""") has started the I... /8;; group to study the issue of Cognitive radio and giving standard li#e =;0.00 SDR Foru8) chartered two groups in 0;;2 to explore Cognitive radio issuesC the Cognitive adio 9or#ing @roup and the Cognitive adio %pecial Interest @roup. The wor#ing group is tas#ed with standardizing a definition of Cognitive radio and identifying the enabling technologies for Cognitive radio. FCC) 3n &ay /8, 0;;1, the $CC convened a wor#shop to examine the impact that Cognitive radio could have on spectrum utilization and to study the practical regulatory issues that Cognitive radio would raise.

00

!irginia Te1., 9or# is being performed exploring techniques to exploit collaborative radio to improve networ# performance. ,in lab Rutgers Uni2ersity is developing a Cognitive radio test bed for disaster response using commercially available components. " R).uropean initiative into supporting .nd)to).nd econfigurability with numerous participating .uropean universities and companies. B,RC),er#eley wireless research center is currently developing a Cognitive radio for sensing and opportunistically using the spectrum.

C.a/ter $ S%"CTRU& S"NSING T"C'NI(U"S $.1 Intro0u1tion

%pectrum sensing is the basic and essential mechanism of Cognitive adio. %pectrum sensing refers to detecting the unused spectrum !spectrum holes" and sharing it without harmful interference with other secondary users. In Cognitive radio technology, primary users can be defined as the users who have the highest priority on the usage of a specific part of the spectrum. %econdary users have lower priority, and should not cause any interference to the primary users when using the channel. %pectrum sensing is still in its early stages of development. A number of various methods are proposed for identifying the presence signal in transmissions. In some another approaches, characteristics of the identified transmission are detected for deciding the signal transmission as well as identifying the type of signal I/7J. The well #nown spectrum sensing techniques used are matched filter detection, energy detection, cyclostationary detection.

$. Classifi1ation of S/e1tru8 Sensing Te1.niBues

01

The main challenge to the Cognitive radios is the spectrum sensing. In spectrum sensing there is a need to find spectrum holes in the radio environment for C users. :owever it is difficult for C to have a direct measurement of channel between primary transmitter and receiver I/J. A C cannot transmit and detect the radio environment simultaneously, thus, we need such spectrum sensing techniques that ta#e less time for sensing the radio environment. In literature the spectrum sensing techniques have been classified is shown in the following $igure 1./ I/J.

$igure 1./ Classification of %pectrum %ensing Techniques

$. .1 Trans8itter Dete1tion ;Non:1oo/erati2e<

In transmitter detection each Cognitive radio !C " must independently have the ability to determine the presence or absence of the <rimary user !<>" in a specified spectrum. A hypothesized model for transmitter detection is defined as that is, the signal detected by the %econdary user !%>" isC :;C y!t"Fw!t" !<rimary user is Absent"

02

:/Cy!t"FhQx!t"Ow!t"

!<rimary user is <resent"

!1./"

9here :; represents the hypothesis corresponding to Lno signal transmittedM, and :/ to Lsignal transmittedM, y!t" is received signal, x!t" is transmitted signal, w!t" is an Additive 9hite @aussian *oise !A9@*" with zero mean and variance RS0, and ThH is the amplitude of channel gain !channel coefficient"I/=J. 3n the basis of this hypothesis model we generally use three transmitter detection techniques I/8JC &atched $ilter 5etection, .nergy 5etection and Cyclostationary $eature 5etector. The #ey metric in spectrum sensing are the probability of correct detection !<d" and two types of errors in spectrum sensor, the first error occurs when the channel is vacant !:;"but the spectrum sensor can decide the channel is occupied, the probability of this event is the probability of false alarm !<f" , the second error when channel is occupied ! :/" the spectrum sensor can decide the channel is unoccupied, the probability of this event is probability of misdetection !<m" I01J. <d Fprob U5ecisionF :/D:/V <f Fprob U5ecisionF :/D:;V <m FprobU5ecisionF:;D:/V !1.0"

$. .1.1 &at1.e0 Filter Dete1tion

A matched filter is a linear filter designed to provide the maximum signal)to noise ratio at its output for a given transmitted waveform I00J. $igure 1.0 depicts the bloc# diagram of matched filter. The signal received by C is input to matched filter which is r!t"Fs!t" O n!t". The matched filter convolves the r!t" with h!t" where h!t"Fs!T)t O W". $inally the output of matched filter is compared with a pre defined threshold X to decide whether the primary user is present or not.

04

$igure 1.0 ,loc# 5iagram of &atched $ilter A &atched filter is an optimal detector in an A9@* channel if the waveform of primary user is previously #nown by C . It means that C order, the pulse shape and the pac#et format. %o if C should have #nowledge about the waveform of primary user such as modulation type and doesnHt have this type of prior information then itHs difficult to detect the primary user. 9e can still use &atched $ilter 5etection because in most of the communication networ#s we can achieve this coherency by introducing pilots, preambles, synchronization or word spreading codes in the waveform of primary users. %till there are limitations in matched filter because each C should have the information of all the primary users present in the radio environment. Advantage of matched filter is that it ta#es less time for high processing gain. :owever ma'or drawbac# of &atched $ilter is that a C would need a dedicated receiver for every primary user class I/8J.

$. .1. "nergy Dete1tion

If C canHt have sufficient information about primary userHs waveform, then the matched filter is not the optimal choice. :owever if it is aware of the power of the random @aussian noise, then energy detector is optimal I/J. In I0;J the authors proposed the energy detector as shown in $igure 1.1. The input band pass filter selects the center frequency fs and bandwidth of interest 9. The filter is followed by a squaring device to measure the received energy then the integrator determines the observation interval, T. $inally the output of the integrator, Y is compared with a predefined threshold, X to decide whether primary user is present or not.

$igure 1.1 ,loc# 5iagram of .nergy 5etector In a non fading environment where h is amplitude gain o f the channel, probability of detection <d and probability of false alarm <f are given by following formulas I0/JC !1.1"

06

!1.2" 9here Z is the %* , m F T9 is the !observationDsensing" time bandwidth product [!." and [!.,." are complete and incomplete gamma functions, generalized &arcum E)function. In a fading environment h is the amplitude gain of the channel that varies due to the shadowing or fading effect which ma#es the %* variable. <f is the same as that of non fading case because <f is independent of %* . <d gives the probability of detection conditioned on instantaneous %* . In this case average probability of detection may be derived by averaging !1.1" over fading statisticsC !1.4" 9here f Z !x" is the probability distribution function of %* under fading. A low value of means that the C indicates an absence of primary user with high probability, it user can use that spectrum. A high value of indicates ! " is the

minimal use of spectrum. In I0;J the authors suggest that in fading environment, where different C users need to cooperate in order to detect the presence of the primary user. In such a scenario a comprehensive model relating different parameters such as detection probability, number and spatial distribution of spectrum sensors and more importantly propagation characteristics are yet to be found. 3ne of the main problems of energy detection is that performance is susceptible to uncertainty in noise power. It cannot differentiate between signal power and noise power rather it 'ust tells us about absence or presence of the primary user.

$. .1.$ Cy1lostationary Feature Dete1tion

Cyclostationary $eature detection is more robust to noise uncertainty than energy detection. If the signal of the <> exhibits strong Cyclostationary properties, it can be detected at very low %* values by exploiting the information !Cyclostationary feature" embedded in the received signal. A signal is said to be Cyclostationary !in the wide sense" if its mean and autocorrelation are a periodic function of time with some period !equation 1.6". &odulated signals are in general coupled with sine wave carriers, pulse trains, repeating spreading,

07

hoping sequences, or cyclic prefixes which result in built)in periodicity. .ven though the data is a wide)sense stationary random process, these modulated signals are characterized as Cyclostationary, since their statistics, mean and autocorrelation, exhibit periodicity. This periodicity is introduced intentionally in the signal format so that a receiver can exploit for estimation such as carrier phase and pulse timing I02J. !1.6" $or some period \ ; where !1.7" 9here .I.J is expectation operation. %ince x is periodic, it can be represented as a $ourier %eries as !1.=" 9here the sum over ] includes all integer multiples of the reciprocal of the fundamental period . The $ourier coefficient also #nown as cyclic

autocorrelation is given by !1.8" Cyclostationary signals exhibit correlation between widely separated spectral components due to spectral redundancy caused by periodicity. The $ourier transform of the cyclic autocorrelation is spectral correlation function and is given by, !1./;"

0=

$igure 1.2 ,loc# 5iagram of Cyclostationary $eature detection >nli#e power spectrum density, which is real)valued one dimensional transform, the spectral correlation function in !7" is a two dimensional transform. In general it is complex)valued and the parameter ] is called cycle frequency. <ower spectral density is a special case of a spectral correlation function for ] F ;. 5ifferent types of modulated signals !such as ,<%B, E<%B, %E<%B" that have identical power spectral density functions can have highly distinct spectral correlation functions. $urthermore, stationary noise and interference exhibit no spectral correlation. @iven * samples, the spectral correlation function I04J. !1.//" !%C$" is estimated as

9here is the +)point discrete $ourier transform !5$T" around the nth the received signal, and

!1./0" sample of

F ] +D$s is the index of the frequency bin

corresponding to the cyclic frequency ]. The %C$ of received signal is then correlated with the %C$ of the signal !#nown priori" and then compared to a threshold to detect if the primary signal is present.

$.$ Li8itations of Trans8itter Dete1tion

There are two limitations of transmitter detection, eceiver uncertainty problem and shadowing problem I/J. $irst, in transmitter detection Cognitive radio users have information only about primary transmitter and it has no information about primary receiver. %o Cognitive radio can identify receiver through wea# transmitted signals. This sort of problem is called receiver uncertainty problem. &oreover transmitter detection faces the hidden node problem that limits its usability. %econdly, shadowing causes Cognitive radio transmitter unable to detect the transmitter of primary user.

$.) Re1ei2er Dete1tion ;Coo/erati2e Dete1tion<

08

A collaborative spectrum sensing method has been first proposed by @hasemi and %ousain I0;J. C cooperative spectrum sensing occurs when a group or networ# of C users share the sense information they gain for <> detection. This provides a more accurate spectrum sensing over the area where the C s are located. Cooperative spectrum sensing plays a very important role in the research of C due to its ability in improving sensing performance especially in the $igure 1.4 illustrated multipath fading, shadowing and receiver^s uncertainty. As shown in the $igure 1.4, C / and C 0 are placed inside the transmission range of the <> transmitter !<> T-" while C 1 is outside the range. 5ue to multiple attenuated copies of the <> signal and the bloc#ing of a house, C 0 experiences multipath and shadow fading such that the <>Hs signal may not be correctly detected. &oreover, C 1 suffers from the receiver uncertainty problem because it is unaware of the <>Hs transmission and the existence of the primary receiver !<> -". As a result, the transmission from C 1 may interfere with the reception at <> -. If C users, most of which observe a strong <> signal li#e C / in the $igure 1.4, can cooperate and share the sensing results with other users, the combined cooperative decision derived from the spatially collected observations can overcome the deficiency of individual observations at each C user I/J, I0=J. fading, shadowing and noise uncertaintyI06J, I07J.

$igure 1.4 eceiver >ncertainty and &ultipathD%hadow $ading

1;

$.).1 T6o a//roa1.es to 1oo/erati2e s/e1tru8 sensing

1. Centrali4e0 a//roa1.5 In this approach to C cooperative spectrum sensing, there is a central C $or data called fusion centre !$C" within the networ# that collects the sensing information from all the sense C s within the networ#. cooperative, all C s are tuned to a control channel where a and the $C for physical point)to)point lin# between each cooperating C

sending the sensing results is called a reporting channel as shown in $igure 1.6!a". $C then analyses the information and determines the bands that can and cannot be used I0=J, I08J. . Distribute0 a//roa1.5 >nli#e centralized approach, distributed cooperative sensing does not depend on a $C for ma#ing the cooperative decision. >sing the distributed approach for C cooperative spectrum sensing, no one C ta#es control. .ach C sends its specific data of sensing to other C s, merges its data with the received data of sensing, and decides whether or not the <> is present by using a local condition as shown in $igure 1.6 !b". :owever this approach requires for the individual C s to have a much higher level of independence, and possibly setting themselves up as an ad)hoc networ# I0=J, I08J.

$igure 1.6 Classification of Cooperative %ensingC !a" Centralized, !b" 5istributed

1/

$.# Interferen1e Base0 Dete1tion

>nder the assumptions that if a signal A can interfere with signal ,, then signal , is within the communication range of signal A. A signal can be detected by chec#ing the interference with the detectorHs signal I/J. $rom the viewpoint of detection of signals, techniques of sensing can be categorized into two categoriesC coherent and non)coherent detection. In coherent detection, the <> signal can be coherently detected by comparing the received signal characteristics with a priori #nowledge of <> signals.

$.* &o0eling of S/e1tru8 Sensing Te1.niBues

In a system for spectrum sensing for Cognitive adio *etwor#s, the input data is in the form of signals coming from primary users or licensed users. This signal contains the information that is exchanged between primary users on licensed band. In order to classify the primary users signal we first have to sense the radio environment to determine whether the band is available for C modulation scheme and operating frequency of primary user. userDsecondary user or not and if the primary user is present then classify its features li#e

$.*.1 %ri8ary Users Trans8itter

,loc# diagram of <rimary >sers Transmitter is shown in $igure 1.7. The input is any piece of information !a text file, a sampled speech signal, a coded image A" that is converted to sequence of bits. Information bits, bInJ are coded by adding some redundant bits to protect information against channel noise and interference from other users. 5ata symbols, sInJ are obtained by grouping the bits into symbol. After that, data symbols are passed through pulse shaping filter pT!t" and modulate the resulting signal to generate an transmission through channel. The channel affects the signal by adding noise and distortion into it. There may be interference from other users also present. At the receiver, all the steps which are mentioned in transmitter are operated with their reverse functionalities to obtain the original input signal. $ !radio frequency" signal for

10

$igure 1.7 ,loc# 5iagram of 5igital Communication Transmitter

$.+ %roble8 De1o8/osition into &o0ules

The system is decomposed in to five modules. The modules are formed in a way so that the output of every module becomes the input for the next module. :owever the primary input of the system is the primary userHs wave form from primary user. The modules forming the entire system include( <rimary >sers 9aveform, <rocessing on 9aveform, 5etection of 9aveform, $eature .xtraction and Classification. The flow of data and information between various modules is shown in $igure 1.=.

$igure 1.= %ystem <rocess 5iagram

$.+.1 %ri8ary Users ,a2efor8

11

The first step is to chec# the radio environment whether there is any waveform present or not. $or experimentation purposes, various types of primary userHs waveforms have been developed. adio environment is searched by Cognitive radio and from radio environment primary users wave form is extracted.

$.+. %ro1essing on ,a2efor8

After getting primary users waveform, this waveform is processed using spectrum sensing techniques discussed in 1.0. As from the theoretical bac#ground, first it is important for Cognitive radio user to #now whether there is primary user is present or not. If yes then starts communication on that band. If no then try to get some parameters about primary userHs waveform e.g. operating frequency, modulation scheme etc. This can be done quite effectively using Cyclostationary feature detection technique. There are also other techniques present in which we can detect whether primary user is present at some particular frequency or not. These techniques include energy detection and matched filter. 3ne obvious drawbac# for the matched filter detection is that it needs priory #nowledge about primary userHs waveform. :owever this technique is simple and reduces considerable computation.

$.+.$ Dete1tion of ,a2efor8

In a radio environment there are many primary users present at some particular time. &oreover, at any one instant, different primary user from different technologies can also be there. :owever, technology is usually more concerned with particular features such as modulation type and operating frequency. There are many techniques which can be used for the detection of wave form. $or detection of primary user matched filter detection I00J can be used but it requires prior #nowledge about primary userHs waveform. .nergy 5etection I0;J can also be used to detect waveform but it will have its own limitations discussed in 1.0. ,oth the above mentioned techniques not give much about the features of the waveforms. Cyclostationary feature detection I/8J can be a good solution for it. It will not only detect wave form but also helps to extract features. ,ut last mentioned technique is computationally complex as compared to energy detection and matched filter.

12

$.+.) Feature "9tra1tion

3nce Cyclostationary feature detection is applied, certain features are extracted from the primary userHs waveform for the purpose of classification of waveform. The two obvious features are operating frequency and modulation type of each waveform. In addition to operating frequency and modulation type, data rate of each waveform can also be determined.

$.+.# Classifi1ation
The purpose of this module is to classify the primary userHs waveform using features extracted from the previous module. The classifier should #now about the features of well #nown wireless technologies e.g. 9ireless +A*, ,luetooth etc. 3nce it ta#es features from previous module it can classify the technology used by primary user using previously stored information about technology.

$.> &ini8i4ing Sensing Ti8e for Dete1tion

In order to minimize the sensing time an algorithm has been proposed, whose flow chart is shown in $igure 1.8. According to this algorithm there are three possible states for the output of each detection technique i.e. +ow T+H, &edium T&H and :igh T:H. If its output is T:H( it indicates the presence of primary user, if its output is T+H( it means that primary user is not present. If the output is T&H then detection technique is not sure about the presence or absence of primary user.

14

$igure 1.8 Algorithm for minimizing sensing time for detection The received signal is first passed through &atched $ilter, as it ta#es least time for sensing among all three mentioned techniques. If output is T:H or T+H then itHs fine that we concluded about presence or absence of primary user. If output is T&H then we have to go for some other technique. As .nergy detection technique ta#es less sensing time compared to Cyclostationary feature detection. Then signal is passed through energy detection filter and if its output is T+H or T:H then again there is no need to go for another detection technique. $inally if energy detectors output is T&H then go for Cyclostationary feature detection. If its output is T: Hor T&H then we said that primary user is present, otherwise primary user is not present.

C.a/ter ) I&%L"&"NTATION

16

).1 Intro0u1tion
This chapter concentrates on the implementation of spectrum sensing techniques to obtain results for all designed classifiers and subsequent analysis. $irst, overall program structure has been discussed followed by the algorithms and flow charts.

). Trans8itter of %ri8ary Users

$irst of all we need primary user wave form on which we can apply different spectrum sensing techniques. Transmitter can have different transmitting parameters li#e they can have different operating frequency, different modulation scheme. ,loc# diagram of digital transmitter is shown in Chapter 1. $low chart of implementation of primary transmitter is shown in $igure 2./. Ste/ 15 The system parameters are set in this step. The parameters areC !i" the operating frequency, TfreqH( !ii" the sampling frequency, T$sH( !iii" number of samples per symbol period, T+H( !iv" the sampling period, TTsH( !v" roll)off factor for the !square)root" raised cosine filters, Talpha H( !vi" *O/ is the length of the square root raised cosine filter, T*H( !vii" signal to noise ratio, TsnrH( !viii" channel impulse response, ThH. Ste/ 5 This is any piece of information !a text file, a sampled speech signal, a coded image A" that is converted to sequence of bits. :ere are two options either ta#e input from the user to transmit or use default data sequence. Ste/ $5 This a square) root raised)cosine filters with roll)off factor ]. :ere, ] is set equal to ;.4. In the real world, the transmit signal is continuous time. %ince in computer simulation, we can only have sampled signals, we approximate continuous)time signals by a dense grid of samples. :ere, we have + F /;; samples per symbol period. The function TrcosineH generates a square)root raised) cosine pulse, for the transmit filter, pT!t". The output of this step is Y. Ste/ )5 &odulation is done to generate an $ !radio frequency" signal for transmission through channel. :ere two modulation techniques ,<%B !,inary <hase %hift Beying" and E<%B !Euadrature <hase %hift Beying" are available. It depends on type of primary transmitter that whether to use ,<%B or E<%B. Ste/ #5 This is characterized by an impulse response c!t" and an additive noise. :ere, we have chosen c!t" F _!t" which in the discrete domain becomes c F /. If the channel is multipath, e.g., with the impulse response c!t" F a;_!t`t;" O a/

17

_!t`t/", it has the equivalent discrete domain c F Izeros!*;,/"( a; ( zeros!*/,/" ( a/J, where *; and */ are t; and t/ in unit of Ts. Ste/ *5 The channel noise is assumed to be Additive 9hite @aussian with signal strength 0d,. In &AT+A, TawgnH function is used for this purpose.

$igure 2./ $low chart for Implementation of <rimary Transmitter The &AT+A, program code simulates two types of <rimary transmitter for %pectrum %ensing in Cognitive adio *etwor#s, one using ,<%B &odulation technique and other using E<%B &odulation technique.

).$ "nergy Dete1tion

1=

The simplest detection technique for spectrum

sensing is .nergy 5etection. As

discussed in Chapter 1 energy detector measures the energy received from primary user during the observation interval. If energy is less then certain threshold value then it declares it as spectrum hole. +et r!t" is the received signal which we have to pass from energy detector. The procedure for implementation of the .nergy 5etector is as follows. Ste/ 15 $irst estimate <ower %pectral 5ensity !<%5" by using periodogram function in &AT+A,. <xx F <eriodogram !r" Ste/ 5 The power spectral density !<%5" is intended for continuous spectra. The integral of the <%5 over a given frequency band computes the average power in the signal over that frequency band. :psdF5spdata.psd!<xx" Ste/ $5 *ow one frequency component ta#es almost 0; points in &AT+A,. %o for each frequency there points are summed and get the result. Ste/ )5 3n experimental basis when results at low and high %* then threshold X is set to be 4;. Ste/ #5 $inally the output of the integrator, Y is compared with a threshold value X to decide whether primary user is present or not. $low chart for the implementation of .nergy 5etector is shown in $igure 2.0. are compared

18

$igure 2.0 $low chart for Implementation of .nergy 5etector

2;

).) &at1.e0 Filter

Another technique for spectrum sensing is &atched $ilter as discussed in Chapter 1. &atched $ilter requires prior #nowledge about primary userHs waveform. :ence, it requires less sensing time for detection. $low chart of &atched $ilter is shown in $igure 2.1. +et r!t" is the received signal which we have to pass from &atched filter. The procedure for implementation of the &atched filter is as follows. Ste/ 15 $or the matched filter prior #nowledge of primary user waveform is required. Therefore a local carrier is generated using local oscillator. Ste/ 5 xcorr estimates the cross)correlation sequence of a random process. are compared Autocorrelation is handled as a special case. Ste/ $5 3n experimental basis when results at low and high %* then threshold X is set to be a 14. Ste/ )5 $inally the output of the integrator, Y is compared with a threshold value X to decide whether primary user is present or not.

$igure 2.1 $low chart for Implementation of &atched $ilter 2/

).# Cy1lostationary Feature Dete1tion

Cyclostationary $eature 5etection as discussed in Chapter 1. It uses inbuilt features in the primary userHs waveform for detection. :ence, it is computationally complex detector. $low chart for the implementation of Cyclostationary $eature 5etector is shown in $igure 2.2. +et r!t" is the received signal follows. Ste/ 15 $irst ta#e $ourier of the received signal by using TfftH function. Ffft!r" Ste/ 5 &ultiply r with complex exponential. As multiplication with complex exponential in time domain is equivalent to frequency shift in frequency domain. -TFr.Qexp !'Q0Qpi QT"( Ste/ $5 Correlate -T with -YFxcorr!-T, "( Average over time T pt F fft !-Y".Qcon' !fft!-Y"" Ste/ )5 3n experimental basis when results at low and high %* then threshold is set to be /b X b4. Ste/ #5 $inally the output of the integrator, pt is compared with a threshold value X to decide whether primary user is present or not. Ste/ *5 *ow if the primary user is present then we can find features of the primary signal li#e operating frequency and modulation technique. The &AT+A, program code simulates the Cyclostationary $eature 5etector for %pectrum %ensing in Cognitive adio *etwor#s. $low chart for Implementation of Cyclostationary $eature 5etector is shown in $igure 2.2. are compared which we have to pass from Cyclostationary feature detector. The procedure for implementation of the Cyclostationary $eature 5etection is as

20

$igure 2.2 $low chart for the Implementation of Cyclostationary $eature 5etection

21

).* "nergy Dete1tion Te1.niBue using !"RILOG

Implementation of .nergy 5etection algorithm using ?erilog is given as Ste/ 15 %ample the received signal, as previously described. Ste/ 5 Choose a smoothing factor L and a threshold 1, where/ should be chosen to meet the requirement for the probability of false alarm. Ste/ $5 Compute the autocorrelations of the received signal !l", l F ;, /, . . . , L /, and form the sample Covariance matrix. Ste/ )5 Compute

9here rnm!Ns" are the elements of the sample covariance matrix Rx!Ns". Ste/ #5 5etermine the presence of the signal based on T/!Ns", T0!Ns", and threshold /. That is, if T0!Ns" >/, the signal exists( otherwise, the signal does not exist.

).*.1 Des1ri/tion of I8/le8entation

In the previous wor# it has been given the optimum values for + is /;. And but for the arithmetic simplicity in verilog !hardware" we have ta#en + as =, and Z has been ta#en as /, and in practical situations * s varies from 0;;; to 1;;;. Implementing for such high values on $<@A is difficult. %o we are going for less value of *s. 9e have,

C @D 1E>;9;@<9;@<F9;1<9;1<FG G G G G G G F9;+<9;+<< C1D 1E>;9;@<9;:1<F9;1<9;@<FG G G G G G G F9;+<9;*<< . . C+D 1E>;9;@<9;:+<F9;1<9;:*<FG G G G G G G F9;+<9;@<<

22

to compute the above parameters in a single cloc# pulse, we should be able to have the samples from c*s to O*s so, we should have all the 0*s samples at a time. %o instead of am only one possible way is to use a shift register with length 0* s. so the hardware structure will be as shown in $igure 2.4.

$igure 2.4 Architecture of .nergy 5etection without A& $igure 2.4 clearly represents the hardware architecture for energy detection scheme for cognitive radio. 9hereas -in is an =)bit sample inputs applied to the shift register for every cloc# pulse. The shift register outputs have previous and present samples in that xp/, xp0,Axp7 represents previous samples and xm/, xm0Axm7 represents the present samples. After the X; is calculation performed by using threshold Z and T0 !X;" to ta#e decision on signal presents a subtraction is performed between threshold and t0 if borrow exists primary user is present else there is no primary user. .quation represents the calculation for the test statistic of T0 for a smoothing factor of +F= and *s F =. T0 F /D=!X;OX;OX;OX;O d d d d =times" F X;

24

).+ I8/le8entation of Cogniti2e Ra0io using &ATLAB

5igital implementations offer more flexibility by using $$T)based spectral estimates. $igure 4./= shows the architecture for 5igital Implementation of an .nergy 5etector I1;J.

$igure 2.6 5igital Implementation of an .nergy 5etector .nergy detector based approach is the most common way of spectrum sensing because of its low computational and implementation complexities. 9hen the primary user signal is un#nown or the receiver cannot gather sufficient information about the primary user signal, the energy detection method is used. About the primary user signal, the energy detection method is used. This method is optimal for detecting any un#nown zero)mean constellation signals and can be applied to Cognitive radios !C s" I/J. The process flow of the energy detector is, the received signal is passed through the A5C then calculate the $$T coefficient values then squared those values and average over the observation interval. Then the output of the detector is compared to a pre)defined threshold value to decide whether the primary user is present or not.

26

C.a/ter # SI&ULATION R"SULTS

#.1 Intro0u1tion
This Chapter discusses about the results obtained for various algorithms implemented in this pro'ect wor#. To understand various basic concepts of %pectrum %ensing and to understand various programming aspects associated with it, we initially give importance to learning the theoretical aspects lin#ed with %pectrum %ensing and tried to implement those basic aspects using &AT+A, and -ilinx I%.. 9e have selected &AT+A, as our basic tool for these operations is because &AT+A, has a highly established toolbox for wireless communication applications. Again for Cognitive adio implementations mostly &AT+A, is preferred by almost all the researchers wor#ing in these areas and -ilinx I%. is also preferred. The simulation results are discussed in three sections as followsC a. esults of Transmitter 5etection programming done in &AT+A, b. esults of .nergy 5etection programming using ?. I+3@ done in -ilinx I%.. c. esults of Cognitive adio %imulation done in &AT+A,. To perform all the programming, we have used a general purpose computer having processors with / @, A&. To understand the basic concepts associated with Cognitive adio and &AT+A, we initially implemented basic %pectrum %ensing algorithms as discussed belowC

#.

Results of Trans8itter Dete1tion /rogra88ing 0one in

&ATLAB
To understand the basic concepts associated with Cognitive adio and &AT+A, we initially implemented basic %pectrum %ensing algorithms as discussed belowC

27

#. .1 "nergy Dete1tion Si8ulation Results

As explained in the chapter2, implementation of flow chart for .nergy detection the code is written in &AT+A, using ,<%B and E<%B and the simulation results are obtatained. $igure 4./ shows the output of energy detector when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using ,<%B is present with very good %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4./ that there is a pea# at exactly 0;;:z. %o energy detector compared this pea# with threshold value, in this case its greater then threshold. :ence, energy detector said that primary user is present at 0;; :z.

$igure 4./ .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z $igure 4.0 shows the output of energy detector when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using ,<%B is present with very poor %* . It is very clear in the $igure 4.0 that there are so many pea#s in whole figure. %o energy detector compared value of each point with threshold, in this case its greater then threshold at many points. :ence, energy detector said that primary users are present at all along the spectrum.

2=

$igure 4.0 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z

$igure 4.1 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z

28

$igure 4.1 shows the output of energy detector when there is a primary user at 0;; :z using E<%B is present with very good %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4.1 that there is pea# at exactly 0;;:z. %o energy detector compared value of each point with threshold, in this case its greater then threshold at 0;;:z. :ence, energy detector said that primary user is present at 0;;:z.

$igure 4.2 .nergy 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z $igure 4.2 shows the output of energy detector when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using E<%B is present with very poor %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4.2 that there are so many pea#s in whole figure. %o energy detector compared value of each point with threshold value, in this case its greater then threshold at many points. :ence, energy detector said that primary users are present at all along the spectrum. 9hen there is no primary user, even the energy detector detects that primary user is present under low %* conditions. This is the main drawbac# of energy detection that it canHt distinguish between noise and energy of the signal. >nder low %* conditions energy detector told that primary user is present in all around the spectrum if it is white noise.

4;

#. .1.1 Re1ei2er O/erating C.ara1teristi1s Cur2es for "nergy Dete1tion

9ith a view to verify the hypothesis simulation was made. In the simulation study input random bit stream is multiplied by sinusoidal carrier signal to get ,<%B modulated signal, which is transmitted in A9@* channel. The detection performance can be performed by varying the probability of false alarm from ; to / and finding the probability of detection by using &onte Carlo simulation for each case, theoretically as shown in $igure 4.4. :ere the %* values are Changes as 6d,, =d,, /;d,, /0d,.
Nonfluc tuating Nonc oherent Rec eiver O perating Characteristic (RO C) Curves 1 0.9 0.8 S NR= 10dB 0.7 0.6 Pd 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -10 10 S NR= 8dB S NR= 6dB S NR= 12dB

10

-8

10

-6

10 P
fa

-4

10

-2

10

$igure 4.4 3C curves of energy detection scheme with different %* In the graph probability of false alarm on -)axis and probability of detection on Y)axis as shown in $igure 4.4. :ere we have ta#en probability of false alarm is !;,/", and the %* at four different values are 6d,, =d,, /;d,, /0d, from the figure it is observed that detection performance improved by increasing %* value.

4/

In p u t S ig n a l 1
#. . &at1.e0 Filter Si8ulation Results
The &AT+A, program simulates the &atched $ilter for %pectrum %ensing in Cognitive adio *etwor#s. $or the case of ,<%B in which the two pulses are p!t" conditions the receiver computes the correlation between p!t" and received pulse. If correlation -0 .5 is / we decide p!t" is received as in $igure 4.6, otherwise we will decide that cp!t" is received. 9hen %* conditions are not good then correlation coefficient -1 is no longer O/ or )/, but has smaller magnitude, thus reducing the

0 .5

0 2 0 $igure 4 0 4.6 6 0shows 8 0 the correlation 1 0 0 1 2 0 of1 4received 0 1 6 0 signal 1 8 0 with 2 0 0 signal distinguishability.
generated at cognitive radio under good S a%* m p le sconditions.

A m p litu d e

0 The correlation coefficient c of these pulses is )/. >nder good %* and cp!t".

M a tc h e d F ilte r O u tp u t 100

50 A m p litu d e

-5 0

20

40

60

80

100 120 S a m p le s

140

160

180

200

$igure 4.6 &atched $ilter 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B

#. . .1 Re1ei2er O/erating C.ara1teristi1s Cur2es for &at1.e0 Filter

The detection performance can be performed by varying the probability of false alarm from ; to / and finding the probability of detection by using &onte Carlo simulation for each case, theoretically as shown in $igure 4.7. :ere the %* values are Changes as 1d,, /;d,. $igure 4.7 shows that probability

40

of detection is less because %* value is less so the signal strength is poor. %o at that frequency band primary user is absent.
Nonfluctuating Noncoherent Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curves 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 P 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -4 10 SNR=3dB
d

10

-3

10 Pfa

-2

10

-1

10

$igure 4.7 3C curve for &atched filter detection at %* F1d, $igure 4.= shows that probability of detection is very high because %* value is more so the signal strength is high. %o at that frequency band primary user is present.

41

Nonfluctuating Noncoherent Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curves 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 SNR=10dB
d

10

-4

10

-3

10 Pfa

-2

10

-1

10

$igure 4.= 3C curve for &atched filter detection at %* F/;d,

#. .$ Cy1lostationary Feature Dete1tion Si8ulation Results

As explained in the chapter2, implementation of flow chart for Cyclostationary $eature detection the program code is written in &AT+A, using ,<%B and E<%B and the simulation results are obtatained.

42

$igure 4.8 Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z $igure 4.8 shows the output of Cyclostationary feature detection when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using ,<%B is present with very good %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4.8 that there is pea# in the center and there is a pea# at double of the frequency as well. *ow we have to compare second pea# with threshold value. %o Cyclostationary feature detection compared value of each pea# with threshold, in this case its greater then threshold at 0;;:z. :ence, Cyclostationary feature detection said that primary user is present at 0;;:z. $igure 4./; shows the output of Cyclostationary feature detection when there is a primary user at 0;; :z using ,<%B is present with very poor %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4./; that itHs very difficult to detect second pea# at 2;;:z. %o we have to compare second pea# with threshold value. :ence, Cyclostationary feature detection compared value of each pea# with threshold, in this case no pea# is greater than threshold. :ence, Cyclostationary feature detection said that primary user is not present.

$igure 4./; Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for ,<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z

44

$igure 4.// Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* 1;d, for E<%B when <rimary user is present at 0;;:z $igure 4.// shows the output of Cyclostationary feature detection when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using E<%B is present with very good %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4.// that there is pea# in the center and there are two pea#s at double of the frequency as well. %o we have to compare second pair of pea#s with threshold value. %o Cyclostationary feature detection compared value of each pea# with threshold, in this case its greater then threshold at 2;;:z. :ence, Cyclostationary feature detection said that primary user is present at 0;;:z.

46

$igure 4./0 Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 3utput at %* )1;d, for E<%B when primary user is present at 0;;:z $igure 4./0 shows the output of Cyclostationary feature detection when there is a primary user at 0;;:z using E<%B is present with very poor %* . ItHs very clear in the $igure 4./0 that there is pea# in the center and itHs very difficult to see two pea#s at double frequency. %o we have to compare second pea# with threshold value. %o Cyclostationary feature detection compared value of each pea# with threshold, in this case its less then threshold. :ence, Cyclostationary feature detection said that primary user is not present.

#.$ Results of "nergy Dete1tion /rogra88ing using !"RILOG 0one in Hilin9 IS"
As explained in the chapter2, implementation algorithm for .nergy detection the code is written in ?. I+3@ and simulated using -ilinx I%. and the simulation results are obtatained. :ere the input is ta#en as = bit binary input that is process through the energy detector algorithm and calculated the value. After the X; is calculation

47

performed by using threshold Z and X; to ta#e decision on signal present or not, a subtraction operation is performed between threshold Z and X; if borrow exists primary user is present else there is no primary user. $igure 4./1 shows that simulated wave form for primary user is present or absent. %I&>+AT.5 9A?. $3 & $3 .*. @Y 5.T.CTI3*

$igure 4./1 %imulated wave form for <rimary user is present

Table 4./ 5evice >tilization %ummary !estimated values"

+ogic >tilization *umber of %lice egisters *umber of %lice +>Ts *umber of fully used +>T)$$ pairs *umber of bonded I3,s *umber of ,>$@D,>$@CT +s >sed 62 8;0 06 // / Available /06=;; 612;; 82; 0/; 10 >tilization ;G /G 0G 4G 1G

4=

&inimum periodC ;.700ns !&aximum $requencyC /1=2.;=1&:z" &inimum input arrival time before cloc#C ;.72/ns &aximum output required time after cloc#C /;.010ns &aximum combinational path delayC *o path found T+ %chematics for .nergy 5etection Algorithm

$igure 4./2 T+ view/ of the implemented algorithm

48

$igure 4./4 T+ view0 of the implemented algorithm

$igure 4./6 T+ view1 of the implemented algorithm

6;

#.) Results of Cogniti2e Ra0io Si8ulation 0one in &ATLAB.

The cognitive radio system simulation carried out using &AT+A, ! 0;//a" v.7./0.; .614. 9e have used the digital implementation of energy detector using $$T. It is assumed that there are 4 primary users in the spectrum. The cognitive radio system continuously loo#s for the spectrum hole where primary user is not present which is determined by the energy detection method and as soon as it finds out the spectrum hole, it allots it immediately to the %econdary user and whenever primary user wants to occupy the slot, secondary user immediately vacates it. The carrier frequencies used for 4 signals are /&:z, 0&:z, 1&:z, 2&:z, 4&:z and sampling frequency is /0&:z. <ower spectrum density of signal is calculated and it is compared with the predefined threshold value to determine the presence of primary user signal I1/J. :ere, we have assumed that / st, 2th primary users are present and 0nd, 1rd and 4th primary users are not present. $urther 4th primary user leaves the slot. :ere, %ignal to noise ratio !%* " is ta#en as /;d,. Then, the following results are obtained which are shown in the $igure 4./7!a", $igure 4./7!b", $igure 4./7!c" and $igure 4./7!d".
P o w e rS p e c tr a lD e n s ity 5 P o w e r /fr e q u e n c y( d B /H z ) 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0 0

3 F r e q u e n c y( M H z )

Allo1ate0 E Use0 S/e1tru8 Ban0 *ow the Cognitive

Un:allo1ate0 Ban0s E S/e1tru8 'oles

$igure 4./7!a" used bands !/st and 2th", unused bands !0nd, 1rdand 4th". adio system will search the first available gap !%pectrum hole" in the spectrum and automatically assign it to the secondary user. As the first available gap was occupied by the secondary user/ it is shown in the $igure 4./7!b".

6/

P o w e rS p e c tr a lD e n s ity 1 0 P o w e r /fr e q u e n c y( d B /H z )

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0 0

3 F r e q u e n c y( M H z )

1st S/e1tral Ga/ fille0 by Se1on0aryUser1 *ow the Cognitive

Left o2er S/e1tral Ga/s

$igure 4./7!b" /st unused band is assigned to %econdary user/. adio system will search the next available gap in the spectrum and automatically assign it to the secondary user. As the next available gap was occupied by the secondary user0 it is shown in the $igure 4./7!c".

P o w e rS p e c tr a lD e n s ity 5 P o w e r /fr e q u e n c y( d B /H z ) 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0

3 F r e q u e n c y( M H z )

n0

S/e1tral Ga/ fille0 by Se1on0ary User

Last S/e1tral 'ole Left

$igure 4./7!c" 0nd unused band is assigned to %econdary user0. *ow we have 'ust one empty slot left which will get filled by addition of another %econdary user as shown in $igure 4./7!d". It shows that all of the frequency bands are efficiently in use after the last spectrum hole is occupied by the secondary user1.

60

Power Spectral Density 5

0 Power/frequency (dB/Hz)

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30 0

3 Frequency (MHz)

$igure 4./7!d" All of the %pectrum bands are in use. :ere, low pea#s in $igure 4./7!a" are for 0nd, 1rd and 4th primary users who are not present and high pea#s for the present ones. In $igure 4./7!b", you can see that after allocating the 0nd slot to secondary user/, there is an increase in the pea# of 0nd slot. %imilarly in $igure 4./7!c", there is an increase in the pea# of 1rd slot allocating it to the secondary user0. *ow at this instant 4th primary user leaves the slot. %o, finally, $igure 4./7!d" shows the allotment of 4 th slot to secondary user1 by the cognitive radio networ#. *ow we have to ta#e %ignal to noise ratio !%* " values are 4d, and/2d,. Then, the following results are shown in the $igure 4./7!e" and $igure 4./7!f".
P ow er S pec tral Dens ity 10 5 P ower S pectral Dens ity

0 P ower/frequency (dB /Hz ) 0 1 2 3 F requenc y (M H z ) 4 5 6 P ower/frequenc y (dB /H z )

-5

-5

-10

-10

-15

-15

-20

-20

-25

-25

-30

3 Frequenc y (M Hz)

4./7!e" %* F4d,

$igure 4./7!f" %* F/2d,

61

*ow we have to attenuate the received signal with attenuation percentage values are /;G and /4G. Then, the following results are shown in the $igure 4./7!g" and $igure 4./7!h".
P ow er S pe c tral D ens ity 5 5 P o w er S pe c tral D ens ity

-5

-5

P ow er/frequenc y (dB /H z )

-15

P o w er/frequ enc y (dB /H z ) 0 1 2 3 F req uen c y (M H z ) 4 5 6

-10

-10

-15

-20

-20

-25

-25

-30

-30

3 F requ enc y (M H z )

$igure 4./7!g" AttenuationF/;G

$igure 4./7!h" AttenuationF/4G

62

C.a/ter * CO&%ARISON OF S%"CTRU& S"NSING T"C'NI(U"S

*.1 Intro0u1tion
In this chapter, the results of the algorithms and techniques, given in Chapter 1, have been presented. $or experimentation, primary userHs waveforms at different %* have been identified. A comparison of all transmitter detection techniques is presented.

*. Co8/arison of Trans8itter Dete1tion Te1.niBues

*ow consider some metrics on the basis of which we can compare transmitter detection techniques. There are three metrics on the basis of which we can compare these techniques. Comparison metrics of Transmitter 5etection techniques is shown in the $igure 6./.

$igure 6./ Comparison metrics of Transmitter 5etection techniques

*. .1 Sensing Ti8e
5uring communication Cognitive radio continuously sense the radio environment for spectrum holes and C canHt transmit and sense at the same time. Therefore we need sensing time as small as possible. &atched $iltering is a good technique for spectrum sensing in Cognitive radio networ#s if we have prior #nowledge about primary users waveform. ,ut in most of cases we have no prior #nowledge about primary userHs waveform which ma#es it difficult for the use of spectrum sensing. It requires least sensing time to

64

achieve high processing gain due to coherency. Comparing .nergy 5etector and &atched $iltering, .nergy 5etector requires a longer sensing time to achieve good results as shown in Table 6./. Cyclostationary $eature 5etection is also a non coherent technique which ma#es it superior to &atched $iltering. Cyclostationary $eature 5etection technique is computationally very complex and it ta#es long observation time for sensing. Table 6./ %ensing time for Transmitter 5etection Techniques %r. *o. / 0 Type of <rimary %ignal ,<%B E<%B .nergy 5etection /.0; sec /.01 sec &atched $ilter ;./7 sec ;.0 sec Cyclostationary $eature 5etector 8.4; sec //.0/ sec

:ence from the experimental results in Table 6./ shows that &atched filter requires least among the all sensing techniques and Cyclostationary ta#es most.

*. . Dete1tion Sensiti2ity
As matched filter required prior #nowledge about primary userHs waveform but in comparison with energy detector it is still better under noisy environment. The ma'or drawbac# of the energy detector is that it is unable to differentiate between sources of received energy i.e. it cannot distinguish between noise and primary user. %o this ma#es it susceptible technique when there are uncertainties in bac#ground noise power, especially at low %* . Cyclostationary $eature 5etector is good technique under noisy environment as it is able to distinguish between noise energy and signal energy. $igure 6.0 shows comparison of transmitter detection techniques when there is primary user is present under different %* s. esults shows that at low %* when primary user is present cyclostationary and matched filtering are unable to detect primary user but energy detector still detect it. $igure 6.1 shows when there is no primary user present even then energy detector detects primary user at low %* , which ma#es energy detector unreliable technique under low %* values. :ence, when we have no prior #nowledge about primary userHs waveform then best technique is Cyclostationary feature detection.

66

$igure 6.0 Comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques when <rimary >ser is <resent

$igure 6.1 Comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques when <rimary >ser is absent

67

*. .$ "ase for I8/le8entation

The advantage of energy detector is its low cost and simple implementation, which ma#es it a good candidate for spectrum sensing in Cognitive radio networ#s. &atched $ilter is not easy to implement because it requires generating carrier at receiver, which increases the cost of Cognitive radio. Cyclostationary $eature 5etection is also very complex technique which ta#es high cost and high computational complexity. Table 6.0 %ummary of comparison of Transmitter 5etection Techniques %r. *o. / 0 1 2 %ensing Time %imple to Implement <erformance under *oise <rior Bnowledge equired Type .nergy 5etection &ore Yes <oor *o &atched $ilter 5etection +ess *o ,ad Yes Cyclostationary $eature 5etection &ost *o @ood *o

C.a/ter +

6=

CONCLUSION AND FUTUR" ,OR+.1 Con1lusion

As the demand of radio spectrum increases in past few years and licensed bands are used inefficiently, improvement in the existing spectrum access policy is expected. 5ynamic spectrum access is imagine to resolve the spectrum shortage by allowing unlicensed users to dynamically utilize spectrum holes across the licensed spectrum on non interfering basis. This research was aimed towards the detection and classification of primary userHs waveform in cognitive radio networ#s. The primary requirement of a spectrum sensing system is its real time processing and decision ma#ing. The proposed methodology has been implemented on a des#top <C and requires &AT+A, support for simulation. 3ne of the spectrum sensing technique .nergy 5etection is implemented in ?erilog using -ilinx I%.. $irst all the transmitter detection techniques are compared on the basis of three metricsC %ensing Time, 5etection %ensitivity and ease of implementation. ,y comparing these techniques it is concluded that Cyclostationary feature detection gives best results but ta#e long computation time compared to other techniques. $inally it is concluded that every detection technique has an %* threshold below which it will fail to operate robustly. %o by using the results of different techniques at the same time better results can be obtained. In this thesis main issues associated with spectrum sensing techniques are highlighted. <erformance of these spectrum sensing techniques limits due to uncertainty in the noise level.

+. Future ,or=
In this further I want to do the wor# for other detection techniques wavelet based detection, covariance absolute method and eigen value based detection also these spectrum sensing techniques implementation in :ardware. In which one of the transmitter detection techniques, .nergy 5etection implementation is in :ardware <latform. &ost of the research on spectrum sensing is mainly focused on reliable sensing to meet the regulatory requirements. 3ne of the important areas for the research is to focus on user level cooperation among Cognitive radios and system level co)operation among different Cognitive radio networ#s to overcome the noise level uncertainties. In this wor#, the noise level uncertainties are catered by

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a proper combination of spectrum sensing techniques. Another area for research is cross layer communication in which spectrum sensing and higher layer functionalities can help in improving quality of service !Eo%".

7;

%ubli1ations5
/. .eru . +avudiya, 5r. B.5. Bulat and Kagdish 5. Bene, LImplementation and adio %ystem using &AT+A,M, International Kournal of Analysis of Cognitive 0;/1.

Computer %cience and Telecommunications !IKC%T", volume 2, issue 7, pp.07)1/,

7/

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