Chapter Five: Transport of Particles

Transport Mechanisms: Convection

Brownian Diffusion
Eddy Diffusion
External Forces
Phoretic Effect
Inertial Effect
Einstein!to"es E#uation
Particle Transports: to Flat Plate
to Fi$er
Impaction onto Plate %!ta&nant Flow'
Particle Transport Models
() Transport Mechanisms
For the mass conservation, the equation of continuity for binary mixture is

A A
A
R J
t
n
+

) (
where
A
J is the flux for species A and is determined by the transport
mechanisms.
1. Convection !ransported by the bul" flow of fluid, thus, in the same direction as
bul" flow of fluid
p p p p
VC C V J
where p
V
and V are the velocities of particle and fluid,
respectively. For the bul" flow, both are #enerally assumed to be the same
without the effect of inertia force. For convection only, the continuity equation
is
A p p
A
R C V
t
n
+

because
$
p
V
.
%. &rownian diffusion !ransported by the thermal random motion or &rownian
motion of particle, thus, transported in all direction with the same ma#nitudes
p p p
C D J
or
dx
dC
D J
p
p px
where p
D
is the &rownian diffusivity of
particle and it is the same in every direction. !he &rownian diffusivity is
#enerally assumed to be the same in each system except for lar#e variations in
temperature and concentration. !he &rownian diffusivity is only state
dependent for different si'e of particles as the followin# equation
)( $% . ) *) . 1% (
1$
% +
*
1$,-
)
p
Pd
p p
B
p
e
Pd d
T k
D

+ +

where k
B
. the &olt'mann/s constant . 1.0%11$
21*
er#3molecule 4
P . pressure . 5* cm6#
. viscosity of air . 1.7-11$
2)
#3cm sec
T . temperature
)( $% . ) *) . 1% (
5*
1
% +
1$ 1 10* . 1 0%% . 7
5
p
d
p p
p
e
d d
D

+ +
where d
p
is unit of m
Comparison of &rownian diffusivities for particles at different si'es and #aseous
89
%
in the ambient atmosphere
:article si'e (m) $.1 1 1$ 89
%
(#)
;iffusivity (cm
%
3sec) ).)%11$
2*
%.)*11$
25
%.%,11$
27
$.1%
!herefore, the &rownian diffusivity of particles is much smaller than that of
#aseous species in the ambient atmosphere with the difference of at least four
orders of ma#nitudes. !he si#nificant differences in &rownian diffusivities are
used to separate the particle and #as samplin#s, li"e the annular denuder and
honeycomb. <n order to sample particle and #aseous species simultaneously,
particles are collected with filter and the #aseous species are sampled in the
followin# air stream by various methods in the traditional filter pac" system.
!hat is, particles are collected first and then #aseous species in the filter pac"
system. 6owever, si#nificant error may occur for some chemical species, li"e
=6
)
=9
0
, due to the samplin# artifacts of evapori'ation, condensation, and so
on. For annular denuder or honeycomb, #aseous species are collected first and
then particles and their evaporation effects sampled to#ether. =ote that in order
to have &rownian diffusion as the only effective transport mechanism, the flow
needs to be in laminar flow.
For &rownian diffusion only, the continuity equation is
A p p
A
R C D
t
n
+

%

and for both convection and diffusion, the continuity equation is
A p p p p
A
R C D C V
t
n
+ +

%
and it is called the convective diffusion
equation. !herefore, the effect of another mechanism is to add additional term
for representin# its contribution if there are no interactions amon# various
transport mechanisms.
Example !he particle transport rate to circular vertical tube in laminar flow as
an approximation to the annular denuder at steady state.
!he #overnin# equation for particle transport is

,
_

r
C
r
r r
D
z
C
V
p
p
p
p
1
where
V V
p

since $

t
C
p
due to the steady state assumption,
$

p p
r
C
U
r
C
U due to and
$

U U
r
(no flow radial and circular
direction),
the &rownian diffusion in '2axis direction is ne#lected since it is much
smaller than the convective term, and the &rownian diffusion in circular
direction is 'ero due to the symmetrical condition.
!he velocity distribution for laminar flow in vertical circular tube is
( ) ( 1 + % ) (
%
R
r
V r V
av

where R is the radius of tube, r is the radial distance from center, and V
av
is
the avera#e velocity across the section. !hus, the #overnin# equation is

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

r
C
r
r r
D
z
C
R
r
V
p
p
p
av
1
1 %
%
with the boundary conditions o p
C r C ) $ , (
,
$ ) , ( z R C
p , and
$
$

r
p
r
C
.
0. >ddy diffusion !ransportation of particles by turbulent eddy or in turbulent
flow, thus, transport rates vary in different directions due to the differences in
eddy diffusivities.
p p p
C J
or
dx
dC
J
p
p px
where p

is the eddy diffusivity of particle

and it is different is different directions due to the non2isotropic flow pattern and
the effect of #ravity. ?arious methods have been used to estimate the
ma#nitudes of eddy diffusivity. >mpirical eddy diffusivities have been derived
from wind tunnel studies by 8ehmel (1,5$)
?ertical tube
1 . 1
%
1
1 . 1 1
) ( ) ( $11 . $

u
zu
p

6ori'ontal surface
5 . 1
%
1
$ . % 1
) ( ) ( $17 . $

u
zu
p

for 0-$ <

+
z
and 1)$

for 0-$ >

+
z
&ecause the &rownian diffusion is always present in any situation, li"e the effect
of #ravity on the earth, &rownian diffusion as well as eddy diffusion should be
included simultaneously. 6owever, the effect of &rownian diffusion is #enerally
much smaller than that of eddy diffusion. !hus, &rownian diffusion can be
ne#lected in the presence of eddy diffusion. !hat is,
p p p p p p
C C D J + ) (
). >xternal forces !wo most common external forces are discussed in the
followin#s #ravity and electrical forces. =ote that mi#ration velocity or drift
velocity is defined as the velocity at balance between the force field and the dra#
force.
<. @raivity !he drift velocity or terminal settlin# velocity is always downward to
the surface, that is, in the ne#ative '2direction. !he terminal settlin# velocity
as discussed before is
g g C
d
V
p
p
c
p p
s

) 1 (
17
%
For the transport mechanisms of #ravity and &rownian to#ether, the transport
flux in the '2direction is
p s
p
p z
C V
z
C
D J +

and the continuity equation

becomes
) ( ) (
p p p s
p
C D C V
t
C
+

or

,
_

%
%
%
%
%
%
z
C
y
C
x
C
D
z
C
V
t
C
p p p
p
p
s
p
in Cartesian coordinate and
constant D
p
Example Find the steady state deposition rate to a flat surface by &rownian
diffusion and #ravitational sedimentation.
From the continuity equation, the #overnin# equation is
$
%
%

z
C
D
z
C
V
p
p
p
s
or
1
k const
dz
dC
D C V J flux
p
p p s

Assume that the concentration boundary layer thic"ness is b. !he boundary
conditions are then
$ ) $ ( z C
p and o p
C z C ) (
. !hus,
)( 3 exp( 1 +
p s
o s
D V
C V
J

and
o s
C V J
for sedimentation only ( p s
D V >>
)
o
p
C

D
J for &rownian diffusion only ( p s
D V <<
)
=ote that the dimension of (D
p
!) is the same as that of velocity and it
represents the transport velocity of &rownian diffusion.
<<. >lectric force !he external force in an electrical field is
eE n "
e e

where "
e
is the electric force, n
e
is the number of char#e on particle, e is the
elementary electric char#e . 1.*11$
21,
coulomb . ).711$
21$
stat coulomb or
esu, and E is the electric field in unit of volt3cm or stat volt3cm.
=ote that 1 coulomb . 011$
,
stat coulomb and 1 volt . 130$$ stat volt.
&ased on the definition of mi#ration velocity and mobility, the electric
mi#ration velocity is
c p
e
e
C d
eE n
V
3 0

and the electric mobility is

f
e n
C d
e n
E
V
#
e
c p
e e

3 0
!he mechanisms for particle char#in# includes
Collisions with ions, which can be classified as diffusion char#in#
and field char#in# based on the char#in# mechanismsA
;irect ioni'ationA and
8tatic electrification, which can be classified as contact char#in# and
frictional char#in# based on the char#in# mechanisms.
(A). ;iffusional char#in# !he mechanism for the transport of ions to particles
is due to the random thermal motion. Assume that the thermal motion of
particle is ne#li#ible with respect to ions and complete capture on
collision, the accumulation rate of char#e on particles is
(1) Free molecular ran#e
%
%
% 3 1
)
%
exp ) (
p
p
e e
$
$
p
e
d
kT d
n e %
n
m
kT
A C V
dt
dn

,
_

,
_

, where n
e
is the
char#e number on particle, m
$
is the molecular wei#ht of ions,
$
n
is the
concentrations of ions far from particles, and %
e
is a constant of
proportionality that depends on the system of units used. For example, the
Coulomb/s law for the electrostatic force between two char#ed particles is
%
% 1
r
& &
% "
e e

and %
e
is ,.$11$
,
=2m
%
3C
%
in 8< system and is one in the
c#s system.
Conversion Factors and Constants for 8< and c#s >lectrostatic Bnits
Cuantity 8< c#s
Char#e 1 C 0.$11$
,
stC
Current 1 A 0.$11$
,
stA
:otential difference 1 ? $.$$00 st?
%
e
,.$11$
,
=2m
%
3C
%
1
Char#e of an electron, e 1.*$11$
21,
C ).7$11$
21$
stC
>lectrons per unit char#e *.011$
17
C
21
%.111$
,
stC21
>lectrical mobility 1 m
%
3?2sec 0.$11$
*
cm%3st?2sec
Field stren#th 1 =3C or ?3m 0.011$
2-
dyn3stC or st?3cm
!hus,
1
1
]
1

,
_

+

t
kT m
e d % n
e %
kT d
n
$
p e $
e
p
e
% 3 1
%
%
1
%
1 ln
%

For '
$
t D 1$
1%
sec3m
0
, the above equation is accurate to within a factor
of two for particles from $.$5 to 1.- m.
(%) Continuum ran#e
Assumin# radial symmetry, the flux of ions to a spherical particles is

,
_

+
$
$
$
n
dr
d
dr
dn
D J$

, where D
$
is the diffusivity of ions, is the
electrostatic potential field in the #as surroundin# the particle, and n
$
is
the concentration of ions. <n the quasi2steady state, the rate of ion
transported to the particle is independent of rA that is, "
$
. (r
)
J
$
*r+ .
constant. !hus,

,
_

p
a
$ $
$
dr
kT r
n D
"

exp
1
)
%
. For
r
$e
%
and
dt
dn
"
e
$
,
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
%
exp
)
%
%
kT d
e n
kT
e n n D
dt
dn
p
e
e $ $ e

!he implicit solution of n
e
as function of time is
kT
t n e D
kT d
$e
mm
$ $
m
p m

,
_

% %
1
) %
E
1
(&). Field char#in# !he transport of ions to particle is determined by the
effect of electric field. !he number of char#es acquired by a particle
durin# time period t in an electric field E with an ion number concentration
'
$
is

,
_

,
_

,
_

e %
Ed
t ' e# %
t ' e# %
t n
e
p
$ $ e
$ $ e
e
) 1 %
0
) (
%

where is the relative permittivity of particle, #

$
is the mobility of ion,
which is approximately 1.- cm3?olt2sec.
Bntimately, the char#e builds up to the point where no incomin# field lines
conver#e on the particle and no ions can reach the particle. At this
maximum char#e condition, the particle is at saturation char#e and it is

,
_

,
_

e %
Ed
t n
e
p
e
) %
0
) (
%

For liquid droplets, they tend to brea" down to smaller si'es as char#es
accumulate, the limitin# char#e number is
0
,
%
1
p R e
d
e
n , where is
the surface tension and it is called the Faylei#h limit. !herefore, the final
droplet si'e is
%
0%
E
dp

.
!he &olt'mann equilibrium char#e distribution or the steady2state,
stationary or bipolar equilibrium char#e distribution represents the char#e
distribution of an aerosol in char#e equilibrium with bipolar ions. For
equal concentrations of positive and ne#ative ions, a reasonable first
approximation for normal air, the fraction of particles f
n
of a #iven si'e
havin# n positive (or ne#ative) elementary units of char#e is

n
p
e
e
p
e
e
n
kT d e n %
kT d e n %
f
) 3 exp(
) 3 exp(
% %
% %
For particles lar#er than $.- m, the above equation becomes identical to
the equation for normal distribution and can be rewritten as

,
_

,
_

,
_

p
e
p p
e e
p
e
n
d
n
d kT d
e n %
kT d
e %
f
% % %
% 3 1
%
$-7 . $
exp
1
%)$ . $ exp


for d
p
- $.$1 m in the ambient atmosphere and d
p
is in unit of m.
!he avera#e char#e number is

$
05 . % 1
n
p n e
d f n n
where d
p
is in
unit of m.
>quilibrium half2time the time needed for half of the equilibrium char#e
to be attained is
$
p
&
C
t
)
*,0 . $
% 3 1

, where C
p
is the aerosol concentration
and &
$
is the ion production rate. For the ambient atmosphere, n is -11$
)

particle3cm
0
and &
$
is about 1$ ions3cm
0
2sec, the half2time is about 1-
minutes.
-. :horetic effects :horetic effects are the indirect effects on particle transport
and are #enerally more si#nificant for smaller particles. !wo different effects
are discussed in the followin#s diffusiophoresis and thermophoresis.
<. ;iffusiophoresis !he diffusiophoresis is the effect of transported heavier
particles on the li#hter particles.
(A) small particle

$
$ $ d
V V
and

,
_

,
_

k
k k
k
k k
k
$
m
m

7
1
7
1
, where

k
k
k
n
n

is the
molar fraction of species k
For binary mixture with

$
$ $
V
1
% % 1 1
% 1

D
m m
m m
V
d
!hus, particles move in the same direction as that of the diffusion flux of the
heavier component.
<f $
%
V in the binary mixture,
1
1
1
%
1

D V
d
, where
% % 1 1
1 1
1
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
m m
m

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

(&) lar#e particles

1
% % 1 1
% 1

D
m m
m m
V
d
<f $
%
V ,

+

1
%
% % 1 1
1

D
m m
m
V
d
<<. !hermophoresis transport of particle due to a temperature #radient with the
resultin# transport direction from hi#h temperature to low temperature.
(A) small particle,
<<
p
d
(mean free path)
T
P
T
T
V
trans
t.

,
_

,
_

7
1 -
1
7
1 )
0
where is the accommodation coefficient and is about $.,, is the
"inematic viscosity, and
m
k
trans
)
1-
where m is the molecular mass.
(&) lar#e paraticle,
>>
p
d
and 1$ <
k
k
p
T
P
k
k k
k
V
p
t.

+

%
%
where % . $ , k and k
p
are the thermal conductivities for #as and particle,
respectively.
*. <nertia effect <f the inertia effect is si#nificant, the particle velocity is not the
same as the #as velocity. !herefore, the particle velocity has to be determined
first and it is then used to compute the particle traGectory. !hus, Ha#ran#ian
approach is #enerally used in this situation. !hat is, the force balance as shown
for sin#le particle dynamics is used to describe the transport of particles.
&. >instein28to"es >quation
>ulerian and Ha#ran#ian approaches
>ulerian method Coordinate system is fixed with respect to the same point in
all dimensions (spatial and temporal).
Ha#ran#ian method Coordinate system is defined with respect to particle, that
is, traveled with particle.
!he >instein28to"es equation is to relate the properties for >ulerian and Ha#ran#ian
approaches in particle transport and dynamics diffusivity and friction factor.
!o find the avera#e position
%
x
for a #roup of particles which are at x.$ at the
be#innin# and are moved by &rownian diffusion
For >ulerian approach, the diffusion equation based on mass conservation is
%
%
x
n
D
t
n

with the initial condition
o
' x n ) $ , (
and
boundary conditions
$
$

x
x
n
and
$ ) , ( t n
.
!herefore, the concentration distribution is

,
_

Dt
x
Dt
'
t x n
o
)
exp
%
) , (
%

!he mean square displacement is

Dt dx t x n x
'
x
o
% ) , (
1
% %

For Ha#ra#ian approach, the force balance for each individual particle is
) ( 0 t " V d
dt
dV
m
B p p
p
p
+
where "
B
*t+ is the fluctuatin# force on particle from random thermal motion.
Assume that
1. !he "
B
*t+ is independent of ?pA
%. !he "
B
*t+ fluctuates much faster with respect to time compared with V
p
. !hus,
V
p
is assumed to be constant when considerin# the variations of "
B
*t+/
0. !he avera#e of "
B
*t+ over a lot of particles is 'ero or $ ) ( t "
B
over a lot of
particles.
Het
p
B
m
t "
A
) (

and
p p
p
m
f
m
d
B
0
and multiply the equation by x. !hen the
above equation becomes
xA BxV
dt
dV
x
p
p
+ or xA V BxV
dt
xV d
p p
p
+ +
%
) (
.


+
t t
B Bt B
p
Bt
p
d xAe e d e V e xV
$ $
%


Avera#in# over all particles
( )
dt
x d
e
B
V
dx t x n xV xV
Bt p
p p
) (
%
1
1 ) , (
%
%

( )
f
t V m
B
t V
e
B
V
B
t V
x
p p p Bt p p
% % % %
%
1
%
+

Combinin# the >ulerian and Ha#ran#ian approaches,
f
kT
f
V m
x
D
p p

%
%
%
which is called the >instein28to"es equation.
C) Examples of Particle Transport
1. Flat plate with laminar boundary layer
For flow over a flat plate, the boundary layer is laminar if the Feynolds number
-
1$ 1 - Fe <

xU xU
&ecause the particle diffusivity is #enerally much smaller than the "inematic
viscosity of fluid, the concentration boundary layer thic"ness is thinner than the
momentum boundary layer thic"ness or
m c
<
due to
<< Dp
.
!he #overnin# equation for the particle transport or the convective diffusion
equation is
%
%
y
n
D
y
n
v
x
n
u

where u and v are the x2 and y2components of particle velocity and they are the
same as those of fluid, n is the particle concentration, and D is the particle
diffusivity. &ecause the particle velocity is the same as the fluid velocity,
U u 00% . $
and U
xU
v
%
% 3 1
$70 . $

,
_

, where y
x
U
% 3 1

,
_

. !he boundary
conditions are
o
n y n ) , $ (
,
$ ) $ , ( x n
and
o
n x n ) , (
.
!he #overnin# can be solved for the concentration profiles and the local
diffusional flux to the plate is
o
y
x
n
D
xU
x
D
y
n
D x J
0 3 1 % 3 1
$
00, . $ ) (
,
_

,
_

,
_

!he avera#e diffusional flux from the ed#e to x is

o av o
0
x av
n k n
D
0U
0
D
dx x J
0
J
,
_

,
_

,
_

0 3 1 % 3 1
$
*57 . $ ) (
1

. !hus
0 3 1 % 3 1
*57 . $
,
_

,
_

D
0U
D
0 k
av

, where k
av
is the avera#e transport coefficient
%. Flat plate with turbulent boundary layer