Professional Documents
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Copyright © 1996 HydroComp, Inc. All rights reserved. Presented at the Small Craft Marine Engineering Resistance and Propulsion
Symposium, University of Michigan, May 1996.
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contemporary practices. Remember to watch out for
0.16
pre-set routines that mix old data with new.
0.15
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Analysis routines are built with sufficiently COMMANDMENT 5 - ANCHOR THE
detailed components to allow for a finely-tuned PREDICTION TO TEST DATA
analysis of performance. If a hull closely matches a
series parent, then a series-based method can also be Predictions based on the described numerical
used for an analysis. Select an analysis method for methods should adhere to the extents of the original
later-stage design using mature data, or for the data or significant error is risked. As noted above,
evaluation of a trial or model test. robust commercial software packages have numerous
methods so that a suitable method can generally be
COMMANDMENT 4 - USE A METHOD THAT applied.
CONTAINS A SUITABLE DATA SET Sometimes a designer encounters a vessel that does
not neatly fit into one of the available parametric
Perhaps the most significant contributor to poor models. In these cases, techniques exist to improve the
prediction reliability is the inappropriate selection of prediction by “anchoring” the prediction to known
the basic prediction formula. In a setting where only a performance.
few methods are available and designers apply these These techniques, often called aligned prediction
methods to a broad range of hull types, it is easy to see or model correlation, compare the calculated numerical
how errors can occur. results to a model test or sea trial of a similar vessel.
The objective is to first test the numerical algorithm
Hull type against known performance and develop a multiplier
which is applied to the prediction of the new design.
The selected prediction method should be built Non-dimensional relationships, such as Froude number
from hulls that share the same basic character as the and resistance-displacement ratio, are used for the
vessel under review. You cannot rely on results from a correlation.
method derived from a fundamentally different hull
type. Referring to body plans and profiles of the
included hull forms is the first step to filtering out 0.016
unsuitable algorithms. 0.014
Some designers use the well-known Taylor data 0.012
(Taylor, 1943) for virtually every vessel under 0.010
consideration. It should be easy to see how using a Cr 0.008
plumb bow, cruiser stern, 1940’s hull form could lead 0.006
to trouble predicting drag for new hull types. 0.004
0.002
Range of parameters 0.000
Actual Holtrop Oort
After hull type, the method’s range of data set
parameters must be considered. Extrapolating beyond
the scope of the data set is risky. Figure 3a – Supply boat numerical prediction of CR
The most critical parameter to maintain is that of
speed (typically Froude number). When it is absolutely This can be a very powerful technique. The initial
necessary to extrapolate speed, a speed-dependent performance results are first built from the selected
algorithm (i.e., that where speed is a variable in a single method for the vessel’s parameters. The results are then
relationship) will tend to be better behaved. refined to reflect the local features of the tested model
The obvious way to avoid difficulty is to have or ship. Of course, the model and subject hull must be
many different methods for all of the hull types of similar in form. It would be inappropriate to correlate a
interest and to have feedback regarding the parameter tug to a fast ferry. Likewise, the chosen algorithm
ranges while selecting a method. Certainly the most should be built from the same basic hull type.
cost-effective means to acquiring a large library of The figures compare the prediction accuracy of a
routines is through a commercial software developer. supply boat using the Holtrop method (Holtrop, 1984)
Over 50 different bare-hull drag methods have been with all parameters in range and the Oortmerssen
identified and reviewed by the author, so suitable method (Oortmerssen, 1971) with CP and L/B outside
methods can be obtained for virtually every type of the range. In addition, Oortmerssen did not have any
monohull and catamaran vessel. supply boat hulls in the data set, while the Holtrop did.
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Appendages alone can contribute over 25% for fast
0.016 craft. It is clear that poor estimates of added drag can
0.014 greatly reduce prediction accuracy.
0.012 The various prediction stages can be summarized
0.010 as follows:
Cr 0.008
0.006 a. Bare-hull drag
0.004 b. Appendage drag
0.002 c. Wind (static or applied) and wave drag
0.000 d. Shallow water drag
Actual Holtrop Oort e. Propulsive coefficients
f. Equilibrium hull-propulsor-engine analysis
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probably the most frequently used means to control Resistance-displacement ratio vs Froude number is
cavitation breakdown on work boats and pleasure craft. a useful graph to plot. This incorporates drag, length,
Both corrections for cavitation breakdown and cup displacement and speed in one curve. Vessels of similar
modification are available to obtain a reliable numerical shape and character should have similar curves. Wildly
model of actual propeller performance. different curves should raise questions. This does not
necessarily invalidate the results, but it does provide
Propeller selection some valuable feedback for confirmation.
Getting the right propeller on the hull is a big step Reviewing results graphically
to achieving speed. So far, propeller performance has
been discussed in analytical terms. These same routines Tables of numbers can sometimes overwhelm a
can also be used to select the best propeller parameters. designer and hide the real meaning of the analysis. A
Mature methods are available to size diameter, few well-developed graphs can speak volumes. One
pitch and blade area for a given application very useful graph is a Ps-N graph (engine-propeller
(MacPherson, 1991). These techniques can use the power versus RPM).
performance corrections noted above. They offer
tremendous flexibility anchored to physical reality, and
have eliminated the shortcomings of simple sizing 1200
charts, graphs or slide-rules. 1000
800
COMMANDMENT 8 - MAKE SURE RESULTS
600
CAN BE EVALUATED AND COMPARED TO Ps
ESTABLISHED CRITERIA 400
200
Results that cannot be placed in their proper
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context are of little use to anyone. What is the
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900
relationship between the engine and propeller? Is the
prediction reasonable as compared to other similar RPM
hulls? Questions such as these need be answered before
a prediction can be deemed complete. Figure 5 – Example Ps-N graph
Comparing results to similar vessels In the example above, the vessel has enough
engine power to go 20 knots, but the propeller is
Where possible, it is always useful to compare the underpitched causing an RPM limit at only 19 knots.
prediction results to a similar vessel. Since it is unlikely Only a graph can easily communicate this information.
that the two vessels are identical, non-dimensional
coefficients can be used to provide some level of
COMMANDMENT 9 - USE VALIDATED
comparison.
METHODS, ALGORITHMS AND TECHNIQUES
a. Publication errors
Figure 4 – Example non-dimensional curves b. Nomenclature confusion
c. Coding errors
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The author suggests checking the routines against
model test data, ideally data from the original testing.
Original data can be uncovered for most routines (albeit
with some difficulty at times). Running the original 30
data through these routines can reveal a lot about the 25
reliability of the codes.
20
As one might guess, a great deal of time and effort
can be spent validating routines, time which could be kips 15
better spent in design and the actual prediction of 10
speed. Specialists with significant experience can
5
generally provide the needed guidance without the
effort of an in-depth personal validation. Some 0
commercial software packages are offered by 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
companies with this experience. The intrinsic Kts
experience that accompanies these packages are of
great value.
Figure 6b – Patrol boat resistance validation
However, just because a company offers a neatly-
wrapped commercial software tool is no guarantee that Compare to representative vessels
the codes have been validated. The following graphs
illustrate the results for two widely-used small craft Every method has some data smoothing inherent in
resistance prediction algorithms from two its statistical development. So in some small way, all
commercially-available software packages. algorithms represent a averaging of the data.
The resistance curves were compared to original Running the methods with particular hulls of
test data. You can see how the errors from one software interest can identify trends that are germane to the
package are immediately obvious. The cause of these vessel at hand. For example, we know that Holtrop
errors in the first case is surmised to be publication tends to underpredict fast transom stern craft by a small
errors (which were corrected in an alternate paper). In amount. While Holtrop is a very reliable method on its
the second case, the correct algorithm was obtained own merit, knowing this tendency can improve
through personal contact with the original presenter of prediction precision even more.
the method. Remember the objective is to generate good results
Any validation study of the methods by the – not just to process some data though formula.
developer would have quickly exposed the errors. This Learning the trends for the vessels of interest is a very
should be a clear warning to purchasers of commercial important part of a reliable prediction.
software and in-house developers - do not use codes
without validation! COMMANDMENT 10 - FOLLOW A
CONSISTENT PREDICTION STRATEGY
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The following strategy is offered to guide the
25 designer in making appropriate prediction decisions.
20 Which method or series is best? What is the sensitivity
of exceeding a certain hull parameter?
kN 15
In general, a few systematic steps can be followed
10 to choose a correct method and apply any corrections.
5 By following the steps shown below and being aware
of the nature and makeup of the numerical methods, a
0
designer can be assured of the most reliable prediction
5 6 7 8 9 10
results. (This strategy applies to the prediction of both
Kts
resistance and propulsive coefficients.)
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CONCLUSION
1. If possible, match the hull lines to a series
Empirically-based routines are the principal speed parent. (This can be found in the original test
prediction tool for small craft. Regardless of the type of literature, or in the User’s Guide of some
prediction being considered, these ten commandments commercial software packages.) If no series
of reliable speed prediction can help all marine suitably matches the hull, use a random data
designers and builders offer the best possible product to method.
their client.
For some, these techniques can be used with in- 2. Choose a method suitable for the maturity of
house developed prediction methods. For others, the the data. If the design is young and the
most cost-effective implementation of these techniques evaluation of discrete details are not yet
are through the use of competent, professionally- required, select a design oriented method,
developed commercial software. otherwise choose a method more suitable for
a comprehensive analysis (MacPherson,
REFERENCES 1993). Design oriented methods are built
with limited parameters to make them better
Blount, D.L. and Hubble, E.N., “Sizing Segmental for early-stage design or feasibility studies,
Section Commercially Available Propellers for and precision is sacrificed for the sake of
Small Craft”, SNAME Propeller Symposium, limiting the required data and to achieved
1981. well-behaved average results.
Compton, R.H., “Resistance of Systematic Series of
Semiplaning Transom-Stern Hulls”, Marine 3. Check the range of parameters for both hull
Technology, Vol. 23, No. 4, Oct 1986. and speed. Is it necessary to exceed any of
Gawn, R.W.L. and Burrill, L.C., “Effect of Cavitation these parameters? Do not exceed the
on the Performance of a Series of 16 Inch Model method’s numerically significant hull
Propellers”, Transactions INA, Vol. 99, 1957. parameters. Other parameters may be
Holtrop, J., “A Statistical Re-Analysis of Resistance exceeded - but with caution.
and Propulsion Data”, International Shipbuilding
Progress, Vol. 29, No. 335, Jul 1982. 4. Never exceed the method’s speed parameters
International Towing Tank Conference, Proceedings of beyond a very small amount. If this is
the 8th ITTC, Madrid, Spain, 1957. absolutely necessary, a speed-dependent
MacPherson, D.M., “Reliable Propeller Selection for method will be better behaved than a step-
Work Boats and Pleasure Craft: Techniques Using wise method.
a Personal Computer”, SNAME Fourth Biennial
Power Boat Symposium, 1991. 5. If using an aligned prediction, never exceed
MacPherson, D.M., “Reliable Performance Prediction: the speed parameters of the correlating model
Techniques Using a Personal Computer”, Marine beyond a very small amount. There is no way
Technology, Vol. 30, No. 4, Oct 1993. to accurately gauge what the curve will be
Oortmerssen, G. van, “A Power Prediction Method and doing beyond its own data set - are the
Its Application to Small Ships”, International coefficients slowly falling or will they
Shipbuilding Progress, Vol. 18, No. 207, 1971. quickly slope up?
Oosterveld, M.W.C. and Oossanen, P. van, “Further
Computer-Analyzed Data of the Wageningen B- 6. Check to see if the method has shown any
Screw Series”, International Shipbuilding trends (e.g., Holtrop’s tendency to under-
Progress, Vol. 22, No. 251, Jul 1975. predict fast transom stern craft) and make any
Savitsky, D., “Hydrodynamic Design of Planing corrections that are deemed appropriate.
Hulls”, Marine Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1964. (Again, this could be found in literature or in
Schoenherr, K.E., “Resistance of Flat Surfaces Moving the User’s Guide of some commercial
Through a Fluid”, SNAME Transactions, Vol. 40, software packages.)
1932.
Taylor, D.W., The Speed and Power of Ships, 2nd Rev.,
U.S. Maritime Commission, 1943. Figure 7 – Prediction strategy