Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 193 (2004) 6985 www.elsevier.

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Nonlinear oscillations of cables under harmonic loading using analytical and nite element models
Vincenzo Gattulli
a

a,*

, Luca Martinelli b, Federico Perotti b, Fabrizio Vestroni

Dipartimento di Ingegneria delle Strutture, delle Acque e del Terreno, Universit a di LAquila, P.le E. Pontieri 2, 67040 Monteluco di Roio (LAquila), Italy b Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milano, Italy Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Gotecnica, Universit a di Roma La Sapienza, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Roma, Italy Received 14 April 2003; received in revised form 28 August 2003; accepted 2 September 2003

Abstract In cables, near resonance time-varying loading causes large amplitude oscillations mainly involving the resonant mode. A relevant contribution of higher modes may arise as a result of nonlinear coupling phenomena. In this work, analytical and nite element models are used to study the modal interactions in both planar and spatial responses to harmonic in-plane and out-of-plane loads. The aim of the investigation is to compare the two approaches by examining the eectiveness of the analytical model in describing the response with few degrees of freedom and the ability of the nonlinear nite element procedure adopted to capture the complex features of cable dynamics, albeit limited to stable oscillation branches. The analyses rst explore a moderately taut cable and are then extended to the behavior of a slacker cable, in order to validate the simplifying kinematic assumptions introduced in the analytical models by comparing the obtained results with those furnished by the richer nite element models. 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cables; Nonlinear oscillations; Reduced order models; Finite element models; Bifurcations

1. Introduction The dynamics of suspended cables have been explored for a variety of phenomena occurring in free, harmonically forced and random oscillations related to the inherent nonlinear behavior of cables. Dierent theoretical and experimental methods have been used to describe, for example, the frequencyamplitude dependence of the system, the jump phenomenon, the coupling between in-plane and out-of-plane motions and the regions of the parameters in which coexistent solutions occur, and the interactions and energy spreading due to the occurrence of internal resonance conditions [16]. Although these interactions are

Corresponding author. Tel.: +39-0862-434511; fax: +39-0862-434548. E-mail addresses: gattulli@ing.univaq.it (V. Gattulli), luca.martinelli@polimi.it (L. Martinelli), federico.perotti@polimi.it (F. Perotti), vestroni@uniroma1.it (F. Vestroni). 0045-7825/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.cma.2003.09.008

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more evident for cables at the so-called crossover point, due to multiple internal resonances; they have nevertheless also been found to be relevant in the more common non-resonant cables [7]. This behavior can be ascribed to the richness of cable nonlinearities; it is therefore easy to encounter resonance conditions even when the primary 1:2 resonance condition between the rst in-plane and out-of-plane modes (well explored in the literature) [36,8] is avoided. When the in-plane excitation possesses a wider frequency content, as in the case of random wind-excited vibrations, similar phenomena occur, but require larger excitation amplitudes [9]. In particular, the transition from an in-plane oscillation to a spatial motion can occur intermittently, with this transient interval followed by a coupled random response [10]. This rich scenario of dynamics has received the attention of a large number of papers. Most of them use a low nite dimensional model, obtained by expanding the displacement functions in terms of the linearized eigenfunctions of the modes involved in the resonant conditions [35]. This procedure contains approximations that are to a certain extent in conict with the complex phenomena under study. In the analytical investigations it has been found convenient to limit the dimension of ODEs describing the motion so as to give a synthetic description of the problem and nd the parameters governing the main phenomena. In this respect, eorts have been made to present more rened reduced order models based on nonlinear normal modes, suitable orthogonal bases and a direct approach [1014], although recent continuation methods facilitate the task of describing the solution of nonlinear analytical models of larger dimensions [15,18]. The other fundamental numerical approach is based on the nite element method combined with direct integration of the equations of motion, which is able to handle small and large displacements. A satisfactory level of numerical accuracy is usually achieved by increasing either the number of degrees-offreedom or the richness of the kinematic description at the element level. Thus, even in the case of a simple cable, such as the problem under study, a high number of equations is obtained and the pursuit of rened algorithms to obtain asymptotic solutions is not straightforward. The present study aims to investigate the eectiveness and limitations of analytical Galerkin models and nite element models; to which end a comparison is made between the results obtained by each model in describing the most important nonlinear phenomena of suspended cables under in- and out-of-plane harmonic loading. The analytical model adopted is based on the discretization of the two integro-dierential equations of motion in the two transverse displacement components while the longitudinal component has been eliminated by static condensation [1]. The nite element model is instead based on the three-node element proposed in [16,17] and contains a full dynamic description of the problem. Planar oscillations are rst analyzed in order to investigate the eective contribution of higher symmetric modes. The 3D motions are then considered: due to nonlinear coupling, they are either the result of the bifurcation of planar oscillations under in-plane loading or directly excited by harmonic out-of-plane loading. For the analytical models, frequency response curves are evaluated through direct use of the pseudoarclength continuation algorithm [18,19] on the modal equations of motion. These results are compared with those obtained through the nite element model, where the direct time integration of the motion equations in the global nodal coordinates has been performed. To facilitate the comparison with the modal amplitudes of the analytical model, the displacement solutions of the nite element model are expanded in the space of the linearized eigenvectors. The main part of the analysis is conducted on a taut cable and then extended to a slacker cable in order to verify the kinematic assumptions in the case of larger span-to-length ratios. A comparison of the results obtained makes it possible to draw conclusions regarding the two approaches, in particular, the eectiveness of the reduced analytical model based on the classical kinematic assumptions for the cables, and the ability of the adopted nite element numerical procedure to capture quantitatively even complex bifurcation phenomena, even though they can only describe stable branches. The information derived from the two approaches oers a more rened picture of the behavior of a cable, with novel solutions.

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2. Nonlinear models of cables and governing equations For a cable suspended between two horizontal supports the varied conguration C1 is described by the displacement components us; t, vs; t and ws; t along the coordinate axes x, y , z, respectively, from the undisturbed reference conguration C0 (Fig. 1a). Under the assumption of a small sag-to-span ratio (d =), the static equilibrium conguration of the cable can be described through the parabola y x 4d x= 2 x= , with constant tension N0 s H , H being the horizontal component of the initial tension N0 . By assuming, under the Biot hypothesis, the Lagrangian measure of strain [1]: v02 w02 ; ex; t u0 y 0 v0 1 2 the equations of motion of the system are obtained by the Hamilton extended principle, _ EAe0 0; m u cu u _ Hv0 EAy 0 v0 e0 pv ; m v cv v cw w _ Hw EAw e pw ; mw where E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the area of the cross section, m is the mass per unit of length, cu , cv and cw are the viscous damping coecients per unit of length and pv and pw are distributed constant loads in the y and z directions; a dot and a prime indicate derivatives with respect to time t and the abscissa x, respectively. The assumption that the gradient of the horizontal component of the dynamic displacement is negligible with respect to unity, and H =EA  1, has been introduced and the system is completed by homogeneous boundary conditions in 0, L. Under the previous assumptions, ux; t can be eliminated by a standard condensation procedure leading to the denition of a constant strain  e as  Z  02 02 v w  et 1= y 0 v0 dx: 3 2 0 Two integraldierential equations of motion in the transverse displacements vx; t and wx; t are thus obtained:
0 _ Hv0 EAy 0 v0  e p v ; m v cv v 0 0 0 0

cw w _ Hw0 EAw0 mw e p w :

Fig. 1. Suspended cable conguration: (a) analytical model, (b) nite element model.

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2.1. Eigenfunction-based Galerkin discretization A non-dimensional form of the equations is obtained by normalizing the variables with respect to the length of the cable and its rst in-plane frequency x1v , as reported in [7]. The displacements are described by the expansion v x ; t
nv X i1

ui xqiv t;

wx; t

nw X i 1

wi xqiw t;

where ui and wi are the eigenfunctions of the linearized equations of motion (4) and the associated eigenvalues give the in-plane and out-of-plane frequencies xiv and xiw , depending on the mechanical cable characteristics through the non-dimensional Irvine parameter, K2 [20]. The use of the expansions (5) leads to the following expression for the constant strain:  et
nv X j1

b1j qjv

nv X i1;j1

b2ij qiv qjv

nw X i 1

b3i q2 iw :

Thus, the following nonlinear ordinary dierential equations describe the motion: ! nv nv X X _ iv a0ij qjv a1i a2j qjv  e piv ; qiv fiv q
j 1 j 1

_ iw qiw fiw q

x2 iw qiw

a3i qiw e piw ;

where the in-plane cable frequencies are obtained as x2 iv a0ii a1i b1i , while xiw are the out-of-plane frequencies. The linear part of system (7) is uncoupled, since the o-diagonal terms a0ij a1i b1j vanish due to the orthogonality of the eigenfunctions, while a rich variety of coupling arises in the nonlinear part, due to quadratic and cubic nonlinear terms. The expressions of the coecients in (6) and (7) can be found in [15]. In the following analysis, the rst ve in-plane and out-of-plane modes are considered in order to describe the transverse displacements. On the basis of both frequencies and modal shapes, more or less rich models are used in the nonlinear analyses, in which some of these modes are selected and retained. 2.2. Finite element discretization A three-node isoparametric nite element is developed and coded following the algorithm proposed in [16]; the element is directly formulated in the coordinates of the global dynamic model, so that no transformation is necessary to form the tangent stiness and the generalized components of restoring forces [16,17]. Linear elastic behavior of the cable is assumed in the large displacement and small deformation range to derive the restoring forces increment during the time step Dt; following the classical updated Lagrangian formulation, a linear estimate of the restoring forces Re t Dt as functions of the displacement increments Due of the nite element is sought in the form: h t i e gt Re t Dt Re t k 8 k Due : e e In Eq. (8), the contribution to the predicted restoring force is given by the elastic and geometric tangent e t gt stiness matrices k and k e e , as well as by the vector of the generalized components of restoring forces at time t; these are respectively dened, along with the mass matrix me , by the following expressions:

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73

e k e

Z
0

T T EAH T ;s H ;s xt x t H ;s H ;s ds; L

Re t

Z
0

N s; tH T ;s H ;s xt ds;

Z L gt k N s; t H T e ;s H ;s ds; 0 Z L me msH T sH s ds;

0

where H s is the shape function matrix, H ;s s its derivative, N s; t the axial force and xt the nodal coordinate vector. In the previous expressions the nodal displacement and nodal coordinate vectors, ue t and xt respectively, as well as the shape functions matrix H s are dened as follows: x t f x 1 ue t f ux1 y1 uy 1 z1 x2 u z1 y2 ux2 z2 uy 2 x3 u z2 y3 ux3 z3 g ;
T T

H s h1 s I 3

h2 sI 3

h3 s I 3 ;

u y 3 u z3 g ; 2 3 1 6 7 I3 4 1 5; 1 h3 s 2s2 =L2 s=L:

10

h1 s 2s2 =L2 3s=L 1;

h2 s 4s2 =L2 4s=L;

In the numerical implementation of the procedure, the elastic stiness and the mass matrices are evaluated in closed form; two point Gauss quadrature is instead used to evaluate the integrals involving the variation in the axial force; this implies a reduced order integration [16,21,22]. Based on the evaluation of the restoring force vector given by Eq. (8), the equations of motion for an N -dimensional f.e. model can be written in the form: _ Ru; u _ Q: M u Cu _ are the Lagrangian nodal displacements and velocities, M k mek is the P In Eq. (11), u, u mass matrix, obtained by assembling elemental mass matrices; C is the structural damping matrix; R k Rek is the vector of the generalized components of restoring forces, obtained by assembling elemental vectors; Q is the vector of the generalized components of the forces acting upon the system. The equations of motion (11) of the f.e. model are integrated by means of a numerical procedure based on the Newmark method, as modied by Hilber et al. [23] for controlling numerical damping of highfrequency oscillations. To ensure dynamic equilibrium at the end of the time step, the modied Newton Raphson method is adopted. P 11

3. Nonlinear response of moderately taut cables The nonlinear response of a taut cable was described by means of discrete models of dierent dimensions. The dimension is determined, in Galerkin-type models (analytical models), by the number of modes retained, and in the nite element models by the number of displacement components of the nodes. The cable response to harmonic loads are described through the frequency response curves (frcs) of modal amplitudes for dierent levels of load intensity. A selection of these results is presented below. The main part of the analysis concerns the response of a moderately taut suspended cable (C1 ) under both in-plane and out-of-plane harmonic excitation. After discussing the comparison between the results of the analytical and f.e. models, the principal aspects of the analysis are also considered for a slacker cable (C2 ). In the literature the most important coupling phenomena between in-plane and out-of-plane motions are studied mainly for cables at the rst crossover, hence in the internal resonant condition, i.e. x1v 2x1w ,

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where the nonlinear coupling is maximized [3,4]. Here, this special condition is avoided, but for the selected cable C1 an albeit less important internal resonant condition occurs between the rst and third symmetric in-plane modes (x1v 2x3v ). Indeed, even for moderate amplitudes and in the absence of internal resonance, such as in the case of C2 , the completeness of the nonlinear coupling terms makes it dicult to avoid completely regions where resonances occur between the external frequency and a combination of the natural frequencies. Consequently, more than one mode is involved in the motion. In the following analysis the cable response is therefore described, starting from a unimodal solution, by increasing the number of modes, in order to obtain from the analytical model a response close to that given by the nite element model. 3.1. Characteristics of the cable Most of the results concern the cable C1 , which is characterized by the following parameters: l EA=H 486, m d = 1=45, with the associated value of the Irvine parameter, K2 15:36. The cable has a value of K2 on the left of the rst crossover point (K2 4p2 ), which ensures that it is in tension even in the straight conguration. The rst 10 natural frequencies normalized with respect to the rst in-plane eigenfrequency, equal to 7.87 Hz, are reported in Table 1 for both analytical and f.e. models. Fig. 2 shows the associated analytical eigenfunctions that practically coincide with those evaluated by the f.e. model. The number of elements in the f.e. model is determined in order to reach an assigned accuracy in the description of the rst 10 eigenfunctions of the cable. A very low level of errors between the analytical and the f.e. eigenfunctions was considered a necessary starting point for the subsequent nonlinear analyses. The frcs of the analytical discrete system are evaluated by means of a continuation technique [19]. Based on the knowledge of the periodic solution  z at a given frequency X, the response zT corresponding to the new incremented frequency X is evaluated by integrating the equation of motion over a time period T , with initial conditions z0  z. The solution is, in general, dierent from z0 . The periodic solution is then determined by a predictorcorrector method, suitably modifying the initial conditions z0 in such a way to

Table 1 In-plane and out-of-plane frequencies of cable C1 : (a) asym, (s) sym In-plane modes 1v 2v 3v 4v 5v (s) (a) (s) (a) (s) Analytical 1.000 1.339 2.026 2.677 3.350 Finite element 1.000 1.337 2.020 2.688 3.382 Out-of-plane modes 1w 2w 3w 4w 5w (s) (a) (s) (a) (s) Analytical 0.669 1.339 2.008 2.677 3.347 Finite element 0.667 1.339 2.010 2.687 3.372

1v

2v

3v

4v

5v

1w

2w

3w

4w

5w

Fig. 2. Eigenfunctions of cable C1 .

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75

obtain zT z0 . In particular, the use of a pseudo-arclength continuation algorithm [18] makes it possible to describe the stable and unstable branches of the entire harmonic solution set. For the nite element model, the cable under study is subdivided into 8 three-node elements of equal length, leading to a system of 45 dofs; the full consistent mass matrix is adopted and consistent weight forces are applied at the nodes to compute the static equilibrium conguration. The eigenproblem of the linearized model is solved numerically and a viscous matrix leading to a constant damping ratio for the rst 35 modes is computed and used in the time history analysis. The deformed cable shape obtained by numerical integration is expanded, at each time instant t, in the eigenvector space; this allows for a direct comparison with the generalized coordinates of the Galerkin model. The equations of motion (11) of the f.e. model are integrated by means of the Hilber, Hughes and Taylor numerical procedure with the following parameters: a 0:1, b 0:3025, c 0:6; and with a time step of 0.005 s (1/22.7 of the rst in-plane period). This ensures that at least the rst 32 modes are not damped out by the numerical properties of the integration algorithm. A very limited number of iterations per step (maximum of four) was observed. In order to limit the computational eort in building up the frcs, a forcing load with a slowly varying frequency is adopted (sweeping analysis). The frequency variation in time guarantees that, at certain frequency X, the delivered solution is practically coincident with that obtained as steady state response to harmonic load with X driven frequency. Due to the multivaluedness of the frcs, the determination of stable branches in the range of co-existing solutions needs two separate analyses: one by increasing the frequency (forward analysis) and the other by decreasing it (backward analysis).

3.2. In-plane motion under in-plane harmonic loading The cable response under in-plane harmonic loading with a frequency X non-dimensionalized with respect to x1v and with a spatial distribution equal to the rst symmetric mode is initially investigated. The frequency response curves are evaluated for a load amplitude that produces moderately large amplitude oscillations. Within this amplitude range and in a frequency interval close to the primary resonance, frequency response curves are obtained previously through the multiple scale method for highly and moderately taut cables [7]. Here, for the moderately taut cable, a richer behavior is evidenced by performing a more rened analysis using the continuation method applied directly to the modal equations of the analytical model. In particular, this approach furnishes the complete scenario at once and allows a direct comparison of the cable response at the primary and secondary resonances. Similar results are obtained by asymptotic methods, but separately, with ad hoc expansions for the cases of primary resonance [7], superharmonic [24] and subharmonic [25] resonances. The results of a single-dof analysis, presented in [26], are here enriched by means of a 2dof model, encompassing the rst and third in-plane modes (1v; 3v). This model evidences some qualitative changes in the range of the primary resonance with respect to the sdof (1v) case, due to the 1:2 internal coupling between the rst two symmetric modes. The eects of this coupling are evident in the frcs of the rst and third mode amplitudes excited by the rst modal harmonic load. The curves in Fig. 3a and b (solid line for stable, dotted for unstable branches) show that a notable q3v , oscillating with its own frequency 2X, is involved in the motion with a sharp peak in the range of frequency around the primary resonance (X 1:0, lower branch in Fig. 3a), which is due to the internal resonant condition between 1v and 3v. The presence of the q3v component also produces a loss of stability in part of the upper main branch, in the region 0:8 < X < 1:2, leading to a period-double (PD) oscillation. In the PD region the time history of the rst mode shows only a small dierence with respect to the one-mode solution, whereas the third mode amplitude exhibits a large X=2 component and many other higher harmonics. On the upper branch for X > 1:2 the two-mode periodic motion regains stability. Finally, in the 2dof model response the sub-harmonic

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V. Gattulli et al. / Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 193 (2004) 6985
0.008

(a)

q1v
0.04 PD 2T

q3v
0.006

(b)

0.004 PD 0.02 0.002 PD 0 0.5 1 1.5 0 PD 2T

2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Fig. 3. Frequency response modal amplitudes of cable C1 to in-plane harmonic load (p1v 0:001): analytical model (stable, solid line; unstable, dotted line) and f.e.m. (forward sweeping, circle; backward sweeping, cross); (a) 1v, (b) 3v.

amplitude at X 2, already present in a sdof model, is not signicantly changed by the presence of the small q3v component which, however, is involved in this motion (see Fig. 3a and b in the area of X 2). To make an easier comparison with a nite element approach, a 2D model that considers only displacement components in the plane of the cable is considered. The results of a forward and backward frequency sweeping analysis are reported in Fig. 3. The upper and lower branches of the frcs around the primary, superharmonic and subharmonic resonances, obtained by the analytical model, are recovered with a very good match as far as the main component is concerned. However, deeper analysis of the f.e. results shows that in the main branch of the q1v response region, three main regions can be distinguished (0:8 < X < 1:1; 1:1 < X < 1:38; 1:38 < X < 1:7) in which the forced q1v is coupled mainly with q3v , q4v , and q2v , respectively. The motion of the indirectly excited modes q3v , q4v and q2v , is started with dierent mechanisms of resonance. The relevant role played by the asymmetric modes in the range 1:1 < X < 1:38 justies the dierences in the q3v f.e. results with respect to the simple 2dof analytical model in which the asymmetric modes are not retained in the expansion. However, the dierences in the main component are negligible. 3.3. Spatial motion under in-plane harmonic loading The analysis of interactions between in-plane and out-of-plane modes requires increasing the number of dofs in the analytical model, including at least the rst out-of-plane mode q1w and considering all the complete set of nodal displacement components in the f.e. model. Consequently, the scenario of frcs is enriched around the primary resonance, due to the out-of-plane modes involved in the 3D motion. To enhance the clarity of the presentation, the analytical modal components (stable and unstable) are depicted on the left column of Fig. 4 the f.e.m. results are compared with the stable analytical branches in the right column. In Fig. 4a, following the upper branch of the q1v response, a loss of stability through a Neimark dynamic instability or PD is encountered at X 0:8, close to the results of the previous 2D case. However, if the frequency is increased the main branch remains unstable. Along the unstable branch a static bifurcation (BP) is encountered at X 0:957, hence with a prevailing component X (labeled in Fig. 4ac as T). Fol-

V. Gattulli et al. / Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 193 (2004) 6985
0.07

77

q1v
0.05

(a)

(d)
T T 2T

0.03

0.01

2T
-0.01 0.006

q3v
0.004

(b)
T

(e)

0.002

2T

2T
0 0.08

q1w
0.06

(c)

(f)
T

0.04

0.02

2T

2T
0 0.5 1 1.5

2
PD

2.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

TR

BP

Fig. 4. Frequency response modal amplitudes of cable C1 to in-plane harmonic load (p1v 0:001): analytical model (stable, solid line; unstable, dotted line) and f.e.m. (forward sweeping, circle; backward sweeping, cross); (a) and (d) 1v, (b) and (e) 3v, (c) and (f) 1w.

lowing the second branch, mainly unstable solutions occur; the branch shows a similar inclination to the f.e. results but, unfortunately, dierent stability characteristics. The main branch regains stability at X 1:0 at lower amplitudes, where a narrow-frequency region of the 1:2 internal resonance mechanism between 1v and 3v is found, along with a rapid increase in the q3v response (see Fig. 4b). Beyond this region, at X 1:1, the other more important resonance mechanism between q1v and q1w , also explored in [7], produces a loss of stability in the lower branch through a period-doubling bifurcation, mainly involving the q1v and q1w components with a dierent frequency content. Indeed, a Fourier analysis of the time histories obtained through direct integration of the equations of motion of the 3dof analytical model shows that: q1v and q3v

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possess a very small X=2 (2T) component and a prevailing X (T) component in the spectrum (lower branches labeled 2T in Fig. 4a and b), while q1w has a prevailing X=2 (2T) component (lower branches labeled 2T in Fig. 4c). The results of the analytical 3dof model are recovered in almost all situations by the sweeping analysis of the 3D nite element model. The main dierences are due to the fact that in the region of the unstable upper branch of the analytical frc the f.e. model shows a new stable branch, lower than the previous unstable one, with appreciable values of the three modal components. The response spectrum evidences that this solution has its main component at the frequency X (T) (upper T branches in Fig. 4df), with a large q1w component; this makes the 3D motion under in-plane loading oscillate up to a 45 plane with respect to the vertical plane. The upper stable f.e. branch is not recovered by the continuation technique, but this discrepancy is only due to the use of the algorithm and not to the limitation of the 3dof model; indeed, stable solutions in accordance with the f.e. results are obtained by direct integration of the 3dof analytical model equations with opportune initial conditions.

3.4. Spatial motion under out-of-plane harmonic loading Fewer papers are devoted to analysis of the response of a cable to out-of-plane harmonic loading than to the case of in-plane excitation. Of those that are [27] investigates the eects of a lateral load on free and harmonic forced oscillations, showing that a lateral harmonic force could lead to parametric instability. The role of nonlinear terms is emphasized and only the regions of instability are determined. A brute-force approach, based on direct integration of motion equations as a continuation procedure are used in [9] to determine the frequency response curves to out-of-plane harmonic loads of a 2dof model. Here, the response to harmonic out-of-plane modal loading is accurately investigated through a 3dof spatial analytical model (1v, 3v, 1w modes) forced around the rst out-of-plane frequency (x1w 0:66, see Table 1). The frcs are depicted in Fig. 5. Around the region X 0:5, the quadratic term q2 1w resonant in the unforced equation of q1v causes the rst peak in the q1v curve (Fig. 5b). Moreover, due to 1:2 resonance between q1v and q3v , energy is transferred to q3v , which reaches a relatively large amplitude. Approaching the region of the q1w primary resonance the forced out-of-plane mode shows a hardening behavior typical of the pendulum-type motion. Due to the coupling with the rst in-plane mode, it is evident that an increase in q1w causes a decrease in q1v . In this case, the forcing quadratic term q2 1w produces a signicant negative shift in the oscillations bringing the minimum value of q1v to a negative value with a main frequency content of 2X. Around X 0:8 an abrupt change due to a static pitchfork bifurcation (branch point, BP) is encountered, producing a second branch of frequency X (labeled T in Fig. 5ac). After the bifurcation q1v increases suddenly (Fig. 5b) producing a consequent decrease in q1w and a notable coupling in q3v (Fig. 5c). Therefore, a transfer of energy due to cubic interactions occurs from the out-of-plane motion to the inplane motion. Finally, on the lower branch, by tracking the main branch backwards a peak at X 1 in the q3v frc is found, due to the q2 1w term which is resonant in the unforced q3v equation. All the above complex phenomena, due to the coupling mechanism explained by the analytical model, are well recovered by the f.e. analysis, (mainly) on the two prevailing components q1v and q1w . Indeed, starting from the lower frequency region the f.e. results reproduce, around X 0:5, the peaks on both q1v and q3v (see Fig. 5e and f). The primary resonance (Fig. 5d) of q1w is very well recovered, on both the main and the bifurcated branches. After the bifurcation, due to the cubic coupling, a notable q1v component is also present in the f.e. response, in good agreement with the analytical predictions (Fig. 5e). Some dierences should be present for the smaller q3v component, as result as again the involvement of the rst two asymmetric modes, which are omitted in the analytical model. In particular, the sharp q3v peak encountered in the analytical model appears in the backward f.e. analysis as a smoother peak at a lower frequency X 0:92, which is not perfectly resonant (2X 6 x3v ).

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0.08

79

q1w

(a)

(d)

T
0.04

0 0.06

q1v
0.04

(b)

(e)

0.02

-0.02 0.003

q3v
0.002

(c)

(f)

0.001

0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

1.4
PD

1.6

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

TR

BP

Fig. 5. Frequency response modal amplitudes of cable C1 to out-of-plane harmonic load (p1w 0:0002): analytical model (stable, solid line; unstable, dotted line) and f.e.m. (forward sweeping, circle; backward sweeping, cross); (a) and (d) 1w, (b) and (e) 1v, (c) and (f) 3v.

4. Extension of the analysis to slacker cables The previous analysis is extended to a slacker cable, named C2 , which also makes it possible to verify the hypotheses (parabolic form for static conguration and static reduction of the longitudinal displacement) introduced in the derivation of the analytical model. The C2 cable is characterized by the following parameters: l EA=H 771:77, m d = 0:03533, i.e. K2 61:6804. The value of the Irvine constant K2 places the cable on the right of the rst crossover point, i.e. K2 4p2 . It is worth noting that for this C2

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Table 2 In-plane and out-of-plane frequencies of cable C2 : (a) asym, (s) sym In-plane modes 1v 2v 3v 4v 5v (a) (s) (s) (a) (s) Analytical 1.000 1.155 1.597 2.000 2.513 Finite element 1.000 1.163 1.599 2.021 2.552 Out-of-plane modes 1w 2w 3w 4w 5w (s) (a) (s) (a) (s) Analytical 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 Finite element 0.502 1.004 1.507 2.014 2.541

2v 1v

3v 4v 5v

1w

2w

3w

4w

5w

Fig. 6. Eigenfunctions of cable C2 .

cable, the tension is not always positive for any amplitude level. However, in the present study the level of oscillation amplitudes is such that the cable is always in tension. The rst 10 natural frequencies of the cable normalized with respect to the rst in-plane eigenfrequency, equal to 8.30 Hz, are reported in Table 2 for both the analytical and the f.e. models. According to the selected K2 value the rst in-plane mode is the rst asymmetric while the second mode is the rst symmetric with two nodes. Fig. 6 shows the analytical eigenfunctions of the C2 cable, which again coincide with the f.e. modal shapes. Using the same methodology adopted for the previous analysis the frcs of the analytical model are compared with the results obtained by a sweeping analysis of the f.e. model. The response of the cable under symmetric in-plane loading is rst investigated by a planar model. A sdof analytical model, based on the symmetric in-plane mode q2v , is excited with a symmetric harmonic loading with a spatial distribution coinciding with the modal shape (2v -type modal load). The frc is depicted in Fig. 7a, where the multi-valued response function shows the typical softening-hardening behavior, bending on the left and on the right for moderate and high amplitudes respectively [1]. The agreement between the analytical results and those of the f.e. model is only good for the rst softening part; indeed the results obtained by the backward sweeping analysis show a more extended softening branch up to the excitation frequency X 0:8. By adding the q3v in the analytical model, the frc loses the hardening branch through a series of static and dynamic bifurcations. Some stable branches appear in the analytical solution at a lower frequency, even though the amplitudes do not coincide perfectly with the f.e. results (see Fig. 7b, c); the addition of the second symmetric mode produces a strong modication of the results of the analytical model towards those of the f.e. model. A bifurcation of in-plane oscillation into spatial motion under symmetric in-plane loading is nally investigated for the C2 cable as well. The main dierences in comparison with the behavior of the C1 cable previously described are due to the dierent spectral properties of the two systems. In particular, a Mathiew-type bifurcation, caused by the forcing term q1w q2v in the out-of-plane equation produces a spatial motion at very low q2v amplitude; this occurs when a perfect 1:2 synchronization is reached with X 2xw 1 and therefore on the left of the primary resonance (X x2v 1:163).

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81

0.025

0.02

q2v

q2v

(a)
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.01 1.6

(b)
0 0.6 1.2

1.8

q3v

(c)
0 0.6 1.2

1.8

Fig. 7. Frequency response modal amplitudes of cable C2 to in-plane harmonic load (p2v 0:0005): sdof and 2dof analytical models (stable, solid line; unstable, dotted line) and f.e.m. (forward sweeping, circle; backward sweeping, cross): sdof (a) 2v; 2dof (b) 2v, (c) 3v.

The bifurcated out-of-plane branches in C2 exhibit larger amplitudes than in C1 even for a lower load intensity, due in particular to the lower pendulum-type frequency of the slacker C2 cable. In Fig. 8 the frc of a 3dof analytical model involving the modes q2v , q3v and q1w are reported. The main branch, already described by the 2dof planar model in Fig. 7b, loses stability, due to the presence of the q1w mode, at X 1:0, which is double the out-of-plane natural frequency x1w (PD). Consequently, a second 2T branch appears (see Fig. 8ac). In particular, a spectral analysis shows that the q1w modal amplitude has a prevailing X=2 (2T) frequency component while q2v and q3v possess a more relevant X (T) component, together with the lower frequency component. The boundary of the region of the Mathiew-type bifurcation encounters the q2v frc at a lower amplitude in perfect synchronization, but also at a higher amplitude in the frequency region of the primary resonance. Indeed, a second bifurcation of the planar motion in spatial one is found at the forcing frequency X x2v 1:16, where q2v at the primary resonance assumes amplitudes that bring the system into the unstable Mathiew region. This can be recognized by following the second branch of Fig. 8c at a higher frequency. In this case, after an unstable portion, enclosed between two torus bifurcations (TR), the harmonic solution becomes stable through a period-doubling bifurcation (PD). These stable solutions possess a frequency content similar to that at a lower frequency; namely for q2v and q3v the T-component prevails while q1w oscillates mainly with a 2T-component. The distance between the two branches in Fig. 8c is a function of the internal detuning, and for a cable closer to the rst crossover the two curves collide to become a single one [3,5].

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0.02

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q2v

(a)

(d)

0.01

2T 2T

0 0.01

q3v

(b)

(e)

2T 2T
0 0.025

q1w
2T 2T

(c)

(f)

0 0.8 1 1.2

1.4
PD

0.8

1.2

1.4

TR

Fig. 8. Frequency response modal amplitudes of cable C2 to in-plane harmonic load (p2v 0:0005): analytical model (stable, solid line; unstable, dotted line) vs f.e.m. (forward sweeping, circle; backward sweeping, cross); (a) and (d) 1w, (b) and (e) 2v, (c) and (f) 3v.

The stable solution branches are also in this case well recovered by the f.e. model. In particular, a perfect agreement is found for q2v and q1w (see Fig. 8d and f) while only a qualitative agreement appears for the small component q3v (see Fig. 8e). These latter results support the validity of the hypothesis used in the derivation of the equations of motion in the analytical model. In particular, for slack cables around the rst crossover, the analytical model with few degrees of freedom behaves very similarly to richer f.e. models, if some disagreement at high amplitudes, not of practical interest, is neglected.

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5. Concluding remarks Analytical and nite element models are used in the study of nonlinear interaction phenomena in cable dynamics. A detailed qualitative and quantitative comparison between the results obtained by a pathfollowing procedure and a sweep analysis carried out with the two models respectively, is developed in order to examine the limitations and abilities of the two procedures. In all the cases considered, when the comparison is limited to stable solutions, which are the only ones allowed by the f.e. approach, most of the coupling and bifurcation phenomena are reproduced with very close results. Generally, the dierences are restricted to the higher modes retained in the model, the amplitudes of which are one order of magnitude smaller than those of the lower-frequency modes. These dierences are caused by the truncation of the model, which mainly aects the last mode retained; in any case, the inuence on the main modes at a lower frequency, and thus on the overall response, is negligible. The study achieved two results: the well-established analytical procedure generally used to determine asymptotic solutions and their stability made it possible to validate the ability of the nite element numerical procedure to follow complex scenarios, albeit limited to stable oscillations; at the same time the richer nite element model represented a possibility to verify both the hypotheses assumed in the derivation of the analytical model and the suitable dimensions of the reduced discrete model. Previous studies on the nonlinear dynamics of cables has largely focused on in-plane loading, using asymptotic methods that are able to evaluate the response of a cable and to describe the related phenomena around a resonance at time. Here, the response under in- and out-of-plane loading is investigated in a large frequency range, giving a complete description of the response under harmonic excitation. Although the main aim of the work was to compare the two approaches, the accurate algorithm used in the analytical model and the higher number of modes considered in comparison with previous studies made it possible to dene a more rened description of the known behaviors and to evidence a few novel results in the analysis of coupling phenomena including the bifurcation of out-of-plane motion due to cubic resonance and the disappearing of the hardening branch in slacker cables due to a loss of stability. It is worth noting that the occurrence of some new phenomena have been disclosed only by isolated solutions obtained by the nite element model. The analytical model oers a framework for describing the nite element results; the stable solution branches are determined together with the types of bifurcation. Moreover the description of the scenario is completed by the unstable and bifurcated branches arising from this scenario. The agreement of most of the results obtained by the two models also shows that the approximation introduced in the kinematic description of the analytical model is satisfactory; in particular, no appreciable disagreement is introduced by the static reduction of the longitudinal displacement; this holds true even in the case of the slack cable C2 , i.e. for values of d = around 1/28, an issue addressed in [28] with no denitive conclusions. The comparative analysis performed for taut and slack cables around the rst crossover, showed that few modes are generally involved in the response to harmonic loading. Those modes can be selected on the basis of external and internal resonant conditions taking into account the nonlinear coupling terms. Moreover, nite-element based numerical step-by-step procedures are in any case able to describe of the dynamic behavior of the system, also capturing critical bifurcation points, on the stable domain of course, and can deliver, when necessary, reference solutions which assure the accuracy of faster low-order analytical models. This consideration can be very useful when the nonlinear dynamic behavior of more complex structures than cables is tackled and the analytical model approach becomes more difcult.

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Acknowledgement This work was partially supported by MURST under the project titled: Dynamic behavior of structures: theory and experiments (COFIN 0102); website: http//www.disg.uniroma1.it/fendis.

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