100 Engineering Principles

Abstract
This section discusses the engineering principles and failure modes and stresses for different shaped vessels, including cylindrical and spherical shells and hemispherical, ellipsoidal, torispherical, and conical heads. Equations for calculating stresses are also given, including stresses from internal and external pressure, discontinuity and thermal stresses, and stresses at openings. Contents 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 120 121 122 130 131 132 133 134 135 140 141 142 143 Introduction Failure Modes Loads Summary of Stresses Primary Stresses Secondary Stresses Peak Stresses Stresses in Cylindrical Shells General Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure Stresses in Formed and Flat Components Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure Ellipsoidal Heads Under Internal Pressure Torispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure Flat Plate Closures Conical Sections Under Internal Pressure Discontinuity Stresses General Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses Discontinuities in Cylindrical Shells 100-19 100-12 100-9 Page 100-3

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144 145 146 147 148 150 151 152 153 154 155 160 161 162 163 164 165

Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction Shell-to-Ellipsoidal Head Junction Shell-to-Torispherical Head Junction Shell-to-Cone Junction Without Knuckle Concentric Toriconical Reducers Stress Concentrations General Stresses at Openings Reinforced Openings Stresses from Locally Applied External Loads Thermal Stresses Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells Due to External Pressure General Cylindrical Shells Subjected to External Pressure Spherical Shells Subjected to External Pressure Elliptical and Torispherical Heads Subjected to External Pressure Conical Heads and Transitions Subjected to External Pressure 100-28 100-22

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110 Introduction
Pressure vessels must be designed to resist all potential modes of failure under all combinations of internal and external loads that the vessel will be subjected to under normal operating conditions. This section gives a basic understanding of the different failure modes that can occur, the various loadings that a pressure vessel can be subjected to that could cause it to fail, and how these loads develop the stresses in the pressure vessel shell.

111 Failure Modes

The major potential failure modes that must be considered for the design of a pressure vessel are: Excessive plastic deformation (including creep or stress-rupture at high temperatures) Excessive elastic deformation or buckling Ductile bursting Brittle fracture Fatigue

112 Loads
The forces applied to a vessel and its structural attachments are called loads, and the first requirement in vessel design is to determine the loads and the conditions to which the vessel will be subjected in operation. The major loads acting on a pressure vessel are caused by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Internal pressure External pressure Weight of vessel and contents (including internal components that transmit loads to the pressure vessel) Wind and seismic forces Connecting piping and the weight of external appurtenances (platforms, etc.) Differential thermal expansion (or temperature gradients) Cyclic forces

These forces must be considered during design in order to prevent failure from any of the failure modes mentioned earlier. The loads are usually static, or the amplitude and frequency of their fluctuations are such that they can be considered to be so. However, cyclic loads of sufficient magnitude can result in a fatigue failure, and it may be necessary to consider them in the

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design of a pressure vessel. For example, pressure fluctuations that exceed 20% of the design pressure and cyclic temperature gradients greater than 50F between adjacent locations can cause fatigue.

113 Summary of Stresses

A pressure vessel is subjected to various loads which develop stresses that are categorized by the ASME Code as: Primary Secondary Peak

The maximum allowable design stress for a pressure vessel is based on the strength of the material. Stress limits depend on the category of the stress and its relationship to the various potential failure modes. Figure 100-1 classifies typical stresses in a vessel. Under certain conditions, each category or combination of stresses can cause the vessel to fail in a different way. For this reason, the limits for each category of stress are related to the potential failure modes. Primary stress limits are set to prevent deformation and ductile burst. Primary plus secondary stress limits are set to prevent plastic deformation leading to collapse. Peak stress limits are set to prevent fatigue failure due to cyclic loading. Because of differences between the simplified equations used in the codes and the complexity of the theoretical equations, a factor of safety is applied to various material properties used to determine allowable stress values. These safety factors differ according to the specific criteria of each section or division of the Code and according to the required levels for the actual stresses (see Section 200 of this manual). Since each stress category requires a different safety factor to protect against failure, the designer has to evaluate each type of stress to achieve the most economical and safe design.

114 Primary Stresses

Primary stresses are those developed in each component of a vessel due to sustained internal and external loads. The fundamental characteristic of primary stresses is that they are not self-limiting. In other words, no redistribution of load or reduction of stress will occur despite yielding within the component; primary stresses are not reduced by the deformations they produce. Therefore, primary stresses that exceed the yield strength of the material will cause failure either by gross plastic deformation or by bursting. Primary stresses are the most significant stresses that occur in pressure vessels, and their limits for design are set both to prevent plastic deformation and to provide a factor of safety against bursting.

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Fig. 100-1

Pressure Vessels: Classification of Stresses for Some Typical Cases (ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, Table 4-120.1) (1 of 2) Courtesy of ASME Location Shell plate remote from discontinuities Origin of Stress Internal pressure Type of Stress General membrane. Gradient through plate thickness Axial thermal gradient Junction with head or flange Internal pressure Membrane Bending Membrane Bending External load or moment, or internal pressure External load or moment Near nozzle or other opening External load moment, or internal pressure General membrane averaged across full section. Stress component perpendicular to cross section Bending across full section. Stress component perpendicular to cross section Local membrane. Bending. Peak (fillet or corner) Any location Temperature difference between shell and head Internal pressure Membrane Bending Membrane Bending Knuckle or junction to shell Internal pressure Internal pressure Internal pressure Membrane Bending Membrane Bending Junction to shell Membrane Bending Classification Pm Q Q Q PL -Q Pm

Vessel Component Cylindrical or spherical shell

Any shell or head

Any section across entire vessel

Pm

PL Q F Q Q Pm Pb PL Q Pm Pb PL Q

Dished head or conical head

Crown

Flat head

Center region

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Fig. 100-1

Pressure Vessels: Classification of Stresses for Some Typical Cases (ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, Table 4-120.1) (2 of 2) Courtesy of ASME Location Typical ligament in a uniform pattern Origin of Stress Pressure Type of Stress Membrane (average through cross section). Bending (average through width of ligament, but gradient through plate) Peak Isolated or a typical ligament Pressure Membrane Bending Peak Internal pressure or external load or moment External load or moment Nozzle wall Internal pressure General membrane (average across full section). Stress component perpendicular to section Bending across nozzle section General membrane Local membrane Bending Peak Differential expansion Membrane Bending Peak Classification Pm Pb

Vessel Component Perforated head or shell

F Q F F Pm

Nozzle

Cross section perpendicular to nozzle axis

Pm Pm PL Q F Q Q F F F Q F F

Cladding Any

Any Any

Differential expansion Radial temperature distribution Any

Membrane Bending Equivalent linear stress Nonlinear portion of stress distribution Stress concentration (notch effect)

Any

Any

Primary stresses are further divided into primary membrane stresses and primary bending stresses because different stress limits are applied for design, depending on the type of primary stress.

Primary Membrane Stress

Primary membrane stresses are tensile or compressive stresses that are essentially uniform through the entire cross-section of a pressure vessel component. Consequently, gross plastic deformation will occur when these stresses exceed the yield

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strength of the material. Examples of primary membrane stresses in pressure vessel shells are: Circumferential and longitudinal stress attributable to internal pressure Longitudinal stress in horizontal vessels due to bending between saddle supports Axial compression due to the weight of a vertical vessel Stresses in a nozzle neck in the area of reinforcement due to internal pressure and to external forces and moments attributable to piping connections. (Exceptions are those related to discontinuity effects.) Axial tensile and compressive stresses due to wind and earthquake loads

The design limit for primary membrane stresses is the maximum allowable design stress for the material of construction at the design temperature. Continuous primary membrane stresses cannot exceed two-thirds of the yield strength. However, stresses that act intermittently and for relatively short durations (for example, those attributable to wind and earthquake loads) can be increased to 1.2 times the maximum allowable design stress.

Primary Bending Stresses

Primary bending stresses vary from tension to compression through the crosssection of a pressure vessel shell component. They are generally at a maximum at the surface. Higher average stresses are required to produce failure by plastic deformation in bending than for uniform tensile or compressive loads. Bending stresses are most likely to be the predominant primary stress in the following cases: 1. 2. The bending stress in the center of a flat head. The bending stress between the ligaments of closely spaced openings.

The stress limits for components, when primary bending stresses predominate, are 1.5 times the maximum allowable design stress for the material of construction at the design temperature. This higher stress limit is usually incorporated into the design rules and equations for components that conform to the acceptable design details depicted in the ASME Code. The allowable design stress can be multiplied by 1.5 only if a stress analysis is made of the component.

Local Primary Membrane Stress

Local primary membrane stress is a subcategory of primary membrane stress that is developed by sustained internal and external loads similar to primary membrane stresses. A local primary membrane stress exceeds the stress limit for a primary membrane stress, but as the higher stress is localized it can be redistributed to the surrounding portions of the pressure vessel if yielding occurs. Although the redistribution of stress upon localized yielding normally prevents failure of the pressure vessel, the plastic deformation associated with such yielding is unacceptable. Therefore, the stress limit for a localized stress is set at 1.5 times the maximum allowable

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stress of the material of construction at the design temperature, which can be as high as the minimum yield strength. In order to prevent excessive elastic distortion, a local primary membrane stress is not permitted to extend in a longitudinal direction more than R(t)1/2, where R is the radius of curvature of the vessel component and t is its thickness. Furthermore, individual regions of localized stress must be separated by at least 2.5 R(t)1/2. Examples of local primary membrane stresses in pressure vessels are: Membrane stress at head-to-shell junctions. Membrane stress at conical-transition-to-cylindrical-shell junctions. Membrane stress in the shell at nozzles. Membrane stress at vessel supports or external attachments.

115 Secondary Stresses

Secondary stresses differ from primary stresses because they are self-limiting. Secondary stresses develop at structural discontinuities. Examples of secondary stresses are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bending stresses at head-to-shell junctions. Bending stress at conical-transition-to-cylindrical-shell junction. Bending stress in the shell at nozzles. Bending stress at vessel supports and external attachments. Thermal stresses produced by temperature gradients in the shell, or by differences in temperature between the nozzle and shell.

Unlike primary stresses, secondary stresses are reduced in magnitude by the local yielding, before gross plastic deformation or bursting can occur. The first application of load during hydrotest will generally suffice to significantly reduce the secondary stresses in a pressure vessel, but subsequent load applications could further reduce the secondary stresses. The stress limit for secondary stresses is 3.0 times the maximum allowable design stress for the material of construction at the design temperature. Therefore, the secondary stress is permitted to be as high as twice the yield strength, but it is reduced in magnitude by local yielding. Unless a detailed stress analysis is made, structural discontinuities that develop secondary stresses should be separated by a distance of at least 2.5 R(t)1/2 to avoid additive effects that could increase the total secondary stress above 3.0 times the maximum allowable design stress. A distinction must be made between local primary membrane stresses and secondary stresses. Like secondary stresses, local primary membrane stresses also develop at structural discontinuities, and are essentially self-limiting. However, they are categorized as primary stresses because the plastic deformation associated with the yielding (required to redistribute the local membrane stress) may be excessive.

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Therefore, in effect, the membrane component of the stress developed by the selfconstraint at structural discontinuities is categorized as a primary stress, whereas the bending component of the stress is categorized as a secondary stress.

116 Peak Stresses

Peak stresses in pressure vessels are generally the highest stresses that exist in the various separate components of a vessel. They are distinguished from primary and secondary stresses in that they do not produce significant distortion, but they need not be localized nor necessarily self-limiting. They are developed at locations of high stress concentration (i.e., acute structural discontinuities) and by certain types of thermal stress. Peak stresses are of consequence only with regard to the possible initiation of fatigue failure under cyclic loading conditions, and brittle fracture if the material lacks adequate toughness. The stress limit for peak stresses is three times the allowable design stress for the material of construction. Examples of peak stresses in pressure vessels are: 1. 2. 3. Stresses at corners and fillets of nozzles. Thermal stresses in the shell related to cladding or weld overlay. Thermal stresses in the shell due to rapid change in temperature of vessel contents.

120 Stresses in Cylindrical Shells

121 General
Pressure vessels basically consist of a cylindrical or spherical body, with hemispherical, ellipsoidal, torispherical, conical, toriconical, or flat end-closures. The various shell components are usually welded together, forming a shell with a common rotational axis. Occasionally, components can be bolted together by utilizing flanges. All structures with shapes resembling curved plates are referred to as shells. When shells are formed of plate where the thickness is small in comparison with other dimensions, they are called membranes. This condition is defined when the ratio between the radius of curvature R and the wall thickness t is greater than 10:1. Stresses in thin shells, called membrane stresses, are average tension or compression stresses acting tangent to the surface of the shell and are assumed to be equally distributed through the wall thickness. Membrane stresses are calculated by neglecting bending. Bending stresses due to concentrated external loads are of high intensity only in close proximity to the area where the load is applied.

122 Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure

The most important case in vessel design is a thin shell surface of revolution subjected to internal pressure. The internal pressure can be a uniform gas pressure

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or a liquid pressure varying along the axis of rotation due to the liquid head. In the latter case usually two calculations are performed to determine the stresses due to the equivalent gas pressure plus the stress in the lowest part of the shell due to the liquid weight. Stresses in a closed-end-cylindrical shell under internal pressure Pi, computed from the conditions of static equilibrium (Figure 100-2) are the longitudinal (meridional) stress: Pi R L = -------2t
(Eq. 100-1)

where: Pi = Internal pressure R = Radius t = Thickness and the circumferential (hoop) stress: Pi R t = -------t
(Eq. 100-2)

As can be seen from these two equations, the hoop stress is always greater and determines the required thickness of the shell. The equations above are accurate for thin wall cylinders (R/t > 10) under internal pressure. However, for thick wall cylinders (R/t < 10), the variation in stress from the inner to the outer surface becomes appreciable, and the above equations are not satisfactory.
Fig. 100-2 Stresses in a Cylindrical (Closed End) Shell Under Internal Pressure From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., 1985. Used with the permission of VNR.

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The Lam, or thick-cylinder equations, are used to calculate the stresses (radial and circumferential) at any radius, r, in a thick wall cylinder as shown in Figure 100-3.
Fig. 100-3 Stresses in a Thick-Walled Cylinder From Pressure Component Construction by John F. Harvey, 1980. Used with the permission of VNR.

The circumferential stress is given by

2 a Pi b 1 t = ---------------+ ---2 2 2 b a r 2

(Eq. 100-3)

and the radial stress is given by

2 a Pi b 1 --- r = ---------------2 2 2 b a r 2

(Eq. 100-4)

where: Pi = Internal pressure a = Inside radius b = Outside radius These equations show that both stresses are maximum at the inner surface. The maximum tensile stress (r) at the inner surface is Pi ( a + b ) t max = -------------------------2 2 b a
(Eq. 100-5)
2 2

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The radial stress (r) is always a compressive stress and smaller than the maximum tensile stress (t max). The maximum tensile stress is always greater than the internal pressure, but approaches this value as the wall thickness increases. The difference between the minimum tensile stress at the outside surface and the maximum tensile stress at the inside surface is the magnitude of the internal pressure. Therefore, for very high internal pressures it is necessary to use comparably high-yield materials. For thin walls, there is little difference between the maximum tensile stress given by the thick-cylinder equation and that given by the thin-cylinder or average-stress equation. For thick walls, however, the difference between the values of the two equations is significant. For example, at a wall thickness of 10% of the radius (R/t = 10), the maximum stress is only 5% higher than the average stress. However, at a ratio R/t = 6, the maximum stress is 37% higher than the average stress. For this reason the ASME-Code equations approximate the more accurate thick-wall equations, and are used for all thicknesses.

130 Stresses in Formed and Flat Components

131 Spherical Shells and Hemispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure
A sphere is the ideal shape for containing internal pressure because: (1) the loads developed in the shell are lower than for any other shape; (2) a sphere has the lowest surface area for the volume contained; and (3) a sphere will have the lowest weight. However, because spheres are more difficult to fabricate, hemispherical heads fitted to cylindrical shells are more often used for large diameter or high pressure vessels. The stress determined from the diagram in Figure 100-4 is, Pi R L = t = -------2t
(Eq. 100-6)

where: Pi = Internal pressure R = Radius t = Thickness Note that the longitudinal stress (L) and hoop stress (t) are the same because of the uniform geometry of the sphere. Therefore, the maximum stress in a sphere is half that for a cylinder of the same diameter. Equation 100-6 assumes a uniform stress distribution through the thickness, and is adequate for relatively thin heads. As the wall thickness increases with respect to the radius, however, the assumption that the stress is uniformly distributed through the wall is invalid. A thick sphere equation must then be used, having the maximum stress at the inside surface, similar to the equations for a thick-walled cylinder. Like the stress equations for

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cylindrical shells, the ASME Code uses an approximation of the thick-sphere equation and applies it to all thicknesses.
Fig. 100-4 Stresses in a Hemispherical Head Under Internal Pressure From Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment by Jawad and Farr, 1984 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

132 Ellipsoidal Heads Under Internal Pressure

Ellipsoidal heads, shown in Figure 100-5, are frequently used for the end closure of cylindrical shells. Since the radius of curvature varies from point to point, the equations for calculating the stress are more complicated than for cylinders or spheres. Both the meridional radius of curvature (RM) and the longitudinal radius of curvature (RL) vary gradually from point to point on the ellipse and therefore so do the meridional stress (x) and the latitudinal stress (). Figure 100-6 gives the equations for calculating the stresses in an ellipsoidal head. The meridional stress (x) remains tensile throughout the ellipsoid for all R/h ratios, being maximum at the crown (point 1) and diminishing in value to a minimum at the equator (point 2) (see Figure 100-5). The latitudinal hoop stress () is also tensile in the crown region, but decreases toward the equator. For ratios R/h greater than 1.42, the hoop stress in the equator area becomes compressive. If R/h = 2, a maximum tensile meridional stress of Ph/t occurs at point 1, and a compressive latitudinal stress of equal magnitude occurs at point 2. As R/h increases further, the greatest stress in the crown will still be tension at point 1, but will be far exceeded in magnitude by the compressive stress in the knuckle area at the equator. This is a potentially dangerous situation because this compressible stress can cause local buckling of thin heads and local failure due to the high shear stress developed. For this reason, the ASME Code restricts the major-to-minor-axis ratio of elliptical heads to a maximum of 2. Using membrane stress alone for the design, without including the various effects of the discontinuity stresses at the head-to-shell junction, would result in insufficient head thickness. To simplify the design procedure, the ASME Code relates the equation for the thickness of ellipsoidal heads to the tangential stress of a cylindrical shell of radius R (the major radius of the ellipse), modified by an empirical corrective stress-intensification factor, K.

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Fig. 100-5

Geometry of Ellipsoidal Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., 1985. Used with the permission of VNR.

Fig. 100-6

Equations for Calculating Stresses in Ellipsoidal Heads

x
At Any Point X PR i L x = ---------2t

= --------- 1 ----------
t At Center of Head

PR L

R L 2R m

2 PR i x = ---------2th At Tangent Line Pi R = ------x 2t

= x

2 PR R = ------ 1 -------- t 2 2h

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133 Torispherical Heads Under Internal Pressure

A torispherical head, sometimes referred as a dished head, simulates an elliptical head with a compound curve composed of a crown radius that is a spherical segment and a knuckle, as shown in Figure 100-7. The knuckle radius should be large enough to minimize the latitudinal stress in this region. For this reason, the ASME Code specifies a minimum knuckle radius of 6% of the crown radius. The maximum inside crown radius for a torispherical head equals the outside diameter of the cylindrical shell it caps. Under internal pressure the maximum membrane stress in the crown region is the same as in the cylindrical shell it caps. The type of heads using the radii values approved by the ASME Code are usually called ASME 6% Flanged and Dished Heads.
Fig. 100-7 Geometry of a Torispherical Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., 1985. Used with the permission of VNR.

The abrupt change in radius from L to r in torispherical heads introduces large discontinuity stresses which are absent in elliptical heads. This factor makes dished heads suitable for use only in low pressure applications (under 150 psi), where their shallower depth and lower fabrication costs make them a desirable shape. Figure 100-8 gives the equations for calculating the meridional stresses (x) and latitudinal stresses () in torispherical heads. The maximum calculated compressive latitudinal stress in the knuckle occurs at point a. In the spherical cap the meridional and latitudinal stresses are both tensile stresses. The actual compressive stress in the knuckle is reduced by the tensile stress in the spherical segment, with a resulting lower membrane stress at point a. As with the design of semiellipsoidal heads, the ASME Code uses a simplified procedure for stress calculations, introducing an empirical correction factor M

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Fig. 100-8

Equations for Calculating Stresses in Torispherical Heads

x
At Junction of Crown and Knuckle PL i x = ------2t In Crown PiL x = ------2t In Knuckle PiL = ------x 2t At Tangent Line Pi R = ------x 2t

= ------- 3 -- 4t R

PL i

= x

= ------- 1 ---- t 2r

PiL

Pi R = ------x t

into the equation for membrane stress in the crown region. This correction factor compensates for the discontinuity stresses at the shell-to-head junction. In practical applications it has been found that the ASME Code equation for the thickness of a torispherical head under internal pressure gives conservative results for the majority of head designs, but is not adequate for large ratios of R/t. During hydrotests, large, thin-wall torispherical heads have collapsed as a result of elastic buckling, plastic yielding, or a combination of both. ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 2, Appendix 4, provides a method of checking the plastic collapse pressure of torispherical heads against the hydrotest pressure of the vessel.

134 Flat Plate Closures

The unstayed flat head, or cover, is a common type of closure for vessels. It may be integrally formed with the shell, or welded to it as shown in Figure 100-9. It can also be attached by bolts or some quick opening device. Plates may be arbitrarily classified into three groups: 1. 2. 3. Thick plates in which the shear stress is the most important. Medium thickness plates in which bending stresses are the most important. Thin plates whose strength depends mainly on the direct tension produced by the stretching of middle plane.

Most actual flat plate closures for pressure vessels are included in the second group. The stresses in circular flat plates of constant thickness are calculated based upon the assumption that the edges are either simply supported, or fully fixed. In actual

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Fig. 100-9

Integral or Welded Flat Heads From Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment by Jawad and Farr, 1984 by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

designs, neither of these edge conditions is actually realized, the actual condition being somewhere between. With edges assumed simply supported, the maximum stress is located at the center and equals: D2 max = 0.309P i --t
(Eq. 100-7)

where: Pi = Internal pressure D = Diameter t = Thickness With fully fixed edges, the maximum stress is radial and located at the edge:

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D 2 max = 0.188P --t

(Eq. 100-8)

where D is the diameter of the plate, P the pressure, and t the thickness of the plate. The basic equations used by the ASME Code introduce a variable C factor depending on the details of the corner construction. The maximum deflection is limited to one half of the thickness, and all stresses are kept within the elastic limit.

135 Conical Sections Under Internal Pressure

Conical shapes are used mainly as bottom end closures, or as transition sections between cylinders with different diameters. The circumferential stress (t) and longitudinal stress (L) in a conical section, as shown in Figure 100-10, are calculated by essentially the same equations as for cylindrical shells, in which R has been replaced by R/cos: Pi R t = ------------t cos
(Eq. 100-9)

Pi R L = ----------------2t cos
(Eq. 100-10)

where: Pi = Internal pressure R = Radius t = Thickness = half apex angle The largest stresses, however, will occur at the junction of the cone to the cylinder, which must always be considered as part of the cone design. The end supporting force at section a-a (Figure 100-10) is actually sustained by the cylindrical shell, as shown in Figure 100-11. This arrangement will produce an unbalanced force (PRtan)/2 pointing inward, which develops a compressive stress at the junction. This force increases with the angle and therefore, the ASME Code limits this angle to 30 and sets special rules (UA-5b and c) for reinforcement of the junction. Otherwise, the Code uses the membrane-thickness formula to determine the maximum stress and the minimum thickness of a conical shell.

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Fig. 100-10 Geometry of a Conical Head From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., 1985. Used with the permission of VNR.

Fig. 100-11 Force Diagram at Cone-to-Cylinder Junction From Pressure Vessel Design Handbook by Henry Bednar, 2nd ed., 1985. Used with the permission of VNR.

140 Discontinuity Stresses

141 General
Pressure vessels consist of axially symmetrical elements of different geometries and thicknesses, and sometimes different materials. If these individual components were allowed to expand freely as separate sections under internal pressure, each element would have an edge radial displacement and an edge rotation that would differ from those of the adjacent component. However, since all these components form a continuous structure and must deflect and rotate together, the differences in movement at junctions result in local deformations and induce local stresses. Other items, such as stiffening rings and internal bulkheads, also affect the cylinder deformation and introduce local stresses.

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Stresses created by the interaction of two shell components at their junction (i.e., an abrupt change in geometry of the vessel shell, or a structural discontinuity) are called discontinuity stresses. Under static loads, such as constant internal pressure, and with ductile materials, discontinuity stresses can be kept low by proper design. They become important, however, under cyclic loads, or at low temperatures where the ductility of the material is reduced. Discontinuity stresses must be added to membrane stresses developed by other loads, as discussed in Section 113 above. There are two categories of structural discontinuities: gross and local (Figure 100-12). Gross structural discontinuities affect a relatively large portion of a structure and have significant effect on the overall stress pattern. All of the junctions between shell components fall into this category. Local structural discontinuities are sources of stress or strain intensification that affect only a small volume of material and do not have a significant effect upon the overall stress pattern. They usually produce peak stresses (Section 116).

Fig. 100-12 Structural Discontinuities in a Pressure Vessel From Structural Analysis and Design of Process Equipment by Jawad and Farr, 1984 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

142 Calculation of Discontinuity Stresses

Discontinuity stresses can be evaluated using the general bending theory of thin cylindrical shells. Since this method uses edge forces and moments as unknown quantities, it is called the Force Method. The Kalnin's computer program, Stress Analysis of Thin Elastic Shells of Revolution, can be used to calculate all the stresses due to pressure, discontinuities, and thermal loads. This program uses the Force Method to determine discontinuity stresses. The vessel is divided into simple shell elements, then the edge forces and moments, or the elastic deformations for the matching edges of adjoining elements, are balanced in order to solve the problem.

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143 Discontinuities in Cylindrical Shells

Discontinuities in cylindrical shells occur when the shell is constructed of portions of different thicknesses and/or different materials. If the cylinder is long enough, the effect of the edge forces will dissipate to a small value within short distance, and their overall effect on the shell can be neglected.

144 Shell-to-Hemispherical Head Junction

A hemispherical head is almost always thinner than a cylindrical shell (see Section 130), and, therefore, a structural discontinuity exists at the junction of the head with the shell. This discontinuity stress is negligible, however, when tapered transitions are used. Discontinuity stresses at a hemispherical head-to-shell junction are lower than at the junction of the shell with any other type of closure. This is an important factor in selecting a hemispherical head for a large diameter vessel subjected to high operating temperatures and high internal pressures.

145 Shell-to-Ellipsoidal Head Junction

For a 2:1 elliptical head, the ASME Code equation gives a thickness equal to or very close to that of the adjoining shell. This value produces a satisfactory design with low, acceptable discontinuity stresses. Consequently, this type of head is commonly used for all pressure levels.

146 Shell-to-Torispherical Head Junction

Discontinuity stresses in shell-to-torispherical head junctions are due to sharp changes in the radius of curvature at points a and 2 of Figure 100-7. Since these points are close together, the edge loadings at both locations affect each other to a large degree. Since the total combined stress in the knuckle region is several times greater than in a standard 2:1 elliptical head under the same internal pressure, torispherical heads are only suitable for low pressure (<150 psi) applications.

147 Shell-to-Cone Junction Without Knuckle

The thickness of a conical head or sections under internal pressure, with a half-apex angle smaller than 30, is calculated by simple ASME Code membrane-stress equations and the ASME Code rules for reinforcement at the junction. No special analysis of discontinuity stresses is normally required. When, in addition to internal pressure, there are external loads, or when the half-apex angle is larger than 30, a more detailed analysis of discontinuity stresses is necessary. This analysis can be made by using the Force Method, but as the equations for this case are more complicated, simplified approximate solutions are available in Reference 2. (See the reference section of this manual.) The computer program described above in Section 142 can also be used.

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The discontinuity stress can be further increased by a poor fit-up of the joint. Good alignment of a cone with a cylinder is difficult to achieve in practice.

148 Concentric Toriconical Reducers

At high pressures (over 150 psi), where discontinuity stresses at the cone-tocylinder junction can reach values above allowable limits, conical reducers having a knuckle radius at the large cylinder and a flare (reintrant knuckle) at the small end are preferred, as shown in Figure 100-13.
Fig. 100-13 Toriconical Reducer Courtesy of the ASME

Although more expensive to fabricate, toriconical reducers have the advantage of moving the circumferential weld joints away from the high discontinuity stresses, and allowing better fit-up with the cylindrical shells. The knuckles are usually fabricated in the form of toroidal rings of the same plate thickness as the conical section. The ASME Code specifies only the minimum value for the knuckle radius at the large end (RL), but has no dimensional requirements for the radius at the small end (Rs). In most cases, the same plate thickness is used for the entire reducer and the required radii RL and Rs are determined using the maximum membrane stresses.

150 Stress Concentrations

151 General
The normal equations for stresses in pressure vessels are based on the assumption that there is continuous elastic action throughout the member, and that the stress, for simple tension and compression, is uniformly distributed over the entire cross section. Abrupt changes in section geometries, however, can invalidate these assumptions, leading to great irregularities in stress distribution, with large stresses developed in

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a small portion of the member. These are called peak stresses or stress concentrations. In pressure vessels they occur at transitions between thick and thin portions of the shell, and at openings, nozzles, or other attachments. The importance of these stresses depends not only on their absolute value, but also on material properties, such as ductility, the relative proportion of the stressed to the unstressed part of the member, and on the type of loading on the member (static or cyclic). For example, stress concentrations in a pressure vessel subjected to only a steady pressure are of little importance if the vessel is made of a ductile material such as a mild steel. A ductile material yields at these highly stressed locations, allowing the stress to be transferred from the overstressed fibers to adjacent understressed ones. If the load is repetitive (cyclic), however, the stresses can become significant. Stress concentrations create peak stresses (Section 116), and they are used to determine the design fatigue life of the vessel. Besides keeping the primary membrane stresses within the limits set by allowable tensile stresses, it is equally important to keep stress concentrations within acceptable limits when fatigue is a factor. A rigorous mathematical analysis of peak stresses is frequently impossible or impracticable, and therefore experimental methods of stress analysis are used. The ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, does not require a consideration of peak stresses, but Division 2 gives some design rules to permit considering stress intensity factors and stress concentration factors in determining peak stresses.

152 Stresses at Openings

All pressure vessels must be provided with openings to get the process fluid in and out, and to provide entry for maintenance and inspection. When a circular opening is made in a plate subjected to uniform tension, a high concentration of stress occurs near the hole, with its maximum value at the edge of the hole. Away from the opening, the stress decreases until the nominal stress (stress in the unperforated plate) is reached. The ratio of the maximum stress at the edge of the opening to the nominal stress is the stress intensity, or concentration factor. Figure 100-14 illustrates the concentration of stress for an opening of radius r in cylindrical and spherical shells. This figure shows that at a distance from the hole edge equal to the radius of the hole, the effect of the opening on the stress becomes negligible. This distance is usually accepted as the boundary limit for effective reinforcement. Occasionally, an elliptical opening is used for special purposes, such as a manway or handhole. For elliptical openings, the maximum stress occurs at the end of the minor axis. Because the hoop stress is always greatest in a cylindrical shell (see Section 120), the most favorable alignment for an elliptical opening is to have the minor axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the hoop direction (or parallel to the longitudinal axis of the vessel). Otherwise the stress concentration factor will be greater than for a circular opening. The minimum stress concentration is obtained by making the elliptical opening with the lengths of the axis inversely proportional to

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Fig. 100-14 Variations in Stress in Region of a Circular Hole in (a) Cylinder and (b) Sphere Subjected to Internal Pressure From Pressure Component Construction by John F. Harvey. 1980. Used with the permission of VNR.

the applied stresses: for a cylindrical vessel subjected to internal pressure, where the hoop stress is double that of the meridional (longitudinal stress), this requires an ellipse with an axis ratio of 1:2.

153 Reinforced Openings

Because stresses around openings are higher than the normal design stresses for the plate thickness, additional material must be provided to carry the additional stress in the shell around the opening. The additional material provided is referred to as reinforcement. The basic concept of reinforcement of openings is that the cross-sectional area of material removed by an opening must be replaced by adding additional material adjacent to the opening. It is assumed that the material added adjacent to the opening has the same load carrying capabilities as the material removed for the opening. The two basic requirements for reinforcement are: 1. Enough metal reinforcement must be added to compensate for the weakening effect caused by the opening, while still preserving the general strain pattern in the vessel. Adding an excessive amount of material for reinforcement will create a hard spot on the vessel that will not allow its natural deformation under pressure, creating local overstressing. The reinforcing material must be placed immediately adjacent to the opening, but suitably disposed in profile and contour so as not to introduce a stress concentration itself.

2.

The reinforcement is usually provided by a separate welded reinforcing pad, or by extra thickness in the shell and nozzle wall. It is most common for the reinforcement to be added to the outside of the vessel, as shown in Figure 100-15a. However, on some vessels, the reinforcement is added on the inside, as shown in Figure 100-15b. The best configuration is the balanced

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reinforcement, shown in Figure 100-15c, which consists of about 35% to 40% of the reinforcement on the inside and the remainder on the outside. A balanced reinforcement introduces very little local bending moments and stresses. The stress concentration factor in this case is 20% lower than for outside reinforcement only. It may, however, be difficult to place reinforcement on the inside of a vessel, either because the vessel interior is not accessible or because the reinforcement would interfere with the flow or drainage.
Fig. 100-15 Methods of Reinforcing Nozzle Openings with Reinforcement Pad

a) Reinforcement added to outside of opening

b) Reinforcement added to inside of opening

c) Reinforcement added to both inside and outside

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Stress concentration factors can be further reduced by using integrally reinforced nozzles (Figure 100-16) which provide a more gradual transition in thickness between the shell, reinforcement, and nozzle. Equally important is the detailed shape of the integral reinforcement. The use of generous transition radii between the shell and the nozzle minimizes stress concentrations due to discontinuities.
Fig. 100-16 Methods of Adding Reinforcement Material ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Figure UW-16.1. Courtesy of the ASME

A common practice in vessel design, in excess of Code requirements, is to replace all the metal area removed by an opening. This is a Company practice for the design of new vessels, in order to take full advantage of all the strength of the weld. When several openings are closely spaced, their arrangement requires special consideration, because their individual effects and reinforcements become overlapping. Keeping the spacing between two openings at no less than the sum of their diametersmeasured from their centerlineswill maintain the basic average membrane stress in the vessel wall. If the distance is less than the sum of their diameters, the ASME Code sets special rules for reinforcement of multiple openings.

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154 Stresses from Locally Applied External Loads

Most vessels are also subject to loadings at the supports, nozzles, and attachments. These loadings produce deflections, edge rotations, shears, bending moments, and membrane forces. The effect rapidly decreases with the distance from the point of application, where the maximum stress occurs. In practical applications, the number of variables is considerable, and some judgement must be exercised to choose the important ones and eliminate those of minor importance. The procedure for determining local stresses is based on the concepts in Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 107. Calculation sheets are provided for local stresses at nozzles and attachments, which must be added to all the other calculated stresses. If the maximum stress at the attachment is too great, the shell must be reinforced by a pad, or by increasing the thickness of the reinforcing pad required for internal pressure. To avoid stress concentrations at the corners of square or rectangular pads or structural clips, provide a radius of five to ten times the pad thickness, general Company practice.

155 Thermal Stresses

Thermal-expansion problems can occur whenever there is: (1) a considerable difference between the vessel operating temperature and the temperature of the environment surrounding the vessel; (2) restricted expansion or contraction; or (3) a temperature gradient within a vessel component that creates a differential expansion. Problems due to external constraint are solved differently than those due to internal constraint. Thermal stresses are secondary stresses (see Section 115). They will not cause failure in ductile materials on their first application, but they can cause failure after repeated cycling, because of thermal fatigue. Because the difference in temperature between the inside and outside of a vessel depends mainly on the thickness of the shell and insulation, thick-wall and uninsulated vessels are more susceptible to failure caused by thermal stresses. The stresses are compressive at the inner surface, where the temperature is the highest, and tensile at the outside. Failure from fatigue most likely initiates at the outer surface, where thermal stresses add to the tensile stresses from internal pressure. Another location where thermal stresses are likely to occur in a hot pressure vessel is the support skirt. At the shell-skirt junction the temperature of the shell and the skirt will be nearly the same. However, the skirt temperature will decrease from the joint down. The temperature difference causes a rotation of the skirt end, which is restrained by the welded joint. In addition to the thermal stresses, radial deformation of the shell under internal pressure will cause discontinuity stresses. In order to minimize thermal stresses at this location, the shell insulation is usually extended below the skirt-to-shell weld. The skirt should also be long enough to minimize the temperature difference between the bolted-down base of the skirt and the concrete foundation, in order to prevent any distortion and local thermal stress at this location.

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Under certain conditions, application of a steady mechanical load (like internal pressure) to a vessel subject to cyclic operating temperature may produce cycling of combined thermal and mechanical stresses and a progressive increase in the plastic (permanent) strain in the entire vessel. The action of cyclic, progressive yielding is called thermal ratcheting. It may lead to large distortions and ultimately to failure. In practice, thermal stresses can be minimized by reducing external constraints, providing local flexibility capable of absorbing the expansion, selecting proper materials (or a combination of materials), and by selective use of thermal insulation.

160 Stresses in Pressure Vessel Shells Due to External Pressure

161 General
External pressure on a vessel most commonly occurs when a vacuum or partial vacuum is created inside of the vessel by (1) design, (2) discharge of its contents, (3) steam-out cleaning (condensation of steam), or (4) mechanical action, such as on a compressor suction, during off-design events. In these circumstances, the atmospheric pressure surrounding the vessel becomes greater than the internal pressure. Theoretically, the equations for internal pressure could be used to calculate the membrane compressive stresses in the shell of a pressure vessel under external pressure, if the pressure (P) is replaced by (-P). Thin wall vessels under external pressure, however, fail at stresses much lower than predicted by the equations, because of elastic or plastic instability, or buckling of the shell. In addition to the properties of the material and the operating temperature, the principal governing factors are geometrical: the unstiffened shell length, the shell thickness, and the outside diameter. Buckling or collapse is assumed to occur at a critical strain, when the potential energy of the external pressure exceeds the strain energy, caused by bending, that the cylinder can accommodate.

162 Cylindrical Shells Subjected to External Pressure

The critical collapse pressure (Pc) of a cylindrical shell under external pressure depends on two characteristic geometric ratios: t/Do and L/Do, where t is the shell thickness, L is the unstiffened length, and Do is the outside diameter. If L is short enough, the cylinder can fail by plastic yielding in compression at a stress above the yield strength of the material, and the ordinary membrane stress equation applies. This type of failure, however, is likely only with heavy wall cylinders. The critical strain, A, at which a thin wall cylinder under external pressure will collapse can be approximated by: K t 2 - -----A = --2 Do
(Eq. 100-11)

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where K is a factor that depends on the length-to-radius, L/R, and Do/t ratios. The critical compressive stress (c) corresponding to the above critical strain is approximated by: KE t 2 - ----- c = AE ------2 Do
(Eq. 100-12)

where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.

163 Spherical Shells Subjected to External Pressure

The critical compressive stress (cr) for buckling (collapse) of a spherical shell has been experimentally determined to be approximated by: 0.125E cr = ---------------R/t
(Eq. 100-13)

where R is the radius of the sphere, and E is the modulus of elasticity of the material.

164 Elliptical and Torispherical Heads Subjected to External Pressure

The knuckles of elliptical and torispherical heads under external pressure are in tension. The critical region of these heads with regard to buckling under external pressure is the central crown, which is a spherical segment. The critical stress for buckling of the crown is essentially the same as approximated by the equation for a sphere (Section 162) using the crown radius of the head.

165 Conical Heads and Transitions Subjected to External Pressure

Experimental research that compares conical and cylindrical shells has shown that the buckling of a conical shell is similar to that of a cylindrical shell with a length equal to the slant length of the cone and an outside diameter equal to the average outside diameter of the cone.

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