British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Contemporary Recital Solos for the Chinese Two-Stringed Fiddle erhu

Author(s): Jonathan Stock
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 1 (1992), pp. 55-88
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060727
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VOL.1 OFEHNOMUSICOLOGY
BRIISH JOURNAL 1992

Contemporaryrecital solos for the

Chinese two-stringed fiddle erhu

JonathanStock

Music for the Chinesetwo-stringedfiddle erhufalls into severalmajorcategories:traditional

ensemble music, ballad and opera accompaniments and newly written pieces by
conservatory-trainedcomposers for modernizedforms of traditionalChinese instruments.
This essay focuses on the thirdcategory,examiningthe growthof a large repertoryof solos
for the erhu over the past seventy years.It takes accountof politicaland social changewithin
China, the impact of Western music and the continuing influence of traditionalstyles of
Chinese music.

1 Introduction
This paper considers the solo recital repertory of the Chinese two-stringed
fiddle erhu, a musical corpus which now has a historyof approximatelyseventy
years.1 This repertoryis eclectic, comprising folk music arrangementsand
adaptations,composed solos by a large numberof Chinese composers and erhu
players and even a few pieces by foreign composers.2In recent years a number
of Westernpieces and film themes have also been arrangedfor erhu. The music
of this relatively recent recital repertory contrasts with the more traditional
repertoriesof the instrumentin the accompanimentof regional opera,in recrea-
tional amateurensemble music and in street comer begging, although it has
adoptedmuch musical materialfrom each of these sources. Although confined
to an examinationof solos for the erhu, much of what shall be describedbelow

1 The provision by the British Council-China State Education Commission of a one-year

scholarshipfor researchon this subject between September 1989 and July 1990 at the Shanghai
Conservatoryof Music is gratefullyacknowledged.
2 Foreign pieces include the early solos with orchestralaccompanimentNocturneand Concubine's
Song by Aaron Avshalomov (1894-1965) (DLH-11 n.d.), the Double Concerto for Di and Erhu
by Sir JohnManduell(Linfair61015 1987), JarradPowell's GendingErhu for erhu with gamelan
accompaniment(Powell 1987) and HattoriKoh-ichi's Concerto(Hong Kong 1988:13). Although
some of these pieces have been recorded, foreign-writtenworks remain peripheralto the solo
repertoryof the erhu.

55
56 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

is paralleledin similar music for other Chinese traditionalinstruments,such as

the four-stringed,pear-shapedlute pipa or the bambooflute dizi.
The erhu is a vertically-playedspike-fiddlewith a historyin Chinaof perhaps
a thousand years. The hexagonal snakeskin-facedsound-box rests on the left
thigh during seated performance,3the left-hand fingers stop the strings as re-
quired and the right hand operates the bow. The bow hair is fed between the
strings, and the right fingertips are used to push it against one string or the
other. (Performanceof both strings at once is rare.) There is no fingerboard
and so pizzicato, having little resonance,is rarelyused. The stringsare generally
tuned a fifth apart,most often to d' and a', which allows an effective range of
two and a half octaves, up to a"'.
In the main, the contemporarysolo recital repertoryof the erhu has been
written by conservatory-trainedperformer-composers.During the following
discussion of the works of these musicians, I will examine three factors influ-
encing theirmusical choices: political movementswithin China;theirtrainingin
and knowledge of Westernmusic; and their understandingof traditionalforms
of music-makingin China.The resultingsolo repertorywill be shown to be just
as sensitive to the variouscontextsin which it is encapsulatedas is any unwritten
musical genre. These contexts will first be briefly discussed; then the music
itself will be considered. The latter account has for convenience of handling
been divided into a numberof chronologicalperiods. However, stylistic change
has been gradualthroughoutthe last seventy years and did not occur abruptlyat
the boundsof each period.4
The majorityof solos examined in this article are for unaccompaniederhu,
but solos with dulcimeryangqin accompanimentare also common. The practice
of using a piano to support the erhu dates back to the 1930s but remains
contentious,some musiciansobjectingto the combinationof Chinese and Wes-
tern instruments.5A small numberof pieces are played with orchestralaccom-
paniment.Erhu playershave felt free to add theirown accompanimentsto music
originally intendedfor unaccompaniederhu and have also arrangedand modi-
fied earliercompositions;many popularpieces thereforenow exist in a number
of versions.

3 Standingperformancesare rare,since the left hand must then hold up the instrumentas well as
stop the strings. Although the body of the instrumentmay be attachedto the player's coat with a
cord, left-hand mobility is decreased. Pieces intended to be performed standing, such as the
traditionalprocessionalpiece XingJie, employ a narrowrangethatobviatesthe need to changeleft
handposition.
4 Furtherinformationon composition and music-makingin modem Chinamay be gleaned from
Jiang Jing's (1991) rathervacuous account of the influence of traditional Chinese music on
"professionalinstrumentalcomposition"and fromMao Yurun's(1991) unbalancedbut interesting
accountof music underMao.
5 Wu Zhimin (pers. comm. 15/vi/90) cites Wu Bochao as the first composer to write erhu solos
with piano accompaniment(see also Miao et al. 1985:409).
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 57

2 Contexts shaping the creation of erhu solos in modern China

These contexts are musical,culturaland physical.The formerincludesthe
traditionalstyles in whichthe erhu has beenandis employed;otherformsof
Chinesemusicknownto erhuplayers;andthe educationof thesemusiciansin
musictheoryandpractice,whetherWesternor Chinese.Theculturalcontextof
erhuperformance includesaspectssuchas: theorganisation andemploymentof
musicians;socialmovementsin whichmusiciansfigure;andtheexpectationsof
audiences,performers,composersand the politiciansand bureaucratswho
controlrecitalsandrecordingin China.The lattertwo media,plus publishing
and musiceducation,are the primarymeans throughwhich the repertoryis
propagated.The physicalcontextof erhu-playingis a criticalone, since the
construction of theinstrument as well as the shapeandcapabilitiesof thehuman
bodyhavea markedinfluenceon musicfor erhu,as indeedfor anyinstrument
(see, for example,Baily 1977).
Throughoutits thousand-yearhistory in China, the erhu has fulfilled a
numberof musicalroles.6Themostprominent of thesehavebeen,as mentioned
above,as a tool in the handsof the typicalbeggar,as a memberof various
heterophonicinstrumental ensemblegenressuch as Jiangnansizhu,andas an
accompaniment instrument in manyformsof Chineseregionaldrama.Examples
of the repertoryof a street musicianhave been analysedelsewhere(Stock
1993b). In general, while these players may sometimeshave constructed
relativelycomplex improvisations,it is likely that much of their repertory
wouldhaveconsistedof instrumental renditionsof localfolksongs,opera,ballad
singingor instrumental music.
Heterophonic instrumentalensemblemusicin manypartsof Chinahas also
employedthe erhu.In suchensembles,the erhuplayerwas expectedto be able
to producean idiomaticversionsuitableto his instrumentof whicheverfolk
compositionthe groupdecidedto play.Musiciansneeded,therefore,to be able
to transposenotesthatlay beyondthe reachof theirhandor the rangeof their
stringsintotheirreachandto be ableto improviseappropriate ornamentation in
performance. This music was normallyrecreational,playedby a small group
for theirown pleasure,althoughit mayalso havebeenperformedat weddings
andfunerals.Witzleben(1987) gives an overviewof contemporary practicein
one suchregionalensemble.
The use of the fiddlein Chineseoperadatesbackat leasttwo hundredyears.
At one time, operastyles in which the melodicaccompaniment instrumental
groupwas led by a bamboofluteor pluckedinstrument were morenumerous,
but now the fiddle is the most commonleadinginstrument.Many different
formsof fiddleareemployed,suchas the small,high-pitched jinghuin Beijing
operaand the wooden-facedresonatorbanhu in manynorthernbangziqiang
operastyles. Operaticfiddleplayers,if leadingthe accompaniment ensemble,

6 The development of the instrumentitself and its use in Chinese antiquityis discussed in Stock
(1991, 1993a). See also Picken 1965, Zhong 1989.
58 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol. 1 (1992)

had not only to follow the melodic lines of the singers but also to create
introductionsand interludesduringperformance.
Those who have composed recital solos for the erhu have been aware of all
this music and have often been accomplishedperformersin one or more of these
styles. They have thus brought their experience of traditionalstyles of erhu
music into theirsolo pieces. These musicianshave generallybeen well-educated,
often trained in music conservatories and employed there or in professional
music ensembles. Although traditional music is studied in Chinese
conservatories, the influence of Western classical music and associated
educational methods is dominant. The majority of conservatory-trainederhu
players and composers from the 1930s onwards have thus been familiar with
compositional techniques of Western music (such as functional harmonyand
counterpoint),use notationand possess a large technical vocabularyof musical
terms,many of which are translationsof Westernconcepts.
Conservatoriesprovide the training ground for professional performersof
erhu solos, many of whom graduateto work in state-runensembles or possibly
in a conservatorythemselves. Conservatoriesalso trainand employ a numberof
professional composers and provide the facilities in which the performanceof
erhu solos can take place, both informally in pupils' lessons and formally in
recitals. Solos may also be heard outside the conservatories;for example, the
Shanghai National Orchestraemploys the soloist Min Huifen to perform a
numberof solo items in many of their public concerts. Broadcastingcompanies
may also arrangeconcerts at which these solos are performed,and recording
companiesissue a considerablenumberof recordingsof this kind of music.
The activities of all these bodies are overseen by Government(Communist
Party)officials, whose responsibilitiesinclude ensuringthat the correctpolitical
line is maintainedin all art works. The influence of Governmentofficials on the
creation and transmission of erhu music is, and has been, pronounced.The
guidingpolicy since Mao's Yan'anTalks of 1942 (implementedgraduallyas the
Communistsincreasedtheirinfluenceand power acrossthe mainland)have been
those of Socialist Realism and of "artservingpolitics".Socialist Realism,which
is derived from a long traditionof both Western and Chinese philosophy,7in
Chinahas been an imprecise,often reinterpretedideology in which art is called
upon to give a positive reflection of life, especially the lives of the "workers,
peasants and soldiers". Through the portrayalof an idolized, positive hero's
triumphover adversity (a Romanticideal) the audience experiences entertain-
ment, educationand social encouragement.Proletarianculture is seen as being
the ultimatestep in an evolutionarychain precededby bourgeoisand feudal art.
This has led to a style of Chinese music which is Nationalistin characterusing
elements of Romanticharmonyand form, Russian orchestrationand, occasion-
ally, Impressionismas well as indigenousfeaturessuch as folksong themes.This

7 See, for example,the writingsof PlatoandConfuciuson the placeof art,especiallymusic,in

society. A generalarticleconcernedwith this subjectis Perris(1983) while Kraus(1983) provides
a valuablycontrastingperspective.
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 59

style is controlled by the prevailing interpretationof culturalpolicy and, sup-

posedly, refreshed by continual interchange with the people. The policy of
Socialist Realism has been applied without break in modem China, although
there have been periods of fluctuatingstringency,the tightest being the Cultural
Revolutionwhen only a handfulof majorworks were permittedto be broadcast
or performed.
As far as the erhu is concerned, its status as a folk instrumenthas generally
been advantageous,althoughat times politicianshave become suspiciousof those
who spend much of their working lives recreatingpre-Communistart forms,
such as traditionalmusic. As a result, many recently composed works have
Socialist titles and/orprogrammes:concepts such as bumperharvests,the "liber-
ation" of Taiwan and the sorrows of pre-Communistsociety are well repre-
sented in the erhu repertory.Socialist themes have also often been appendedto
works completed before 1949. Some of these themes are created by the attach-
ment of an appropriatetitle or printedprogrammenotes, while others are sug-
gested in the music itself by quotationfrom revolutionarysongs or folk tunes
with which the audienceis assumedto be familiarand can thus make the desired
associations.Whateverthe form of programme,compositionsmust be passed by
a PartyCommitteebefore theirperformanceis permitted(Mao 1991:122).
The melodic style of these solos is shaped by erhu players' performance
techniquesand conceptionof music. To give one example, on the erhu thereare
different left-handfingering patternsfor music writtenin different modes. The
use of ciphernotation(in which "1"represents"do","2" is "re"etc. in whatever
mode is specified) as the principalform of musical notationin erhu music over
the last fifty years has caused an association between this notation and modal
fingering patterns. Looking at a score written in relative cipher notation,
players have a good idea of which fingers to use for each note as well as of the
sound of the melody itself. They thus preferusing cipher notationto staff nota-
tion, since the latter emphasizes absolute pitch and is less suggestive of tradi-
tional fingering patterns. Traditional erhu ornamentationis also based very
much on these fingering patterns and on possible changes of hand position,
which may occur frequentlysince the left handcan only cover a range of about
one octave on the strings from any one position. The instrument has also
changed throughoutthis century.In the 1950s most players switched from using
silk stringsto steel ones, a change thatgave the erhu a brightertone, more stable
intonationand a more reliable upper register. Different materials, sizes and
shapes of soundbox have been experimentedwith and the constructiveprocess
centralisedin a numberof large factories.8
Many contexts thus feed into the creation and performanceof contemporary
erhu solos. Composers may combine their experience of training in Western
styles with their knowledge of other erhu pieces or traditionalChinese music.
Erhu players bring with them a technique founded upon modal fingering
patterns evolved in the traditional repertory of the instrument as well as a

8 For a more detaileddescriptionof the constructionof an erhu, see Stock 1993a.

60 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

theoreticalgrasp of many Westernmusical techniques.Politicianshave for their

partstressedthe functionof music and musiciansin Socialist China.

3 Solo music up to 1940

The earliest solos played on the erhu appearto have been individual renditions
of folk music, theatricalmelodies, regionalensemble pieces and the creationsof
the streetmusiciansthat so annoyedLaloy (1909:78). Apartfrom its functionas
a begging or leisure instrument amongst the populace at large, sufficiently
simple for van Gulik (1969:2) to note: "Anyonewith an ear for music may, in a
month or so, become a tolerably efficient performeron the erh-hu,"the two-
stringed fiddle was also employed by certain market vendors, short musical
phrases being performedin imitationof the spoken tonal contour of the prices
of the wares (Chen Haiyu pers. comm. 7/iii/90). In ensemble genres each
instrumentalistmay occasionally perform a brief passage alone, and extended
solos may occur during the accompaniment of dramatic genres. With the
exception of the largely unquantifiablenew compositionscreatedeither by indi-
viduals at leisure or at work on street corners, however, none of these tradi-
tional forms are solo compositionsper se. More accurately,the most substantial
of these may be termed solo renditions of music intended for group perfor-
mance. Jiang Tianyi's (1922) collection of huqinmusic (huqin being a generic
term for Chinese fiddles) is perhapstypical of this early repertory,consisting of
ensemble music, folk songs and operaticexcerpts.
It was the new social and musical contexts of early republican China that
encouraged the creation and transmission of solo pieces. These solos, like
Western art music compositions, have become primarily identified as the
individual works of one of a series of specialist composers, whose perceived
musical intentions are recreated by a formally-trained soloist from (the
memorisationof) a notated score. This performanceis typically presented to a
quiet and attentiveaudienceseated in a concerthall. The first musicianto write
music of this kind for the erhu was Liu Tianhua.He startedto compose in 1915
(Liu 1985:6), at aboutthe same time as he took up the erhu. His ten solos were
finalised between 1918 and 1932, althoughsome sketches predatethis period.9
They were taughtto Liu's students(such as Chen Zhenduoand Jiang Fengzhi),
performedby Liu at universityand public concertsand published.Some of them
were recordedin 1931 (Yu 1985:30). It was the increase in the use of notation
and publication,as well as Liu's activities as a university lecturer and national
music reformer, that disseminated his pieces widely. Since they appearedin
notation and were taught in a formal classroom context to educated music
students, few attempts at modification have been made, although accompani-

9 Yu (1985:33-44) has analysed the best known of these compositions, Bing Zhong Yin, and
differentrecordingshave been discussedby Liu (1988:196-201).
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 61

ments for piano or yangqin have been freely added.10Similarly, the music's
identification with Liu Tianhua has been maintained, rather than gradually
acquiringassociation with succeeding generationsof erhu players, as may have
happenedin the past with the transmissionof idiosyncraticversions throughthe
oral-auralteaching process, and as would appear to have happened with the
traditionalpieces Liu taught. One of these traditionalpieces, Autumn Moon
Overthe Han Palace, will be examinedbelow.
Liu's musical interests were cosmopolitan. At school he participatedin a
military band, and he later studied erhu, pipa, qin, sanxian, violin, kunqu and
composition.He also collected, transcribedand publishedoperatic,religious and
folk ensemble music as well as composing solos and studies for erhu and pipa.
However, his compositionalstyle was conservative:althoughseveral of his solos
extend aspects of erhu technique,these extensionsare unlikely to be regardedas
radical musical change as defined by Blacking (1977:6-7). The ten erhu solos
are all fairly brief (from approximatelytwo minutesforty-five seconds to seven
minutes)and have descriptivetitles, for instanceMarchof Brightnessand Birds
Singing in the DesertedMountains.Although there is some modal variety, all
ten pieces utilise eitherdo-sol or sol-re relativestringtunings.Absolute pitch
is set at d' and a' in all cases. Althoughthe fourthand seventh degrees of each
mode are more carefully used thanthe others,it would be an over-simplification
to describeLiu's solos as basicallypentatonic.Modulationis only foundin a few
of the pieces and, with the exception of the subdominantpassages in March of
Brightness, is achieved by alteringtonal emphasisfrom one pitch to anotherof
the same scale; thus the fourthsection of Red FlickeringCandle gives cadential
weight to G in contrastto the remainderof the piece's reliance upon E. Acci-
dentals (sharpenedlower auxiliaryand leading notes) are found only in a few
pieces. Structureis sectional, each new passage either presentingfresh material
or varying previously stated themes, sometimes at a new tempo. Otherpossible
unifying techniquesinclude the partialor full recapitulationof an earliersection
(especially towards the end of a piece) and the use of "organically"related
cadentialpatternsin differentsections as shown in figure 1.
In this example, the cadences from Reciting During Leisure have been
arrangedand classified into two relatedgroups,CadencePatternA and Cadence
PatternB. Each cadence is headedby its barnumber.Section numbersare taken
from a recent edition of Liu's score (Liu 1985:43-4).1 As is apparent,every
cadence in this piece is related directly to several others and indirectly to the
remainder.Because these cadences do not in most instances repeat exactly the

10 Liu Tianhua also taughthis pupils traditionalpieces (Cao Anhe, pers. comm. 6/v/90). These
included folk pieces such as Hua Huanle, Fragrant Wind(a version of ZhonghuaLiuban), The
BuddhistTriad and arrangementsof classical seven-stringedzither qin and pipa pieces including
AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace (1929) (Zhang 1989:22, Jiang andJiang 1989:30).
11The majorityof music examples quotedin this accountare transnotationsof materialoriginally
published in cipher notation. One exception is the quotation from Tan Dun's solo (figure 13),
derived from a hand-writtenscore using staff notation.
Fig. 1 Related cadential patterns in Liu Tianhua's Reciting During Leisure

SECTION I CADENCE PATTERN A

3 6

11-_
ii<
.
1r IH ir
A u

I 11
15is

P^~~
J3f??r|r 11
SECTION II o

Ir I

27

Aa 31 =
k% ~-~~
X
"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
 SECTIONIII
37

e/r a~ M_SEC

63
A J. _m
/,- I
~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
SECTION Y
~
MIH~
I-Il
64 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol. I (1992)

same musical material, I have preferred to describe them as "organically"

relatedratherthan the stricteralternativeof "motivically"related.
Liu Tianhua seems to have been well aware of the traditional creative
methods used by folk musicians. However, his education and employment led
him to compose with pen and paperratherthan throughexperimenationwith an
erhu in his hands. Although some of Liu's pieces share related material
(compare, for example, Festival Night and Moonlit Night), his use of such
material is both less pervasive and less subtle than in the traditionally-based
repertoryof the street musician Abing, for example (see Stock 1993b). Repeti-
tion is often exact, and variationis the deliberatealterationof previously stated
rhythmicor melodic patterns.
One piece which illustratesanotherside of the early solo erhu repertoryis
AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace. This composition is normallyassociated
with the name of Jiang Fengzhi, one of Liu Tianhua'spupils. Described as an
"ancientpiece", this arrangementwas derived from a traditional solo of the
same name for pipa (Ye 1983:243).12 Figure 2 sets the beginning of Ye's
transcription(p.244) of the pipa melody (source not stated) under the parallel
passage from JiangFengzhi's erhuversion(JiangandJiang 1989:79).
As Ye points out (1983:243), the erhu melody is a metrical two-fold
expansionof the original(althoughthe expansionis often less thanregular).The
relationshipof the erhu version to the pipa score is similar in concept to that
between expanded and original forms of traditionaloperatic and instrumental
ensemblepieces.
Certainelements of Jiang Fengzhi's personalstyle standout in his version of
this composition. For instance, figure 3 compares one area of irregular
expansionfrom Jiang's version (Jiangand Jiang 1989:79) with parallelpassages
from Chen Zhenduo's (1951:29) erhu arrangementand Ye Dong's (1983:245)
transcription.13
This kind of irregularexpansionis not confined only to arrangementsof old
pieces, but also occurs in arrangementsof folk music popular during this
period. Figure 4 comparestwo versions of a passage from Fragrant Wind;the
upper is Jiang Fengzhi's (Jiang and Jiang 1989:83-4), the lower that of Chen
Zhenduo(1951:26).
Although both versions are framedin the same metrical units (and both are
headedby slow tempo markings),Jiang's arrangementgenerallyalots two beats
to materialcovered by Chen in one, allowing the former to incorporatemore
ornamentation,such as the accented passing note F# (la) in the fourth bar of
figure 4. Differences between separateperformers'solo realisationsof the same
traditional pieces tend to be of this order: structureis normally similar but
degree of ornamentationand exact metricalarrangementvariable.

12 Both Ye and Jiang (see e.g. Jiang and Jiang 1989:30) mention the influence of the Cantonese
piece ThreePools MirroringtheMoon as well.
13Chen Zhenduo's arrangementof this piece dates from 1930 (Chen 1951:29).
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 65

Fig. 2 AutumnMoon Over the Han Palace, versionsfor erhu and pipa. The pipapart
was originallynotateda minorthirdlower. N.B. Chinesenotationalsymbols,where
differentfrom Westernones, are transliteratedand explainedin the Glossary.
Very slo J = 44

mp -- f -

tr T T tr t T1-
M
'Kj
i -

Setc..

v r IJ a,

Fig. 3 Areas of irregularmetricalexpansionin differentversionsof AutumnMoon

Overthe Han Palace. Thefirst stave shows Jiang's version,the second Chen's, the third
Ye's. The lattertwo have been transposedto the same modeas Jiang's. Articulationand
ornamentationmarksare omitted.Shadedboxesencloseareas of irregularmetrical
expansion.In thefirst case, Jiang writesa three-beatpassage whereregularexpansion
wouldhave elicitedfour beats; in the second,Chensets two beats in place of a single beat.

7~~~~--i _Ir. ...I[.? i1 . L .7.5 I _

I'd _ _. I T
II'/ ,1 _ . _lk_

1 .
w ' -'
''.- :^: -tI -.--4.--uj-1
T . .-...-.-.-.
. . . . . . . . .
.'.'.'.'
. .'.'. . - - .'.- . '. .

.
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .
.
.. . .. . . ..
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . ............
. . . . . . .
.
:. 1 I
I ..I-.. I* r -w -I -4
66 vol.1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 4 Twoplayers' versionsof the traditionalpiece FragrantWind.Articulationand

ornamentationmarksare omitted.Theshadedarea enclosesone beat whichhas the same
metricvalue in bothversions.

AI. =. . = . . ~ M

ar-* --
Is 4m JJ JoL J
Both
"w II
Jiang Fengzhi and Chen Zhenduo composed, aanged and published

Both Jiang Fengzhi and Chen Zhenduo composed, arrangedand published

solo material for erhu during this period and later. Another pupil of Liu
Tianhuaactive in southernChinafrom the 1930s onwardswas Lu Xiutang.His
Yearning for the Homeland (1933) has been influential, as has his later
composition Village Song (1945) (Miao et al. 1985:247). These pieces (Lu
1961:2-4,7-9) are, similarly to those of Liu Tianhua, composed of relatively
brief, contrasting sections. Lu also encouraged other players to expand the
recital repertory,such as his pupil Wang Yi (Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90).
Solo music of the period up to 1940 was usually short and descriptive in
nature. A colourful, possibly poetic title was given to all original pieces, but
programmaticelements of a specific natureremainedrare. A formal structure
comprisinga succession of brief and distinctpartswas characteristic.Generally,
technical requirementswere close to or based upon those employed by folk
musicians, and no accompanimentwas called for. Composers of erhu music
were invariablyperformersthemselves.

5 Solo music from 1940 to 1965

Solo pieces acquirednew dimensions of both medium and content during the
early 1940s. Ciphernotation,devised by Cheve in France, was introducedinto
Chinese music educationby way of Japanand is first seen togetherwith a more
traditional Chinese system of relative pitch notation called gongchepu in
publicationssuch as Fang (1938) and on its own in ChenZhenduo'serhu method
of 1941.14Its use was a reflection of the efforts of musicians from the second
decade of the twentieth century onwards to introduce their newly composed
repertoryand traditionalarrangementsto a wider, musically literate public. As
the conservatory system was expanded, demand for appropriate teaching
materials followed and teaching staff began to produce studies and methods.
Music composed during this period was accorded a more overt political
symbolism, in line with the increasing dominance of communism in China.
14Chen's methodwas entitledHow to learn the erhu (Zhang 1989:22).
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contenporary 67

Values of patriotismand proletarianismwere stressed in the titles, programmes

and themes of all genres, including erhu music. For example, Liu Tianhua's
youngerbrotherLiu Beimao entitled a 1954 compositionThe Sun Shines on the
Motherland's Border Territories which "describesthe post-liberationlives of
complete happinessof the minoritypeoples inhabitingthe Motherland'sborder
territories, and their song to the People's Sun-Chairman Mao and the
CommunistParty"(Liu 1957:34).
Extra-musicalimagery of this kind could be suggested either by a title or
programmeor throughassociationby the use of folksong themes, revolutionary
song melodies and musical cliches, such as the imitation of the sound of horse
racing to represent Mongols and others from the grasslands of the north and
west. In the case of Liu Beimao's above-mentionedcomposition,Section I is said
to depict the "happy situation of song and dance and the joyous, energetic
flavour of the lives of the grasslandlabouringpeople as the sun graduallyrises.
The central Section II adopts some banhu expressive techniquesto set off this
atmosphere"(Liu 1957:34-5). The banhu is a kind of two-stringedfiddle upon
which the snakeskin facing has been substituted with a wooden board. By
"expressivetechniques",Liu refers principally to the high-registerdescending
glissandi shown with a diagonal line. Sections I and II may be seen in figure 5
(Liu 1957:16-7).
WhetherLiu's programmeis effectively portrayedby this music is question-
able, especially since Section III of this ternaryform structureis an exact repeat
of Section I (i.e. the grassland sunrise over scenes of merriment).From this
period onwards,however, the use of some kind of politically appropriatejustifi-
cation for even the most innocuous of pieces became usual, and many such
programmesare widely accepted as musically valid by contemporaryChinese
musicians.
This composition maintains the sectional characterof earlier erhu recital
pieces. It is typically short in durationand intendedfor unaccompaniederhu.
Liu Beimao's solos, however, use relativestringtuningsand modes not found in
Liu Tianhua'spieces, and, reflectingthe educationalinterestsof theircomposer,
aim to provide a series of pieces which fill the void between Liu Tianhua's
relativelysimple studiesand his ten morecomplicatedsolos (Liu 1957:i).
As mentioned above, the conscious use of folk music extracts in composed
erhu solos is also found during this period. An example of this is offered by
Wang Yi's compositionBumperHarvest of 1953. The first section of this piece
is modelled on the sounds of chuida [wind and percussionensemble] music; the
second employs a haozi [work song] concernedwith the lifting up of river silt;
and the third includes the depiction of village luogu15[percussionensemble]
music. Section II and part of Section III are shown in figure 6 (Anon. 1957:2-
3).

15 Wang Yi, pers. comm. 4/v/90.

68 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol. I (1992)

Fig. S Openingof Liu Beimao's The Sun Shines on the Motherland'sBorder

Territories

Vigourous and joyful

Unhurredly Moderatespeed
*A _ _ - A^
- - _.. Eg - E3
-

^ Es
eg ^ tr

mf mf

t,..
m-:--t _ _

mWarily,atthe same speed

,-eg trj
_
,i- trl
_-__ig- ah
:tr t..
- - - --I-_-] - -

^^-^qb I=l
.^^-^^^^'~^~ ~.^''~ sI
egp "I I M

1^'^^L^i.! , ilffi^ffi^ffl
,
__lff
L?-I w w
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 69

Fig. 6 BumperHarvestby WangYi,bars49-84

[II] J=52 3 4 3
3 3
-._

2 3
2 233 3.

f cresc. dim.

(Repeat Section I before going on to Section III)

=92
[III] o 3 4 1
4 2 1

L1I I . ?
w
r Fw 4 0 t t

|fr _j '
L:iMf mpD

0 0
0r iv
F_ 4 0 0 oloo 000 0 0

mlj^ Ls p Mf mp

Influentialat this time was the mid-1950s arrangementby Zeng Xun of the
Mongol folksong Pulling the Camel (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Parallel to Liu
Beimao's incorporation of banhu techniques in The Sun Shines on the
Motherland'sBorder Territories,Zeng Xun mentions(Zhanget al. 1987:24) use
of Mongolian horse-head fiddle matouqin ornamentalfingering techniques.
Pulling the Camel is anotherpiece in which the erhu is associated with the
Northernand Westernminorities.Typical of such music, in its performancethe
strings are taken as the relative pitches la and mi, in place of the more usual
do-sol and sol-re relative tunings (compare,for example, the la-mi Section
II of figure 5 with the do-sol music of figure 6). As mentioned above, a
change of relativetuningis accompaniedby an alterationof mode, fingeringand
ornamental patterns. Other pieces written in a similar vein include Huang
Haihuai's Horse Race of 1964 and, more recently, such works as Piao
Dongsheng's On the Grassland,Wang GuotongandLi Xiuqi's Galloping on the
70 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Thousand-Mile Grassland, Zeng Jiaqing's Herding Horses (1977) and Chen

Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses(see later).16The depiction of regional styles,
especially but not exclusively those attributedto the northwest,has since this
period become a popular ingredient in modem erhu music (and, to a lesser
extent, in solo and ensemblepieces for otherinstruments).
One aspect of this popularitymay be the enjoyment of virtuosic technical
display. The adoptionof steel stringsin the 1950s improvedtone qualityin pas-
sages requiringfast or short bowing (Zhang et al. 1987:24). Also, since more
studentswere undergoingformal trainingin music conservatories,performance
standardsrose and playersbegan to createmusic thatshowed off theirnew tech-
nical capabilities.Thus, music with a festival programmeof some kind was not
only politically advisable but engendered greater opportunity for popular
display.
Zhang Shao discusses (1989:33-4) the importance of the erhu competition
held in Shanghai in 1963.17 Analysing the repertory performed by the 29
finalists, he totals 22 new compositions, twelve arrangementsof regional folk
and operaticmusic, seven solos from the previous period (chiefly those of Liu
Tianhua) and one classical arrangement.This reflects the increasingly diverse
origin of material performed on the erhu during this period. Unfortunately,
Zhangdoes not clearly distinguishbetween the formertwo categoriesin his list,
describing, for example, Huang Haihuai's version of the northeasternpiece
River Waters(originallyarrangedfrom local folk music into a solo for shuang-
guan [doublereed pipe] in the 1950s) as a "newcomposition"(1989:34).
A general broadeningof the repertorytook place throughoutthe 1950s and
early 1960s. Increaseduse of publicationand the sale of recordingsbroughtfolk
material such as the transcribedsolos of the street musicians Abing and Sun
Wenminginto the handsof many musicians,and allowed those from otherparts
of the countryto learn somethingof differentregional styles of performance.
Music performedby 1965 ranged from solo versions of traditionalregional
instrumental material such as the Jiangnan sizhu piece Zhonghua Liuban,
through folk arrangementsarrangementslike River Waters and classical ones
such as the seven-stringedzither qin piece Three Variations on Yang Guan,
through pieces with an input of some folk elements like Bumper Harvest,
throughthose with a folk setting as in Horse Race to the solos of Liu Tianhua
and more recent composers.
Many of these pieces were short and sectional in structure,latter sections
either offering contrast with or variation of previous themes. Yangqin
accompanimentswere commonly added in performanceby now, most often
separatelycomposed from the solo part by anothermusician. However, some-
what longer pieces were also being composed by the 1960s, most prominently
Liu Wenjin's YubeiBallade and SanmenGorge Fantasia. Takingthe latteras an

16Huang Haihuai's Horse Race exists in two versions. That more commonly played today is an
abridgedarrangementmade by Shen Liqunin the 1970s (Association 1990:9).
17The winner was Min Huifen, then aged seventeen;cf. HL-536 (1988).
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 71

Fig. 7 Structureof Liu Wenjin'sSanmen Gorge Fantasia

Sections Score MarkingsSub-SectionsPhrases Unts Bar Numbers

Intoduction as if
I
(Free tme) improvised(No barlines)
a 1- 6
a - "-
1 A ~ b 7- 12
Allegro A ' "a'' ' 13- 18
b 19- 24
c 25-27
c' 28- 30
--------31--34-
d
I d' 35- 37
2 B c 38-40
c' 41- 43
b
d 44-_47
"d" " 48- 52
Link 52- 60
a" - a" 61- 66
3 A b"' 67- 72
a"' al' 73- 80
Link 81- 89
-
' e 90- 97
C C f 98-106
Link 106-110
g 111-118
g' 119- 125
4 D (d _ "h 126-127
II -."h' 128-129
Moderat "codetm 129-130
Link 131
e' 132-139
c ""'f' 140-148
C~~
~codeta 149-151
Link free time 152
inmtoduction153 - 154
E e i 155:162
i' "l163-170
5
TT j 171-178
A/Iegrett F f ' 179-186
j*
codetma 187-192
k 192-229
G Link 230-238
a 239-244
a
A b 245-250
a' a' 251-256
6 b' 257-262
Allegro c 263 - 265
c' b
B 266-268
IV d 269-272
d" 273- 277
Link 278 - 282
1 283 - 287
Coda A. a"" 288 - 296
A a"'--
b'" 297-310
codettam 311 - 320
72 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

example, similarly to the shorterpieces alreadyconsidered,it is formed from a

number of brief, contrasting sections (see figure 7, based on the score in
Association1987:30-41).
The formal structureof the Sanmen Gorge Fantasia shows once more the
dominantuse of relatively brief, contrastingsections in the compositionof erhu
recital pieces during this period. Each section has a ternarystructure,the final
section being a varied recapitulationof the first. The composer's markings
(shown in the second column) reveal that Liu Wenjin was not consistent when
adding his own section numbers:18compare,for example, his identificationof
the passage startingin bar 25 as a separatesection but not the reappearanceof
this materialat bar 263. Similarly,relatedmaterialat bars 53 and 278 is in the
former case the end of one of Liu's sections and in the latter the start of his
coda. These inconsistencies disguise the four-partform of his composition. As
alreadymentioned,each part of the piece has a ternaryshape, employing three
relatively simple theme groups (see column 3). Only Section III is unusual in
that it does not repeat or vary its first theme group as its third. Link passages,
usuallyfor yangqinalone, connecteach section and sometimesone sub-sectionto
another.These may have the function of preparinga new mode for use by the
soloist in the next section and breakingthe uniformityof the texture, allowing
audience interest to be rekindledat the soloist's subsequententry. Within each
sub-section,each theme groupis normallyassembled from paired phrases (see
columns 4 and 5). Thus, the first sub-sectionA (column 3) consists of the two
phrasesidentified as a and a' (column 4), each of these being composed of two
six-barunits:a and b (column 5).
Liu Wenjin's compositional plan reveals considerableorganisationand the
influence of his trainingin Westernmusic theory:binary-formthemes rangedin
ternary-formsections of a four-partwhole. Although the accompanimentis
generally subservientto the erhu, it is a necessarypart of the composition,not
an appendage.
Other importantpieces of this period include Qinqiang Theme Fantasia by
Zhao Zhenxiao and Lu Rirong,Poem of Spring by Zhong Yiliang and Changes
in the MountainVillage by Zeng Jiaqing(Zhanget al. 1987:32).
The solo music written for erhu between 1940 and 1965 normally shows a
greaterpolitical consciousness thanthat of the earlierperiod, if not in its music
then in its title and programme.This reflects the increased politicization of
society during the early Communistperiod. The requirementsof amateurand
conservatory students led to the publication of a wider range of solos and
educationalpieces, including studies, and this may have stimulatedinterestin a
broaderspectrumof modes, performancetechniques and regional styles. The
burgeoningprofessionalismand respectabilityof solo performerswas paralleled
by redesign of the instrument,with technical innovations,such as the adoption
of steel stringsmentionedabove, allowing the performanceof more impressive
music. Aspects of the performancetechniquesof other Chinese instrumentsand

18This inconsistencyis unimportantsince it would not influenceperformance.

 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 73

the violin were sometimes incorporated.The majorityof composers were still

erhu players.
Solos written during this period retained the short, sectional character of
their predecessors.Indeed,pieces writtenbefore 1940 were commonly studied,
performed and published during this period. By the 1960s, however, more
extended pieces with integratedaccompaniments,sometimes intended for the
larger ensembles and orchestrasof Chinese instrumentsthen developing, were
also written.

6 Solo music from 1966 to 1990

Generalthemes in the historyof solo erhu music composed over the last twenty-
five years include a furtherincreasein aspects of virtuosityand technicaldisplay
as well as the substantial involvement of professional composers, including
composer-performers,in the creation of large-scale works for erhu. Both these
factors resulted from the impact of the conservatorysystem, which raised the
general standardof instrumentalmusical performancein China and providedan
increasingnumberof professional,formally-trainedcomposers.
However, the first decade of this period, the Cultural Revolution,19 was
basically a static one as far as the compositionof erhu solos is concerned.The
phase was a difficult one for most professional musicians since they were
attackedas "specialists","elitists"and hence class enemies. Only a few, such as
Min Huifen, managed to develop their careers through the performanceof a
narrowrange of acceptedpieces includingHuangHaihuai's River Waters. The
tone of this periodis set by Wu Choukang(1975:101):

In recent years Min Hui-fen has paid many visits to factories,communesand army
units to receive education from the workers, peasants and soldiers. This has
deepenedher understandingof the vast differencebetween the new society and the
old. Whenshe playsThe Waterin theRiver[RiverWaters],she underlinesthis
strong contrast by various fingering techniques and striking variations in the
volume, successfullyexpressinga profoundcontentin distinctiveerh-hustyle.20

Others,for example Zhang Shao (Zhangand Tang 1975) and Wang Guotong
(Wang and Zhang 1976), respondedby preparingfor publicationarrangements
of the latest revolutionarysongs and model opera excerpts.21In keeping with
the political will of the time, an emphasiswas placed upon amateurlearningand

19Originallycoveringa shorterperiod,thistermis nowcommonlyusedto referto thewholeof

the periodfrom 1966-76 duringwhich the left wing of the ChineseCommunistPartywas
ascendent.
20The"variousfingeringtechniques" mentioned by Wupresumably referto thedifferenttypesof
vibratoandnon-vibrato
fingeringcalledforin thescoreof RiverWaters.
21 The model operaswere the small numberof shows performedall over Chinaduringthe
CulturalRevolution.Theyweredevelopedundertheguidanceof JiangQing,wife of Maoanda
leadingmemberof theGangof Four.
74 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

mass activity rather than professional expertise. For example, Zhang Shao and
Tang Liangde's erhu method (Zhang and Tang 1975:104-128) contains studies
entitled: Going to the Enemy's Rear, The Army and the People are Brothers,
The Three Main Rules of Discipline and Eight Points for Attention (revolu-
tionary/military tunes); In Industry, Learn from Daqing, The Commune Happily
Reaps the Bumper Harvest, The Herdsmen Sing of Chairman Mao (themes of
daily life); Tying the Red Plait, Sword Dance of the Female Warriors (excerpts
from the music of the model shows); I Love Beijing's Tiananmen, Glorious
Beijing (patriotic themes); Wishing Chairman Mao Ten Thousand Years
Without End (two versions), Chairman Mao Travels Over the Whole of China
and Long Live Chairman Mao! ("devotional" pieces).22 In the main, these were
arrangements of pre-existing material rather than new works; it was only in the
late 1970s, after the downfall of the Gang of Four that original composition
resumed in a significant manner.
An example of this, which also illustrates the tendency of recent erhu solos to
continue the previous trends of development of new playing techniques and
depiction of horses, is Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses. Chen, a per-
former-composer, decided to experiment with techniques from both Chinese and
Western instruments to see if it was possible to reproduce on the erhu sounds
such as "shouts, neighing, hoof beats and bugles" (Zhang et al. 1987:35). The
immediate stimulus to this was his interest in the pipa piece Ambush on All
Sides.23 Figure 8 reproduces part of the solo (yangqin part omitted), showing
how the first neigh is written.
This technique is described as a "linked, pausing bow" (Zhang et al. 1987:35).
It combines the simultaneous tremolo bowing of both strings with a trill and
glissando. Later in the piece, Chen notates a similar "high speed tremolo on both
strings" with a tremolo sign in place of the trill marking used above.24 This is
derived from a similar pipa technique used in the Ambush on All Sides. Also
used by Chen Yaoxing in this piece was a technique he called "da jigong" [large
struck bow] (see also Zhang 1989:70). This, he claims, simulates hoof beats and
is performed by striking up and down on one string with the bow hair. Figure 9
reproduces Chen's cipher notation for this passage. (Numerals are read as sol-fa
pitches in the key shown. Dots above a number raise the pitch of that note by
one octave, dots below lower the pitch by one octave. Rhythmic suffixes and
barlines are written much as in staff notation.)

22 Going to the Enemy'sRear was a revolutionarysong by Xian Xinghai. The ThreeMain Rules
of Discipline and Eight Pointsfor Attentionwere slogans of the People's LiberationArmy set to
music to help their memorisation. Daqing was an oil field hailed as an exemplar of successful
Communistindustry(Hollingworth1987:115).
23 This is one of the standardsof the pipa's militaryrepertory. Chen's piece is also discussed by
Zhang Shao (1989:36).
24 In this techniquethe inner string is sounded with the bow hair, the outer one with the bamboo
(Association 1987:175). This lattertechnique produces a sound strikingly like that of the pipa
special effect it is modelledupon.
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 75

Fig. 8 'Neighing' in Chen Yaoxing's Galloping Warhorses

tr

Fig. 9 'Hoofbeats' in Chen Yaoxing'sGalloping Warhorses

1 = F (6 - 3 tunirg)
Outerstring(Dajfong, imitate hoof beats)
5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575 5575
Erhu xxxx t44t 4t4t
t44txxxx xxxx 4t4t
xxxx 4t4t
xxxx 4t4t
xxxx 44txxxx
xxxx 4tt

6e 3- 13 33
- 1 2_______
11 2 3

The compositionof pieces such as GallopingWarhorsescontinuedthe fashion

for erhu solos in, or attributed to, different regional styles. Rather as the
Westernmusic studentmay be taughtand examinedin the performanceof music
of contrastingperiods, Chinese musicians studied and performedmusic which
portrayed contrasting areas. Many of these pieces are pastiche in nature,
composers or performersfrom elsewhere taking prominentmusical features or
thematicmaterialfrom a regional style and combiningthem with the results of
their formal training and experience in both Chinese and Western music.
Generally,some attemptat popularappealis made and a politically appiopriate
theme, normallyemphasizingthe folk roots of the composition,is appended.
The accompanimentsof these pieces are of two kinds. In some instances,the
yangqin part shares the melodic contourof the solo instrument,possibly decor-
ating rests and held notes in the erhu with imitative material, as in figure 10.
Alternatively,as in figure 11, simple, functionalharmonymay be employed.
This harmonyis very simple indeed, merely alternatingtonic and dominant
chords, occasionally with decorationssuch as the minor thirdin bars 5 to 7 and
the appoggiaturalb' in bars 13 and 14.
Although some of these solos were writtenby professionalperformers,others
were createdby non-playingcomposersin consultationwith leading performers
such as Wang Guotongor Min Huifen. This is particularlythe case for larger
works of more than one movement,increasinglywrittenduringthe 1980s.
76 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 10 The Wish of the Lake Hong People, arranged by Min Huifen (1977), bars 3-8
(Zhang 1989:36, Wang 1980:45)

With deep feeling

Ay
.9

^ i i
Aa I

t et...
I
i-In,
In T-i JUI'3 I - 4R l I

An example of this kind of composition is Peng Xiuwen's Unyielding Su

Wu.25 Written for an erhu tuned to g and d', the piece is a conventional
concerto with three movements: fast, slow and fast. Similarly to many other
Chinese composers of the immediate post-CulturalRevolution period, Peng's
programmein this piece is historical, Su Wu being a general captured by
northernnomadswho eventuallywas able to returnto his homeland.
Each movementtreatsin generalterms one episode of Su Wu's story:firstly,
his captivity as a shepherd in inhospitable terrain; secondly, his feelings of
longing for his homeland;and finally the celebrations that greet his return.26
The work belongs to the nineteenth-centuryconcerto tradition,comprisingthree
movements linked by common thematic material and an overall tonal plan.
Although the writing for the most part employs pentatonic modes, these are
superimposed on a tonal scheme which passes from G minor to G major
(repeated) and ends the first movement on D major.27The second movement
moves from the area of C minor, to C major and back to C minor. The third

25 The orchestralaccompanimentof this work is writtenfor Chinese orchestra,but many works

exist in versions with symphonyorchestrainstead.
26 These movements are subtitled The Loyal One Alone AmongstWindand Snow, Yearningfor
ChinaandHoldinga Festivalfor the Returnin Glory.
27 Throughoutthis analysis I refer to key signaturesused in the score (Peng 1987) ratherthan
keys per se. In most cases, however, the key signature employed does give an accurate
impression of the (largely) pentatonicmode Peng uses for his melodies and the generally simple
tonal harmonieswith which he accompaniesthem.
 Stock: Contemporaryrecital solosfor the erhu 77

Fig. 11 Opening of Little Postman by Liu Yian and Zhao Hanyang (1983)
(Association1989:64-5)

Allegretto,Happily n v

p cresc.

tI,III
i^ Illl I I I
f ^..
p
D Major:I I II I II (min.3) I (min.3) l

dim. cresc. f

.'I
'

l T I J II
I (min. 3) IV IIc Ic II II
VV v -_ , - _ k?
A L _ L

etc..

V21r F I 17 I
Vb IVb II II II

ranges from D major, through C major, B flat major, G major and back to D
again. Passage from one movement to another is smoothed by the use of
bridging material that emphasizes common notes between the end of one
movement and the start of the next, as in figure 12.28
As mentioned above, related thematic material is employed in all three
movements. This unifying factor serves to hold the composition together, the
structure of each movement being rather loosely formed around a succession of

28This is accomplishedsimilarlyto, althoughmore simply than,the passage from one movement

to the next in Rachmaninov'sSecond Piano Concerto.
78 vol.1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 12 Conclusion offirst movement,opening of second

in Peng Xiuwen'sUnyieldingSu Wu. Restingparts are omitted.

Li - I . I:

Erhu J
Ti l i -r 1ipi
(Solo) mnf mp

Yang0qia
l mp
lS4rirtITrfI
p RP
i1

&qrhu
& Erhu I R it 1'I iP
(Tutti) mp P PP

andprofoundly(J = 48)
II Unhurriedly

Sheng . 1 III

mp

tutti and solo passages, many of which are based upon some form of the main
theme. Comparedwith the structureof Liu Wenjin's Sanmen Gorge Fantasia
(see above), Peng Xiuwen's concerto form is both more continuous and less
symmetrical,although elements of traditionalWestern concerto form are also
present.
Taking the first movement as an example, the beginning is a slow
introduction(bars 1-73) in G minor. This is a tutti section, much of which is
written over a harmonicallystable pedal G. The melodic materialfrom bar 35
onwardsappearsrelatedto the main theme to come, reversingits opening motif
of dominantto tonic pitches a bar apart.The second section (bars 74-124) is
begun by the solo erhu developing motives from the main theme in G major.A
brief but significanttutti (84-90) follows, again using the tonic-dominantmotif
in elaboratedform. The significance of this tutti is that it reappears several
times later on duringthe course of the movementin the mannerof a ritornello.
Developmentcontinues in furthersolo and tutti passages (91-104 and 105-124
respectively) which pass througha numberof closely related tonal areas. In a
third section (bars 125-170) the soloist presents the main theme group in the
 Stock:Contemporary
recitalsolosfor theerhu 79

tonic key (G).29There are two themes, the formerbeing the main theme of the
whole piece, the second is (quite conventionally) more lyrical in nature and
accompaniedby a change of textureand rudimentarycontrapuntalimitation in
the matouqin part. The fourth section is a second development section (171-
275). Developed in turn are: the main theme (171-180) in the tonic, slow
introductionmaterialfrom bar 35 onwardsin G minor (181-204), tutti motivic
fragments in G major (205-216), solo development of the first main theme
(217-227), passage work (228-236), development of the second main theme
(237-255), returnof the ritomello motif in G and then sequentiallyin D (256-
263). Finally there is a linking passage (264-275) which leads to D major.The
fifth and final section (276-320) is begun by anothertutti passage (276-283)
which is followed by solo passage work (284-296) and development of the
second theme (297-305). It is concluded by a solo codetta (306-320) which
remainsin D.
Motivic developmentis integratedthroughoutthe movement,with developed
versions of the main theme occurringbefore its first statement in basic form
(bar 125). The impressions of continuity and organic growth as the piece
progressesare therebyenhanced.
Liu Wenjin has also recently written a large scale concerto in four
movements, the Great Wall Fantasy of 1981.30 As in Peng Xiuwen's concerto,
the compositiondeals with a patrioticand historicaltheme. Othercomposers as
well have recently sharedan interest in historical themes for their music, and
many younger composers have gone a step further by employing aspects of
ancient Chinese music itself, often in combination with elements of Western
avant-gardemusic.31This has allowed them to move away from the romantic
style of older composers while still emphasizing the national identity of their
work.
A piece which demonstratesuse of historicalmusical materialis Yu Zhikui's
Qin Music (1983). Apart from using a melody from the seventh-centuryqin
piece Elegant Orchid, the erhu piece also adoptsplaying techniquesfrom qin
music in general (Association 1989:52-4).32Representativeof music more con-
sciously employing avant-garde techniquesis a duet for erhu and yangqin:
ShuangQue by Tan Dun (1984). In this case, the avant-gardetechniquesutilized
includerhythmicand melodic aleatorismcoupledwith an expressionistapproach
to dynamiccontrast.
The first section of Tan Dun's compositionis shown in figure 13. Subsequent
sections vary the same materialand employ a numberof experimentaldevices,
includingan extendedpassageof bowed double-stopping.

29 Used as the main theme of this work is the folk tune Su WuHerds Sheep.
30 See Association 1989:2-19,74-7 and Xiao 1983 for a melodic score, performanceremarksand
a generaldescriptionof this piece respectively.
31 This trendof composition is not confined to erhu solos alone. It is also encounteredin recent
music for symphony orchestra,voices or piano, for instance.
32 See Chen et al. 1989:20-7 for a discussion and transcriptionof Elegant Orchid.
80 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 13 Opening of Tan Dun's Shuang Que

non vibrao ------------

Solo
A n. n i
6V ~~ I ME-

V rq v
A kl -- V o.-t gliss.
Y~~~~~
A
3fsf sp -==3f =~
A

I.. ~ ~ ~ I-- -

L
-- -
-M
sf - etc.
- - ik

*r - - -------
2' - 40-
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 81

Avant-gardesolos for erhu are sometimesperformedor broadcastbut few of

them have yet been publishedor commerciallyrecorded.Much more commonly
encounteredin both the concert hall and over the air waves are piecess such as
the joint composition Parting of the Newly-Wedsby Zhang Xiaofeng and Zhu
Xiaogu. The musical structure,programme(a Tang Dynasty poem of the same
title by Du Fu) and harmonic language of this piece are far closer to the
compositionsof Peng Xiuwen and Liu Wenjinthanto those of Tan Dun.
Solo music composed for erhu from the CulturalRevolution onwards has a
wider range than that of earlier pieces, partly as a result of the increasing
involvement of different kinds of composers in its creation: performershave
continuedto write short, sectionalpieces which develop aspects of performance
technique and/or regional style in a popularmusical idiom; composers of the
Chinese nationalist tradition have begun to employ the erhu as a soloist in
picturesqueconcertos;and those of the avant-gardepersuasionhave used it in a
growing number of experimentalworks. Some musicians have also begun to
arrangenon-Chinesemusic of many kinds for the erhu. Examples range from
works by Bach and Schubertto Indianfilm music and Menti's Czardas(Zhang
1989).
Apart from recent solos, performersstill learn many of the works of earlier
periods,especially those of Liu Tianhua,and traditionalpieces, such as Abing's
The Moon Reflectedon the Second Springs. Collections of pieces are published
and recorded fairly frequently, so contemporary erhu players are able to
acquirea large repertoryof varied solo works. As in the previous period, many
of these pieces have an apt political or patriotic programme,although this is
sometimesmore subtly presentedthroughthe perspectiveof a historicaltheme.

7 Conclusion
Works intended for recitals of the solo erhu, with or without accompaniment,
have an importantposition in the training of all erhu players in the present
conservatorysystem. Even though opportunitiesfor public performanceof these
pieces are comparativelyrare, students devote the majority of their practice
time to masteringa repertoryranging from transcriptionsof traditionalinstru-
mental music to the compositions of folk musicians to solos dating from the
early twentieth century onwards. For many students, solo pieces are the only
repertory of the erhu, ensemble and orchestral work being very much less
significant.
Although many of the pieces that form this repertoryare musically light-
weight, concentratingon technicaldisplay or the variationof a few stereotypes
(for instance, pre-revolutionarysorrows or Mongol horsemanship),they are for
the most part well-written for the erhu. Since performershave dominated the
creationof solo works until recent years, this is perhapsunsurprising.Although
several adequatelyconstructedworks for erhu have appeared,the involvement
of professionalcomposers has not so far producedany large-scale solos which
match the standardof, say, the best of Liu Tianhua'sshorterpieces or Abing's
82 vol. 1 (1992)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

transcribedimprovisations.A general difficulty for composers would appearto

be the creationof a musical style both suitableto the erhu and weighty enough
to sustainmusical interestover an extendedperiodof time withoutalienatingthe
mass audiencesfor whom all works are supposedto be designed. Although the
work of the Chinese avant garde may stimulate interest amongst mainstream
composers in new musical resources, it will probably require a fundamental
change in the political directionof compositionbefore many composers set out
to write longer, more varied solos. When questionedabout their solo repertory,
several older erhu perfomerscomplainedabout the lack of high quality large-
scale solos. Audiences, they said, found the longer of the existing solos dull.
Younger players were, in general, less concerned about the repertoryitself-
they enjoyed tackling colourful, virtuoso solos-and more concernedabout the
lack of opportunitiesto perform.
Erhu players, whether young or old, have developed a wide range of
common technical skills in the creationand performanceof their solo repertory.
While many of these skills are based on techniquesknown to erhu players in
previous centuries, others are the result of the influence of other musical
instruments,such as the violin, and the adoptionof a Western-styleconservatory
training.Unlike in the West, therehas not yet been an "authenticity"movement
in Chinese musical performance.On the contrary,there has been a movement
towards the development of what players call a "scientific, modem" playing
style which has tended to reduce the stylistic differences between the music of
one region or performerand another.This parallelsmovementsto disseminatea
common dialect of Chinese across the whole nation, and centralplanningof all
aspects of political, economic and artisticlife. In this aspect, as in all others,the
contemporarysolo repertoryfor the erhu can be seen to be highly responsiveto
its changingcultural,musicalandphysicalcontexts.

GLOSSARY
For convenience, this glossaryhas been divided into five parts:a) names of people, with
family name written first, according to Chinese custom; b) names of compositions;
c) names of instruments;d) notationalsymbols; e) other terms. Listing is alphabetical
basedon the pinyin transliteration.In some cases, when translationwas not convenientor
meaningful in the text, more literal renderingsare given below for the non-specialist.
Charactersshown are simple form,as currentlyused in the People's Republicof China.

a. People
Abing(1893-1950) I 'i streetmusician, calledHuaYanjun(I k
properly 9)
CaoAnhe I * musicologist
i
ChenHaiyui, $ waiter
ChenYaoxingM,1' 1 erhuperformer/ composer
ChenZhenduo1, t.R ' erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger
Du Fu (712-770) +i ? TangDynastypoet
 recitalsolosfortheerhu
Stock:Contemporary 83

1' -
HattoriKoh-ichi Ani Japanesecomposer
'
Huang Haihuai I 'tFcomposer
JiangFengzhi (1908-1986) 4 ) Zerhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger
Li Xiuqi $ I * composer
Liu Beimao (1909-1981) t1 jt X erhucomposer/ teacher/ arranger
Liu Tianhua(1895-1932) tl A I erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger
Liu Wenji tS 4 composer
Liu Yian V1 Ai 'P composer
Lu RirongI B Ai composer
Lu Xiutang(1911-1966) M 1' ' erhuperformer/teacher/arranger
Min Huifen It"] . ' erhuperformer/ teacher/ arranger
Peng Xiuwen 52 14' [ composer
Piao Dongsheng * , : composer
At
ShenLiqun A ,1 il arranger
Sun Wenming(1928-68) 7J' I fl streetmusician
TanDun if /4 composer
Wang Guotongi M [I I erhuperformer/ teacher/ composer
Wang Yi I Z erhu teacher/ composer
Wu Bochao (1903-49) i 1b A erhuperformer/composer
Wu Zhimin& ; R erhuteacher/ performer/ composer
Xian Xinghai (1905-45) A A ' composer
Yu Zhikui -T W X composer
'
Zeng Jiaqing bin A composer
Zeng Xun a 4 erhuperformer/ composer
ZhangXiaofeng ?K I 4 composer
ZhaoHanyang;6 [B composer
ZhaoZhenxiaoA! i i composer
I
ZhongYiliangVt [ composer
Zhu Xiaogu %* composer

b. Compositions
Benchizai QianliCaoyuan << * - . 1 /S >> "Gallopingon the
Thousand-MileGrassland"by WangGuotongandLi Xiuqi
Bing Zhong Yin <<? + ei >> "Groaningin Sickness"by Liu Tianhua
Buqu de Su Wu << T IS At i4 >> "UnyieldingSu Wu"by Peng Xiuwen
ChangchengSuixiang << K i t '1i >> "GreatWall Fantasy"by Liu Wenjin
Chu YeXiaochang << R, + '1 >> "FestivalNight"by Liu Tianhua
ChunShi <? r i >> "Poemof Spring"by ZhongYiliang
84 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol.1 (1992)

Dao Diren HoufangQu << 'J f& A fi >> "Goingto the Enemy's Rear"by
Xian Xinghai
Er Quan YingYue<<?= A l >> "TheMoonReflectedon the SecondSprings"
by Abing
Feng Shou << * q >> "BumperHarvest"by WangYi
Feng Xue Gu Zhong ?<<'J; . $ >> "TheLoyal One Alone AmidstWind
and Snow",first movementof Peng Xiuwen's "UnyieldingSu Wu"
? ,
Ganji << >> "HerdingHorses"by Zeng Jiaqing
GongsheXiKaiFeng ShouLian <<?4 t i ?:f * 1t VA >> "The
CommuneHappilyReapsthe BumperHarvest",revolutionarytune
GongyeXue Daqing << IL * >> "InIndustry,LearnfromDaqing",
revolutionarytune
GuangmingXing << t >? "Marchof Brightness"by Liu Tianhua
Han Gong Qiu Yue << A KAF >> "AutumnMoon Overthe HanPalace",
ancientpipa tunebest knownfor erhuin JiangFengzhi'sarrangement
HonghuRenminde Xinyuan << A A, R 7 't . >> "TheWish of the
LakeHong People"arrangedby Min Huifen
Hua Huanle <<t . i >> "DecoratedHappy[Song]",Jiangnansizhu melody
Huai Xiang Xing <<'[J, 1 >> "Yearningfor the Homeland"by Liu Xiutang
Jianghe Shui << 'I i/-TX >> "RiverWaters"by HuangHaihuai
JingzhuMao ZhuxiWanshou-Wujiang<<fS 5.L , t Ag 7Y 4 3. it >>
"WishingChairmanMao Ten ThousandYearsWithoutEnd",revolutionarytune
Kong Shan Niao Yu <<7 l -q i >> "BirdsSingingin the DesertedMountains"
by Liu Tianhua
La Luotuo << S 3 At >> "Pullingthe Camel"by Zeng Xun
?
Mao ZhuxiZouBianZugouDadi << ,t A i& 1 m!i* * >
"ChairmanMao TravelsOverthe Whole of China", revolutionarytune
MuminGechangMao Zhuxi << ? t a&* ) >> "TheHerdsmenSing
of ChairmanMao",revolutionarytune
Nongcun zhi Ge ?C<< t U >> "VillageSong"by Liu Xiutang
Nii ZhanshiDao Wu <<* i -?-77- >> "SwordDanceof the Female
Warriors",model show tune
Qin Yun << i 9 >> "QinMusic"by Yu Zhikui
QinqiangZhutiSuixiangqu <<^ l >>? "QinqiangTheme
Fantasia"by ZhaoZhenxiaoandLu Rirong
4
Saima <C ^ >> "HorseRace"by HuangHaihuai
San Bao Fo << ' 1 >> "TheBuddhistTriad",traditionaltune
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 85

SanDaJilii, BaXiangZhuyi << - * t / t ?'>>'The Three

MainRules of DisciplineandEightPointsfor Attention",revolutionarytune
SanmenXia Changxiangqu<< _ I' *tti A G >> "SanmenGorgeFantasia"
by Liu Wenjin
San Tan Yin Yue<< -4 p
P ?> 'Three Pools Mirroringthe Moon",traditional
Cantonesetune
Shan CunBianle Yang << '14 ~ 7 ' >>"Changesin the MountainVillage"
by Zeng Jiaqing
ShuangQue << R? 1 >> "Paired[Poems]"by TanDun
Shi Mian Maifu << + i 1 ?>>"Ambushon All Sides",pipa solo
Si Han Huai Xiang << . . >> "Yearningfor China"secondmovementof
'1ff
Peng Xiuwen's "Unyielding Wu"
Su
Su WuMu Yang << ? i ! >> "Su Wu Herds Sheep",folksong
w
TaiyangZhaoyaodao ZuguoBianjiang <<* :8 B ] 'J 4fl i >>
?
"TheSun Shines on the Motherland'sBorderTerritories"by Liu Beimao
Wansui!Mao Zhuxi ?<< '! '2 ,l >> "LongLive ChairmanMao!",
revolutionarysong
Weidade Beijing << lt * 4 ..Jl >> "GloriousBeijing",revolutionarysong
'
.It
WoAi Beijing de Tiananmen ?<< , r l >> "ILove Beijing's
Tiananmen",revolutionarysong
Xian Ju Yin <<Pfl IJ t >> "RecitingDuringLeisure"by Liu Tianhua
Xiaoxiao Youdiyuan<<'' '1' A it R > "LittlePostman"by Liu Yian and
ZhaoHanyang
Xin Hun Bie ?<<4fr :6 ,J>> "Partingof the Newly-Weds"by ZhangXiaofeng
andZhu Xiaogu
Xing Jie <<?t ? "Walking[alongthe] Street",Jiangnansizhumelody
>>
Xun Feng Qu ?C<< .fP l >> "Fragrant Wind",traditionaltunerelatedto
ZhonghuaLiuban
YangGuanSan Die << Bt E >> "ThreeVariationson Yang Pass",qin
solo, also arrangedfor erhu
Youlan <<?E - >> "ElegantOrchid",ancientqin solo
YubeiXushiqu << ? Jt $ I >> "YubeiBallade"by Liu Wenjin
Yue Ye << it >> "MoonlitNight"by Liu Tianhua
Za Hong Tousheng <<? , !I 9 >> "Tyingthe Red Plait",model show tune
Zai CaoyuanShang << I / ? ?>>"Onthe Grassland"by Piao Dongsheng
ZhanmaBenteng AX << * Al >> "GallopingWarhorses"by ChenYaoxing
Zhi Jie Ronggui t<<^ ' 1)/3 >> "Holdinga Festivalfor the Returnin Glory",
thirdmovementof Peng Xiuwen's "UnyieldingSu Wu"
86 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol.1 (1992)

ZhonghuaLiuban << + ^i >> "Middle-Decorated

Six Beat",Jiangnansizhu
melody
ZhufuMao ZhuxiWanshou-Wujiang<< S. 1
$ii ?l a 7 Ye A >>
"WishingChairmanMao 10,000 YearsWithoutEnd",revolutionarysong
Zhu Ying Yao Hong << 't I 1ig !I >> "RedFlickeringCandle"by Liu Tianhua
Zidibinghe Laobaixing <<T ,JAE1F 4 ? >> "TheArmyandthe People are
Brothers",revolutionarysong

c. Instruments
banhu +6 9 two-stringedfiddle with board-facedsoundbox
dizi transversebambooflute with buzzingmembrane
=
erhu A two-stringedspike fiddle with snakeskin-facedsoundbox
huqin 9 4'9 ancient"barbarian stringedinstrument", morerecentlya generalterm
for Chinesefiddles
jinghu ,^ 9 smalltwo-stringedfiddleprincipallyused in Beijingopera
matouqin- A V Mongoliantwo-stringedhorse-headfiddle
pipa Ht IE four-stringedpear-shapedlute
qin V seven-stringedzither
sanxian - 5Ethree-stringedbanjo
shuangguanR Mdoublereed-pipe
yangqin ih , dulcimer

d. Notational symbols
chuo I ( O ) rising glissando
er -a / 2 stop stringwith secondfinger
lagong - (t 5) "pulled"bow, sometimeswritten:rn
kong '-( ) open string
nei h inner(lower-pitched)string
san _ /3 stop stringwith thirdfinger
si U / 4 stop stringwith fourthfinger
tuigong - (t 5) "pushed"bow, sometimeswritten: v
wai 4 outer(higher-pitched)string
yi - / 1 stop stringwith first (index)finger
zhu S' (-A ) descendingglissando
arrows,eg. \ I' / these graphicallyportraythe contourof the desiredglissando
 recitalsolosfor theerhu
Stock:Contemporary 87

e. Other terms
m
bangziqiang f A3 collective termfor relatedstyles of Chineseopera
chuida<X T'[music for] wind andpercussionensemble
gongchepu I R% 4 traditionalChinesenotationbasedon symbolsof relativepitch
dajigong * $ 9 "largestruckbow"
gu qu 5 Wf ancientpiece
haozi *~ T work song
Jiangnansizhu 'I if if IT [musicfor] "silkandbamboo"instrumentalensembleof
the Jiangnanregion
kuaisushuangxian dougong 'M it i SE3t k high speedtremoloon both
strings
kunqu fElliteraryoperastyle
liandungong t x 5 linked,pausingbow
luogu V7 i [musicfor] percussionensemble
- model
yangbanxi a' 'i operas
ZenyangXizou Erhu << .' 9" = >> "Howto learnthe erhu",methodby
ChenZhenduo(1941)

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