Racism

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"Racial supremacy" redirects here. For other uses, see Racial supremacist. Part of a series on Discrimination
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Discrimination portal V T E Racism is generally defined as actions, practices, or beliefs that consider the human species to be divided into races with shared traits, abilities, or qualities, such as personality, intellect, morality, or other cultural behavioral characteristics, and especially the belief that races can be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to others, or that members of different races should be treated differently.[1][2] he e!act definition of racism is controversial both because there is little scholarly agreement about the meaning of the concept "race", and because there is also little agreement about what does and does not constitute discrimination. #ritics argue that the term is applied differentially, with a focus on such pre$udices by whites, and defining mere observations of racial differences as racism.[%] &ome definitions would have it that any assumption that a person's behavior would be influenced by their racial categori(ation is racist, regardless of whether the action is intentionally harmful or pe$orative. )ther definitions only include consciously malignant forms of discrimination.[*] +mong the questions about how to define racism are the question of whether to include forms of discrimination that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic orinstitutionali(ed forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic stereotypes through the media, and whether to include the socio, political dynamics of social stratification that sometimes have a racial component. &ome definitions of racism also include discriminatory behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, caste, or religious stereotypes.[2][-] Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. +ccording to the .nited /ations convention, there is no distinction between the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination, and superiority based on racial differentiation is

scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially un$ust and dangerous, and that there is no $ustification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.[0] 1n history, racism was a driving force behind the transatlantic slave trade, and behind states based on racial segregation such as the..&. in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and &outh +frica under apartheid.[2] 3ractices and ideologies of racism are universally condemned by the .nited /ations in the 4eclaration of 5uman Rights.[6] 1t has also been a ma$or part of the political and ideological underpinning of genocides such as he 5olocaust, but also in colonial conte!ts such as the rubber booms in &outh +merica and the #ongo, and in the 7uropean conquest of the +mericas and coloni(ation of +frica, +sia and +ustralia.

Contents [hide]

1 .sage of 2.1 8egal

the term and related terms

2 4efinitions 2.2 &ociological 2.% 9enophobia 2.* &upremacism 2.- &egregationism % ypes %.1 Racial discrimination %.2 1nstitutional %.% 7conomic %.* 4eclarations and international law against racial discrimination %.- &ymbolic:;odern * 1deology *.1 7thnic nationalism - 7thnic conflicts 0 +cademic variants 0.1 &cientific variants 0.1.1 5eredity and eugenics 0.1.2 3olygenism and racial typologies 0.1.% 5uman (oos 2 7volutionary theories about the origins of racism 6 +s state,sponsored activity < 1n history <.1 1n +ntiquity <.2 ;iddle +ges and Renaissance <.% 1<th century <.* 2=th century <.- #ontemporary 1= 1nter,minority variants 11 Research on influencing factors

12 +nti,Racism 12.1 1nternational 4ay for the 7limination of Racial 4iscrimination 1% &ee also 1* References > notes 1- ?urther reading 10 7!ternal links

.sage of the term and related terms

Race Classification Genetics and differences Race and genetics !man genetic "ariation Cross#race effect Society istorical concepts Race
in $ra%il in the &nited 'tates

'ocial interpretations Racial profiling Racism Racialism The Race Question

(&)E'C* +,-./

Related topics Ethnic gro!p E!genics 0enetics !man e"ol!tion Index Category V T E 1n the 1<th century, many scientists subscribed to the simple belief that human populations are divided into separate races.[<] his was often used to $ustify the belief that some races were inferior to others, and that differential treatment was consequently $ustified.[1=][11] [12] &uch theories are generally termed scientific racism. @hen the practice of treating certain groups preferentially, or denying rights or benefits to certain groups, based on racial characteristics is institutionali(ed, it is termed Ainstitutional racismB. oday, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists re$ect a simple ta!onomy of races in favor of more specific and:or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity, or a history ofendogamy.[1%] hose who subscribe to the proposition that there are inherent distinctions among people that can be ascribed to membership in a racial group Cand who may use this to $ustify differential

treatment of such groupsD tend to describe themselves using the term AracialismB rather than AracismB, to avoid the negative connotations of the latter word. ARacialismB is assumed to be more value,neutral terminology, and more appropriate for CscientificallyD ob$ective communication or analysis. 5owever, this distribution of meanings between the two terms used to be precisely inverse at the time they were coinedE he Oxford English Dictionary defined "racialism" as "belief in the superiority of a particular race" and gave a 1<=2 quote as the first recorded use. he updated entry in the )!ford 7nglish 4ictionary C2==6D defines racialism simply as "+n earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1<=2 quote.[1*] he revised )!ford 7nglish 4ictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1<=%. [1-][10][12] 1t was first defined by theOED as A[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by raceB, which gives 1<%0 as the first recorded use. +dditionally, the )74 records racism as a synonym ofracialismE "belief in the superiority of a particular race". Fy the end of @orld @ar 11, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialismE racism now implied racial discrimination, racialsupremacism and a harmful intent. C he term Arace hatredB had also been used by sociologist ?rederick 5ert( in the late 1<2=s.D ;odeled on the term AracismB, a large number of pe$orative -ism terms have been created to describe various types of pre$udiceEse!ism, ageism, ableism, speciesism, etc. Related concepts are antisemitism, chauvinism and homophobia Cwhich in turn has led to terms such as 1slamophobiaD.

4efinitions
Racism involves the belief in racial differences, which acts as a $ustification for non,equal treatment Cwhich some regard as "discrimination"D of members of that race.[1=] he term is commonly used negatively and is usually associated with race, basedpre$udice, violence, dislike, discrimination, or oppression, the term can also have varying and contested definitions. Racialism is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative meanings. +s a word, racism is an A,ismB, a belief that can be described by a word ending in the suffi! , ism, pertaining to race. +s its etymology would suggest, its usage is relatively recent and as such its definition is not entirely settled. he Oxford English Dictionary defines racism as the Abelief that all members of each race possess characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to that race, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or racesB and the e!pression of such pre$udice,[16][1<] while the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines it as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority or inferiority of a particular racial group, and alternatively that it is also the pre$udice based on such a belief.[2=] he Macquarie Dictionary defines racism asE "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that oneGs own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."

Legal
he ./ does not define AracismBH however, it does define Aracial discriminationBE +ccording to the .nited /ations #onvention on the 7limination of +ll ?orms of Racial 4iscrimination, the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or reference based on race, colour,descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the ur ose or effect of nullifying or im airing the recognition, en!oyment or exercise,

on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the olitical, economic, social, cultural or any other field of ublic life"[21] his definition does not make any difference between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable among anthropologists.[22] &imilarly, in Fritish law the phrase racial grou means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality Cincluding citi(enshipD or ethnic or national origin".[2%] 1n /orway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination as the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.[2*][2-] he /orwegian +nti, 4iscrimination +ct bans discrimation based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin colour.[20]

Sociological
&ome sociologists have defined racism as a system of group privilege. 1n #ortraits of White Racism, 4avid @ellman has defined racism as Aculturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minoritiesB.[22] &ociologists /oIl +. #a(enave and 4arlene +lvare( ;addern define racism as A...a highly organi(ed system of 'race',based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color:'race' supremacy. &ellers and &helton C2==%D found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs. hat is, racial centrality appears to promote the degree of discrimination +frican +merican young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,B.[26] &ociologist and former +merican &ociological +ssociation president Joe ?eagin argues that the .nited &tates can be characteri(ed as a "total racist society"[2<] 3olice harassment and brutality directed at black men, women, and children are as old as +merican society, dating back to the days of slavery and Jim #row segregation. &uch police actions across the nation today reveal important aspects of . . . the commonplace discriminatory practices of individual whites . . . [and] white dominated institutions that allow or encourage such practices.."[%=]

Fank of +merica was fined K%%- million in 2=11 for minority discrimination.[%1]

&ome sociologists have also pointed out, with reference to the .&+ and elsewhere, that forms of racism have in many instances mutated from more blatant e!pressions hereof into more covert kinds Calbeit that blatant forms of hatred and discrimination still endureD. he AnewerB Cmore hidden and less easily detectableD forms of racismLwhich can be considered as embedded in social processes and structuresLare more difficult to e!plore as well as challenge. 1t has been suggested that, while in many countries overt and e!plicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those who display egalitarian e!plicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously.

Xenophobia
Main article$ %eno hobia 4ictionary definitions of xeno hobia includeE intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from

other countries C)!ford 4ictionariesD,[%2]unreasonable fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign C;erriam,@ebsterD[%%] he Dictionary of #sychology defines it as "a fear of strangers".[%*]

Supremacism
Main article$ &u remacism #enturies of 7uropean colonialism of the +mericas, +frica and +sia was e!cused by white supremacist attitudes.[%-] 4uring the early 2=th century, the phrase " he @hite ;an's Furden" was widely used to $ustify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[%0][%2]

+ rally against school integration in 1<-<.

Segregationism
Main article$ Racial segregation Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. 1t may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[%6] &egregation is generally outlawed, but may e!ist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by homas &chelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.

ypes
Racial discrimination
Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races for purposes of differential treatment. Racial segregation policies may formali(e it, but it is also often e!erted without being legali(ed. Researchers ;arianne Fertrand and &endhil ;ullainathan, at the .niversity of #hicago and ;1 found in a 2==* study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against $ob applicants whose names were merely perceived as Asounding blackB. hese applicants were -=M less likely than candidates perceived as having Awhite,sounding namesB to receive callbacks for interviews.4evah 3ager, a sociologist at 3rinceton .niversity, sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for $obs in ;ilwaukee and /ew Nork #ity, finding that black applicants received callbacks or $ob offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.[%<][*=] 1n contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants.[*1][*2] he researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the .nited &tates' long history of discrimination Ce.g., Jim #row laws, etc.D[*%]

Institutional
'urther information$ (nstitutional racism, &tate racism, )ffirmati*e action, Racial rofiling, and Racism by country

&tudents protesting againstracial quotas in Fra(il. he sign readsE A@ant a placeO 3ass the entry e!amPB

1nstitutional racism Calso known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racismD is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organi(ations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. &tokely #armichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1<0=s. 5e defined the term as Athe collective failure of an organi(ation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic originB.[**] ;aulana Qarenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were Athe morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining +frican humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.B[*-]

Economic
This section needs additional citations for verification1 Please helpimpro"e this article 2y adding citations to relia2le so!rces1 &nso!rced material may 2e challenged and remo"ed1 (November 2010 5istorical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. + hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. he thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit,driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies.

/a(i boycott of Jewish businesses, Rermany, 1<%%

+lthough a capitalist economy would avoid discrimination in order to avoid e!tra cost, this can be avoided in other ways. + capitalist company, for e!ample, may use racist hiring policies as it deviates towards the Acultural normB. ?or e!ample, in a predominantly white society, hiring a person of colour into a position of management may then cause disputes, and damage communications between other employers. hus, the company would be economically put in a deficit because of the discrimination of other companies, as they invoke discrimination and isolate that company. +lthough this may be a radical, over e!aggerated point of view, it portrays how pervasive racism is and how a company may sometimes deviate towards racist hiring policies in order to not be isolated, thus preventing the company from going into an economic deficit. CFurton 2==<E1D ?or decades, +frican +merican farmers said they were un$ustly being denied farm loans or sub$ected to longer waits for loan approval because of racism,[*0] and accused the ..&. 4epartment of +griculture C.&4+D of not responding to their complaints.[*2] 1n 2=11, Fank of +merica agreed to pay K%%- million to settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, #ountrywide ?inancial, discriminatedagainst black and 5ispanic homebuyers.[%1] 4uring the &panish colonial period, &paniards developed a comple! caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a personGs importance in society.[*6] @hile many 8atin +merican countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, pre$udice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from 7uropean ancestry combined with oneGs socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system. +lmost uniformly, people who are darker,skinned and of indigenous descent make up the peasantry and working classes, while lighter,skinned, &panish,descent 8atin +mericans are in the ruling elite.[*<][-=]

Declarations and international law against racial discrimination

1n 1<1<, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the #ovenant of the 8eague of /ations was supported by a ma$ority, but not adopted in the 3aris 3eace #onference, 1<1<. 1n 1<*%, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the Rreater 7ast +sia #onference.[-1] +rticle 1 of the 1<*- ./ #harter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as ./ purpose. 1n 1<-=, ./7&#) suggested in +he Race ,uestion La statement signed by 21 scholars such as +shley ;ontagu, #laude 8Svi,&trauss, Runnar ;yrdal, Julian 5u!ley, etc. L to "drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". he statement

condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the 5olocaust. 1t aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by populari(ing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the7nlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. +long with ;yrdal's )n )merican Dilemma$ +he -egro #roblem and Modern Democracy C1<**D, +he Race ,uestion influenced the 1<-* ..&. &upreme #ourt desegregation decision in "Frown v. Foard of 7ducation of opeka".[-2] +lso in 1<-=, the 7uropean #onvention on 5uman Rights was adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues.[-%] he .nited /ations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the (nternational .on*ention on the Elimination of )ll 'orms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1<00E 3 any distinction, exclusion, restriction or reference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the ur ose or effect of nullifying or im airing the recognition, en!oyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the olitical, economic, social, cultural or any other field of ublic life"C3art 1 of +rticle 1 of the ../. 1nternational #onvention on the 7limination of +ll ?orms of Racial 4iscriminationD[-*] 1n 2==1, the 7uropean .nion e!plicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the #harter of ?undamental Rights of the 7uropean .nion, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to 1nstitutions of the 7uropean .nionE "+rticle 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or se!ual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."[--]

Symbolic/Modern
Main article$ &ymbolic racism &ome scholars argue that in the .& earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of pre$udice in the late 2=th century. his new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and characteri(ed by outwardly acting unpre$udiced while inwardly maintaining pre$udiced attitudes, and displaying subtle pre$udist behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.[-0] his view is based on studies of pre$udice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public conte!ts, but more negative views and e!pressions in more private conte!ts. his ambivalence may also be visible for e!ample in hiring decisions where $ob candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.[-2][-6][-<] &ome scholars consider modern racism to be characteri(ed by an e!plicit re$ection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non,racial, an idiology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities, and the e!hibition of indirect forms of micro, aggression and:or avoidance towards people of other races.[0=]

1deology

+ racist political campaign poster from the 1600 3ennsylvania gubernatorial election

+ sign on a racially segregated beach during the +partheid in &outh +frica

+s an ideology, racism e!isted during the 1<th century as "scientific racism", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.[01] Johann Flumenbach in 122-, advocating polygenism, divided the world's population into five groups according to skin colour C#aucasians, ;ongols, etc.D. he archetypical form of racism is, perhaps, found with the polygenist #hristoph ;einers. 5e split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful @hite race" and the "ugly Flack race". 1n ;einers book +he Outline of /istory of Man0ind he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. 5e viewed only the white race as beautiful. 5e considered ugly races as inferior, immoral and animal like. +nders Ret(ius ne!t disproved that Flumenbach's polygenism had any fundamental merit, in demonstrating that neither 7uropeans nor different nations are one "pure race", but of mi!ed origins. @hile discredited, derivations of Flumenbach's ta!onomy are still widely used for classification of the population in .&+. 5. 3. &teensby, while strongly emphasising that all humans today are of mi!ed origins, in 1<=2 claimed that the origins of human differences

must be traced e!traordinarily far back in time, and con$ectured that the "purest race" today would be the +ustralian +boriginals.[02] +fter the re$ection of polygenism as well as the widespread racist and nationalist violence of the 1<%=s and 1<*=s, scientific racism fell strongly out of favour, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia, in fields such as human genetics including paleogenetics, social anthropology, comparative politics,history of religions, history of ideas, prehistory, history, ethics, and psychiatry. +ll re$ect ;einers' blunt racism. )utside .&+, there is widespread re$ection of any methodology based on anything similar to Flumenbach's races. 1t is more unclear to which e!tent ethnicand national stereotypes are accepted, and when. +lthough racist ideologies have been widely discredited after @orld @ar 11 and the5olocaust, racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world. &ome e!amples of this in present day are statistics including, but not limited to, the racial breakdown of the prison population versus the national population, physical abilities and mental ability statistics, and other data gathered by scientific groups. @hile these statistics may be accurate, and can show trends, it's inappropriate in most countries to assume that because a particular race has a high crime or low literacy rate, that the entire race of people are inherent criminals, or inherently unintelligent. 1t was already noted by 4uFois that, in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but cultureE A...a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of lifeB.[0%] 8ate 1<th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity and "survival of the fittest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. .ltimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.[0*] +ccording to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. #ulture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the e!tent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. 3ureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. 1n the case of /ordicism, the denomination "Rermanic" became virtually equivalent to superiority of race. Folstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. his emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racismE "Racism does not originate from the e!istence of TracesG. 1t creates them through a process of social division into categoriesE anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."[0-] his definition e!plicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still sub$ect to scientific debate. 1n the words of 4avid #. Rowe "+ racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."[00] .ntil recently, this racist abuse of physical anthropology has been politically e!ploited. +part from being unscientific, racial pre$udice became sub$ect to international legislation. ?or instance, the 4eclaration on the 7limination of +ll ?orms of Racial 4iscrimination, adopted by

the .nited /ations Reneral +ssembly on /ovember 2=, 1<0%, address racial pre$udice e!plicitly ne!t to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin C+rticle 1D.[02] Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence Csuch as pogroms,genocides and ethnic cleansingsD. 4espite the persistence of racial stereotypes, humor and epithets in much everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries. 1ronically, anti,racism has also become a political instrument of abuse. &ome politicians have practised race,baiting in an attempt to win votes[citation needed]. 1n a reversal of values, anti, racism is being propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and the suppression of women. 3hilosopher 3ascal Fruckner claimed that ")nti-racism in the 1- has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes 2ho use it in their o2n interests""[06]

Ethnic nationalism
'urther information$ Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism +fter the /apoleonic @ars, 7urope was confronted with the new "nationalities question," leading to reconfigurations of the 7uropean map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 10*6 3eace of @estphalia. /ationalism had made its first appearance with the invention of the le*3e en masse by the ?rench revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly founded Republic against the )ncien R3gime order represented by the 7uropean monarchies. his led to the?rench Revolutionary @ars C12<2U16=2D and then to the /apoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent 7uropean,wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation,states. he @estphalia reaty had divided 7urope into various empires and kingdoms C)ttoman 7mpire, 5oly Roman 7mpire, &wedish 7mpire, Qingdom of ?rance, etc.D, and for centuries wars were waged between princes C4abinetts0riege in RermanD.

7ugVne 4elacroi!'s &cene of the massacre at .hios C162*DH Rreek families awaiting death or slavery

;odern nation,states appeared in the wake of the ?rench Revolution, with the formation ofpatriotic sentiments for the first time in &pain during the 3eninsula @ar C16=6U161% U known in &pain as the 1ndependence @arD. 4espite the restoration of the previous order with the 161-#ongress of Wienna, the "nationalities question" became the main problem of 7urope during the 1ndustrial 7ra, leading in particular to the 16*6 Revolutions, the 1talian unificationcompleted during the 1621 ?ranco,3russian @ar, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the Rerman 7mpire in the 5all of ;irrors in the 3alace of Wersailles, thus

achieving theRerman unification. ;eanwhile, the )ttoman 7mpire, the "sick man of 7urope", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the +ustrian,5ungarian 7mpire, would lead to the creation after @orld @ar 1 of the various nation,states of the Falkans, with "national minorities" in their borders.[0<] 7thnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical conte!t surrounding the creation of the modern nation,states. )ne of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 1<th century, represented by figures such as Johann 5erder C12**U16=%D, Johan ?ichte C1202U 161*D in the )ddresses to the 5erman -ation C16=6D, ?riedrich 5egel C122=U16%1D, or also, in ?rance, Jules ;ichelet C12<6U162*D. 1t was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as 7rnest Renan C162%U16<2D, who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the 6ol0 ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the sub$ective will to live together C"the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1662D or also John &tuart ;ill C16=0U162%D.[2=]

+ caricature from the Rerman antisemiticDer &t7rmer, around #hristmas 1<2<. 1t urged Rermans to avoid buying from Jewish shops.

7thnic nationalism blended with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continentalimperialist" C5annah +rendt, 1<-1[21]D discourses, for e!ample in the pan, Rermanismdiscourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the Rerman Wolk. he 3an, Rerman 8eague C)lldeutscher 6erbandD, created in 16<1, promoted Rerman imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. +nother popular current, the 68l0isch mo*ement, was also an important proponent of the Rerman ethnic nationalist discourse, which combined with modern antisemitism. ;embers of the WXlkisch movement, in particular the hule &ociety, would participate in the founding of the Rerman @orkers' 3artyC4+3D in ;unich in 1<16, the predecessor of the /&4+3 /a(i party. 3an,Rermanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1<2=sU1<%=s.[21] hese currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "master race" Coften the "+ryan race" or "/ordic race"D issued from the scientific racist discourse. hey conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the e!istence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. ?urthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus $ustifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation,state. &uch racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan,

Rermanism. 1n ?rance, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far,right movements in ?rance, took place during the 4reyfus +ffair at the end of the 1<th century. 4uring several years, a nation, wide crisis affected ?rench society, concerning the alleged treason of +lfred 4reyfus, a ?rench Jewish military officer. he country polari(ed itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Ymile Zola, who wrote 9'accuse in defense of +lfred 4reyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet,;aurice FarrVs C1602U1<2%D, one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in ?rance.[22] +t the same time, #harles ;aurrasC1606U1<-2D, founder of the monarchist )ction fran:aise movement, theori(ed the "anti,?rance," composed of the "four confederate states of 3rotestants, Jews, ?reemasons and foreigners" Chis actual word for the latter being the pe$orative m3t;quesDD. 1ndeed, to him the first three were all Ainternal foreignersB, who threatened the ethnic unity of the ?rench people.

7thnic conflicts
'urther information$ Ethnicity 4ebates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. ;any use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as !enophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary !enophobia. )thers conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. 1n most cases, ethno,national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. 1n some cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires Cfor e!ample, the ;uslim urks and the #atholic +ustro,5ungariansD.

3icture showing +rmenians killed during the +rmenian Renocide of 1<1-.

/otions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. hroughout history, when an adversary is identified as AotherB based on notions of race or ethnicity Cin particular when AotherB is construed to mean AinferiorBD, the means employed by the self,presumed AsuperiorB party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethicalconsiderations. +ccording to historian 4aniel Richter, 3ontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all /ative people were '1ndians,' that all 7uro,+mericans were '@hites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." [2%] Fasil 4avidson insists in his documentary, )frica$ Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only $ust recently surfacedLas late as the 1<th century, due to the need for a $ustification for slavery in the +mericas. he idea of slavery as an "equal,opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of #hristian theory in the @est. ;aintaining that +fricans were "subhuman" was the only

loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the riangular rade. /ew peoples in the +mericas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but, then, due to 7uropean diseases, their populations drastically decreased. hrough both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to $ustify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categori(ed as belonging to different races Csee 7ric @olf's Euro e and the #eo le 2ithout /istoryD. Juan RinSs de &ep[lveda argued that, during the Walladolid controversy in the middle of the 10th century, the /ative +mericans were natural slaves because they had no souls. 1n +sia, the #hinese and Japanese 7mpires were both strong colonial powers, with the #hinese making colonies and vassal states of much of 7ast +sia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 1<thU2=th centuries. 1n both cases, the +sian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

+cademic variants

4rawings from Josiah #. /ottand Reorge Rliddon's (ndigenous races of the earth C16-2D, which suggested black people ranked between white people andchimpan(ees in terms of intelligence.

)wen '+lik &hahadah comments on this racism by statingE "5istorically +fricans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civili(ation, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. @e are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of +frica, other than raw material."[2*] &cottish philosopher and economist 4avid 5ume said, "1 am apt to suspect the /egroes to be naturally inferior to the @hites. here scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that comple!ion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. /o ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences."[2-] Rerman philosopher 1mmanuel Qant statedE " he yellow 1ndians do have a meagre talent. he /egroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the +merican people."[20] 1n the 1<th century, the Rerman philosopher, Reorg @ilhelm ?riedrich 5egel, declared that "+frica is no historical part of the world." 5egel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personalityH their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the +frican continent" COn <lac0ness Without <lac0s$ Essays on the (mage of the <lac0 in 5ermany, FostonE #.@. 5all, 1<62, p. <*D.

?ewer than %= years before /a(i Rermany instigated @orld @ar 11, the +ustrian, )tto @eininger, claimedE A+ genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in +merica that their emancipation was an act of imprudenceB C&ex and .haracter, /ew NorkE R.3. 3utnam, 1<=0, p. %=2D. he Rerman conservative, )swald &pengler, remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of +fricans in modern @estern cultureE in +he /our of Decision &pengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty e!istence, the boredom of which has brought to $a(( music and /egro dancing to perform the 4eath ;arch for a great #ulture" C+he /our of Decision, pp. 222U226D. 4uring the /a(i era, Rerman scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand "+ryan" agent behind the splendors of all human civili(ations, including 1ndia and +ncient 7gypt.[20]

3eople &how Ca human (ooD C68l0erschauD in &tuttgartCRermanyD in 1<26.

Scientific variants
Main article$ &cientific racism 'urther information$ 1nilineal e*olution he modern biological definition of race developed in the 1<th century with scientific racist theories. he term scientific racism refers to the use of science to $ustify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 16th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid,1<th century, during the /ew 1mperialism period. +lso known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the #hurchGs resistance to positivist accounts of history and its support of monogenism, the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance withcreationist accounts of history. hese racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress, which postulated the superiority of the 7uropean civili(ation over the rest of the world. ?urthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the fittest", a term coined by 5erbert &pencer in 160*, associated with ideas of competition, which were named social 4arwinism in the 1<*=s. #harles 4arwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in +he Descent of ManC1621D in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. 5e recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with 7uropean civili(ation.[22][26]

+t the end of the 1<th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of "degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity." 5enceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social 4arwinism and eugenism. hey found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry,phrenology, physiognomy, and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist pre$udices. Fefore being disqualified in the 2=th century by the +merican school of cultural anthropology C?ran( Foas, etc.D, the Fritish school ofsocial anthropology CFronis\aw ;alinowski, +lfred Radcliffe,Frown, etc.D, the ?rench school of ethnology C#laude 8Svi, &trauss, etc.D, as well as the discovery of the neo,4arwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances. he neo,4arwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1<%=s, eventually led to a gene,centered view of evolution in the 1<0=s. +ccording to the 5uman Renome 3ro$ect, the most complete mapping of human 4/+ to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups. @hile some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that e!ist in all members of one population and no members of any other.[2<]
eredity and eugenics

'urther information$ Eugenics he first theory of eugenics was developed in 160< by ?rancis Ralton C1622U1<11D, who used the then popular concept of degeneration. 5e applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged "inheritance of intelligence", foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence testing" by the anthropometry school. &uch theories were vividly described by the writer Ymile Zola C16*=U1<=2D, who started publishing in 1621 a twenty,novel cycle, =es RougonMacquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. hus, Zola described the high,born Rougons as those involved in politics C&on Excellence Eug;ne RougonD and medicine C=e Docteur #ascalD and the low,born ;acquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism C=')ssommoirD, prostitution C-anaD, and homicide C=a <>te humaineD. 4uring the rise of /a(ism in Rermany, some scientists in @estern nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. + few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged e!istence of biological races. 5owever, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid,2=th century. [6=] +ccording to the 1<-= ./7&#) statement, +he Race ,uestion, an international pro$ect to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid,1<%=s. 5owever, this pro$ect had been abandoned. hus, in 1<-=, ./7&#) declared that it had resumedE u again, after a la se of fifteen years, a ro!ect that the (nternational .ommittee on (ntellectual .oo eration has 2ished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the a easement olicy of the re-2ar eriod" +he race question had become one of the i*ots of -a?i ideology and olicy" Masary0 and <ene@ too0 the initiati*e of calling for a conference to reestablish in the minds and consciences of men e*ery2here the truth about race""" -a?i ro aganda 2as able to continue its baleful 2or0 uno osed by the authority of an international organisation" he hird Reich's racial policies, its eugenics programs and the e!termination of Jews in the 5olocaust, as well as Romani people in the 3orra$mos Cthe Romani 5olocaustD and others

minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. #hanges within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Foasian school of anthropology in the .nited &tates contributed to this shift. hese theories were strongly denounced in the 1<-= ./7&#) statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled +he Race ,uestion.
!olygenism and racial typologies

'urther information$ #olygenism and +y ology Aanthro ologyB

;adison Rrant's map, from 1<10, charting the "present distribution of 7uropean races", with the /ordics in red, the +lpines in green, and the ;editerraneansin yellow.

@orks such as +rthur de Robineau's )n Essay on the (nequality of the /uman RacesC16-%U 16--D may be considered as one of the first theori(ations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, ofFoulainvilliers for e!ample, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Robineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. 5e was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races." RobineauGs theories would be e!panded, in ?rance, by Reorges Wacher de 8apouge C16-*U 1<%0D's typology of races, who published in 16<< +he )ryan and his &ocial Role, in which he claimed that the white, "+ryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. Wacher de 8apouge thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "/omo euro aeusC eutonic, 3rotestant, etc.D, the "/omo al inus" C+uvergnat, urkish, etc.D, and finally the "/omo mediterraneus" C/eapolitan, +ndalus, etc.D 5e assimilated races and social classes, considering that the ?rench upper class was a representation of the /omo euro aeus, while the lower class represented the /omo al inus. +pplying Ralton's eugenics to his theory of races, Wacher de 8apouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a "degenerate"H second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. 5is "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fi!ed, hierarchical social order[61] he same year, @illiam Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in +he Races of Euro e C16<<D, which would have a great influence in the .nited &tates. )ther scientific authors include 5.&. #hamberlain at the end of the 1<th century Ca Fritish citi(en who naturali(edhimself as Rerman because of his admiration for the "+ryan race"D and ;adison Rrant, a eugenicist and author of +he #assing of the 5reat Race C1<10D. ;adison Rrant provided statistics for the 1mmigration +ct of 1<2*, which severely restricted immigration of Jews,&lavs, and southern 7uropeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape /a(i Rermany.[62]

uman "oos

5uman (oos Ccalled A3eople &howsBD, were an important means of bolstering o ular racism by connecting it to scientific racismE they were both ob$ects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry.[6%][6*] Joice 5eth, an +frican +merican slave, was displayed by 3. . Farnum in 16%0, a few years after the e!hibition of &aart$ie Faartman, the "5ottentot Wenus", in 7ngland. &uch e!hibitions became common in the /ew 1mperialism period, and remained so until @orld @ar 11. #arl 5agenbeck, inventor of the modern (oos, e!hibited animals beside humans who were considered "savages".[6-][60] #ongolese pygmy )ta Fenga was displayed in 1<=0 by eugenicist ;adison Rrant, head of the Fron! Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutansE thus, racism was tied to 4arwinism, creating a social 4arwinist ideology that tried to ground itself in 4arwin's scientific discoveries. he 1<%1 3aris #olonial 7!hibition displayed Qanaks from /ew #aledonia.[62] + "#ongolese village" was on display as late as 1<-6 at the Frussels' @orld ?air.

7volutionary theories about the origins of racism

&ee also$ Ethnocentrism Fiologists John ooby and 8eda #osmides were pu((led by the fact that race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals Cthe others are age and se!D. hey reasoned that natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. ooby and #osmides hypothesi(ed that modern people use race as a pro!y Crough,and,ready indicatorD for coalition membership, since a better,than,random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance. heir colleague Robert Qur(ban designed an e!periment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. .sing the ;emory confusion protocol, they presented sub$ects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. he errors that the sub$ects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. 1n a second run of the e!periment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colorsH and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. 1n other words, the first group of sub$ects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debateH the second group of sub$ects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small. [66] &ome research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. 3olitical scientists Ross 5ammond and Robert +!elrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategiesE be color,blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. hey found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all the non,ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.[6<] 1n +he &elfish 5ene, evolutionary biologist Richard 4awkins writes that "Flood,feuds and inter,clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of 5amilton's genetic theory." 4awkins writes that racial pre$udice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generali(ation of a kin,selected tendency to identify with individuals physically

resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance".[<=] &imulation, based e!periments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an e!planation for the selection of ethnocentric,strategy phenotypes.[<1]

+s state,sponsored activity
Main articles$ -a?ism and race, Racial olicy of -a?i 5ermany, Racism in 5ermany, 5eneral lan Ost, Eugenics in &ho2a 9a an,) artheid in &outh )frica, Racial segregation in the 1nited &tates, 4etuanan Melayu, and )nti-.hinese legislation in (ndonesia

&eparate "white" and "colored" entrances to a cafe in /orth #arolina, 1<*=

&tate racismLthat is, institutions and practices of a nation,state that are grounded in racist ideologyLhas played a ma$or role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the .nited &tates to +ustralia to 1srael. 1t also played a prominent role in the /a(i Rermanregime and fascist regimes in 7urope, and in the first part of JapanGs &h]wa period. hese governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, !enophobic and, in case of /a(ism, genocidal.[<2][<%] he politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort to ethnically cleanse the country.[<*] 8egislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the /ational 3arty of &outh +frica during their +partheid regime between 1<*6 and 1<<*. 5ere a series of +partheid legislation in &outh +frica was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white &outh +fricans to have rights which were superior to those of non,white &outh +fricans. /on, white &outh +fricans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including votingH access to quality healthcareH the provision of basic services, including clean waterH electricityH as well as access to adequate schooling. /on,white &outh +fricans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. /on,white &outh +fricans were ta!ed differently from white &outh +fricans and were required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as Adom passesB, to certify their non,white &outh +frican citi(enship. +ll of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal human rights laws passed at the end of +partheid in the early 1<<=s. &tate racism contributed as well to the formation of the 4ominican Republic's identity [<-] and violent actions encouraged by 4ominican governmental !enophobia against 5aitians and "5aitian looking" people. #urrently the 4ominican Republic employs a de facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of 5aitians and black 4ominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access tohealth care.[<0]

1n history
In #nti$uity
7dith &anders in 1<0< cited the Fabylonian almud, which divides mankind between the

three sons of /oah, stating that "thedescendants of 5am are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts 5am as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates."[<2] +lthough thecurse of 5am has been used as an e!planation for the origin of dark skinned people since the %rd century +.4., 4avid ;. Roldenberg C2==-D writes that this was based on a theory that different climates and sun e!posure effect semen composition and through this the physical composition of descendants Cwhich is rather unlike modern hereditary understandings of raceD. ?urthermore the earliest appearance of dark skin as a punishment for the descendants of 5am directly related to "Flack +fricans" does not appear until the <th or 1=th century Cin the #irqei de-Rabbenu ha-,adoshD. 7arlier sources assign the punishment of blackness to 5am himself and make no mention of the people of Qush or their skin being a curse. +s well, Roldenberg goes on to e!plain that the earlier C%rd centuryD sources understood "dark skin" to include not only sub,&aharan black +frica but alsoE ...the #opts, ?e((an, Zaghawa, <rbr, 1ndians, +rabs, the people of ;arw, the inhabitants of the islands in the 1ndian )cean, even the #hinese, as well as the 7thiopians C5abashD, Zan$, Fu$a, and /ubians. 1n other words, "the coloured people of the world." [<6] Fernard 8ewis has cited the Rreek philosopher +ristotle who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Rreeks are free by nature, 'barbarians' Cnon,RreeksD are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government.[<<] hough +ristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from outside Rreece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from Rreece.[1==] &uch proto,racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within conte!t, as a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority Cmodern racism based inE eugenics and scientific racismD was not yet developed and it is unclear whether +ristotle believed the natural inferiority of Farbarians was caused by environment and climate Clike many of his contemporariesD or by birth.[1=1] @hile +ristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls Cunfit for rule, unintelligentD which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also e!plicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body.[1=2] his proto,racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist Fen$amin 1saac. 5istorian 4ante +. 3u((o, in his discussion of +ristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes thatE Racism rests on two basic assumptionsE that a correlation e!ists between physical characteristics and moral qualitiesH that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the 9W1th century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the @est that can be described as racist. o prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and ethnocentrism [...] he +ncient 5ebrews, in referring to all who were not 5ebrews as Rentiles, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. [...] &o it was with the 5ellenes who denominated all non,5ellenesLLwhether the wild &cythians or the 7gyptians whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts if civili(ationLLFarbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign. [1=%]

Middle #ges and Renaissance

'urther information$ =im ie?a de sangre 1n the ;iddle 7ast and /orth +frica region, racist opinions were e!pressed within the works of some of its historians and geographers[1=*] including +l,;uqaddasi, +l,Jahi(, +l,;asudi, +bu Rayhan Firuni, /asir al,4in al, usi, and 1bn ^utaybah.[1=*] 1n the 1*th century #7, the unisian scholar 1bn Qhaldun wroteE , E"beyond [known peoples of black @est +frica] to the south there is no civili(ation in the proper sense. here are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. hey live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. hey frequently eat each other. hey cannot be considered human beings." " herefore, the /egro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because C/egroesD have little that is CessentiallyD human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."[1=*][1=-] hough the ^ur'an e!presses no racial pre$udice, such pre$udices later developed among +rabs for a variety of reasonsE[<<] theire!tensive conquests and slave tradeH the influence of +ristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some ;uslim philosophers directed towards Zan$ C7ast +fricanD and urkic peoplesH[<<] and the influence of Judeo, #hristian ideas regarding divisions among humankind.[1=0] 1n response to such views, the +fro,+rab author +l,Jahi(, himself having a Zan$ grandfather, wrote a book entitled&u eriority Of +he <lac0s +o +he Whites,[1=2] and e!plained why the Zan$ were black in terms of environmental determinism in the ")n the Zan$" chapter of +he Essays.[1=6] Fy the 1*th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub,&aharan +frica, leading to the likes of 7gyptian historian +l,+bshibi C1%66U1**0D writingE "1t is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."[1=<] +ccording to J. 3hilippe Rushton, +rab relations with blacks whom the ;uslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1,=== years could be summed up as followsE

1%th century slave market in Nemen. Nemen officially abolished slavery in 1<02.[11=]

1t should be noted that ethnic pre$udice among some elite +rabs was not limited to darker, skinned black people, but was also directed towards fairer,skinned "ruddy people" Cincluding3ersians, urks, #aucasians and 7uropeansD, while +rabs referred to themselves

as "swarthy people".[111] 5owever, the .mayyad #aliphate invaded 5ispania and founded the advanced civili(ation of+l,+ndalus, where an era of religious tolerance and a Rolden age of Jewish culture lasted for si! centuries.[112] 1t was followed by a violent Reconquista under the #atholic monarchs?erdinand W and 1sabella 1. he #atholic &paniards then formulated the .leanliness of blooddoctrine. 1t was during this time in history that the @estern concept of aristocratic "blue blood" emerged in a highly raciali(ed and implicitly white supremacist conte!t, as author Robert 8acey e!plainsE 1t was the &paniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. he &panish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. hey were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its ;oorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue,blooded veins beneath his pale skinLproof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark, skinned enemy. &angre a(ul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white manL&pain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.[11%] ?ollowing the e!pulsion of most &ephardic Jews from the 1berian peninsula, the remaining Jews and ;uslims were forced to convert to Roman #atholicism, becoming "/ew #hristians" which were despised and discriminated by the ")ld #hristians". +n 1nquisition was carried out by members of the 4ominican )rder in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and 1slam in secret. he system and ideology of the lim ie?a de sangre ostraci(ed #hristian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith. 1n 3ortugal, the legal distinction between /ew and )ld #hristian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the ;arquis of 3ombal in 1222, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. he lim ie?a de sangre doctrine was also very common in the coloni(ation of the +mericas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. his precise classification was described by 7duardo Raleano in the O en 6eins of =atin )merica C1<21D. 1t included, among others terms, mesti?oC-=M &paniard and -=M /ative +mericanD, casti?o C2-M 7uropean and 2-M /ative +mericanD, & aniard C62.-M 7uropean and 12.-M /ative +mericanD, Mulatto C-=M 7uropean and -=M +fricanD, )lbara?ado C*%.2-M /ative +merican, 2<.062-M 7uropean, and 20.-02-M +fricanD, etc. +t the end of the Renaissance, the Walladolid debate C1--=U1--1D concerning the treatment of natives of the "/ew @orld" opposed the4ominican friar and Fishop of #hiapas FartolomS de 8as #asas to another 4ominican philosopher Juan RinSs de &ep[lveda. he latter argued that "1ndians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. hus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with #atholic theology and natural law. o the contrary, FartolomS de 8as #asas argued that the +merindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to #atholic theology. 1t was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery and 7urocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.

+lthough antisemitism has a long 7uropean history, related to #hristianism Canti,JudaismD, racism itself is frequently described as amodern phenomenon. 1n the view of the ?rench philosopher and historian ;ichel ?oucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the7arly ;odern period as the "discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse, which ?oucault opposed to the philosophical and $uridical discourse of sovereignty.[11*] ?oucault thus argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourseCas opposed to simple !enophobia, which some might argue has e!isted in all places and timesD may be found during the 1066Rlorious Revolution in Rreat Fritain, in 7dward #oke or John 8ilburne's work. 5owever, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by ?oucault, must be distinguished from the 1<th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "scientific racism". 1ndeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. ?irst of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion L which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups L but as a historical notion. ;oreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourseE it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. his discourse, which first appeared in Rreat Fritain, was then carried on in ?rance by people such as Foulainvilliers, /icolas ?rSret, and then, during the 126< ?rench Revolution, &ieyVs, and afterward +ugustin hierry and #ournot. Foulainvilliers, which created the matri! of such racist discourse in medieval ?rance, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people". 5e conceived ?rance as divided between various nations L the unified nation,state is, of course, here an anachronism L which themselves formed different "races". Foulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the hird 7state. hus, he created this theory of the ?rench aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "?ranks", while the hird 7state constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Rallo,Romans, who were dominated by the ?rankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. 7arly modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation,stateE the #omte de ;ontlosier, in e!ile during the ?rench Revolution, who borrowed Foulainvilliers' discourse on the "/ordic race" as being the ?rench aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Rauls", thus showed his despise for the hird 7state calling it "this new people born of slaves... mi!ture of all races and of all times". @hile 1<th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse that identified the "race" to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan,Rermanism, Zionism, pan, urkism, pan,+rabism, and pan,&lavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non,biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. ;ichel ?oucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". +ccording to him, it divided itself in the 1<th century according to two rival linesE on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" Ce.g. /a(ismD. )n the other hand, ;ar!ists also sei(ed this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. hus, ;ar!ists transformed the essentialistnotion of "race" into the historical notion of "class struggle", defined by socially structured positionE capitalist or proletarian. 1n +he Will to 4no2ledge C1<20D, ?oucault analy(ed another opponent of the

"race struggle" discourseE &igmund ?reud's psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of "blood heredity", prevalent in the 1<th century racist discourse.

%&th century
+uthors such as 5annah +rendt, in her 1<-1 book +he Origins of +otalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology C o ular racismD that developed at the end of the 1<th century helped legitimi(e the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and the acts that accompanied them Csuch as the 5erero and /amaqua Renocide of 1<=*U1<=2 or the +rmenian Renocide of 1<1-U1<12D. Rudyard Qipling's poem +he White Man's <urden C16<<D is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the7uropean culture over the rest of the world, though also it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimi(e sub$ugation and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were regarded as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

+n illustration from /ar er's Wee0lyshows an alleged similarity between "1rish 1berian" and "/egro" features in contrast to the higher "+nglo, eutonic."

5owever, during the 1<th century, @est 7uropean colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the +rab slave trade in +frica,[11-] as well as in suppression of the slave tradein @est +frica.[110] )ther colonialists recogni(ed the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gainH some 7uropeans during the time period ob$ected to the in$ustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. hus, when the 5ottentot Wenuswas displayed in 7ngland in the beginning of the 1<th century, the +frican +ssociation publicly opposed itself to the e!hibition. he same year that Qipling published his poem,Joseph #onrad published /eart of Dar0ness C16<<D, a clear criticism of the #ongo ?ree &tate owned by 8eopold 11 of Felgium. 7!amples of racial theories used include the creation of the 5amitic ethno,linguistic group during the 7uropean e!ploration of +frica. 1t was then restricted by Qarl ?riedrich 8epsiusC161=U1622D to non,&emitic +fro,+siatic languages.[112] he term /amite was applied to different populations within +frica, mainly comprising 7thiopians, 7ritreans, &omalis, Ferbers, and/ubians. 5amites were regarded as #aucasoid peoples who probably originated in either +rabia or +sia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.[116][11<] [12=] 7uropeans considered 5amites to be more civili(ed than Flack +fricans, and more akin to themselves and &emitic peoples.[121] 1n the first two,thirds of the 2=th century, the 5amitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the #aucasian race, along with the 1ndo, 7uropeans, &emites, and the ;editerranean race. 5owever, the 5amitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to interbreeding with /egroes. 1n the mid,2=th century, the Rerman scholar #arl ;einhof C16-2U1<**D claimed that the Fantu race was formed by a merger of 5amitic and /egro races. he 5ottentots C/ama or QhoiD were formed by the merger of

5amitic and Fushmen C&anD races L both being termed nowadays as Qhoisan peoplesD.

)ne in a series of posters attacking Radical Republicanson the issue of black suffrage, issued during the 3ennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1600.

1n the .nited &tates in the early 1<th century, the +merican #oloni(ation &ociety was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black +mericans to greater freedom and equality in +frica.[122] he coloni(ation effort resulted from a mi!ture of motives with its founder 5enry #lay statingH "unconquerable pre$udice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. 1t was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off". [12%] Racism spread throughout the /ew @orld in the late 1<th century and early 2=th century. @hitecapping, which started in 1ndiana in the late 1<th century, soon spread throughout all of /orth +merica, causing many +frican laborers to flee from the land they worked on. 1n the .& during the 160=s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. 1n one of these racist posters Csee aboveD, a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. +ccompanying labels areE "1n the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread," and " he white man must work to keep his children and pay his ta!es." he black man wonders, "@har is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." +bove in a cloud is an image of the "?reedman's FureauP /egro 7stimate of ?reedomP" he bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the ..&. #apitol and is inscribed "?reedom and /o @ork." 1ts columns and walls are labeled, "#andy," "Rum, Rin, @hiskey," "&ugar 3lums," "1ndolence," "@hite @omen," "+pathy," "@hite &ugar," "1dleness," and so on. )n June -, 162%, &ir ?rancis Ralton, distinguished 7nglish e!plorer and cousin of #harles 4arwin, wrote in a letter to he imesE "My ro osal is to ma0e the encouragement of .hinese settlements of )frica a art of our national olicy, in the belief that the .hinese immigrants 2ould not only maintain their osition, but that they 2ould multi ly and their descendants su lant the inferior -egro race" "( should ex ect that the )frican seaboard, no2 s arsely occu ied by la?y, ala*ering sa*ages, might in a fe2 years be tenanted by industrious, order-lo*ing .hinese, li*ing either as a semidetached de endency of .hina, or else in erfect freedom under their o2n la2"" [12*]

'(th century
'urther information$ /olocaust, Racial segregation in the 1nited &tates, and R2andan 5enocide

/aked &oviet 3)@s in ;authausen concentration camp. Fetween June 1<*1 and January 1<*2, the /a(is killed an estimated 2.6 million Red +rmy 3)@s, whom they viewed as "subhuman".[12-]

4rinking fountain from mid,2=th century with +frican,+merican drinking

he /a(is considered Jews, Rypsies, blacks, 3oles and other &lavic people such as theRussians, .krainians, #(echs and anyone else who did not belong to the +ryan /erren*ol0"+ryan master race", was according to the contemporary /a(i race terminology classified as subhuman C1ntermenschD. @ith the /a(is rationali(ing that the Rermans belonged to the "master race", being a super human CCbermenschlichD race, they had a biological right to displace, eliminate and enslave inferiors.[120] &ome 0 million Jews were killed by the /a(is during the /olocaust. 1n the longer term,[122] the /a(is wanted to e!terminate some %=U*- million &lavs.[126] +fter the war, under the 5eneral lan Ost ";aster 3lan 7ast" would have foresaw the eventual e!pulsion of more than -= million non,Rermani(ed &lavs of #entral 7urope and7astern 7urope through forced migration, as well as some of the Falts, beyond the .ral ;ountains and into &iberia. 1n their place, Rermans would be settled in an e!tended "living space" C=ebensraumD of the 1===,Near 7mpire C+ausend!Dhriges ReichD. 5erbert Facke was one of the orchestrators of the 5unger 3lan U the plan to starve tens of millions of &lavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the Rerman people and troops.[12<] 5einrich 5immler speech to about 1== && Rroup 8eaders in 3osen, occupied 3oland, 1<*%E "What ha ens to the Russians, 2hat ha ens to the .?echs, is a matter of utter indifference to me""" Whether the other eo les li*e in comfort or erish of hunger interests me only in so far as 2e need them as sla*es for our cultureE a art from that it does not interest me" Whether or not FG,GGG Russian 2omen colla se from exhaustion 2hile digging a tan0 ditch interests me only in so far as the tan0 ditch is com leted for 5ermany""" We 5ermans, 2ho are the only eo le in the 2orld 2ho ha*e a decent attitude to animals, 2ill also ado t a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our o2n blood to 2orry about them and to bring them ideals""" ( shall s ea0 to you here 2ith all fran0ness of a *ery serious

sub!ect" We shall no2 discuss it absolutely o enly among oursel*es, ne*ertheless 2e shall ne*er s ea0 of it in ublic" ( mean the e*acuation of the 9e2s, the extermination of the 9e2ish race""[1%=] &erious race riots in 4urban between 1ndians and Zulus erupted in 1<*<.[1%1] /e @in's rise to power in Furma in 1<02 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" led to an e!odus of some %==,=== Furmese 1ndians.[1%2] hey migrated to escape racial discriminationand wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1<0*.[1%%] he Zan(ibar Revolution of January 12, 1<0* put an end to the local +rab dynasty.[1%*] housands of +rabs and 1ndians in Zan(ibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.[1%-] )n * +ugust 1<22, 1di +min, 3resident of .ganda, ethnically cleansed .ganda's +sians giving them <= days to leave the country.[1%0] &hortly after world war 11 the &outh +frican /ational 3arty took control over the governance in &outh +frica. Fetween 1<*6 and 1<<*, the+partheid regime took place. his regime based their ideologies on the racial separation of whites and non, whites including the unequal rights of non,whites. &everal protests and violence occurred during the +partheid in &outh +frica, the most famous of these include the&harpeville ;assacre in 1<0=, the &oweto uprising in 1<20, the #hurch &treet bombing of 1<6% and the #ape own peace march of 1<6<.[1%2]

)ontemporary
4uring the #ongo #ivil @ar C1<<6U2==%D, 3ygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Foth sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. ./ human rights activists reported in 2==% that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. &inafasi ;akelo, a representative of ;buti pygmies, has asked the ./ &ecurity #ouncil to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.[1%6] + report released by the .nited /ations #ommittee on the 7limination of Racial 4iscrimination condemns Fotswana's treatment of the 'Fushmen' as racist.[1%<] 1n 2==6, the tribunal of the 1-,nation &outhern +frican 4evelopment #ommunity C&+4#D accused Zimbabwean 3resident Robert ;ugabe of having a racist attitude towards white people.[1*=][1*1] 1n 8iberia, the constitution restricts citi(enship to only people of black +frican descent.[1*2]

)n 12 &eptember 2=11, Julius ;alema, youth leader of &outh +frica's ruling +/#, was found guilty of hate speech for singing '&hoot the Foer' at a number of public events.[1*%]

he mass demonstrations and riots against +frican students in /an$ing, #hina, lasted from 4ecember 1<66 to January 1<6<.[1**] Far owners in central Fei$ing had been forced by the police Anot to serve black people or ;ongoliansB during the 2==6 &ummer )lympics, as the police associates these ethnic groups with illegal prostitution and drug trafficking.[1*-] &ome neighborhood committees in Ruang(hou bar +fricans from living in residential comple!es. [1*0] 1n /ovember 2==<, Fritish newspaper +he 5uardian reported that 8ou Jing, of mi!ed #hinese and +frican parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in

#hina and has become the sub$ect of intense debate because of her skin colour.[1*2] 5er attention in the media opened serious debates about racism in #hina and racial pre$udice. [1*6] 1n +sia and 8atin +merica, light skin is seen as more attractive.[1*<] hus, skin whiteningcosmetic products are popular in 7ast +sia[1-=] and 1ndia.[-] &ome activists, most prominently at the ./ conference at 4urban, have asserted that the caste system in 1ndia is a form of racial discrimination.,[1-1][1-2] although many prominent[1-%] scholars debunk this viewpoint as "scientifically nonsense",[1-*] since there are no consistent racial differences between the different castes in 1ndia. hese activists utili(e genetic studies that claim to corroborate their view,[1--] although other more detailed studies have challenged these assertions as overtly simplistic[1-0][1-2] #urrently, there are appro!imately 10million 4alits Cformerly known as "untouchables"D in 1ndia.[1-6] &ome 2=,=== black +frican ;auritanians were e!pelled from ;auritania in the late 1<6=s. [1-<] 1n the &udan, black +frican captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often used se!ually.[10=] he 4arfur conflict has been described by some as a racial matter.[101] 1n )ctober 2==0, /iger announced that it would deport the +rabs living in the 4iffa region of eastern /iger to#had.[102] his population numbered about 1-=,===. [10%] @hile the Rovernment collected +rabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Rovernment forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.[10*] he 7thiopian Jewish community's integration into 1sraeli society has been complicated by racist attitudes on the part of some elements of 1sraeli society and the official establishment. [10-][100] he 1sraeli media reported that residents of 3isgat Ze'ev, a large Jewish neighbourhood in Jerusalem, had formed a vigilante,style patrol to stop interracial dating between +rab men and local Jewishgirls. 1n the 2==2 poll, more than half of 1sraeli Jews said that intermarriage should be equated with Anational treasonB.[102]

he burnt out remains of Rovinda's 1ndian Restaurant in ?i$i, ;ay 2===

he Jakarta riots of ;ay 1<<6 targeted many #hinese 1ndonesians.[106] he anti,#hinese legislation was in the 1ndonesian constitution until 1<<6. 9enophobia against #hinesemigrants is currently on the rise in +frica[10<][12=][121] and )ceania.[122][12%] +nti,#hinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,[12*] broke out in 3apua /ew Ruinea in ;ay 2==<. [12-] he ?i$i coup of 2=== has provoked a violent backlash against the 1ndo,?i$ians.[120]?i$i citi(ens of 1ndian, 7uropean, mi!ed race or other island heritage have become second,class citi(ens.[122][126] Racial divisions also e!ist in Ruyana,[12<] ;alaysia,[16=] rinidad and obago,[161] ;adagascar,[162] or &outh +frica.[16%] )ne particularly pernicious form of racism in the .nited &tates is racial segregation, which, it can be argued, continues to e!ist today.[16*][dubious H discuss]

1nter,minority variants
Main article$ (nterminority racism 3re$udiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur, for e!ample conflicts between +frican +mericans and Qorean +mericans Cnotably in the 8os +ngeles riots of 1<<2D, by blacks towards Jews Csuch as the riots in #rown 5eights in 1<<1D, between new immigrant groups Csuch as 8atinosD, or towards whites.[16-][160][162][166]

+frican,+mericans in 4allas boycotting a Qorean owned Qwik &top in a mostly black neighborhood, ;arch 2=12.[16<]

here has been a long,running racial tension between +frican +mericans and ;e!ican +mericans.[1<=][1<1][1<2] here have been several significant riots in #alifornia prisons in which ;e!ican +merican inmates and +frican +mericans have specifically targeted each other based on racial reasons.[1<2][1<%] here have been reports of racially motivated attacks against +frican +mericans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by ;e!ican +mericans, and vice versa.[1<*][1<-] 1n the late 1<2=s in #alifornia, there was animosity between the ?ilipinos and the ;e!icans and between 7uropean +mericans and ?ilipino +mericans since they competed for the same $obs.[1<0] Recently, there has also been an increase in racial violence between +frican immigrants and Flacks who have already lived in the country for generations.[1<2] )ver -= members of the +(usa 1% gang, associated with the ;e!ican ;afia, were indicted in 2=11 for harassing and intimidating +frican +mericans.[1<6] 1n Fritain, tensions between minority groups can be $ust as strong as those between minorities and the ma$ority population.[1<<] 1n Firmingham, there have been long,term divisions between the Flack and &outh +sian communities, which were illustrated in the 5andsworth riots and in the smaller 2==- Firmingham riots.[2==] 1n 4ewsbury, a Norkshiretown with a relatively high ;uslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Qurds and &outh +sians.[2=1][2=2] 1n ?rance, home to 7uropeGs largest population of ;uslims L about 0 million L as well as the continentGs largest community of Jews, about 0==,===, anti,Jewish violence, property destruction, and racist language has been increasing over the last several years. Jewish leaders perceive the ;uslim population as intensifying antisemitism in ?rance, mainly among ;uslims of +rab or +frican heritage, but also this antisemitism is perceived as also growing among #aribbean islanders from former colonies.[2=%][2=*]

Research on influencing factors

Research has e!amined factors influencing tolerance, in particular ethnic tolerance, pre$udice, and trust. +uthoritarian personality has been associated with pre$udice and intolerance. 7ducation has an inverse association which is stronger in established

democracies than in emerging. 4ifferent groups are viewed differently and including illegal groups in tolerance surveys may reduce tolerance levels in all countries e!cept the .nited &tates. 1ncreased contact with other groups increase tolerance. 1ncreased perception of threat, including from the home land of an ethnic minority, reduces tolerance. #ompetition over $obs reduces tolerance and occupational segregationreduced ethnic conflicts and ethnic pre$udice in studies in the .nited &tates and Nugoslavia. olerance is increased by democratic stability and a federal system. 1ncreased ethnic heterogeneity increases tolerance up to a point but beyond this tolerance decreases. he negative effect of increased ethnic heterogeneity is stronger when looking at larger areas such as nations compared to smaller areas such as neighborhoods. his may be due to the contact effect being relatively more important at local levels while the threat effect becomes more important in larger areas.[2=-]

+nti,Racism
Main article$ )nti-racism

+ peaceful anti,racism rally held outside &ydney own 5all, 4ecember 2==-.

+nti,racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. 1n general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against in race. ;ovements such as the +frican,+merican #ivil Rights ;ovement and the +nti,+partheid ;ovement were e!amples of anti,racist movements./onviolent resistance is sometimes an element of anti,racial movements, although this was not always the case. 5ate crime laws, affirmative action, and bans on racist speech are also e!amples of government policy designed to suppress racism.

International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination

./7&#) marks ;arch 21 as the yearly 1nternational 4ay for the 7limination of Racial 4iscrimination, in memory of the events that occurred on ;arch 21, 1<0= in &harpeville, &outh +frica, where police killed student demonstrators peacefully protesting against theapartheid regime.

150 Y E A R S O F RA C I SM: AT TI T UD E S IN T H E AM E RI C AN SOUTH

by Lisa Wade, PhD, Oct 2, 2013, at 12:00 pm The partial U.S. map below shows the proportion of the population that was identified as enslaved in the 186 !ensus. "ount# b# !ount#, it reveals where the e!onom# was most dominated b# slaver#.

$ new paper b# $vidit $!har#a, %atthew &la!'well, and %a#a Sen has dis!overed that the proportion of enslaved residents in 186 ( 1)* #ears a+o ( predi!ts ra!e,related beliefs toda#. $s the per!ent of the population in a !ount# a!!ounted for b# the enslaved in!reases, there is a de!reased li'elihood that !ontemporar# white residents will identif# as a Demo!rat and support affirmative a!tion, and an in!reased !han!e that the# will e-press ne+ative beliefs about bla!' people. $vidit and !ollea+ues don.t stop there. The# tr# to fi+ure out wh#. The# !onsider a ran+e of possibilities, in!ludin+ !ontemporar# demo+raphi!s and the possibilit# of /ra!ial threat0 1the idea that hi+h numbers of bla!' people ma'e whites uneas#2, urban,rural differen!es, the destru!tion and disinte+ration !aused b# the "ivil War, and more. "ontrollin+ for all these thin+s, the authors !on!lude that the results are still partl# e-plained b# a simple phenomenon3 parents tea!hin+ their !hildren. The bias of Southern whites durin+ slaver# has been passed down inter+enerationall#.

DepEd welcomes anti-bullying law

PASIG CITY -- The Department of Education (DepEd) welcomes the signing of the anti-bullying law (RA10627) which protects students from bullying and other forms of violence that may be inflicted by adults, persons of authority as well as their fellow students. Education Secretary Br. Armin Luistro FSC said the landmark piece of legislation further enhances the DepEds existing Child Protection Policy which puts primacy on the well-being of children. The anti-bullying law is a big boost in our continuing push to develop our schools into safe and caring, learner-centered institutions, he added. DepEd will begin drafting the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) of the Anti-Bullying Law in consultation with stakeholders from other sectors. Under the measure, public and private elementary and secondary schools are required to address bullying and provide a safer environment for students. Schools that fail to impose such measures will face administrative sanctions from the DepEd. Under the DepEds current Child Protection Policy guidelines, all public, as well as private, elementary and secondary

schools should create a Child Protection Committee, composed of school officials, teachers, parents, students and community representatives. DepEd officials are reminded that bullying isn't the only kind of activity that negatively affects learners. Under Republic Act 7610 or the Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act and DepEd Order Number 40 series of 2012 or the DepEd Child Protection Policy, teachers who humiliate students face administrative sanctions. Once considered by teachers as appropriate and necessary for discipline, things such as but not limited scolding and berating students in front of classmates and other humiliating acts are no longer allowed.

4Bullying and other forms of violence in schools should be viewed not just a school problem but as a societal problem as
well, Luistro explained.