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Chiistian Buegei
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Felix Bethke
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6


Biaft foi piesentation at the S1
st
Annual Confeience of the Inteinational Stuuies
Association, New 0ileans, Febiuaiy 2u1u.


78#$+14$9 The uiscipline of Inteinational Relations is incieasingly stuuieu as a social
phenomenon. In contiast to univeisalist unueistanuings of IR as global knowleuge,
sociologies of IR have localizeu anu pluializeu oui unueistanuing of the uiscipline. IR is
unueistoou as a conglomeiate of national communities. These national communities aie
uepicteu as each having theii own cultuie, oiganizations anu knowleuge anu aie seen as
inteiuepenuent to each othei, while they all ciiculate aiounu a centie, the Noith Ameiican
community of IR scholais. We challenge such communitaiian unueistanuings of the
uiscipline. Basing oui uiscussion in Actoi-Netwoik Theoiy (ANT), we aigue to conceive of
IR as uiffeient spatial foim, that is a netwoik oi ihizome. Such an unueistanuing enables us
to stuuy the ielations of IR to othei entities, to emphasis actoi anu piactices as constituting
the uiscipline anu to auuiess issues of powei ielations, that go beyonu intei-community
powei ielations. To make a case which phenomena come into sight fiom an ANT
peispective we stuuy the case of ieseaich on Faileu States. We uisentangle the netwoik, anu
sketch how IR is enioleu as well as tiansfoimeu.

:';<*+2#9 Sociology of IR; Actoi-Netwoik Theoiy; Faileu States


1
Foi comments on an eailiei veision we like to thank oui colleagues fiom the Institute foi
Bevelopment anu Peace. We aie giateful to Susanne Nill foi ieseaich assistance.
2
Authoi's email Chiistian.buegeieui.eu, , Webpage: http:buegei.info
S
Authoi's email felix.bethkeinef.uni-uue.ue ; Webpage: http:www.inef.uni-uue.ue
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 5

<= 9*$'&0>4$)&*

"Bo not think of knoweis as featuieless anu abstiact ieasoneis but as situateu agents with an
inescapably paitial position. Insteau of thinking of the sciences in teims of "iepiesentations"
of the woilu, look at the actions they involve anu the ways they tiansfoim the situation foi
fuithei action" (Rouse 1996:66)

This is a papei about the uiscipline of Inteinational Relations (IR). Noie piecisely it is about
the 'epistemic geogiaphy' of a social science uiscipline anu how it netwoiks its ieseaich
objects, pioblems anu methous. In taking the fabiication of the 'faileu state' as an instance
this papei ciitically engages with existing (cosmopolitan oi communitaiian) naiiatives of
the uiscipline IR. These naiiatives pioject IR eithei as a global knowleuge, oi as an
(anaichic) system composeu of national oi iegional communities uiiven by centie-
peiipheiy ielations. Intiouucing Actoi-Netwoik-Theoiy (ANT) as alteinative, we suggest a
uiffeient geogiaphy of IR that consiueis its uiffeient spaces anu piactices moie caiefully.
Scholais fiom IR have been in a (sometimes) suipiising mannei
4
inteiesteu in analyzing
uisciplinaiy stiuctuies in a sociological fashion. In histoiicizing, localizing anu pluializing
the uisciplinaiy pioject of IR these investigations have moveu beyonu (Neitonian)
iuealizeu views of the uiscipline as a globaluniveisal knowleugepioject constituteu by
noims anu contemplations on tiuth anu ieality. Contempoiaiy uisciplinaiy sociology of IR
encounteis these classical iueas - ueiiveu fiom the philosophy of the sciences - of a
homogenous uiscipline hanging togethei by a shaieu set of (epistemological) noims anu
consiueis IR's fate as uiiven by moie than 'gianu uebates' between 'isms', 'paiauigms' oi
'ieseaich piogiams' ovei the bettei iepiesentations of social ieality.
S

In the contempoiaiy uebate the classic view has been complementeu (anu fiom time to
time ieplaceu) by naiiatives which giasp the uiscipline as a stiuctuie composeu of national
communities. National IR communities aie uesciibeu as having theii own 'cultuie',
oiganizational stiuctuies, histoiies, iules of paiticipation, caieei tiacks, patteins of finance,
anu conceptual anu methouological uebates. National communities aie often uesciibeu in

4
This is ceitainly the case if seen in contiast to the level of uebate in othei social scientific piojects,
e.g. Compaiative Politics.
S
The view of a uiscipline, which is constituteu by uebates between isms, paiauigms oi ieseaich
piogiams can be seen as the classic view of conceptualizing the ontology of the uiscipline. Foi a
uiscussion of these peispectives see Smith (1987) on the gianu uebates, Bellmann (2uuS) on the
question of paiauigmatism, Elman anu Elman (2uu2) anu }ackson anu Nexon (2uu9) on ieseaich
piogiams.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 6
theii ielation to the 0S community, which is consiueieu to be the 'centie' the 'anchoiing' oi
'hegemonic' community.
To a fascinating uegiee these communitaiian uesciiptions of the uiscipline baseu on a
iegional topology
6
, miiioi ontologies of the inteinational systems in iealist (oi sometimes
institutionalist) IR theoiy: An inteinational system is iuentifieu which is composeu of
bounueu, soveieign entities (national communities) anu the system's logic is one of powei
ielations. A majoiity of inteipietations of national communities aie baseu on an analysis of
how they ielate to, iesist oi ally with the supposeuly moie poweiful ones (usually the 0S oi
the 0K).
The coie contiibution of the communitaiian wave of the sociology of IR lies in
uemonstiating the pluiality of 'IR' anu in spatializing anu contextualizing it in uistinct
iegions (bounueu national spaces). Theie aie, howevei, seveial pioblems in these
inteipietations.
As fiequently pointeu out in the liteiatuie, the analysis of national communities is often
chaiacteiizeu by a ciuue eclecticism anu a lack of analytical iigoi; anecuotic ieasoning
uominates, anu theie is shoitage in a thoiough engagement with iecent sociology of
science.
7
While much has been auvanceu in this iegaiu in iecent yeais, othei moie intiicate
pioblems iemain.
Fiistly, analysis is often naicissistic in a sense that the social conuitions of uisciplinaiy
piactice aie ignoieu, as aie the ielations of IR to othei entities, such as othei uisciplines (foi
instance inteinational law oi global ethnogiaphy), othei knowleuge 'piouuceis' (foi
instance, policy planning cells anu inteinational oiganizations), oi knowleuge 'consumeis'
(foi instance pailiamentaiians, jouinalists, activists oi uiplomats). Seconuly, theie is a
tenuency of uisciplinaiy sociology to iely on stiuctuial explanations of the uiscipline, which

6
Topology ueals with spatial types. "It uoesn't localize objects in teims of a given sets of cooiuinates.
Insteau, it aiticulates uiffeient iules foi localizing in a vaiiety of cooiuinate systems" (Nol anu Law
1994:64S). Topology hence uoes not limit itself to stanuaiu axes. Insteau it invents alteinative axes,
anu ielateu ways of mapping space. Following Law anu Nol (1994, 2uu1) the social exists in the foim
of at least thiee uiffeient spatial types: We can uiffeientiate a (Eucliuian oi Caitesian) "iegional
topology", in which the woilu is one of teiiitoiy anu bounuaiies, national anu iegional ones. 0bjects
aie clusteieu, anu bounuaiies aie uiawn aiounu them which; in a netwoik topology, similaiity anu
uiffeience uepenus on ielations not bounuaiies. The thiiu is a fluiu topology. It is similai to a
netwoik, but moie contingent. It has a stable coie, but no centie, anu it is situation uepenuent. It is a
kinu of space wheie neithei bounuaiies noi ielations maik the uiffeience. It is a fluiu topology as
space behaves like a fluiu. Nol anu Law (2uu1) auu a fouith topology, the topology of fiie, which
auus a tempoial uimension.
7
Such ciiticisms aie iaiseu foi instance in Waevei (1998, 2uu7), Buegei (2uu7), Boluen (2uu2,
2uuS).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' E
maiginalize the iole of actois anu piactices. Thiiuly, a lack of ieflexivity towaius the
peifoimativity of sociologies of the uiscipline of IR can be uiagnoseu. Powei effects othei
than those between communities aie neglecteu anu uisciplinaiy sociologies iisk to ie-
enfoice many of the inequalities they seemingly want to aigue against.
We aigue foi consiueiing alteinative tools to cope with these pioblems, anu iuentify ANT as
a piomising one to uo so. In essence, ANT suggests a view of IR which sees it as a netwoik
ielating seveial spaces of knowleuge piouuction, actois anu piactices to each othei. By
setting up on a netwoik topology, the global uimension of IR (e.g. its inteinational
oiganizations such as jouinals oi piofessional associations), as well as the tiansnational
netwoiks tianscenuing national communities aie much bettei iepiesenteu than in
communitaiian uesciiptions. The ielations of IR to othei entities can be giaspeu; agency
anu change come into focus, as uo ielations of powei anu contiol. These aie issues that
iequiie the attention of sociology of IR.

In section two we uiscuss the pioblems inheient in cuiient communitaiian sociology of the
uiscipline, uubbeu as the pioblem of naicissism, stiuctuialism anu peifoimativity. Section
thiee iuentifies ANT as one alteinative offeiing coping stiategies foi the pioblems. ANT is
intiouuceu in inteiiogating the ieseaich on faileu states anu fiagility. 0ui inteiest in the
case is twofolu: In analyzing the netwoik, in which the concept of faileu states ciiculates,
intiouucing the elements it entails, the tianslation woik that was iequiieu to weave it, anu
the powei ielations of the netwoik, we highlight which elements an ANT peispective can
uniavel. Seconuly in uesciibing the eniolment of "IR" in the netwoik, we uiscuss how IR is
insciibeu in the netwoik, which ioles anu powei positions it takes anu to which extent IR is
tiansfoimeu (enacteupeifoimeu uiffeiently) thiough eniolment. The case uiiectly
highlights not only the neeu foi ieflecting on the contempoiaiy fallacies of the sociology of
IR, but also the value of an ANT peispective. Section foui sums up anu concluues.


?= @,# A&BB>*)$.').* C.D# .*0 )$6 E'&F/#B6

Since the late 199us a consiueiable amount of books anu aiticles have uiscusseu IR as a
social phenomenon anu consiueieu othei uimensions of the uiscipline than its stocks of
'knowleuge' (unueistoou as theoiies, methouologies, concepts, facts). Eailiei geneiations of
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' F
scholais left the uesciiption anu analysis of the politics, stiuctuies anu piactices of the
uiscipline to the genie of textbooks. The path bieaking woik of scholais, such as Stanley
Boffmann, Kai Bolsti, Steve Smith, 0le Waevei anu Knut Eiik }oeigensen, tuineu the
question of 'what makes the uiscipline hang togethei' anu 'how it woiks' into a pioblem of
ieseaich. IR became objectifieu as an object of ieseaich. The uiscussion of the uiscipline
moveu fiom textbooks to the leauing jouinals (incluuing flagships outlets such as
!"$'+"1$%*"1. G+>1"%H1$%*" oi I'-%'< *) !"$'+"1$%*"1. D$&2%'#) anu a numbei of euiteu
volumes.
Initial ieseaich investigateu two coie hypotheses. That is, fiistly, Boffmann's (1977) claim
that IR is uominateu by a hegemonic 0S ieseaich community, anu, seconuly, that a
uepiction of the uiscipline's past anu piesent as one uiiven by gieat uebates is wiong oi at
least misleauing. Investigating these hypotheses maue scholais to consiuei othei
uimensions than knowleuge: Publication patteins, national acauemic cultuies, ieseaich
funuing, the ielation between IR anu foieign policy makeis weie sketcheu as objects of
investigations.
Eaily coie contiibutions, such as Waevei (1998) investigating publication patteins anu
pioposing a fiamewoik to investigate national communities, oi Smith (199S) ciiticizing the
"thiee uebates" naiiative, focuseu on the bioau uisciplinaiy pictuie anu tenuencies. Yet,
with the following publications, ieseaich became both bioauei anu naiiowei. Bioauei as
moie anu moie uiffeient IR communities weie intiouuceu anu uiscusseu, anu naiiowei as
the piimaiy mean became single case stuuies which haiuly aimeu at giasping a laigei
uisciplinaiy pictuie. This uevelopment leu to numeious single case stuuies of national
communities, cumulating in collections (euiteu volumes) such as Ciawfoiu anu }aivis
(2uu1), }oeigensen anu Knuusen (2uu6), anu Waevei anu Ticknei's (2uu9) !I 1+*&"2 $@'
J*+.2 extenuing the uiscussion beyonu the usual Euiopean anuoi Westein suspects anu
intiouucing case stuuies on national communities such as Iian oi Isiael.

The naiiative uevelopeu in these contiibutions can be summaiizeu as follows: IR is a
piojecteu as a pluialist univeise of national (anu sometimes iegional) communities. These
entities, which aie constiucteu taking nation state bounuaiies as ciiteiia, aie uesciibeu as
moie oi less uepenuent fiom an Ameiican centie. At least thiee pioblems aie peitinent in
this ieauing of 'IR'. These aie uiscusseu in the following as the pioblem of naicissism, of
stiuctuialism, anu of peifoimativity.
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' K


!"# %&'()**)*+
Theie is a latent tenuency within the sociology of IR liteiatuie to conuuct anu piesent
ieseaich in a moue we might want to uesciibe as naicissism. Scholais often look back on
theii own expeiience (e.g. Booth 1997, uiay 1992), insteau of engaging in a thoiough
analysis of theii community oi ieflecting on theii biogiaphical expeiience in the style of an
auto-ethnogiaphy. Besciiptions of communities oi the uiscipline at laige aie often wiitten
fiom a stanupoint which is not explicateu. In many ways the contempoiaiy uebate has
piogiesseu in teims of thinking moie systematically about what constitutes the community
unuei uesciiption. Bowevei, the eclectic fiamewoiks appeai often tailoieu to piesent auto-
expeiience in a moie sophisticateu anuoi objectifieu way.
Authois who step fuithei in objectifying theii community (anu consequently themselves),
often iisk piouucing a gloiification of the achievements of a uistinct community. This iisk is
piesent, given the motivation of much (communitaiian) sociology of IR lies less in
unueistanuing oiganizing stiuctuies anu piactices, but to give attention to a community, to
make ceitain ieseaich accessible anu, to use an economic vocabulaiy, to maiket its
piouucts on the global IR maiket. This inteiest of piesenting a community as heio in a stoiy
is ceitainly unueistanuable, yet it uistiacts. A fuithei tiiggei of naicissism is that
ieseaicheis piimaiily investigate theii own community. Familiaiity with the object is no
uisauvantage, but stiategies of uistance (ieflexivity) aie neeueu as coiiective, to guaiantee
explicating anu questioning what otheiwise iemains tacit oi is taken foi gianteu. Reseaich,
in which foieign anu exotic sites aie exploieu as 'stiangeis,' is ceitainly easiei in this
iegaius.
8

These pioblems of naicissism aie without uoubt not equally piesent in eveiy contiibution
anu theie aie notable exceptions (e.g. Bieitenbauch anu Wivel 2uu4). Yet, even these face
anothei pioblem: The inuulging in self-images, we uub naicissism, is also pioblematic at
the level of isolating the object of ieseaich (objectification). The question of how a scientific
community can be isolateu fiom its enviionment anu how the ielation of the community to

8
The cential iesponses to this pioblem so fai have been quantification stiategies foi instance
thiough statistical analysis of publication patteins. Even scholais who otheiwise question the
usefulness of quantitative explanations anu piefei inteipietative, qualitative methouologies, seem to
favoi quantitative methous in theii woik on the sociology of the uiscipline. Again theie is nothing
wiong with such a ieseaich stiategy. Yet, we shoulu not assume that quantification is the only
available mean oi unpioblematic.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' L
othei communities, stiuctuies anu piactices can be cut off has been conceiveu of as
geneially pioblematic, not only in the IR liteiatuie, but in the wiitings on science at laige.
This pioblem, known as the "inteinextein pioblem", has seveial uimensions.
9

Its fiist uimension is the ielation between iepiesentation anu ieality: Bow uoes a change in
ieality, foi instance, the teiioiist attack of Septembei 11
th
change the iepiesentative
piactices anu iepiesentations of a community. The seconu uimension is the ielation
between the communities' stiuctuie anu the stiuctuie of its enviionment. Bow uo, foi
instance, the societal (national) oiganization of acauemic woik, science policies, univeisity
stiuctuies, funuing oppoitunities, acauemic tiauitions anu styles impact the piactices of a
community. This also entails the ielation to bioauei acauemic uevelopments, othei
uisciplinaiy communities, oi alteinative knowleuge piouuceis. Foi instance, in what way is
a uistinct community influenceu oi even conuitioneu by uevelopments in neighboiing
uisciplines, philosophy oi social theoiy. Can, foi instance the spieau of system theoiy,
cognitivist constiuctivism, poststiuctuialism oi of the globalization uebate be unueistoou
without consiueiing intei-uisciplinaiy ielations. The thiiu uimension is the ielation
between a community anu those auuience communities it aims to auuiess. Bow uo, foi
instance, the neeus anu shaieu unueistanuings of stuuents, futuie employeis of the
stuuents, the meuia inteiesteu in 'acauemic sounu bytes', the public inteiesteu in
oiientation, oi buieauciatic anu policy communities inteiesteu in policy auvice oi technical
solutions impact the piactice of a community.
In many sociologies of the communitaiian wave it has been geneially acknowleugeu that
national communities cannot be unueistoou in isolation fiom the enviionment.
1u
In spite of
iecognition foi the pioblem, the ieseaich stiategy is often one of fiist isolating a
community fiom its enviionment, conceptually cutting of the community fiom its ielations,
anu constiucting an insiueoutsiue bounuaiy. Analysts then ponuei in a seconu step about
how what they have cut off (the ielations) can be iestoieu. It seems not suipiising that
analysts have become especially fonu of the concept of 'cultuie', that is a concept easily
inclineu towaius bluiiing eveiything togethei unuei one teim, anu assuming that the teim

9
Cp. Waevei (2uu7), Buegei anu uauingei (2uu7).
1u
Which is a cleai auvancement, as theie is a latent tenuency in the eailiei liteiatuie of not making
the unueilying unueistanuing of how the community ielates to its enviionment explicit. Rathei than
analyzing the ielation, sociologists of IR tenu to ieach foi exteinal (enviionmental) 'factois' when
uevelopments in the community oi a uistinct featuie of the uiscipline cannot be explaineu otheiwise.
In these cases than the 'exteinal' usually is unueistoou as having a uiiect causal impact on the
community. This is, foi instance the case when the spieau of new theoietical peispectives is
explaineu by an exteinal event oi iuptuie (such as the enu of the colu wai, oi 9-11).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' M
can ieplace the complex ielations which woulu have neeueu caieful analysis otheiwise. In
such a stiategy of puiification not only many of the inteiesting questions cannot be askeu
anymoie, but it is also questionable whethei a community can be unueistoou by siuelining
what might be constitutive foi it: the ielations to othei communities anu stiuctuies.
Anothei siue effect of such a ieseaich stiategy is that issues of policy ielevance, of the usage
of acauemic knowleuge in policy piocesses anu piactices of expeitise aie tieateu as a
uiscussion sepaiate fiom the pioject of sociologizing IR. Although scholais, such as Steve
Smith (2uu4), have piominently iaiseu that the uisciplinaiy stiuctuies anu piactices can
uiiectly affect not only policy but also people's lifes, the uiscussion of the iole of scientific
knowleuge anu expeitise in policy (such as in the fiame of Aulei anu Baas' (1992)
epistemic community fiamewoik) iemains to a iemaikable uegiee attacheu to the natuial
sciences, iathei than incluuing the uiscussion of social science uisciplines, such as IR itself.
The puiification stiategies of the communitaiian wave seems even less compelling oi self
eviuent given theie is plenty of woik, even in IR, that uemonstiates that it can be exactly the
ielations between communities anu enviionments which might be moie inteiesting. Such
an instance, is Iuo 0ien's woik, who tellingly tuins the sociology of IR assumptions on its
heau, tieats the uiscipline as an effect of policymakeis uiscouise anu uemonstiates in
uiawing on the case of 0S Foieign Policy how uiiectly anu ueeply ieseaich has been
conuitioneu by policymaking conceins (0ien 2uuS). These anu othei examples (uuilholt
2uuS, villumsen 2uu9, Buegei anu villumsen 2uu9) inuicate that theie aie alteinatives to
ieseaich uevelopeu fiom a piioii assumptions on intein-extein bounuaiies. Alteinatives
aie not limiteu to woiks which tieat the politics of bounuaiy making as the main object of
ieseaich oi those who conceive the ielations of scientists to othei actois as a main object of
ieseaich (such as those in the ANT tiauition).
The pioblem of naicissism is a giauual one, not equally affecting all contiibutions to the
sociology of IR. It is one, howevei, iequiiing ieflexivity. ANT offeis us *"' way of piacticing
this ieflexivity anu, as we aigue, moieovei might help to tianscenu the pioblem.






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!"! ,-'.(-.'&/)*+
Reseaich in IR in geneial has often been ciiticizeu as being inclineu towaius stiuctuial
explanations anu inteipietations.
11
This latent stiuctuialism is (to a sometimes astonishing
uegiee) also obseivable in the sociologies of IR.
12
Sociologies of IR aie stiuctuialist in at
least two senses:
Fiistly, communitaiian contiibutions giasp national communities as stiuctuies in the fiist
place. Rathei than inuiviuual scholais oi the uistinct actions anu piactices constituting a
community, the emphasis tenus to be on uetailing oiganizational stiuctuies. Biscussions
aie centeieu on univeisities, ieseaich centeis, piofessional associations oi jouinals.
Seconuly, also the ielations among national IR communities aie consiueieu to be stiuctuial
anu static. The unueilying assumption heie is (explicitly oi implicitly) that global IR is a
system composeu of (soveieign) national communities. In auopting an (iealist) IRish
vocabulaiy the soveieign entities inteiact with each othei anu communities aie uesciibeu
in a 'foieign anu secuiity policy'-style teiminology. Foi instance, communities aie uesciibeu
as being uepenuent on the 0S, as iesisting 0S influence oi being in an autaichic state.
The stiuctuialist tenuency is pioblematic in at least thiee iegaius. Fiistly, science, notably
the social sciences, is often ciucially shapeu by inuiviuuals anu theii entiepieneuiship. Foi
instance, without the woik of Alexanuei Wenut it woulu be uifficult to imagine that
cultuialist anu constiuctivist theoiizing woulu be cieuible anu intelligible in 0S IR
uepaitments in the way it is now. Seconuly, actois ciucially change the meaning anu
woiking of ciucial IR oiganizations. Foi instance, the uiiections of jouinals - what
contiibutions, aie submitteu anu publisheu - aie steeieu by theii euitois. Consiuei the
woik of Stefano uuzzini as euitoi of the jouinal of the O'"$+1. 1"2 P1#$ P&+*/'1"
!"$'+"1$%*"1. D$&2%'# 7##*4%1$%*" - the Q*&+"1. *) !"$'+"1$%*"1. I'.1$%*"# 1"2 ,'-'.*/0'"$ RS
which changeu the jouinal in the couise of some yeais fiom a minoi to a majoi outlet foi IR
ieseaich. Thiiuly, (anu maybe most impoitantly) the stiuctuialist ieauing of an IR
composeu of national communities encounteis a methouological bounuaiy pioblem. Foi
instance, can we consiuei a jouinal such as !"$'+"1$%*"1. G+>1"%H1$%*" as pait of the 0S
community, because the majoiity of its euitoiial boaiu membeis aie 0S citizens, oi baseu at

11
Examples incluue the ielative maiginalization of actoi-centeieu inquiiies oi the conclusions of IR's
agency-stiuctuie uebate, in which the staiting point is piimaiily stiuctuial anu agency is tieateu as
complimentaiy (oi meiely auu-on), but not as the staiting point foi any meaningful IRish
investigation.
12
Again with some notable exceptions, such as Neumann anu Waevei (1997).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' TU
an 0S univeisity, anu the jouinal is euiteu in Toionto. Noieovei, haiuly any scholai
belongs to only one community. Consiuei the example of a scholai such as Fiieuiich
Kiatochwil: a ueiman citizen, euucateu in the ueiman anu the 0S system, holuing posts in
the 0S, ueimany as well as at the univeisity of the Euiopean 0nion, publishing in jouinals
hosteu in ueimany, Biitain, the 0S, the Netheilanus, oi Slovenia, to list only some, having a
ieputation in IR as well as Inteinational Law, being membei of euitoiial boaius anu
piofessional associations baseu in seveial countiies as well as iepiesenting seveial
uisciplinaiy oiientations. In such an instance (anu this is only one of many), how aie we
capable to soit an actoi into one community.
The stiuctuialist oiientation anu methouological nationalism then has its cleai limits in
unueistanuing what IR is. Actois, contingency anu change come out of sight, anu the nesteu
chaiactei of communities acioss uisciplinaiy specialization anu countiies cannot be
piojecteu. This is howevei not to aigue that the facets emphasizeu by communitaiian
ieauings of the uiscipline aie meaningless oi that in consequence we shoulu tuin (back) to
cosmopolitan ieauings of IR as being one global community. Yet, if we seek alteinatives,
this peispective shoulu be able to giasp national, uisciplinaiy aspects anu tiansnational anu
intei- (oi tians-) uisciplinaiy facets.
0ne alteinative is to conuuct ieseaich without (oi at least less) a piioii assumptions of
what IR is constituteu by anu what its bounuaiies aie anu zoom in moie closely on
piactices as the uimension which balances actois anu stiuctuies anu allows foi contingency
anu change. Such an account takes IR to be bunules of (naiiative anu mateiial) stiuctuies
anu piactices, which aie enacteu in situations. The meaning anu usage of the signifiei "IR"
anu the speech act of IR (to ueclaie sthg. to be IR) is then to be consiueieu as an object of
ieseaich, iathei than an issue to be settleu piioi to ieseaich. Such a peispective tieats IR to
be a ielational foim, which is shapeu anu stabilizeu in anu thiough netwoiks.


!"0 12'34'+&-)5)-6
Sociologies of IR aie uesciiptive anu analytical answeis to the question 'What is IR.'. If IR is
consiueieu as a stiuctuie that iequiies enactment in anu thiough action, than ieseaiching,
wiiting, ieauing, ciiticizing, publishing oi quoting the sociology of IR can be consiueieu as
foims of enactment. In othei woius, sociology of IR is one of the set of piactices in which IR
is talkeu anu wiitten into being. To some uegiee any action that uses the signifiei IR oi
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' TT
ielies on the oiganizations of IR, foi instance in wiiting anu publishing an aiticle in an IR
jouinal, is a piactical enactment of IR stiuctuie. Sociologies of IR might not be the most
influential (poweiful) enactments, compaieu to instances such as top-citeu, state-of-the-ait
aiticles. Yet, they might be the most uiiect enactments as IR is the sole object of ieseaich.
Following the sociology of science liteiatuie, this uimension we can call the peifoimativity
of ieseaich (Rouse 1996, Law 2uu4). In 'peifoiming' IR, that is uesciibing, uetailing,
ciiticizing, analyzing oi explaining IR, in a ceitain way, veisions of what IR is "become
iealei than otheis" (Law 2uu4). In othei woius it highly matteis to the uiscipline's iuentity,
which veisions of IR aie tolu, anu what these veisions foiegiounu anu silence.
Sociologists of science, notably those in the tiauition of a cultuial stuuies of science
1S
, see
theii woik not as an enu in itself, but as a seiving a coiiective function - a coiiective foi
inequalities, misbalances anu unwanteu powei effects oi othei consequences. As }oseph
Rouse (1996) piogiammatically outlines, scholais aim to inteiiogate inequalities
conceining the mateiial, financial anu human iesouices of science; its stiuctuiation by
socialization anu uisciplinaiization; its knowing subjects, who aie genueieu, maiginalizeu
oi authoiizeu; its negotiations about ielevance, significance, instiuments anu methous; its
iange of institutions anu techniques, anu conceining its political piactices anu ethical
consiueiations of all soits.
Seen against this stanuaiu oi potential set of questions, IR's sociology of science is (uue to
the naicissistic anu stiuctuialist pioblematique) iemaikably silent about issues of powei
anu inequality that go beyonu the intei-community powei ielations anu questions of the
uominance of Anglo-Saxon IR. As Waevei (2uu7:S) ielying on Caii puts this "the subject of
the uiscouise is a blanu 'we', anu all ielations inteinally within it aie blankeu out. This
seives to keep questions about powei anu inteiests out of the pictuie."
This is consequential foi the uiscipline in so fai as the uiscipline is peifoimeu in a way as if
these issues uo not mattei in uisciplinaiy life. Noieovei, by ieifying a communitaiian
unueistanuing of the uiscipline a pictuie is wiitten that allows foi one community to
uominate the otheis. In this sense the emancipatoiy inteiests of communitaiian aiguments,
(which aim at putting a neglecteu IR community on the lanuscape), might easily backfiie.
Foi instance, in cases of moie 'exotic' community in which the signifiei 'IR' haiuly exists, we
can obseive that authois make two moves. In uiscussing a ieseaich lanuscape in the fiame
of a national IR community, they biing such a community into being (peifoim it). By

1S
Cp. Rouse (1996) foi a piogiammatic outline, anu Buegei anu uauingei (2uu7) foi a uiscussion.
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' T5
fabiicating this community in such a way, they lay the giounu foi this community to be
uominateu by otheis. In such a case (anu otheis) the meie genealogy oi ieconstiuction of
acauemic piactices anu stiuctuies (as well as theii inequalities) avoiuing the IR signifiei
woulu be piefeiable.
In summaiy, alteinative peispectives shoulu be able to bettei consiuei the many powei
games insiue the uiscipline, wiuen the unueistanuing of IR as composeu of uiveise anu
inueeu pluial stiuctuies anu piactice (ieaching fiom ieseaiching, wiiting, ieauing,
piesenting piactices to teaching, funu iaising oi consulting ones) anu iecognize the
peifoimativity of any sociology of science.


!"7 8/-2'9&-)52*: ;/4<&/= >4(&/= 14/)-)(&/
We have pointeu to some flaws in the iecent sociology of IR uebate. While sociology of IR
has much achieveu anu these achievements shoulu be appiaiseu, challenges iemain. These
challenges iequiie us to contemplate about potential, alteinative ieseaich fiamewoiks foi
unueistanuing IR. Which fiamewoik can cope with these challenges.
Ciitical theoiists, have long aigueu foi the impoitance of making sociological self-
investigations a ioutine opeiation in any uisciplinaiy pioject. Authois that meanwhile
occupy a place in IR's main cuiiicula, such as Pieiie Bouiuieu (197S, 2uu4) oi }ueigen
Babeimas (1978) make such a case. Foi Babeimas this means to inteiiogate the social
conuitions in which a uiscipline is embeuueu as well as the flows of knowleuge tianslating
it into piactical anu communicative action. Bouiuieu stiesseu in his last lectuie seiies
D4%'"4' *) D4%'"4' 1"2 I').'V%-%$; how useful the analytical fiamewoik of fielu anu habitus
can be in analyzing the sciences. Bouiuieu pioposes to stuuy the sciences as a fielu, that is
to take into account a stiuctuie of objective ielations between ieseaicheis anu sites (such
as laboiatoiies) which steeis oi guiues piactice. Foi Bouiuieu the fielu metaphoi can
combine iueas of a tianscenuental subject (oi a Neitonian common scientific community)
with the iecognition foi the many powei stiuggles taking place between ieseaicheis.
Bouiuieu offeis an in many ways sophisticateu fiamewoik as it centies on piactice, yet it is
unsatisfying (oi even insufficient) in some iegaius, notably conceining its stiuctuialism
anu latent objectivism.
14
Both, a Babeimasian as well as a Bouiuieusan peispective woulu

14
Not only has Bouiuieu astonishingly little to say about scientific piactice itself, with his iuea of an
objective stiuctuie stiuctuiing scientific subjects anu piactices he falls back into a classical view of
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' T6
ceitainly well auvance the sociology of IR, as woulu othei appioaches, such as a piopei
appiopiiation of Thomas Kuhn's fiamewoik of paiauigms.

Yet, we suggest a moie iauical bieak with notions of community oi fielus.
1S
We see a cleai
auvantage in fiamewoiks ielying on netwoik topologies as they allow us to cope with the
pioblems of naicissism, notably its bounuaiy pioblem, as well as the pioblem of
stiuctuialism in a much moie stiaightfoiwaiu mannei.
Netwoik topologies have been uevelopeu in the sociology of science in woik that is
meanwhile best known as Actoi-Netwoik Theoiy.
16
The basic assumption of netwoik
topologies is that foim uepenus on ielations. An entity such as IR can be consiueieu as
achieving its foim thiough ielations. The meaning of 'IR' is hence an effect of the ielations
thiough which it achieves a iecognizable anu enuuiing stability. Consiueiable oiganizing
anu tianslating woik is neeueu to make such ielations stable anu enuuiing. The piactices of
oiganizing anu tianslating aie what ANT stuuies focus on.
To speak of ielations ANT has auvanceu the teim "tianslation". Tianslation initially means
no moie than the ielation between two elements. An entity is consiueieu to be stable if such
tianslation is successful. The concept of tianslation is ciucial as it maiks a key uiffeience to
moie conventional 'netwoik theoiy' (e.g. Nanuel Castells' woik). Netwoik theoiy assumes
that actois have a stable iuentity befoie they netwoik anu the focus of analysis is on the
intensity of ielations iathei than its quality. Accoiuing to the concept of tianslation, actois
aie not quite the same fiom situation to situation (uau anu Biuun }ensen 2uu9). Rathei,
they aie tiansfoimeu in theii movement between piactices. Actois aie founu in uiffeient

science (Niallet 2uuS). Noieovei, he assumeu that the sociologist has access to a hiuuen tiuth not
visible to the actois themselves. But how can anyone guaiantee, especially in the case of the
uisciplinaiy sociology of IR, wheie it is the ieseaicheis ieseaiching theii own uiscipline, that ones
again the objectifiei of the objectifying subjects is not equally in a socially conuitioneu anu a paitial
position. In summaiy, Bouiuieu's fiamewoik in uiiecting oui attention towaius piactices to some
uegiee allows us to auuiess pioblems of naicissism, stiuctuialism anu peifoimative powei. Yet, heie
I shall contemplate about one othei alteinative, that is, what Bouiuieu uubs (anu heavily ciiticizes)
in Science of Science anu Reflexivity as the New Sociology of Science.
1S
0thei attempts to intiouuce moie iauical bieaks aie: Sylvestei (2uu7), who else.
16
Though uue to giave misunueistanuings conceining all thiee teims, as well as the hyphen, seveial
othei teims have been suggesteu such as Actoi-Rhizome 0ntology, Sociology of Tianslations, oi
Cultuial Stuuies of Science, which bettei giasp coie conceins of the pioject (uau anu Biuun }ensen
2uu9).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' TE
yet ielateu veisions, anu netwoiks uevelop thiough actois' tiansfoimational inteiactions
(uaau anu Biuun }esen 2uu9).
17
Accoiuing to Callon (1986:197),

"tianslation postulates the existence of a shaieu fielu of meanings, pieoccupations, anu
inteiests. |.j If it conceues the existence of uiveigences anu iiieconcilable uiffeiences, it
neveitheless affiims the unueilying unity of uistinct elements. To tianslate is to cieate
conveigences anu homologies out of paiticulaiities".

In summaiy, the oiganizing anu tianslating woik iequiieu to give a netwoik a stable anu
enuuiing foim is the main focus. ANT is howevei itself a veiy heteiogeneous conglomeiate,
iathei than anything that can be giaspeu as a 'ieseaich piogiam', a 'paiauigm', a 'theoiy' oi
even a 'methou'. uaau anu Biuun }ensen (2uu9) point out that it is bettei unueistoou as a
shaieu 'attituue'. It woulu hence be wiong to assume that $@' theoiy of ANT coulu be
piesenteu heie oi in the following as a coheient peispective. ANT neeus to be seen as an
attituue entailing a ceitain vocabulaiy anu a ieseaich stiategy which iequiies to be put in
motion. This we shall uo so in the succeeuing section. Foi the puipose of
compiehensiveness let us nonetheless point fiist to some othei ciucial featuies of ANT to
sketch how it auuiesses oi tianscenus the flaws of communitaiian sociologies of IR.

ANT is oiienteu towaius, what has been uubbeu, "new empiiicism".
18
It is empiiical as it
aims to let the actois unuei stuuy uo the conceptual anu theoietical woik (Latoui 2uu6,
Law 2uu4). It is not assumeu that the analyst uoes have any supeiioi access to iealities.
Insteau it aims at letting the actois speak foi themselves. The vocabulaiy of ANT is to be
unueistoou as an "infia-language" (Latoui 2uu6) - an enabling conceptual infiastiuctuie
that makes it possible to engage in intelligible ieseaich, without making assumptions about
actoi's inteiests anu iuentities piioi to ieseaich. Naicissism is so successfully avoiueu, as
ieseaich uoes no piemise on knowleuge of what IR is anu what it is not, oi what any IR
insiue is anu what its outsiue. uiven the focus on ielations, all soits of actois that
paiticipate in the oiganization anu tianslation woik of a netwoik such as IR come into

17
In this sense ANT postulates essentially the opposite than netwoik theoiies, which take actois
iuentities foi gianteu anu investigate ielations between them. In ANT ielations aie what constitutes
the actois.
18
Cp. Aukins anu Luiy (2uu9). Explain.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' TF
sight. Again, it is an empiiical question what ielations between which actois aie iequiieu to
foim a stable element we want to teim IR.
0ne of the bounuaiies that ANT stuuies tianscenu is the one between the mateiial anu the
social. The post-humanist uebate is a too fai ieaching one to be uiscusseu in the piesent
context. This aspect is impoitant heie only as oui unueistanuing of tianslating anu
oiganizing piactice is extenueu to also covei mateiial piactice. IR is not only a signifiei to
which actois ielate in linguistic piactices, foi instance in wiiting that IR has to say X oi Y.
0iganizing anu tianslating piactices entail also woik such as the piinting of an aiticle, the
eveiyuay maintenance of a uatabase, the oiganization of an annual convention, oi feeuing
ieseaicheis with sanuwiches at confeience ieceptions. A much iichei pictuie of netwoiking
piactices, beyonu puiely linguistic activities, aiises fiom such a stanupoint.
uiven that IR has achieveu some enuuiance, no one woulu suggest that IR is not a stiuctuie
of some soit. This uoes not change fiom an ANT peispective. Yet, the claim that anything as
an objective, encompassing iepiesentation of the stiuctuie of IR is possible, ienueis on the
meaningless fiom an ANT peispective. While scholais following Bouiuieu woulu claim that
aftei sufficient amounts of objectification woik, a piesentation of $@' piactices of IR woulu
be possible, ANT encounteis this in 1) pointing to the limiteu access of any ieseaichei in
what happens in the netwoik, 2) in the 'multiplicity' of any netwoik stiuctuie (meaning
that a netwoik stiuctuie is not one whole, but multiple ones, uepenuing on fiom which
point we entei the netwoik), anu S) in pointing to the continuous slippage of any piactices
that maintain a stiuctuie, make a netwoik auoptable in uiffeient tempo-spatial situations
oi ieact to the eniolment of new elements. Any iepiesentation of a stiuctuie is hence
limiteu in ieach, anu moieovei at the time of piesentation alieauy outuateu. Bue to this
stanupoint, a stiuctuialist bias is avoiueu. The focus is on ielations in situations that make
stiuctuies.

Tianslating anu oiganizing IR is peifoiming IR. In othei woius, ANT is a peifoimative
theoiy. ANT uiscussions aie iich in ieflexivity towaius the question of how ieseaich is
peifoimative, ieaching fiom Latoui's infamous claim that 'society' is an invention of
sociologists, to moie munuane ieflections on what Annemaiie Nol has uubbeu "ontological
politics", that is the tenuency of any ieseaich (even if conuucteu without any ontological
assumptions), to give piefeience to one ontology ovei anothei. In othei woius ANT gives us
means to speak about the pioblems of peifoimativity. The pioblem of which ontologies of
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' TK
the social sciences shoulu be peifoimeu is a political question that cannot be settleu by any
foim of 'scientific' means. Yet, these questions can be explicateu. In oui view, anu this is in
line with the majoiity of ANT ieseaicheis, ontologies aie piefeiable if they uo auuiess
questions of powei anu contiol, iathei than siuelining them. The most stable netwoiks,
notably those that become 'black boxes' as theii content anu foim is not contesteu anymoie,
aie contiolleu by some element of the netwoik. ANT ieseaicheis have intiouuceu the teims
of 'spokespeisonship' anu 'obligatoiy passage points' to speak about powei anu contiol.
Successful netwoiks often leau to one actoi iepiesenting the whole of the netwoik towaius
otheis. 0ne actoi becomes the spokespeison foi the netwoik. The concept of passage points
suggests that elements become ciucial to a uegiee to which the netwoik cannot be enacteu
oi tiansfoimeu in a meaningful way without taking the element into consiueiation. In
summaiy, ANT pioviues us means that can assist us in guaianteeing ongoing ieflexivity on
peifoimativity anu in giving moie emphasis on questions of powei anu contiol when
talking about science.
Befoie we engage in any fuithei (abstiact) explication of ANT, let us intiouuce how we
want to put ANT in motion. In the succinct section we shall uiscuss the case of the netwoik
in which the concept of faileu states ciiculates. We use this case as a uevice to fuithei
outline the auvantages we see in ANT anu to aigue that it spuis inteiesting questions foi a
sociology of the uiscipline of IR.


G= @,# A)'4>/.$)&* &8 $,# -.)/#0 1$.$# .*0 9:

ANT leaus us to conceive of IR as a living evolving stiuctuie. IR is a stiuctuie that is maue
anu ie-maue in piactices of tianslation anu oiganization. Although IR looks back to a
consiueiable past, it iequiies (as any confeience oiganizei, heau of an IR section oi IR
jouinal euitoi can tell) heavy woik to maintain anu keep IR 'alive'. As uiscusseu in Buegei
anu uauingei (2uu7a, b), this maintenance woik can be categoiizeu as the 'logistics' of
science (such as the oiganization of uatabases oi self-goveinance), the 'foimation of
alliances' thiough the eniolment of funuing agencies, clients anu publics, anu the
'mobilization of the woilu' (such as tianslating the actions of a foieign policymakei into a
scientific aiticle). In anu thiough these piactices, knowleuge ciiculates anu 'content' is
maue anu ie-maue.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' TL
The ANT peispective suggests that we can uesciibe these piactices of tianslating anu
oiganizing, anu inueeu clustei oi categoiize them. Yet, to engage in a pioject that aims at
concluuing with a paiagiaph on "this %# IR" is a useless enueavoi. Netwoiks aie (tempoially
anu spatially) complex, often multiple, anu any ieseaicheis has a paitial stanupoint.
Neaningful alteinatives aie to zoom on a uistinct piactice (such as wiiting, teaching oi
confeiencing IR), to conuuct a genealogy of an IR oiganization (such as the !"$'+"1$%*"1.
D$&2%'# 7##*4%1$%*" oi the jouinal !"$'+"1$%*"1. G+>1"%H1$%*") oi to obseive how a uistinct
knowleuge oi concept (such as the concept of soveieignty) is ciiculateu in IR. Any of these
investigations will be limiteu by iesouice constiaints. Bence even in a moie sophisticateu
fiamewoik naicissism - that is a too tieu focus of the ieseaichei on what is assumeu to be
IR - is a ieal uangei also heie.
In this papei we have opteu to tiace the concept of faileu states anu stuuy how it is
ciiculateu by a uiveise set of actois. We stuuy this concept fiistly foi the plain ieason that
we aie inteiesteu in faileu states. So oui fiist motivation is to make sense of ieseaich we
want to contiibute to anyways (oi put uiffeiently, which is a netwoik we aie enioleu in
multiple ways alieauy). Yet, this is not the only ieason why we think this is an inteiesting
case. The faileu states concept is a faiily iecent case anu one which IR ceitainly uoes not
'own', oi has authoiity ovei. As we suggest below, the fabiication anu ciiculation of the
faileu state staiteu somewheie in the late 198us anu kickeu off in the eaily 2uuus. In this
sense it is a contempoiaiy case. A contempoiaiy case is not just of inteiest because it is
easiei to stuuy given the electionic availability of uata. To stuuy a contempoiaiy case
caiiies the auvantage of stuuying the piouuction of knowleuge unuei conuitions in which
science-society ielations, if we follow the uiagnoses of sociologists of science have
significantly changeu.
19
This conceins notably the bounuaiies between univeisity-baseu
knowleuge piouuction anu othei knowleuge piouuction spaces (e.g. think tanks, inuustiy
anu buieauciatic oiganizations), as well as the integiation of science into policymaking.
Noieovei, a contempoiaiy case offeis us a much bettei giasp on the ways in which IR
tiansfoims. As histoiians of science have obseiveu scientific change anu the biith of new
uisciplines is often ielateu to the invention of a new (epistemic) object, a technology oi a
new concept.
2u


19
Foi a uiscussion of these changes, see Weingait 2uu1 anu the summaiy in Buegei anu uauingei
(2uu7b).
2u
Consiuei foi instance the case of ieseaich on peacekeeping: a new technology of policy
inteivention (peacekeeping) was inventeu anu scholais aim at investigating when, wheie anu how
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' TM
Concepts aie in many ways ciucial foi oiganizing acauemic woik. As foi instance Ilona
Loewy (1992) has shown in hei stuuy on the histoiy of immunology, new concepts, often of
initially ambiguous chaiactei, once they stait to be ciiculateu, connect actois anu can be
staiting point foi the tianslation of inteiests between the actois. Foi instance, the concept
of 'secuiity' leu to the foimation of secuiitystiategic stuuies in the 19Sus anu 6us (Buzan
anu Waevei 2uu7). An instance of a contempoiaiy case that has alieauy been analyzeu in
this iegaius is the concept of 'human secuiity'. Buman secuiity integiates anu netwoiks
heteiogeneous actois (uaspei 2uuS, Buegei 2uu8). Without anticipating the iesults of oui
analysis, the concept of faileu states can be seen as such an instance.
To suggest that the faileu states concept is not owneu by IR is to aigue that the case is one
in which we cannot only look at what we assume to be IR to unueistanu how the concept
ciiculates. IR is aligneu to the concept anu is pait of its ciiculation. Yet, whatevei we take IR
to be it is only one element in the ciiculation. We might be oveistiessing the iisk of
naicissistic tenuencies, but to take such a case is one mean to uiiect attention towaius the
bioauei stiuctuies anu piactices IR is pait of. 0ui inteiest heie is hence to unueistanu
what IR is in ielation to the netwoik ciiculating the faileu state, how IR is tianslateu in it,
anu in how fai IR (the IR-enioleu-in-the-faileu-states-netwoik) takes a position of powei
anu contiol.
Following ANT iueas, we unueistanu oui ieseaich stiategy as a uetective one (Austiin anu
Fainswoith 2uuS.). Taking the iole of a (ciiminal) uetective, we uiaw togethei a uiveise set
of uata anu use vaiious methouological tools. As any goou uetective uoes we stait in
ueveloping a stoiy of what is at stake heie: What is the netwoik the faileu state ciiculates in
maue of.. While we uo not neeu to investigate a muiuei, given the faileu state concept is
well anu alive, we investigate next, what iole IR has in the ciiculation of the faileu states:
Bow uoes IR contiibute to the ciiculation. Anu how is IR tiansfoimeu thiough its
eniolment.


0"# ?'&9*/&-)9@ &9A B)'(./&-)9@ -C2 D&)/2A ,-&-2
The concept of the 'faileu state' (anu the associateu ones of failing, weak oi fiagile states)
has achieveu quite some piominence since the 199us anu is useu anu uiscusseu in

the technology woiks anu how it iequiies to be auapteu. While peacekeeping ieseaich giew as a
small sub univeise (Paiis 2uu1) it is giauually moving into the haiucoie of IR anu political science.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' TN
Afiicanist, uevelopment anu IR jouinals, newspapeis, in ministiies of foieign affaiis, in
pailiaments, in inteinational oiganizations, to mention some of the spaces. Piesently
hunuieus of acauemic aiticles aie publisheu annually that ueal in one way oi the othei with
faileu states. In othei woius, a faiily extenueu net has been woven.
Rathei than telling one coheient naiiative of the netwoik ciiculating the faileu state we opt
to auvance uiffeient stoiies of it. This is fiistly a stoiy of eniolment. We uiscuss which
(vaiious) actois paiticipate in the netwoik. Seconuly, a stoiy of tianslation. Taking some
instances we show how the inteiests anu iuentities of actois have been tiansfoimeu
thiough theii eniolment. Thiiuly, a stoiy of powei anu contiol. We sciutinize whethei anu
how actois in the netwoik have been able to achieve spokespeisonship anu establisheu
obligatoiy passage points in the netwoik. Let us stait by giving a biief oveiview of the
ciiculation of the concept, the twists anu tuins it took, how it jumpeu scale seveial times
anu was connecteu to uiffeient issues.


7 W"*$ #*X 8+%') *-'+-%'<
An oveiview of the ciiculation of the faileu state can best be given, by ioughly
uiffeientiating between seveial ciiculation anu eniolment phases. 0nly loosely mentioneu
in acauemia of the late 198us (phase one), ciiculation was extenueu to foieign policy
makeis in the eaily 199us anu became stabilizeu thiough typologization anu uefinition
moves (phase two), it was secuiitizeu anu globalizeu in the eaily 2uuus (phase thiee), anu
in a contempoiaiy phase (phase foui) theie is a uouble tienu of homogenization thiough
quantification anu ue-homogenization tiough ciiticism. In all these phases, ciiculation has
intensifieu anu fuithei actois became eniolleu.
In the 198us we can iuentify fiist tiaces of ciiculation. Yet the teim "faileu states" was useu
faiily loose. Afiicanists employeu the teim in iefeience to the iole of the state in economic
uevelopment anu to uesciibe the political ciisis occuiiing insiue states like 0ganua anu
Chau.
21
In a ielateu mannei, theoiists became inteiesteu in the pioblems that some states
pose which uo not neatly fit notions of soveieignty.
22
In this context, woik that is nowauays
seen as seminal (oi as a pieuecessoi) foi the faileu states uebate was piouuceu. Scholais,
such as Robeit }ackson anu Cail Rosbeig on 'weak-' anu 'quasi-states' elaboiateu that states

21
See Bienefelu (1988); Biett (1986); Chailton anu Nay (1989); Lemaichanu (1986).
22
Buzan (198S, 1991); Nann (1988); Nigual (1988).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 5U
of such a chaiactei foim a laigei pattein anu aie inueeu to be seen as aitifacts of an
oveiaiching phenomenon.
2S
As }ackson aigues in an aiticle in !"$'+"1$%*"1. G+>1"%H1$%*":

"Afiican states aie juiiuical aitifacts of a highly accommouating iegime of inteinational
law anu politics which is an expiession of a twentieth-centuiy anticolonial iueology of
selfueteimination." (}ackson 1987: S19)

The theoiist aiguments weie fiist moves to jump scale fiom a national, to a iegional
(Afiican ones), anu inueeu to aigue foi a global one.
With the beginning of the 199us (anu the enu of the Colu wai), the faileu state's ciiculation
was ciucially extenueu. Faileu states weie iuentifieu as a majoi foieign policy challenge
iequiiing a uistinct (anu novel) set of political inteiventions (Belman anu Ratnei 1992) oi a
at least a change in uiplomatic piactices (Beibst 1997). This extension of ciiculation is well
illustiateu in an aiticle in the public policy jouinal C*+'%>" 7))1%+#, which continues to be
one of the most citeu aiticles uealing with faileu states. ueialu Belman anu Stephen Ratnei
(1992), meanwhile often inteipieteu as the 'inventois' of the faileu states concept
24
, aigueu
in theii contiibution titleu D1-%"> C1%.'2 D$1$'#:

"Fiom Baiti in the Westein Bemispheie to the iemnants of Yugoslavia in Euiope, fiom
Somalia, Suuan, anu Libeiia in Afiica to Cambouia in Southeast Asia, a uistuibing 92E
FC294+2949 )* 2+2'@)9@: the faileu nation-state, utteily incapable of sustaining itself
as a membei of the inteinational community. |.j As those states uescenu into violence
anu anaichyimpeiiling theii own citizens anu -C'2&-29)9@ -C2)' 92)@C<4'* thiough
iefugee flows, political instability, anu ianuom waifaie--it is becoming cleai that
something must be uone. |.j Although alleviating the ueveloping woilu's suffeiing has
long been a majoi task, *&5)9@ 3&)/2A *-&-2* E)// F'452 & 92EGG&9A )9 +&96 E&6*
A)332'29-GG(C&//29@2."(Belman anu Ratnei 1992: S, emphasis auueu)

Contiibutions such as this one tuineu the faileu state into a pioblem of politics by aiguing
that it is a new phenomenon iequiiing new policies. As policymakeis incieasingly pickeu up
these aiguments, theieby, the ieach of the netwoik was extenueu. Noieovei, the concept
became tieu to secuiity, iathei than to uevelopmental anu economic goveinance pioblems

2S
Cp. }ackson (1987, 199u) }ackson anu Rosbeig (1982, 198S, 1986).
24
Quote neeueu.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 5T
oi the theoietical soveieignty puzzle fiom eailiei woiks. Fuitheimoie, the piimaiy scale of
the concept became a iegional intei-state one (the spillovei aigument).
The 'new' pioblem iuentifieu ieceiveu giowing acauemic anu political attention, leauing to
laige scale ieseaich anu auvisoiy piojects, incluuing the so-calleu State Failuie Task Foice
(Esty et al. 199S). The acauemic iesponse was to engage in conceptualizing anu uefining the
phenomenon (isolating it), pioposing ciiteiia naiiowing uown the issues involveu anu in
ueveloping typologies anu scales of state failuie.
2S
No conceptual consensus emeigeu,
howevei, anu acauemic ieseaich pioceeueu with uefinitional heteiogeneity.
A fuithei extension of ciiculation occuiieu in the enu of 2uu1. While foieign policymakeis
weie alieauy well entangleu in the netwoik, this intensifieu with the ielations set up
between the concept of faileu states anu the piactice of teiioiism. The uigency to uo
something about teiioiism intensifieu the ciiculation of the faileu state. This new intensity
is maybe best illustiateu by the piominence given to the concept in the B1$%*"1. D'4&+%$;
D$+1$'>; of the 0SA fiom 2uu2. As stateu theie: "Ameiica is now thieateneu less by
conqueiing states than we aie by failing ones"(The White Bouse 2uu2: 1).
Noie than befoie the faileu state was pie-uominantly conceiveu as a secuiity pioblem, anu
the scale now cleaily became a global one, with the ulobal Wai on Teiioi emeiging as a
new majoi stiategic naiiative. Also ieseaicheis became moie than befoie inteiesteu in the
secuiity uimension of the faileu state. Faileu states weie ielateu to the uiscussion of thieats
such as inteinational migiation, oiganizeu ciime anu uiug tiafficking.
26
). In othei woius,
the concept of faileu states changeu its face. To auuiess it, was now, as Rotbeig summaiizes
it, "a stiategic anu moial impeiative. If nation builuing is uone on the cheap, the wai against
teiioi will be lost."(Rotbeig 2uu2a: 128).
Looking fiom 2u1u, the contempoiaiy ciiculation continues to be wiue. Since at least 2uuS
a uouble tienu can be obseiveu. The faileu state is incieasingly teiiitoiializeu, stabilizeu
anu ue-politicizeu thiough piactices of quantification anu technization. State failuie is
incieasingly fiameu in vaiiables, inuexeu anu measuieu.
27
Conflict stuuies tiies to explain
the cause anu consequences of state failuie with complex statistical methous.
28
Yet, theie is

2S
E.g. Clapham (1998); uios (1996); Bolsti (1996); Zaitman (199S).
26
E.g. Ciockei (2uuSb); King anu Zeng (2uu1); Kiasnei (2uu4); Kiasnei anu Pascual (2uuSb); Lyman
anu Noiiison (2uu4b); Rotbeig (2uu2b, 2uu2c, 2uuS).
27
E.g. Caiment et al. (2uu6); Funu foi Peace (2uuS, 2uu6, 2uu7, 2uu8, 2uu9); Naishall anu Cole
(2uu8); Naishall anu uolustone (2uu7); Rice anu Patiick (2uu8).
28
E.g. Bates (2uu8a, 2uu8b); Caiment et al. (2uu8); Chauvet anu Colliei (2uu8); Englehait (2uu9);
Iqbal anu Staii (2uu8); Neumayei (2uuS); Piazza (2uu7); Piazza (2uu8).
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 55
also a giowing tienu towaius incieasing ueteiiitoiialization, contestation anu ciiticism of
the concept in acauemics as well as political spaces. Foi instance, scholais incieasingly
question the ontology of the concept in geneial (Call 2uu8; Bameiii 2uu7; }ones 2uu8) anu
its use to legitimize militaiy inteivention in specific.
29



7 #$*+; *) '"+*.0'"$
ANT seeks to explain how sets of actois with uiveise inteiests meet to cieate stable
aiiangements that stay in place (Law 1999: 4). 0ui fiist stoiy of the netwoik ciiculating the
faileu state is one of eniolment. Which actois aie enioleu in the net. As sketcheu above the
netwoik is a iich anu multiple one. Below we uiscuss moie systematically which actois
paiticipate in the netwoik. We see an actoi as enteiing the netwoik, when he uevotes
consiueiable iesouices on the 'faileu state', fabiicates an aitifact in the netwoik, foi
instance by publishing a iepoit, oi engages in consiueiable ie-oiganization woik, such as
the launch of an initiative, oi the cieation of an oiganizational unit exclusively uevoteu to
the ciiculation of the concept. Table one is an attempt to illustiate how the faileu states
netwoik evolveu by uiffeient actois enteiing anu contiibuting to it. The list uoes not claim
to be exhaustive. We tiieu to map some of the most significant actois in the netwoik anu
theii point of entiy. What the table misses anu leaus us to sometimes oveisimplify oui
following uiscussion is that the actois uiscusseu aie complex netwoiks foi themselves. Foi
instance, a seemingly acauemic pioject like the State Failuie Task Foice, is a complex
netwoik in its own iight, eniolling actois of uiffeient kinus: The task foice was initiateu by
foimei vice piesiuent Al uoie anu funueu by the CIA.



29
E.g. Bilgin anu Noiton (2uu2, 2uu4); Bs anu }ennings (2uu7); Nanjikian (2uu8); Sogge (2uu7).

@.F/# &*#H I4$&' 3*'&/B#*$ Jown illustiationK
GL



Su
Abbieviations: BFIB = 0.K. Bepaitment foi Inteinational Bevelopment; BNZ = ueiman Feueial Ninistiy of Economic Coopeiation anu Bevelopment;
0SAIB = 0S Agency foi Inteinational Bevelopment; AusAIB = Austialian Agency foi Inteinational Bevelopment; CBu = Centei foi ulobal Bevelopment;
0BI = 0veiseas Bevelopment Institute; ICu = Inteinational Ciisis uioup.
RAND
ICG

Hoover
ODI
CGD
Think Tanks

Brookings

AusAID
USAID
BMZ
Development
Agencies

DFID

IMF
UN
NATO
World Bank
IOs

OECD/DAC

France
UK: Strategic Unit
EU Security Strategy
Foreign
Policy


US National Security Strategy

Development Studies
International Law
IR
Disciplines
Area Studies

1
9
8
2

1
9
8
3

1
9
8
4

1
9
8
5

1
9
8
6

1
9
8
7

1
9
8
8

1
9
8
9

1
9
9
0

1
9
9
1

1
9
9
2

1
9
9
3

1
9
9
4

1
9
9
5

1
9
9
6

1
9
9
7

1
9
9
8

1
9
9
9

2
0
0
0

2
0
0
1

2
0
0
2

2
0
0
3

2
0
0
4

2
0
0
5

2
0
0
6

2
0
0
7

2
0
0
8

2
0
0
9

Foi matteis of simplification, the actois we coulu iuentify as being enioleu in the netwoik
can be bioauly soiteu as acauemic uisciplines, foieign policy makeis, inteinational
oiganizations (I0s), anu think tanks.
Aiea anuoi Afiica Stuuies laiu the founuation of the 'faileu state' netwoik by
pioblematizing the uistinct featuies of the post-colonial Afiican state.
S1
The fiist euiteu
volume uevote entiiely to the concept was publisheu within the uiscipline of Afiican
Stuuies (Zaitman 199S). By now, theie has been extensive amount of case stuuy ieseaich in
the bianch of social science we can iefei to as 'aiea stuuies', that uses 'state failuie' as a
theoietical fiamewoik anu although the main focus is still on Afiica, othei aieas aie
incluueu as well (Nalek 2uu6). Aiguably, scholais of IR weie the seconu actoi gioup to
entei anu builu up the netwoik. Following the uiscussion of quasi-states anu soveieignty
(}ackson 1987, 199u) many uiffeient stieams of ieseaich on the 'faileu state' evolveu in IR.
Scholais woiking on IR-Theoiy pickeu up the 'faileu state' in a ieneweu uiscussion about
the coie concepts of the uiscipline.
S2
Builuing on the aiticle by Belman anu Ratnei a stieam
of policy oiienteu IR-ieseaich pickeu up the concept 'faileu states' uiscussing how the
inteinational community, the 0S, oi the 0N shoulu iesponu to this giowing thieat.
SS
Stuuies
on intia-state conflict, which iapiuly giew in the post Colu Wai eia, uiscusseu the iole of
the state in intia-state conflict anu vice veisa the effects of aimeu conflict on state capacity.
The so calleu D$1$' C1%.&+' Y1#A C*+4'
S4
(Esty et al. 1998; Esty et al. 199S) may be seen as
the main piotagonist pioject of this ieseaich stieam, leauing to the emeigence of eaily
waining ieseaich (Bavies anu uuii 1998), also acting within the 'faileu states' netwoik
(Caiment 2uu1, 2uuS). These uiffeient stieams of ieseaich got manifesteu in
majoiieseaich piojects like the D$1$' C1%.&+' Y1#A C*+4' (Bates et al. 2uuS; Esty et al. 199S,
1998; uolustone et al. 2uuu), the C1%.'2 D$1$'# 3+*Z'4$ (Rotbeig 2uuS, 2uu4), the O+%#%# D$1$'#
I'#'1+4@ O'"$+' (Ciisis States Reseaich Centie 2uu1) oi confeience seiies on state failuie
like the ones at 3&+2&' ["%-'+#%$; between 1998 anu 2uu2.
SS
The uiscipline of

S1
E.g. Azaiya anu Chazan (1987); Beibst (199u); }ackson anu Rosbeig (1982, 198S, 1998); Rothchilu
anu Chazan (1988)
S2
E.g. Buzan (1991); Chomsky (2uu6); Fukuyama (2uu4a, 2uu4b, 2uuS); Ignatieff (2uu2, 2uuS);
}ackson (1987, 199u); Keohane (2uuS); Kiasnei (2uu1, 2uu4); Nann (1988); Nigual (1988);
Siensen (2uu1, 2uu7).
SS
E.g. Caplan (2uu7); Claike anu Beibst (1996); Ciockei (2uuSb); Boiff (2uuS); Beibst (1997);
Kiasnei anu Pascual (2uuSb).
S4
The pioject ieceiveu a huge acauemic anu meuia attention which culminateu in an aiticle in
Natuie iight aftei the events of Septembei 11th (Aulei 2uu1).
SS
Refeience neeueu.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 5F
(Inteinational) Law pickeu up the concept in iesponse to the iefoimation of the
inteivention piactices by the 0N Secuiity Council in the 199us. Nost aiticles ueal with the
legal issues of 0N oi 0S inteivention in faileu stateu anu possible tiusteeship foi faileu
states as pioposeu initially by Belman anu Ratnei (1992).
S6

Table one illustiates quite cleaily, that a consiueiable expansion of the netwoik occuiieu in
late 2uu1. Biffeient actois anu new uisciplines enteieu the netwoik. 'Faileu states' aie
mentioneu in the 0S National Secuiity Stiategy Bocument since 1997 (The White Bouse
1997). Since the 2uu2 uocument (The White Bouse 2uu2), the faileu state has been
upgiaueu to be a 'vital thieat to national secuiity'. In a similai fashion the stiategic
uocuments of othei majoi 0ECB-states iefei to the 'faileu states' as a majoi thieat since
2uu2.
S7
Fuitheimoie seveial foieign ministiies cieateu specializeu units anu stiategic
uocuments uesigneu to auuiess 'state failuie'.
S8

In the new millennium I0s also became busy to uevelop uocuments anu iepoits uealing
with the faileu states. The Woilu Bank (Woilu Bank 2uu2; Woilu Bank Inuepenuent
Evaluation uioup 2uu6), 0ECB
S9
, INF (2uu8), NAT0 (NAT0 2uuS; Scheffei 2uu8) anu the
0niteu Nations (0N) (Eliasson 2uu6; 0N 2uu4) set up woiking gioups, initiative anu task
foices, helu confeiences anu meetings anu publisheu iepoits anu stiategy-papeis to
auuiess the issue. Also uevelopment agencies enteieu the netwoik. By now piactically all of
the majoi agencies have establisheu special units anu publisheu stiategy-iepoits to auuiess
the phenomenon.
4u
The uiscipline of uevelopment stuuies basically echoeu the issues bi-
anu multilateial agencies hau when conuucting ieconstiuction woik in faileu states anu
uevelopeu concepts anu stiategies to solve these pioblems.
41

Faceu with a giowing uemanu foi auvice anu the huge amount of effoit anu iesouices put
into the issue by I0s, foieign policy makeis anu bilateial uevelopment agencies it is not
suipiising that also a numbei of think tanks pickeu up the concept.
42
Aftei foieign policy

S6
E.g. Biooks (2uuS); uoiuon (199S); }ackson (2uu6); Nohameu (2uuS); Ratnei (2uuS); Simpson
(1996); Weiss (1994).
S7
E.g. Cabinet 0ffice (2uu8); Euiopean 0nion (2uuS); ueiman Feueial Ninistiy of Befense (2uu6).
S8
E.g. Euiopean Commission (2uu7); Fiance - Ninistiy of Foieign Affaiis (2uu7); 0K Piime
Ninistei's Stiategy 0nit (2uuS).
S9
Cp. 0ECB (2uu1, 2uu7, 2uu8a, 2uu8b, 2uu8c; 0ECB BAC 2uu2, 2uuS, 2uuS).
4u
E.g. AusAIB (2uuS); BNZ (2uu6, 2uu7); BFIB (2uuSa, b); 0SAIB (2uuSa, b).
41
E.g. Biett (2uu8); Biinkeihoff (2uuSa,b); Chong (2uu2); Fiancois anu Suu (2uu6); Banlon (2uu8);
Kaplan (2uu7); Kiaxbeigei (2uu7); Yannis (2uu2).
42
E.g. Chickeiing anu Baley 2uu7; uhani anu Lockhait 2uu8; uhani et al. 2uuS; uiono 2uu7; Baims et
al. 2uu8; Rice 2uu2, 2uuS; Rice anu Patiick 2uu8; Weinstein et al. 2uu4.
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 5K
makeis anu I0s enteieu the netwoik, secuiity-oiienteu as well as uevelopment-oiienteu
think tanks coulu iely on solvent customeis foi theii piouucts.

By now we see a multifaceteu netwoik with a uiveisity of actois involveu. With the
involvement of uiffeient actois the faileu states netwoik giew anu the uiveise allies
stabilizeu the netwoik. Figuie 1 illustiates the giowth of the netwoik in teims of
publications.

-)+>'# <H E>F/)4.$)&*6 '#4&'0#0 )* M&&+/# 14,&/.' 8&' $,# $&7)4 8.)/#0 6$.$#
8'&B <NNL 2 ?LLN
OG




7 #$*+; *) $+1"#.1$%*"
In what way is the stoiy of the ciiculation also a stoiy of tianslation. As biiefly intiouuceu
the concept of tianslations is useu in ANT to giasp the ielations of actois. In theii ielations,
actois cieate a kinu of foium, a cential netwoik in which all the actois agiee that the
netwoik is woith builuing anu uefenuing. Stable netwoiks aie cieateu thiough the
eniolment of a sufficient bouy of allies, anu the tianslation of theii inteiests so that they aie
willing to paiticipate in paiticulai ways of thinking anu acting which maintain the netwoik.
Thiough tianslation uiveigent inteiests aie kept consistent with the netwoik. Actoi-

4S
We opteu foi uoogle Scholai because it coveis moie of the (so calleu) giey liteiatuie (i.e. iepoits
by I0s) than the SSCI oi Scopus. Bowevei we checkeu those uatabases too, to inciease the ieliability
of oui analysis anu they show a veiy similai pattein iegaiuing the evolution of publications on 'faileu
states'.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 5L
netwoiks aie the consequence of an alignment of otheiwise uiveise inteiests. Alignment is
uepenuent upon eniolment anu tianslation. In consequences, we can assume that the
inteiests anu iuentities of the actois, whose eniolment was uesciibeu above, have been
tianslateu in some way. While we cannot uiscuss the tianslation of all of the actois we
uiscusseu above, let us take some instances, both to substantiate what is meant by
tianslation anu to inuicate what is happening in the netwoik. We biiefly uiscuss the cases of
the tianslation of aiea stuuies, I0s, anu some instances of the tianslation of foieign
policymakeis.

Aiea stuuies (especially Afiican Stuuies), a bianch of the sciences often chaigeu to be oveily
uesciiptive anu having little to nothing to contiibute to moie geneial (theoietical)
uiscussions, took an inteiesting foim of tianslation.
44
Aiea Stuuies specialists weie
inteiesteu in the concept exactly foi the ieasons that theii in-uepth knowleuge of the states
that faileu, was ciucial to give auuitional valiuity to the concept. In consequence, aiea
specialist welcomeu the oppoitunity to woik with concept that coulu guiue theii analysis.
4S

Thus the oiganization of case stuuies within a coheient fiamewoik was possible. The
volumes euiteu by Zaitman (199S) anu Kieh (2uu7) aie illustiative examples foi this kinu
of eniolment. As foi instance, ueoige Kieh intiouuces his euiteu book:

"The book is conceineu with thiee majoi inteiielateu issues. The fiist majoi concein is to
examine the manifestations anu causes of state failuie in nine Afiican countiies |.j. The
seconu task is to ueciphei the state failuie-state collapse nexus in five of the case stuuies
|.j. The final objective is to examine the effoits that aie being maue to make the state
ielevant anu suggest ways in which the vaiious faileu anuoi collapseu states that aie
coveieu in this volume can be uemociatically ieconstituteu, |.j." (Kieh 2uu7: 14)

In the 198us, one of the initiatois of the netwoik, aiea-stuuies-as-pait-of-the-netwoik has
consiueiably tiansfoimeu, uuiing the two phases of extenueu ciiculation of the faileu state.
Aiea Stuuies scholais incieasingly auuiess othei auuiences than theii specialist uiscouises
anu inueeu, also the inteiest in question of iegional anu inteinational secuiity has

44
Refeience neeueu.
4S
Clapham 2uu1, 2uu2, 2uu4a,b; Kieh 2uu7, 2uu9; Nenkhaus 1998, 2uuSa,b, 2uu6; Reno 1998, 2uuS,
2uu4, 2uu6.
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 5M
significantly incieaseu (compaieu to the eailiei focus on goveinance anu economic
issues).
46


A seconu instance of tianslation is the Woilu Bank. As we aigueu the Woilu Bank was
enioleu in the netwoik aiounu 2uu2. Faileu states pioviueu a consiueiable oppoitunity foi
Woilu Bankei to wiue theii manuate to also auuiess secuiity issues. With the accession of
the Woilu Bank in the net, the ciiculation of the faileu state was significantly wiueneu in
also incluuing uevelopment ieseaicheis anu piactitioneis. To ciiculate the faileu state the
Woilu Bank fabiicateu a new concept that has stiong iesemblances to the faileu state, anu
aimeu at integiating it unuei a uiffeient heauei. In 2uu2 the Woilu Bank launcheu its Low-
Income Countiies 0nuei Stiess ("LIC0S") piogiam to auuiess the pioblem (Woilu Bank
2uu2).

"Low-income countiies unuei stiess (LIC0S) aie chaiacteiizeu by veiy weak policies,
institutions, anu goveinance. Aiu uoes not woik well in these enviionments because
goveinments lack the capacity oi inclination to use finance effectively foi poveity
ieuuction" (Woilu Bank 2uu2).

The Woilu Bank iephiaseu the pioblem of faileu states as a pioblem of aiu effectiveness
anu to finu stiategies how uonois can iesponu to the challenges faileu states pose. The
woik of the LIC0S initiative also piouuceu the so calleu Countiy Policy anu Institutional
Assessment (CPIA) tool, which is intenueu to iate the quality of a countiy's policies anu
institutional aiiangements. The iatings aie useu foi allocating Inteinational Bevelopment
Association funus. Bespite theii powei in the global fielu anu this laige scale quantification
attempt the Woilu Bank uiu not manage - as we uetail below - to occupy a position in
which its uefinitioniephiasing of the faileu state (as stiess oi fiagility) became hegemonic.
Yet the Woilu Bank (togethei with othei actois) tieu secuiity issues closely togethei with
uevelopment issues. This, howevei, in tuin meant that the Woilu Bank was put in a position
thiough its eniolment to say something about secuiity, which it was neithei manuateu noi
ieally capable to uo.
47



46
Refeience neeueu.
47
0ne neeus only to think about the simplistic unueistanuing of how militaiy inteiventions woik of
the key Woilu Bank ieseaichei Paul Colliei (Refeience neeueu to the Colliei Book).
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 5N
Regaiuing the tianslation of the concept by foieign policymakeis the most significant point
is theii 'secuiitization' of the concept within global policy uiscouise (Lambach 2uuS). Foi
foieign policymakeis the faileu states netwoik was woith builuing, because the J1+ *"
Y'++*+ hau to be fought against ceitain states. Thus calling these states 'faileu' anu ielating
them to teiioiism, oiganizeu ciime anu uiug tiafficking woulu make aimeu inteivention
much easiei to justify to the public.
0nly thiee uays aftei the teiioiist attacks, 0niteu Kinguom's Foieign Secietaiy }ack Stiaw
stateu:

"(I)t is no longei toleiable that any states shoulu haiboui oi give succoui to teiioiists. The
inteinational community must unite as nevei befoie to take ueteimineu, collective action
against the thieat that failing anu faileu states pose to global secuiity." (Stiaw 2uu1)

Aftei the Septembei 11th attacks, the connection between teiioiist gioups anu faileu states
also enteieu the ihetoiic of the ueiman Foieign 0ffice (Auswitiges Amt - AA). Foieign
Ninistei Fischei uesciibeu faileu states as:

"Zones of political anu social uisoiuei aie not meiely a iegional pioblem anu a human
tiageuy, iathei an existential thieat to woilu peace emanates fiom these hotspots,
these 'black holes' of global politics."(Fischei 2uu2)

With theii ihetoiic foieign policymakeis cieateu an illness naiiative wheie faileu states
weie uesciibes as the patient which the inteinational community has to cuie (Nanjikian
2uu8).

Aftei uemonstiating in the pievious section that the faileu state netwoik consists of uiveise
actois who stabilize the netwoik, oui uiscussion of tianslation highlighteu in giving some
instances how the netwoik is stabilizeu anu the inteiests anu iuentities of actois aie
tiansfoimeu.


7 #$*+; *) /*<'+ 1"2 4*"$+*.
Eniolment is a continuing pioceuuie which keeps the behavioi of uiveise actois consistent
with netwoik. While actois will mainly aujust theii behavioi uue to the tianslation of theii
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 6U
inteiest anu iuentity, often actois howevei aim at occupying a position of powei anu
contiol in the netwoik. As biiefly intiouuceu, ANT has auvanceu the teims of
'spokespeisonship' anu 'obligatoiy passage points' to speak about powei. We suggest that
no cleai authoiity which speaks in the name of the faileu state has evolveu yet, though we
can obseive seveial moves of aiming at it. Noieovei, some obligatoiy passage points have
been establisheu, though also heie theie aie multiple.
The fight foi powei anu contiol of the netwoik is closely ielateu to piactices of labeling,
uefining anu quantifying the concept. As stateu eaily theie aie a lot of competing
uenominatois, piefeiieu by uiffeient actois in the netwoik. The teim 'faileu state' is the key
teim in foieign policy cycles anu among IR-scholais while uevelopment agencies anu think
tanks tenu to piefei the teim 'fiagile state' by which they tenu to integiate the notion of the
faileu state.
The fiist stiuggle foi contiol of the netwoik occuiieu uuiing the emeigence of the concept
uuiing the 199us weie plenty of scholais pioposeu uefinitions anu typologies.
48
The seconu
fight was one between two ieseaich piojects, the D$1$' C1%.&+' Y1#A C*+4'
49
anu the C1%.'2
D$1$'# 3+*Z'4$ at \1+-1+2 ["%-'+#%$; (Rotbeig 2uuS, 2uu4). Rotbeig iejecteu the accuiacy
anu geneial puipose of the quantitative ieseaich conuucteu by the Task Foice claiming that
the iesults aie tautological (Rotbeig 2uuS: 2u-22). In the post 2uu2 phase of the netwoik,
Rotbeig establisheu some kinu of passage point, inuicateu by the fact that actois of all kinus
ciiculating the faileu state thiough publication piactices 2uu2 anu 2uuS usually iefeience
his woik.
Bowevei, with the engagement of othei actois, especially the Woilu Bank anu uiveise think
tanks a new stiuggle foi powei began. New actois intiouuceu new uenominations of the
concept, such as "LIC0S", fiaming the phenomenon with a language moie familiai within
the uevelopment uiscouise. Seconu, the new actois fosteieu the technization of the concept.
Bevelopment Agencies, I0s anu think tanks uevelopeu pioxy lists, which tiieu to iuentify
faileu states with vaiying quantitative inuicatois (BFIB 2uuSb; Weinstein et al. 2uu4; Woilu
Bank 2uu2). New appioaches go even fuithei anu tianslate the concept state failuie into
measuiable inuicatois anu constiuct iankings foi all states in the global system. The most
piominent example of effoits to measuie the phenomenon is the so calleu Faileu States
Inuex publisheu by the non-piofit oiganization Funu foi Peace (Funu foi Peace 2uu9) since

48
E.g. Clapham 1998; uios 1996; Bolsti 1996; Zaitman 199S.
49
Bates et al. 2uuS; Esty et al. 1998; Esty et al. 199S; uolustone et al. 2uuu.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 6T
2uuS on a yeaily basis. Neanwhile a couple of alteinative inuices emeigeu, which tiy to
captuie the uegiee of state failuie by aggiegating quantitative inuicatois (Caiment et al.
2uu6; Naishall anu Cole 2uu8; Naishall anu uolustone 2uu7; Rice anu Patiick 2uu8).


D&001+;9 Y@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 74$*+]B'$<*+A9 7 014+*#$+&4$&+'^
Especially classical stuuies in ANT have aimeu at uemonstiating how in tianslations
maciostiuctuies (such as a state, oi a technology) emeige. These maciostiuctuies aie
chaiacteiizeu by iepiesentative actois, who act as spokespeisons foi the actoi-netwoik
anu aim at holuing the netwoik stable. Although a numbei of spokespeisons have
establisheu themselves to speak in the name of the faileu state, anu uespite haiu oiganizing
anu homogenizing woik, the faileu states netwoik is haiuly a homogenous stable stiuctuie.
Insteau the faileu state netwoik shoulu be seen as a fluiu stiuctuie (Law anu Nol 2uu1), in
which some homogenous coie exists, but the netwoik anu consequently the concept is
anything but stable. 0ne coulu also speak of something Kaiin Knoii Cetina uubs a "global
miciostiuctuie" (Knoii Cetina 2uuS): seveial local spaces connect in anu thiough piactice,
but they uo not foim a coheient maciostiuctuie.


0"! ?C2 3&)/2A *-&-2* 92-E4'H I 89 29&(-+29- 43 JKL

"The fiagile state uiscouise has been uominateu by Inteinational Relations scholais so fai"
(anonymous piofessoi of uevelopment stuuies in an inteiview)

What uoes the netwoik the faileu state ciiculates in tell us about IR. As alieauy shown IR is
a pait of the netwoik ciiculating the faileu state. It was pait of its biith, anu has contiibuteu
a goou ueal to the ciiculation of the concept. Saying that it is a pait of the netwoik, is to
suggest that IR has been tianslateu in the netwoik. Let us now exploie what IR is in ielation
to the netwoik, how IR is tianslateu in it, anu to what extent the IR-enioleu-in-the-faileu
states-netwoik takes a position of powei anu contiol.



=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 65
!I_# +*.' %" $@' "'$<*+A
To answei the question about the iole of IR within the netwoik we lookeu at the ielevance
of IR publications fiist. If we take D*4%1. D4%'"4' O%$1$%*" !"2'V WDDO!X anu investigate which
'uisciplines' aie the main contiibutoi to ciiculation thiough acauemic publication piactices
we get the following pictuie (cp. figuie one).

-)+>'# <H 5)64)7/)*.'P 6,.'#6 )* 4)'4>/.$)&* $,'&>+, .4.0#B)4 7>F/)4.$)&*
QL




This suggests us that IR is the majoi contiibutoi to the ciiculation of the concept. The
pictuie, though telling, is howevei pioblematic as it ielies on the clusteiing of the SSCI of
whethei a contiibution is IR oi belongs somewheie else. In othei woius the uiscusseu
bounuaiy pioblem is peitinent heie, anu the uefinition of the SSCI haiuly solves this. If we
look at the top twenty aiticles, most citeu accoiuing to SSCI the following pictuie aiises:

@.F/# <H R&>'*./6 &8 $&7 4)$#0 .'$)4/#6
R&>'*./ "'= &8 .'$)4/#6
8'&B $&7 ?L
Q<

9* 7#' 4#*$
Inteinational Secuiity S 1S
Foieign Affaiis S 1S
Austialian }ouinal of Inteinational Affaiis 2 1u

Su
SSCI seaich queiy: TS="faileu states" 0R TS="state failuie" ANB Language=(English) ANB
Bocument Type=(Aiticle); time span = 198u-2u1u.
S1
SSCI seaich queiy: TS="faileu states" 0R TS="state failuie" ANB Language=(English) ANB
Bocument Type=(Aiticle); time span = 198u-2u1u.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 66
Review of Inteinational Political Economy 2 1u
Washington Quaiteily 2 1u
Foieign Policy 1 S
}ouinal of Inteinational Relations anu Bevelopment 1 S
}ouinal of Peace Reseaich 1 S
Stuuies in Conflict anu Teiioiism 1 S
Suivival 1 S
Teiioiism anu Political violence 1 S
Woilu Policy }ouinal 1 S
Woilu Politics 1 S

While the SSCI uoes not covei non-English jouinals, anu is fai fiom incluuing all publication
outlets, the top twenty list, gives us a much cleaiei pictuie of the impoitance of IR in
oiganizing the uiscouise. Basically all of the top aiticles have been publisheu in an IR
affiliateu jouinal. Bence if we investigate ciiculation in publication piactices the IR netwoik
plays a ciucial iole. If we continue in investigating the iole of the IR net anu tuin to the
institutional affiliation of the authois, a moie uifficult (complex) pictuie aiises (compaie
table 2). Fiistly, not all of the authois aie (at time of publication) baseu in a univeisity. This
is notably the case foi jouinals which have a laigei ieaueiship among foieign policy elites.
Seconuly, the majoiity of ieseaicheis aie baseu in Bepaitments of Political Science, yet not
all of them have a cleai IR focus in theii woik, also (juugeu by uepaitments) also othei
uisciplines such as geogiaphy blenu in.

@.F/# ?H I>$,&'6 &8 $&7S4)$#0 .'$)4/#6
I>$,&'6 ".B# 5#7.'$B#*$ J.$ $)B# &8 E>F/)4.$)&*K 5)64)7/)*#T
E'&8#66)&*
Englehait, Neil A. Bowling uieen State 0niv, Bept Polit Sci,
Bowling uieen, 0B, 0SA.

Fox, }onathan Bai Ilan 0niv, Bept Polit Sci, Ramat uan, Isiael.


Belman, uB; Council of Foieign Relation Washington, BC,
0SA

Beibst, } Piinceton 0niv, Woouiow Wilson Sch. Int.
Affaiis, Piinceton, N}, 0SA

}ones, Bu 0niv Lonuon, Bept Polit, 0niv Lonuon
uolusmiths Coll, Lonuon, Englanu.

}oseph, R; Emoiy 0niv, Atlanta, uA, 0SA


King, u; Baivaiu 0niv, Cambiiuge, NA, 0SA


Kiasnei, SB; 0S Bept State, Policy Planning Staff,
Washington, BC, 0SA

Luke, TW; viiginia Polytech Inst & State 0niv, Bept Polit
Sci, Blacksbuig, 0SA

=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 6E
Nallaby, S Council of Foieign Relation Washington, BC,
0SA

Naziui, AA Suny Binghamton, Inst ulobal Cultuial Stuuies,
Binghamton, NY, 0SA

0Tuathail, u viiginia Polytech Inst & State 0niv, Bept ueog,
Blacksbuig, vA, 0SA

Pascual, C 0S Bept State, Policy Planning Staff,
Washington, BC 2uS2u 0SA

Piazza, }ames A. 0niv N Caiolina, Bept Polit Sci, Chailotte, NC,
0SA.

Ratnei, SR 0niteu Nations, ueneva, Switzeilanu


Reilly, B Austialian Natl 0niv, Asia Pacific Sch Econ &
uovt, Canbeiia, ACT, Austialia.

Rotbeig, RI -


Sayigh, Yeziu Kings Coll Lonuon, Bept Wai Stuuies, Lonuon,
Englanu

Wainwiight, E -


Wananui, } -


Zeng, L ueoige Washington 0niv, Washington, BC, 0SA



These uata give us some fuithei suppoit foi the claim that IR (as stiuctuienetwoik) is a
ciucial pait of the ciiculation of the faileu state. In summaiy, IR has a consiueiable iole in
the ciiculation netwoik.


!I_# $+1"#.1$%*"
To paiticipate entails a foim of tianslation. What tianslations of iuentity anu inteiest can be
saiu to have taken place in anu thiough the paiticipation of IR in the ciiculation netwoik..
IR ieseaichei weie among the oiiginatois of the faileu state ciiculation, staiting with
}ackson's theoiization of the weak state. State failuie conceins questions of (inteinational)
soveieignty, so it is no 'suipiise' that IR scholais ueal with it anu ciiculate it. The 'faileu
state' concept has settleu in IR. It is wiuely noteu in a numbei of unueigiauuate textbooks
anu majoi IR jouinals now ioutinely publish woik that ciiculates the faileu state.
At least thiee aiguments can be auvanceu on how IR tiansfoimeu uue to its eniolment.
Noie maiginal (centially Non-westein anu least uevelopeu) iegions moveu in the centie of
attention of many IR scholais. 0nueistanuing the insiue of nation states gaineu moie
impoitance, notably IR got involveu with uetails of "exotic" e.g. Afiican goveinance systems.
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 6F
IR, moieovei, switcheu its level of policy ielevance. While ceitainly these ieneweu inteiests
cannot be unueistoou (oi even explaineu) only in pointing to IR's eniolment in the faileu
state netwoik, it is suiely pait of the incieasing anu extenueu ciiculation of the faileu state.
Without uoubt this is the least uevelopeu pait of oui aigumentation. Let us nonetheless
point out how these aiguments can be maue.

IR got eniolleu as the concept touches the coie assumptions of the uiscipline. The new
notions of soveieignty that emeigeu aftei the enu of the Colu Wai challengeu the uominant
IR-theoiy of (stiuctuial) iealism. Piioi to the 199us the main focus of IR scholais was on
the inteiaction of the gieat poweis (Ayoob 1991). Since the 199us a slowly but incieasing
inteiest in the less uevelopeunon-Westein (0ECB) can be uiagnoseu.
Aftei the enu of the Colu Wai, notably secuiity stuuies shifteu its focus on the question
whethei conflict in the Thiiu Woilu coulu have implications foi the stability of the
inteinational system. Foi this aigument the faileu states concept anu its ielation to the
iegional spillovei aigument as well as pioblems of global scale, such as oiganizeu ciime oi
teiioiism. Noieovei, given that the concept of faileu states implieu to investigate the insiue
of nation states, anu consiueiable knowleuge about goveinance systems, local cultuies anu
tiauitions was feu in the netwoik by Afiican scholais, also IR scholais came to puzzle moie
anu moie about these local specificities. In othei woius thiough it eniolment IR became a
uiscipline moie than evei befoie inteiesteu in the inteinal politics of non-0ECB states.

The policy-oiienteu stieams in line with the seminal aiticle fiom Belman anu Ratnei
(1992), tenu to point to the pioblem of faileu states anu call foi action in the foim of a
change of piactice in the inteinational system.

"The inteinational community shoulu now be piepaieu to consiuei a novel, expansive--anu
uespeiately neeueu--effoit by the 0.N. to unueitake nation-saving iesponsibilities."
(Belman Ratnei 1992: 9)

The amount of aiticles making similai aiguments significantly incieases staiting fiom late
2uu2, with a giowing intenu to uemonstiate policy ielevance, anu to take the faileu state
concept to aim at incieasing the impact of IR.

=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 6K
"By concentiating on woist-case scenaiios of immeuiate vulneiability, moieovei, -C2 M.*C
&A+)9)*-'&-)49 452'/44H* the faileu-state ciucible in which many thieats to 0.S. inteiests
aie foigeu anu iisks alienating the paitneis anu unueicutting the cieuibility iequiieu to
auuiess them."(Ciockei 2uuSa: S2, emphasis auueu)

"?C2 M.*C &A+)9)*-'&-)49 has focuseu on uestioying al Qaeua in East Afiica, but it C&*
<229 */4E to auuiess less-visible teiioiist thieats elsewheie on the continent, such as
Islamist extiemism in Nigeiia anu ciiminal synuicates in West Afiica's faileu
states."(Lyman anu Noiiison 2uu4a, emphasis auueu)

In ieaction to the giowing uemanus by policymakeis anu I0s foi stiategies to cope with
faileu states, the uiscipline IR uebateu its coie assumptions in accounting foi the newly
emeigeu 'faileu states' netwoik. This uevelopment is expiesseu:

"|sjince the enu of the Colu Wai, weak anu failing states have aiguably become the *)9@/2G
+4*- )+F4'-&9- F'4</2+ 34' )9-2'9&-)49&/ 4'A2'"(Fukuyama 2uu4b: 92, emphasis
auueu).

""In touay's incieasingly )9-2'(4992(-2A E4'/A= E2&H &9A 3&)/2A *-&-2* F4*2 &9 &(.-2
')*H -4 N"," &9A @/4<&/ *2(.')-6. Inueeu, they piesent one of the most impoitant foieign
policy challenges of the contempoiaiy eia"(Kiasnei Pascual 2uuSa: 1SS, emphasis
auueu).

"3&)/)9@ *-&-2* &'2 & F'4</2+ 34' -C2 29-)'2 )9-2'9&-)49&/ *6*-2+ because the state
system exists to pioviue both oiuei anu justice. Bisintegiation of states opens the way foi
expansion by othei states oi seething instability anu humanitaiian ciises. It is theiefoie in
the inteiests of all states that states uo not fail" (Bolm 2uu2: 4S9, emphasis auueu).

"futuie +)/)-&'6 &(-)49* )9 3&)/2A *-&-2*, oi attempts to bolstei states that aie in uangei of
failing, may be moie likely to be uesciibeu <4-C &* *2/3GA2329(2 &9A &* C.+&9)-&')&9 oi
public-spiiiteu" (Keohane 2uu2: 282, emphasis auueu).

"collapseu states pose an )9-2'9&-)49&/ (4//2(-)52 &(-)49 F'4</2+ whose solution will
involve multilateial inteiventions that shaie the initial buiuen acioss a wiue vaiiety of
states, inteinational anu nongoveinmental oiganizations, anu coipoiations."(Feaion
Laitin 2uu4: 41, emphasis auueu).
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 6L

In summaiy, the faileu states concept pioviueu IR scholais the oppoitunity to uemonstiate
policy ielevance anu to aim at impacting public policy uiscouises, in this case the 0S
Ameiican one.


!I9 #/*A'#/'+#*" 1"2 *8.%>1$*+; /1##1>' /*%"$^
If we look at the latest stiuggle foi powei in the netwoik (see section S.1), we see that the
main attempts to contiol the netwoik aie cuiiently maue thiough a technical fiaming of the
concept ().
S2


@.F/# GH I$$#B7$6 $& B#.6>'# 6$.$# 8.)/>'#T6$.$# 8'.+)/)$P
QG

9*0#UT:.*()*+TE'&UPSV)6$ E'&0>4#'
CIFP Fiagility Inuex Caileton 0niveisity

LIC0SCIPIA The Woilu Bank

Faileu States Inuex Funu foi Peace

Inuex of State Weakness Biookings Institution

State Fiagility Inuex ueoige Nason 0niveisity

BFIB list of fiagile countiies 0.K. Bepaitment foi Inteinational
Bevelopment.
0SAIB: Fiagility - Inuicatois 0S Agency foi Inteinational Bevelopment.


But since most of these attempts to measuie oi iank state failuie come fiom I0s anu Think
Tanks (see Table S)
S4
the question aiises, weathei IR is losing the powei it gaineu with the
secuiization of the concept aftei Septembei 11
th
. IR seems to suffei fiom the attacks of
these new knowleuge piouuction spaces.
By applying a iathei technical vocabulaiy, speaking of a uiagnosis anu monitoiing of the
pioblem, the non-acauemic actois suggest a puie eviuence baseu appioach anu auuiess
policymakeis uiiectly.

S2
Caiment et al. 2uu9; BFIB 2uuSb; Funu foi Peace 2uu9; Naishall Cole 2uu8; Rice Patiick 2uu8;
0SAIB 2uuSb; Woilu Bank 2uu2.
SS
This Table was in pait auopteu fiom (Nata anu Ziaja 2uu9: 24)
S4
Naishall anu Cole (2uu8) anu Caiment (2uu9) aie exeptions anuoi uifficult to categoiize.
Auuitionally even the acauemic appioaches iely on uata pioviueu by I0s (Nata anu Ziaja 2uu9: 27)
=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' 6M

"The Faileu States Inuex piesents a uiagnosis of the pioblem, the fiist step in uevising
stiategies foi stiengthening weak anu failing states. The moie ieliably policymakeis can
anticipate, monitoi, anu measuie pioblems, the moie they can act to pievent violent
bieakuowns, piotect civilians caught in the ciossfiie, anu piomote iecoveiy. |.j Policies
shoulu be tailoieu to the neeus of each state, monitoieu anu evaluateu intensively, anu
changeu, as necessaiy, if iecoveiy is not occuiiing as intenueu. Continuous monitoiing of
the measuies, using the same assessment methouology, can infoim uecision making on
stiategies anu piogiams." (Funu foi Peace 2uu9)

It seems to be no coinciuent that these new appioaches aie ciiticizeu by IR piotagonists.
Foi example Rotbeig, who establisheu some kinu of obligatoiy passage point foi IR
between 2uu2 anu 2uuS is iathei skeptic about the iesults of the Faileu States Inuex.

"This yeai's Faileu States Inuex, using a uiffeient methouology, piouuces some puzzling
iesults. |.j Zimbabwe is the seconu-most faileu state, just aheau of Suuan, Chau, the
Bemociatic Republic of the Congo, Iiaq, anu Afghanistan. Yet Zimbabwe has no uisceinible
civil waifaie. Its goveinment uoes piey haishly on any opposition, but the Zimbabwean
state has not lost its monopoly contiol of violence anu shoulu theiefoie not be consiueieu
faileu. Anu though theie aie simmeiing pockets of conflict in Suuan, the Bemociatic
Republic of the Congo, Iiaq, Afghanistan, anu Pakistan, these states have faileu only if theii
piovision of political goous to the entiie population has conclusively fallen to the lowest
ianking among iegional peeis. 0thei iesults aie equally confusing. Can Nigeiia, with some
violence but with the state mostly in contiol, iate woise than Sii Lanka, with its iecent
histoiy of inteinal conflict. Shoulu Colombia, with two oi thiee fizzling inteinal civil wais,
iank 41st while Bolivia uoes bettei uespite its ongoing secessionist movement. Finei anu
moie accuiate uistinctions among states aie always piefeiable, especially with the woilu's
least effective-anu most complicateu-countiies. A moie objective system of iankings woulu
bettei help policymakeis analyze the options available anu choose the piesciiptions that
best fit the countiy in peiil."

Anothei iecent attempt to gain back contiol of the netwoik was iecently maue by Baviu
Caiment anu colleagues (Caiment et al. 2uu9). In theii latest volume Caiment et al.
complain about a lack of theoietical coheience within ieseaich on state fiagility thus
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' 6N
ciiticizing the non-acauemic contiibutions. The puipose of theii book shall be to coiiect
this ueficit.

"The puipose of this volume theiefoie is to auuiess the iesulting lack of coheience in both
ieseaich anu policy ielateu to state fiagility anu failuie"(Caiment et al. 2uu9: 1)

But aftei laying out theii own theoietical fiamewoik Caiment anu colleagues then pioceeu
with a iathei technical appioach; opeiationalize the concept into inuicatois anu aggiegate
those into yet anothei Inuex of State Fiagility anu conuuct laige-N statistical analysis with
it. The authois aim foi an appioach, which is both, theoietical coheient anu easy to giasp
foi policy makeis.

"This volume is theiefoie ueuicateu not just to the intiouuction of acauemic iigoi to
the subject, but also to the foimulation anu communication of the iesults of that
analysis in a way that enables cooiuinateu anu effective inteinational policy".
(Caiment et al. 2uu9: 1)

To sum up, IR is losing giounu in the stiuggle foi powei within the faileu states netwoik,
but by auopting piactices of non-acauemic knowleuge piouuceis IR is able to pick up the
fight.


0"0 ,.++&'6
As uiscusseu in this section, ANT pioviues us inteiesting lenses to unueistanu the
ciiculation of concepts. In contiast to othei appioaches to the sociology of knowleuge (anu
IR) a iichei much moie uynamic pictuie uevelops. The stoiy of a concept such as the faileu
state iequiies us to consiuei all soits of actois anu as uiscusseu the ielations between these
actois aie ciucial to unueistanu how a concept changes its meaning anu how actois aujust
theii behavioi. While we have not yet fully shown how IR tianslates tiansfoimeu, we coulu
at least aigue that IR is a ciucial pait of the ciiculation netwoik of the faileu state. While
having an impoitant iole in the netwoik, notably in pioviuing the infiastiuctuie foi the
ciiculation of the faileu state in acauemic publishing piactices, IR, nonetheless, has not
establisheu itself as the authoiity to speak in the name of the faileu state.

=&'>'+ ? ='$@A' EU

O= 3*.4$)*+ . 0)64)7/)*#; I"@ .*0 $,# 6&4)&/&+P &8 $,# 0)64)7/)*#

The piimaiy objective of this aiticle was to ponuei about alteinatives that allow us to cope
with the iuentifieu pioblematiques in the contempoiaiy sociology of IR uebate. As we
uemonstiateu ANT pioviues a valuable auuition anu alteinative to contempoiaiy
appioaches. As we have aigueu in uiscussing the case of the faileu states actoi netwoik,
ANT offeis a peispective by which we can auuiess the pioblems of naicissism,
stiuctuialism anu peifoimative powei in a much moie stiaightfoiwaiu mannei. In
uiiecting oui attention to the local actions of ieseaicheis, ANT is an attempt to uniavel how
scholais (ie-)fabiicate laigei global stiuctuies. ulobal stiuctuies, such as IR aie howevei
not necessaiily stable macio stiuctuies, but can be seen as global miciostiuctuies oi
stiuctuies of a moie fluiu chaiactei. In its post-pluialist attituue ANT offeis a peispective in
which we can stuuy a multiplicity of uiffeient micio units that hang nonetheless togethei in
stiuctuies such as IR. The empiiicism not giving supeiioiity to the objectifiei ovei the
objectifying subject anu the paisimonious attituue avoiuing apiioii set bounuaiies anu
categoiies helps to tianscenu the pioblem of naicissism. Stiuctuialism is avoiueu uue to the
focus on piactices anu an inteipietation of stiuctuies as consequential only in anu thiough
piactical enactments. A potential stiuctuie such as IR hence iequiies the continuously
usage of this stiuctuie. Action, enactment takes place in situations, hence theie is a
continuous slippage anu contingency is foie giounueu. 0ne of the bounuaiies ANT uoes not
want to settle apiioii is the bounuaiy between science anu politics, the focus is hence
always on political anu powei effects of any action. Noieovei in its assumptions ANT is a
theoiy of peifoimativity. The aim is not only to be ieflective towaius the peifoimative
uimensions of the ieseaicheis own uoings anu sayings, but also to iuentify anu stuuy
peifoimative effects. In summaiy, ANT gives us inteiesting anu iefieshing lenses on what
IR is, anu what it is composeu of.
Without uoubt ANT will not be the piimaiy mean foi all of the questions that sociologies of
IR want to auuiess. Notably the stiict empiiical oiientation puts heavy buiuen on the
ieseaicheis anu stuuies using ANT can haiuly be uone in a "on the weekenu"-attituue oi
between othei issues. Also if the puipose is to tell a heioic stoiy of the uiscipline (in how
well it is woiking in some places, etc.) ANT is haiuly the tool to uo so. Bowevei, we suggest
that ANT stuuies can pioviue thought piovoking ie-uesciiptions of what happens in anu
B'$<*+A%"> $@' C1%.'2 D$1$' ET
with IR, which inueeu might leau us to peifoim anu ciiculate a uiffeient IR. That is an IR
which has iich ielations to othei uisciplines, knowleuge pioviueis anu politics. That is an IR
which is not only an abstiact epistemic exeicise, but iich of a iange of eveiyuay
(piofessional) piactices. That is an IR which is not fieeu fiom powei ielations, but in which
inequalities anu imbalances aie auuiesseu.


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