Principles of learning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2012) Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning, also referred to as laws of learning, which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three " aws of learning!" readiness, exercise, and effect. "ince Thorndike set down his basic three laws in the early part of the twentieth century, five additional principles have been added! primacy, recency, intensity, freedom and requirement. The ma#ority of these principles are widely applied in aerospace instruction, and some in many other fields, as outlined below!

Contents

$ %eadiness & E'ercise ( Effect ) Primacy * %ecency + ,ntensity - Freedom . %e/uirement 0 aws of earning 1pplied to earning 2ames $3 "ee also $$ %eferences $& E'ternal links $( Further reading

Readiness

Readiness implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. ,ndividuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. 2etting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the sub#ect matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor4s responsibility. ,f students have a strong purpose, a clear ob#ective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. ,n other words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructor4s #ob. "ince learning is an active process, students must have ade/uate rest, health, and physical ability. 5asic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. "tudents who are e'hausted or in ill health cannot learn much. ,f they are distracted by outside responsibilities, interests, or worries, have overcrowded schedules, or other unresolved issues, students may have little interest in learning.

Exercise
The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. ,t is the basis of drill and practice. ,t has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. ,t is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single e'posure. "tudents do not learn comple' tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review and summary, and manual drill and physical applications. 1ll of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must repeat important items of sub#ect matter at reasonable intervals, and provide opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is directed toward a goal.

Effect
6ain article! aw of effect

En#oying the water 7 earning backstroke photo by Tom89:

The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. ,t has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The student will strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recogni;e and commend improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom. <ne of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner that each trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success. E'periences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. ,f, for e'ample, an instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrated. ,mpressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned can make the teaching task difficult. =sually it is better to tell students that a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability to understand or perform. Every learning e'perience does not have to be entirely successful, nor does the student have to master each lesson completely. 9owever, every learning e'perience should contain elements that leave the student with some good feelings. 1 student4s chance of success is definitely increased if the learning e'perience is a pleasant one. Further information! Emotion and memory and <perant conditioning

Primacy
>ot to be confused with aw of primacy in persuasion. Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right. ?=nteaching@ wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the first time. ,f, for e'ample, a student learns a faulty techni/ue, the instructor will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and ?reteaching@ correct ones. The studentAs first e'perience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow. What the student learns must be procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The instructor must present sub#ect matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the students have already learned the preceding step. ,f the task is learned in isolation, is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must be relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and following a lesson plan facilitates delivery of the sub#ect matter correctly the first time. Further information! "erial position effect

Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Bonversely, the further a student is removed time7wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For e'ample, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully. ,nformation ac/uired last generally is remembered bestC fre/uent review and summari;ation help fi' in the mind the material covered. ,nstructors recogni;e the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary for a lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasi;es important points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them. The principle of recency often determines the se/uence of lectures within a course of instruction. Further information! "erial position effect, Forgetting, and Forgetting curve

Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. 1 sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or e'citing learning e'perience teaches more than a routine or boring e'perience. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For e'ample, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it than by reading the script. ikewise, a student is likely to gain greater understanding of tasks by performing them rather than merely reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the learning is to a real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student. %eal world applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are capable of learning will make a vivid impression on them. ,n contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the amount of realism that can be brought into teaching. The instructor needs to use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible. Blassroom instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids, to improve realism, motivate learning, and challenge students. ,nstructors should emphasi;e important points of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playing do much to increase the learning e'perience of students. E'amples, analogies, and personal e'periences also make learning come to life. ,nstructors should make full use of the senses Ehearing, sight, touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth perception, and othersF.

Freedom
The principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Bonversely, the further a student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned. Bompulsion and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom en#oyed by individuals within a society, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement en#oyed by society as a whole.

"ince learning is an active process, students must have freedom! freedom of choice, freedom of action, freedom to bear the results of actionGthese are the three great freedoms that constitute personal responsibility. ,f no freedom is granted, students may have little interest in learning.

Requirement
The law of re/uirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something " ,t can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. 1 starting point or root is neededC for e'ample, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials with which to draw, and you must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you reach your goal, which is to draw a person. Further information! aw of %e/uirement

!aws of !earning "pplied to !earning #ames

The principles of learning have been presented as an e'planation for why learning games Ethe use of games to introduce material, improve understanding, or increase retentionF can show such incredible results.H$I ,n particular, the principles of learning present conditions which are very similar to a number of the design techni/ues used in games. 2ames use the techni/ue of Flow, which is "the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matterC the e'perience itself is so en#oyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it." E6ihJly BsKks;entmihJlyiFH&I The primary aim of flow in games is to create intrinsically motivating e'periences, which is a part of the principle of readiness. 2ames use many other techni/ues which tie to the principles of learning.H$I They use practice to prolong game play, which is part of the principle of e'ercise. 2ame designers also place heavy emphasis on feedback, which goes with practice as part of e'ercise. 2ames use the techni/ue of simplicity to reduce distractions, balance difficulty versus skill, and accurately correlate actions to corrective feedback. This impacts flow and motivation and increases the positive feelings toward the activity, which links back to the principles of e'ercise, readiness, and effect. 2ames use immersion and engagement as ways to create riveting e'periences for players, which is part of the principle of intensity. Finally, part of the primary appeal of games is that they are fun. 1lthough fun is hard to define, it is clear that it involves feelings such as engagement, satisfaction, pleasure, and en#oyment which are part of the principle of effect.

aws of Learning
INTRODUCTION:
Anyone who intends to guide and direct the learning activities of others requires a detailed understanding of the nature and processes of learning. Instructors are masters of many skills. What they teach demands a high degree of competence in presenting subject matter. Nevertheless, !W they teach depends largely on their understanding of the learning process and the ability to apply this understanding.

DEFINITION OF LEARNING What is "learning#" $earning takes place when there is a change in a student%s behavior. It may not be directly observable. $earning is based on observation of behavior changes that result from a person%s interaction with their environment. An individual%s learning may involve changes in any of three areas& '. (anner of perceiving and thinking. ). *hysical behavior +motor skills,. -. .motional reactions or attitudes. $earning refers to any of these changes when they occur as a result of an e/perience. 0hus, learning cannot be literally described but the conditions under which it occurs can be identified. 0he instructor should understand these conditions and apply them when teaching.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNING PROCESS Purposeful Process. (ost people have definite ideas about what they want to achieve. 0hey have goals or clear objectives. .ffective instructors seek ways to create new learning situations to meet the trainees% goals. (otivation, the force that impels a person toward a goal, is the instructor%s most effective tool to encourage learning. 0his can be either weak or strong motivation depending on the situation. Internal Experience. 0he instructor cannot learn for the trainee, nor can he or she pour predigested learning into the trainee%s head. 0he trainee can learn only from his or her own e/periences. A person%s knowledge is a result of their e/periences and manner of perceiving them and reacting to them. No two people have e/actly the same e/periences. All learning stems from e/perience. 1or e/ample, by repeated drill, a trainee can learn to repeat a list of words or to recite the principles of leadership. owever, trainees can make the list an actual part of their lives only if they understand them well enough to apply the ideas that they represent correctly in real situations. Active Process. 2ince learning comes only through e/perience, the trainee must be actively involved in the e/perience. 0his activity can take many forms. $earning is more than simply e/posing a trainee to an idea or a skill. $ikewise, one cannot safely assume that trainees can apply what they know just because they correctly quote a paragraph from a te/tbook. 0he trainee must become actively involved in the learning situation, but just any kind of involving activity will not suffice. 0he trainee must engage in the appropriate activity. !bviously, learning a physical skill requires e/perience in performing that skill. 0he instructor should understand, however, that mental habits are always learned through practice. .ven attitudes are developed or modified as an individual reacts emotionally to a stimulus. Multidimensional. $earning is multidimensional. (ultidimensional develops new concept. In other words, it is possible to learn other things while concentrating on or practicing the main subject. While practicing drill, the trainees learn teamwork and cooperation. While learning dormitory arrangement, they learn attention to details and following e/plicit instructions. Individual Process. All trainees do not learn at the same rate. New instructors are likely to be discouraged when they discover that a well3planned lesson does not enable them to teach all the trainees with equal effectiveness. 0hey soon recogni4e this as a natural and predictable problem because trainees seldom learn at the same rate. 5ifferences in rates of learning are based on

differences in intelligence, background, e/perience, interests, desire to learn, and countless other psychological, emotional and physical factors. Instructors must recogni4e these differences in determining the amount of subject matter to teach, the rate of which they will cover the material, and the appropriate time to teach it. !nce the slower trainees are identified, it is up to the instructor to bring them up to the level of the rest of the flight. 6ou must identify their weak areas, bring the areas to their attention, and show them how to correct them. 6ou may be fortunate and have some trainees who e/cel. 0hese trainees may be used to help others during their practice. 0his serves a twofold purpose. 0he fast learning trainees are relieved from boredom and the slow learning trainees receive the benefit of the peers% e/pertise.

Laws of Learning
.dward $. 0horndike in the early '788%s postulated several "$aws of $earning," that seemed generally applicable to the learning process. 2ince that time, other educational psychologists have found that the learning process is indeed more comple/ than the "laws" identified. owever, the "laws" do provide the instructor with insight into the learning process that will assist in providing a rewarding e/perience to the trainee. 0he laws that follow are not necessarily stated as *rofessor 0horndike first stated them. !ver the years, they have been restated and supplemented, but, in essence, they may be attributed to him. 0he first three are the basic laws& the law of readiness, the law of e/ercise, and the most famous and still generally accepted, the law of effect. 0he other three laws were added later as a result of e/perimental studies& the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of recency. As with anything else relative to the instruction and learning process, nothing that we do is a singular item9 a combination of activities occurs at the same time to make the e/perience complete.

Law of Readiness
0he $aw of :eadiness means a person can learn when physically and mentally adjusted +ready, to receive stimuli. Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they will not learn much if they see no reason for learning. If trainees have a strong purpose, a clear objective and a sound reason for learning, they usually make more progress than trainees who lack motivation. When trainees are ready to learn, they are more willing to participate in the learning process, and this simplifies the instructor%s job. If outside responsibilities or worries weigh heavily on trainees% minds or if their personal problems seem unsolvable, they may have little interest in learning.

Law of Exercise
T e Law of Exercise s!resses ! e idea ! a! re"e!i!ion is #asic !o ! e de$e%o"&en! of ade'(a!e res"onses) ! ings &os! of!en re"ea!ed are easies! re&e&#ered* T e &ind can rare%+ reca%% new conce"!s or "rac!ices af!er a sing%e ex"os(re, #(! e$er+ !i&e i! is "rac!iced, %earning con!in(es and is enforced* T e ins!r(c!or &(s! "ro$ide o""or!(ni!ies for !rainees !o "rac!ice or re"ea! ! e !as-* Re"e!i!ion consis!s of &an+ !+"es of ac!i$i!ies, inc%(ding reca%%, re$iew, res!a!e&en!, &an(a% dri%% and " +sica% a""%ica!ion* Re&e&#er ! a! "rac!ice &a-es "er&anen!, no! "erfec! (n%ess ! e !as- is !a(g ! correc!%+*

Law of Effec!
T is %aw in$o%$es ! e e&o!iona% reac!ion of ! e %earner* Learning wi%% a%wa+s #e &(c &ore effec!i$e w en a fee%ing of sa!isfac!ion, "%easan!ness, or reward acco&"anies or is a res(%!

of ! e %earning "rocess* Learning is s!reng! ened w en i! is acco&"anied #+ a "%easan! or sa!isf+ing fee%ing and ! a! i! is wea-ened w en i! is associa!ed wi! an (n"%easan! ex"erience* An ex"erience ! a! "rod(ces fee%ings of defea!, fr(s!ra!ion, anger or conf(sion in a !rainee is (n"%easan!* Ins!r(c!ors s o(%d #e ca(!io(s a#o(! (sing nega!i$e &o!i$a!ion* Us(a%%+ i! is #e!!er !o s ow !rainees ! a! a "ro#%e& is no! i&"ossi#%e, #(! is wi! in ! eir ca"a#i%i!+ !o (nders!and and so%$e*

Law of Pri&ac+
0his law states that the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakeable impression. 1or the instructor, this means that what they teach the first time must be correct. If a subject is incorrectly taught, it must be corrected. It is more difficult to un3teach a subject than to teach it correctly the first time. 1or the trainees% first learning e/perience should be positive and functionally related to training.

Law of In!ensi!+
0he principle of intensity states that if the stimulus +e/perience, is real, the more likely there is to be a change in behavior +learning,. A vivid, dramatic or e/citing learning e/perience teaches more than a routine or boring e/perience. A trainee will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. 5emonstrations, skits, and models do much to intensify the learning e/periences of trainees.

Law of Recenc+
0hings most recently learned are best remembered, while the things learned some time ago are remembered with more difficulty. It is sometimes easy, for e/ample, to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall a telephone number dialed a week ago. :eview, warm3ups, and similar activities are all based on the principle that the more recent the e/ercise, the more effective the performance. *racticing a skill or new concept just before using it will ensure a more effective performance. Instructors recogni4e the law of recency when they plan a lesson summary or a conclusion of the lecture. :epeat, restate, or reemphasi4e important matters at the end of a lesson to make sure that trainees remember them instead of inconsequential details.

SU..AR/:
6ou will soon become directly responsible for literally hundreds of learning situations. 0he degree of knowledge that you impart to your trainees will depend a great deal on how well you can apply your understanding of the learning process. $earn to recogni4e the trainees% physical, emotional, and attitudinal states and the effect you can have on these states employing the characteristics and laws of learning. elp to motivate your trainees toward a goal and lessen their frustration by holding confusion to a minimum. :emember that learning is multidimensional and capitali4e on this fact.

The 5 Laws of Learning

The instant we are born into this world, we embark on a challenging, lifelong journey of learning. We start out learning basic things like walking and talking. From there we enter school, where we take on the alphabet, socializing and writing, as well as reading and arithmetic. Then it goes on and on. Many teenagers think that learning stops after high school or college, but in reality, learning goes on until the end of our lifetimes. Some things we e cel at, some we are just okay with, and other things we are embarrassed to show people how little we know. Why is this! Why do we all comprehend and e cel at learning things at "arious skill le"els! The answers to that can be found in the Fi"e #aws of #earning, and they are as follows$ %. The #aw of &oing. 'ands on, otherwise known as e perience, teaches us best. The connection between actually doing something and our brain is a strong one. So, when you are learning something new, don(t just discuss how to do it, or read about how to do it...&o )t. *. The #aw of Moti"ation. When something is worth learning, it is worth learning well, to paraphrase that old adage. )f your heart just isn(t into something, you will not learn it. +ttitude has a lot to do with approaching a new subject to learn it. So does moti"ation. ,now why what you are about to learn is important to you. #earn how it affects your life. -nderstand the basic concept behind what you are about to learn. Find what will moti"ate you to pick up a new skill. .et behind it and go for it. /. The #aw of 0ele"ancy. )f a subject is not rele"ant to you in your life, you will unconsciously refuse to learn it. That is because you inherently need to know why you are learning it. 1ou want to learn how to use the internet, but you may not need to know 'TM# or any of its scripting languages in order to learn how to find things on the search engines, or na"igate around websites. 1ou must know what is rele"ant, and cut out all of the rest that will be of no use to you.

2. The #aw of +ssociation. 'a"e you e"er started to learn something, and upon learning some key concepts, found that you learned the subject more easily, because you disco"ered that what you are learning now is similar to something you learned before! That is the #aw of +ssociation at work for you. 1our mind works by associating similar classifications of things, and applying them to the new field of study. We learn to read by first learning about letters and sounds, then putting them together in the new field of study called reading. We first learn about numbers, then about basic ways to add, subtract, multiply and di"ide those numbers, before entering new fields of study like algebra, geometry and calculus. This e ample can be carried into anything we learn, for our entire li"es. )t is easier to learn something new and more ad"anced when we ha"e a basic background that is similar, that we can associate with our new subject. 3. The #aw of 0epetition. +nyone who has gone to church for any length of time, especially as children, can relate to this #aw. 'ow many times did we need to hear about the Story of 4oah, or the Fall of +dam! -ntil we learned it, that(s how many times. 5y repeating information and principles, we retain the subject matter more strongly and are more easily able to recall the subject. The reason we can remember song lyrics from our fa"orite songs years later is because of the #aw of 0epetition. The more we are e posed to a topic, the deeper it is embedded into our minds. Memorization is just the #aw of 0epetition. +s you embark on new learning e periences, keep these fi"e #aws in your mind. They will be your guide as you feel frustrated about 6not getting it at first.6 +pply these #aws and you will get it. 1ou may not master the subject, but you will learn it.

These laws are particularly relevant to adult learners. Law of previous experience : New learning should be linked to (and build upon) the experiences of the learner. Check the entry level of the participants. Remind yourself that adults bring a variety of rich experiences to the training session. Design activities to ensure easy adjustments to fit different entry levels and to incorporate relevant experiences. Law of relevance: Effective learning is relevant to the learners life and work. Use simulations and role plays to increase the link between the learning situation and the real world. fter a training activity! debrief the participants and discuss strategies for applying what they learned in the game to their real"world context. Law of self-direction. Most adults are self-directed learners.

Don#t force everyone to participate in every activity. $dentify training objectives and let participants select among different resources and activities to learn at their own pace and according to their personal preferences. $nvolve participants in setting training goals and selecting appropriate types of learning activities. Law of expectations. earners! reaction to a training session is shaped b" their expectations related to the content area# training for$at# fellow participants# and the trainer. %ome learners are anxious about mathematical concepts and skills. &ncourage them with intriguing pu''les and short"cut techni(ues. )ther learners feel uncomfortable about making fools of themselves in public while playing games. &stablish ground rules that reward risk"taking among participants. Demonstrate non"judgmental behavior by applauding participants for their effort. Law of self image. %dult learners have definite notions about what t"pe of learners the" are. &hese notions interfere with or enhance their learning. Reassure participants about their ability to learn new concepts and skills. *otivate them to attempt challenging tasks. &nsure fre(uent and early successes by making initial tasks simple and by progressing in small steps. +owever! avoid patroni'ing participants with simple! trivial tasks. $ncorporate learning tasks at different levels of difficulty in your activities. Law of multiple criteria. %dult learners use a variet" of standards to 'udge their learning experiences and acco$plish$ents. &ncourage participants to choose personal standards and scoring systems. ,rovide different ways to -win- in your activities. $n simulations and role" plays! keep scores related to different criteria. During debriefing! discuss alternative criteria for measuring participants# performance. Law of alignment. %dult learners re(uire the training ob'ectives# content# activities# and assess$ent techni(ues to be aligned to each other. Create a training situation that closely resembles the job situation. Teach and test for the same content! using similar strategies. *ake sure that the scoring system used in your training activities rewards the mastery of the training objectives. General Public

These laws apply to all human beings! from infancy to old age. Law of active learning: %ctive responding produces $ore effective learning than passive listening or reading. $ntersperse lectures and reading assignments with active"learning episodes such as (ui''es and pu''les. ,rovide participants with ample opportunities to respond by asking (uestions! encouraging them to ask (uestions! answering their (uestions! and (uestioning their answers. Law of practice and feedback: earners cannot $aster skills without repeated practice and relevant feedback. Don.t confuse understanding a procedure with ability to perform it. $nvest ample time in conducting activities that provide repeated practice and feedback. *ake sure that the training activities incorporate immediate and useful feedback from peers and experts. Use rating scales! checklists! and other devices to ensure that the feedback is objective and useful. Law of individual differences: )ifferent people learn in different wa"s. Use training activities that accommodate a variety of learning styles. *ake sure that participants can respond by writing! speaking! drawing! or acting out. &ncourage and permit participants to learn individually! in pairs! and in teams. Law of learning domains. )ifferent t"pes of learning re(uire different t"pes of strategies. /earn to recogni'e different types of training content and objectives. Don#t use the same type of activity to teach different types of training. Use suitable designs to help participants achieve different training objectives related to concepts! procedures! and principles. Law of response level. earners $aster skills and knowledge at the level at which the" are re(uired to respond during the learning process. $f your training activity re(uires participants to merely talk about a procedure! don#t assume that they will be able to apply it in their workplace. $f you want participants to solve workplace problems! the learning activity should re(uire them to solve problems. void trivial! closed (uestions with rote"memory answers in your training games. Challenge participants with authentic that re(uire innovative solutions.

All Creatures Great and Small These laws apply to all animals! include white mice! pigeons! dolphins! and people. Law of reinforcement: *articipants learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded. *ake sure that training activities provide several opportunities for earning rewards. Re(uire participants to make fre(uent decisions and responses. During the initial stages of training! reward even partially"correct answers. Law of emotional learning: Events that are acco$panied b" intense e$otions result in long-lasting learning. Use training games! simulations! and role plays that add emotional element to learning. *ake sure that emotions don.t become too intense and interfere with learning. *ake sure that participants don.t learn dysfunctional behaviors because of intense emotions. Debrief participants after emotional activities to reflect on their feelings and learn from their reactions.

!earning theory $education%

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

+ classroom in 4orway. #earning also takes places in many other settings.

!earning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Bognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior e'perience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is ac/uired or changed, and knowledge and skills retained.H$IH&I 5ehaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of

learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than the environment, in particular, the comple'ities of human memory. 9umanists emphasi;e the importance of self7knowledge and relationships in the learning process. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learnerAs ability to learn relies to a large e'tent on what he already knows and understands, and that the ac/uisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.

Contents

% 7aradigms o %.% 5eha"iorism

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%.%.% 8onditioning

%.* 8ogniti"ism

%.*.% 9ducational neuroscience %.*.* Ta onomies

%./ 'umanism

%./.% Transformati"e learning

%.2 8onstructi"ism

* :ther topics
o o o o

*.% Multimedia #earning *.* #earning Style Theory "s )nstructional Theory *./ )nformal and post;modern theories *.2 8riticism of learning theory

/ See also 2 0eferences 3 Further reading < 9 ternal links

Paradigms
)t has been suggested that portions of Educational psychology#Learning theory be mo"ed or incorporated into this section. =&iscuss>

Behaviorism Main article$ 5eha"iorism =philosophy of education>

5ehaviorism, as a learning theory, is based on a change in knowledge through controlled stimulusLresponse conditioning. This type of learner is dependent upon an instructor for ac/uisition of knowledge. The instructor must demonstrate factual knowledge, then observe, measure, and modify behavioral changes in specified direction. This type of learning is a conditioned response or memori;ation of facts, assertions, rules, laws, and terminology. The correct response is achieved through stimulation of senses. The focus of intelligence development is visualLspatial, musicalLrhythmic, and bodilyLkinesthetic intelligence. The purpose in education is to help a learner adopt knowledge from an instructor through use of the learner4s senses. This learning goal is the lowest order learning! factual knowledge, skill development, and training. The term "behaviorism" was coined by Mohn Watson E$.-.N$0*0F. Watson believed that theori;ing thoughts, intentions or other sub#ective e'periences was unscientific and insisted that psychology must focus on measurable behaviors.H(I For behaviorism, learning is the ac/uisition of a new behavior through conditioning.

Conditioning
5oth types of conditioning forms the core of 5ehavior 1nalysis. ,t has grown into a populari;ed practice called 1pplied behavior analysis. 151 differs from 5ehavior modification as the latter only used reinforcement and aversive punishments to modify behavior. There are two types of conditioning!

8lassical conditioning, where the beha"ior becomes a refle response to stimulus. :perant conditioning, where antecedents follow a beha"ior which leads to a conse?uence such as a punishment, reward, or reinforcement.

Blassical conditioning was noticed by ,van Pavlov when he saw that if dogs come to associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or with the ringing of a bell, they will produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of food. Blassical conditioning regards this form of learning to be the same whether in dogs or in humans.H)I <perant conditioning, or radical behaviorism, also known as the e'perimental analysis of behavior, reinforces this behavior with antecedents, rewards and non7aversive punishments. 1 reward increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment decreases its likelihood.
H*I

5ehaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior, and will arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such devices as behavioral ob#ectives, Bompetency7based learning, and skill development and training.H+I
Cognitivism Main article$ 8ogniti"ism =philosophy of education>

Bognitivism, as a learning theory, is the theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning through se/uential development of an individual4s cognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, reflection, application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The BognitivistsA learning process is adoptive learning of techni/ues, procedures, organi;ation, and structure to develop internal cognitive structure that strengthens synapses in the brain. The learner re/uires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The purpose in education is to develop conceptual knowledge, techni/ues, procedures, and algorithmic problem solving using OerbalL inguistic and ogicalL6athematical intelligences. The learner re/uires scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The educatorsA role is pedagogical in that the instructor must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. This theory relates to early stages of learning where the learner solves well defined problems through a series of stages. Bognitive theories grew out of 2estalt psychology, developed in 2ermany in the early $033s and brought to 1merica in the $0&3s. The 2erman word gestalt is roughly e/uivalent to the English configuration or pattern and emphasi;es the whole of human e'perience.H-I <ver the years, the 2estalt psychologists provided demonstrations and described principles to e'plain the way we organi;e our sensations into perceptions.H.I 2estalt psychologists critici;e behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to e'plain learning. They propose looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.H0I 2estalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach! that the memory system is an active organi;ed processor of information and that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Bognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long term memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory.H$3I They view learning as an internal mental process Eincluding insight, information processing, memory and perceptionF where the educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development.H+I The individual learner is more important than the environment. <nce memory theories like the 1tkinson7"hiffrin memory modelH$$I and 5addeleyAs working memory modelH$&I were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the $0-3s, .3s, and 03s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design.H$(I Bognitive theory is used to e'plain such topics as social role ac/uisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.

Educational neuroscience
Main article$ 9ducational neuroscience )t has been suggested that portions of this section be mo"ed into Educational neuroscience. =&iscuss>

1merican =niversities such as 9arvard, Mohns 9opkins, =niversity of "outhern Balifornia and others, in the first decade of the twenty7first century, began offering ma#ors and degrees dedicated to educational neuroscience or neuroeducation. "uch studies seek to link an understanding of brain processes with classroom instruction and e'periences.H$)I >euroeducation seeks to analy;e the biological changes that take place in the brain as new information is processed. ,t looks at what environmental, emotional and social situations are best in order for new information to be retained and stored in the brain via the linking of neurons, rather than allowing the dendrites to be reabsorbed and the information lost. The $003s were designated "The Decade of the 5rain," and advances took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace. The three dominant methods for measuring brain activities are! event7related potential, functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography E6E2F.H$*I The integration and application to education of what we know about the brain was strengthened in &333 when the 1merican Federation of Teachers stated! ",t is vital that we identify what science tells us about how people learn in order to improve the education curriculum."H$+I What is e'citing about this new field in education is that modern brain imaging techni/ues now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the brain as it learns, and the /uestion then arises! can the results of neuro7scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform practice in this areaPH$-I 1lthough the field of neuroscience is young, it is e'pected that with new technologies and ways of observing learning, the paradigms of what students need and how students learn best will be further refined with actual scientific evidence. ,n particular, students who may have learning disabilities will be taught with strategies that are more informed. The differences of opinion and theory in psychology indicate that the learning process is not yet understood.Hcitation neededI >euroscience shows that the brain can be modelled not with a central processor where QAintelligenceA4 lies, but in having perhaps -3 functional areas. 6ental activity re/uires several areas to work together. What appear as different types of intelligence result from different combinations of well7developed functional areas. earning is a process by which neurons #oin by developing the synapses between them. :nowledge is arranged hierarchically, with new knowledge being linked to e'isting neural networks.Hcitation neededI <utside the realm of educational psychology, techni/ues to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event7related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. 1s of &3$&, such studies are beginning to support a theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between do;ens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner.Hcitation neededI

Taxonomies
For more information, see Theory of multiple intelligences.

The theory of multiple intelligences is a ta'onomy of intelligence that differentiates it into specific Eprimarily sensoryF "modalities", rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. This model was proposed by 9oward 2ardner in his $0.( book Frames of 6ind! The Theory of 6ultiple ,ntelligences. 2ardner chose eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria! musicalNrhythmic, visualNspatial, verbalNlinguistic, logicalNmathematical, bodilyN

kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. 9e later suggested that e'istential and moral intelligence may also be worthy of inclusion.
For more information, see Bloom's taxonomy.

5loom4s Ta'onomy is a classification of learning ob#ectives that provides a framework for discussing cognitive, affective, and psycho7motor learning.
Humanism Main article$ 'umanism =philosophy of education>

9umanism, as a learning theory, is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning, and ultimately e'pertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. This self7directed learning is needs motivated, adaptive learning. 1c/uisition, development, and integration of knowledge occur through strategy, personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning, and decision7 making. The learning goal is to become self7actuali;ed with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment. This learner is able to adapt prior knowledge to new e'perience. The educator4s role in humanistic learning is to encourage and enable the learner, andragogically, by providing access to appropriate resources without obtrusive interference. The learning goal is high order learning of procedural knowledge, strategy, reasoning, abstract analysis, and development of e'pertise. 9umanists include 1braham 6aslow, Barl %ogers, 6arie 6ontessori, and William 2lasser.

Transformative learning
Main article$ Transformati"e learning

Transformative learning focuses upon the often7necessary change that is re/uired in a learnerAs preconceptions and world view. Transformative learning seeks to e'plain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning.H$.I Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference.H$0I 1 frame of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often involved.H&3I 1dults have a tendency to re#ect any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values, associations and concepts.H$0I <ur frames of reference are composed of two dimensions! habits of mind and points of view.H$0I 9abits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are harder to change than points of view. 9abits of mind influence our point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, but points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.H$0I Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the ?reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically e'amining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view.@H$0I When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self7reflective, and integrative of e'perience.H$0I
Constructivism Main article$ 8onstructi"ism =philosophy of education>

Bonstructivism is a theory to e'plain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when information comes into contact with e'isting knowledge that had been developed by e'periences. ,t has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. Bonstructs are the different types of filters we choose to place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order. Oon 2lasersfeld describes constructivism as ?a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics@.H$I Bonstructivism has implications for the theory of instruction. Discovery, hands7on, e'periential, collaborative, pro#ect7based, and task7based learning are a number of applications that base teaching and learning on constructivism. 5uilt on the work of Mean Piaget and Merome 5runer, constructivism emphasi;es the importance of the active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves, and building new ideas or concepts based upon current knowledge and past e'perience. ,t asks why students do not learn deeply by listening to a teacher, or reading from a te'tbook. To design effective teaching environments, it believes, one needs a good understanding of what children already know when they come into the classroom. The curriculum should be designed in a way that builds on what the pupil already knows and is allowed to develop with them.H&$I 5egin with comple' problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems.H&&I This re/uires an understanding of childrenAs cognitive development, and constructivism draws heavily on psychological studies of cognitive development. The learning theories of Mohn Dewey, 6aria 6ontessori, and David :olb serve as the foundation of constructivist learning theory.H&(I Bonstructivism has many varieties! 1ctive learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building are three, but all versions promote a studentAs free e'ploration within a given framework or structure.H&)I The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems.

&ther topics
Multimedia Learning

+ multimedia classroom at )slington 8ollege, in the -nited ,ingdom Main article$ Multimedia learning

6ultimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory teaching materials that may include video, computer and other information technology.Hcitation neededI 6ultimedia learning theory focuses on the principles that determine the effective use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on using both the visual and auditory channels for information processing. The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, and the visual channel processes information that is seen. The visual channel holds less information than the auditory channel. Hcitation neededI ,f both the visual and auditory channels are presented with information, more knowledge is retained. 9owever, if too much information is delivered it is inade/uately processed, and long term memory is not ac/uired. 6ultimedia learning seeks to give instructors the ability to stimulate both the visual and auditory channels of the learner, resulting in better progress.H&*I
Learning Style Theory vs Instructional Theory Main article$ #earning styles

earning style theory proposes that individuals learn in different ways, that there are four distinct learning styles N feeling, watching, thinking and doing N and that knowledge of a learnerAs preferred learning style will lead to faster and more satisfactory improvement. H&+I <ther learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes. Bonnectivism is a recent theory of networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections. Terms for ,nstructional theory are diaskagogy, pedagogy, andragogy, and heutagogy which relate to the maturity EageF of the learner.
Informal and post-modern theories

,n theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts.H&-I >ew knowledge cannot be told to students, it believes, but rather the studentsA current knowledge must be challenged. ,n this way, students will ad#ust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.H&-I 5y using this method students gain the broad understanding theyAre taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the concept or theory. This theory further aligns with the idea that teaching the concepts and the language of a sub#ect should be split into multiple steps.H&.I <ther informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. ,ntrinsic motivation may create a more self7regulated learner,H&0I yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Britics argue that the average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration and mediation.H(3I "tudents learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.H($IH(&I

Criticism of learning theory

Britics of learning theories that seek to displace traditional educational practices claim that there is no need for such theoriesC that the attempt to comprehend the process of learning through the construction of theories creates problems and inhibits personal freedom.H((IH()I

T eories of Learning
earning Theories in the Early Bhildhood Blassroom Environment During the early stages of development, children learn by playing. Play, in a developmentally appropriate environment, inspires the child to relate oneself to the environment while making sense of the infinite elements uniting internal processes with e'ternal influences. 1s children play, they learn. They learn about the si;e, shape, smell, taste, and tactile /uality of their world. 1s they internali;e the sensations of the environment, they integrate personal e'periences to hypothesi;e the impossible. ,maginary play is constant as children relate their hopes and e'periences to new sensations. 1s their minds translate e'ternal e'periences with personal meaning, children become masters of their environment E5odrova and eong, $00+, p.$&*F. The child4s environment may be defined as a continuum between the imaginary and the sensory. Bomple' yet accessible relationships occurring in the classroom enrich the mental processes of young students. ?The rationale for emphasi;ing the construction of relationships in education is that it is basically by constructing relationships that children elaborate their knowledge and develop their intelligence@ EDeOries, &33), p. )$&F. When children reflect on their environment, they instinctively classify e'periences according to both individual personality and the surrounding culture. E2ardner, $0.&, p.(37(*F 1s children become familiar with the synta' of social knowledge, their worlds are shared with one another to form a social imagination. 1s the child struggles to comprehend new e'periences, he or she will naturally utili;e scientific notions of problem solving and critical thinking. 1s the child begins to understand e'perience, social cooperation augments skills of perspective and interpretation! Shared activity provides a meaningful social context for learningSocial interaction provides support in a physical sense as well as a motivational sense hrough tal!ing and communicating" the gaps and flaws in one#s thin!ing $ecome explicit and accessi$le to correctionthought $ecomes sequential and visi$le to the thin!er% E5odrova and eong, $00+, p. $$3F 1 classroom of authentic e'periences shared by eager children becomes ?a community of learners.@ EBhard R :at;, &33$, http!LLwww.pro#ect7approach.comLfoundationLclass.htmF With the aforementioned as a foundation, the following paper will relate 5ehaviorist, "ocial Bognitive, Bognitive and Bonstructivist learning theories to the early childhood classroom based on a common curriculum standard. Each theory is described by the same curriculum standard using different lesson plans as defined by specific learning theories.

The esson Plan ,n an early childhood classroom operating within a public elementary school, the teacher prepares a lesson on food production. 1ccording to the classroom curriculum standards, the teacher should provide the children with an awareness of the process of taking food from the farm producer and preparing it for the grocery store consumer. The generali;ed curriculum standard offers the teacher the freedom to choose from a variety of e'amples to use for teaching the process. The community of the school is rural and many of the children are familiar with small farms. The children drink milk everyday at school and, therefore, have personal e'periences with the beverage. 5ecause of these factors, the teacher decides to focus on milk production. 5ehaviorist earning Theories 5ehaviorism defines learning as a change in observable behaviors due to environmental stimuli. =sing behaviorist learning theories, a teacher begins a lesson on milk production by having the children gather during group time on a large carpet. 1s the children sit on the carpet facing the teacher only, he or she presents the book, The 6ilk 6akers, by 2ail 2ibbons. The children face only the teacher to avoid undesirable reinforcement that could distract from the goal of the lesson. The teacher uses the picture book to e'plain the topic because the children are engaged with the visual material as the teacher narrates the pictures. 1s the children listen to the story, they receive a summary of the information they are e'pected to learn. When the teacher is finished reading the story, he or she re7e'plains the four stages of milk production. 1s she summari;es the information, she introduces four pictures that illustrate each stage. 1fter the summary, the teacher passes each child a set of pictures to view. The teacher tests the children on their understanding by having them hold up the pictures in se/uential order. The assessment is based on both classical and operant conditioning. Each child will hold up a picture, the unconditioned response, when the teacher asks for a certain card, the unconditioned stimulus. The teacher4s positive feedback, a conditioned stimulus, will prompt the correct choice, the conditioned response, according to the lesson. <perant conditioning is utili;ed as the children are reinforced with stickers and chosen activities. During the teacher4s assessment the children hold up one picture at a time. The children face the teacher so each child is focusing on the appropriate picture and the teacher4s feedback. Each child who holds up the appropriate picture receives a star. When a child has received four stars in a row, he or she may leave the group area for a chosen activity. The teacher retests the remaining children until each has mastered the material. 5ehaviorist learning theories simplify lessons so that the child4s focused attention and the teacher4s curriculum goals remain specific. 5ecause of the efficiency of a behaviorist lesson plan in terms of planning, e'ecution, and assessment, the teacher has more time for alternate classroom tasks. The clear structure of a behaviorist lesson can be especially beneficial for children who are easily distracted or over7stimulated. 9owever, the categorical focus of behaviorism can be wearisome for children in need of variety and stimulation.

"ocial Bognitive earning Theories =sing social learning methods, the teacher has the children sit in a circle on a large carpet for group time. The children are arranged so that every person is visible. The teacher sits at the head of the circle and reads The 6ilk 6akers, by 2ail 2ibbons. 1fter the story, the teacher distributes four cards to each child displaying four stages of milk production. 1fter reading the story, the teacher e'plains the pictures before e'plicitly demonstrating how to present the pictures in se/uential order. The teacher passes the four pictures to each child and begins the assessment. The children are asked to show the first card in the process of milk production. The teacher calls on each child who displays the appropriate picture. 1 model child is asked to describe the picture. The teacher then asks for the same picture again, waiting for each child to present the correct answer as demonstrated by the model. 5ased on social cognitive learning theories, the children e'pect to receive recognition for selecting the appropriate picture. <nce the teacher begins to assess the children4s understanding, the children use each other4s responses to evaluate their individual progress as compared to others. The final assessment utili;es modeling, reinforcement, and feedback as described by social cognitive theories. The group approaches each picture in the same manner. 1fter every picture has been discussed, the teacher /uickly calls for the pictures again, giving the children less time to present the appropriate answer. Bhildren who choose the correct pictures are recogni;ed by the teacher and are reinforced with praise. =sing vicarious reinforcement, these children serve as models for the ignored children who have selected incorrectly. 1t the end of the lesson the children place their cards in correct order and hand them back to the teacher. The teacher uses the order of each set to assess individual learning. "ocial cognitive theories reflect the natural tendencies of individuals to alter personal behaviors based on the observed behavior of others. They are effective because they are natural. ,n classroom groups, children often rely on each other for support and guidance in both e'plicit and implicit ways. 9owever, teachers should be wary of the essence of motivation as defined by classroom competition. E'cessive use of modeling to influence children can lead to unnecessary competition. =nnecessary competition can affect the inherent motivation of children in a variety of ways. Bognitive earning Theories 1 lesson about milk production using cognitive learning methods begins with a group discussion about milk. The teacher asks the children if they drink milk, where they buy it, and where the milk comes from. The children are encouraged to hypothesi;e about the process of transferring milk from the cow to the grocery store. 1s the children make guesses, the teacher transcribes ideas so the children can view the words. 1fter the children are finished hypothesi;ing, the group votes on which idea makes the most sense. 1s children discuss ideas related to milk production, personal e'periences are encouraged and evaluated. The teacher listens to discover each child4s level of understanding. When the topic seems e'hausted the teacher reads the book, The 6ilk 6akers, by 2ail 2ibbons.

The children are encouraged to interrupt the story for /uestions related to the previous hypotheses. 1s the children interact with the story they are asked to edit their earlier ideas. 1fter the story, the teacher asks the group to review the new ideas. Pictures illustrating the main ideas of the story are introduced to focus the children on the most distinct stages of milk production. 1fter discussing the story, materials are removed and a numbered board is introduced. The group is asked to assign the four stages in order without seeing the pictures. 1s the group discusses the appropriate order, the pictures are re7introduced and attached to the board. 1s the children finish, the teacher summari;es the information. The book and board is left in the room so the children can revisit the lesson autonomously. The basic principles underlying cognitive learning theories include thought as an active pursuit, a foundation of e'perience used to organi;e new information, a personal perspective regarding new information, a social environment to ac/uire new knowledge, and the use of practice to further differentiate between e'perience and new information. When children think, they use all of their senses. The process of sensing is a highly involved network of stimuli, as described by neuroscience. 1s children contemplate using their senses, they incorporate Piaget4s notions of assimilation and accommodation to regain e/uilibrium. 5y placing learning in a social environment, children e'pand their repertoire of e'periences by contemplating the e'periences of others. The process of learning is enhanced with reconsiderations of past e'periences and new details. 5y using these ideas to form a learning environment rather than a lesson plan, the teacher makes the ?lesson,@ or learning environment, more naturally motivated. =sing cognitive learning theories, the teacher offers a variety of e'periences to approach information, assess understanding and summari;e the combination of information and understanding. The children are active in the e'ploration using social interaction and feedback to stimulate individual thinking processes. Even during the physically passive activity of listening to the picture book, the children are encouraged to converse with the story, allowing new information to clarify previous understanding. When the teacher writes down the children4s hypotheses, the class is able to revisit a solidified idea during the dynamic process of differentiating e'perience. This is perhaps the defining characteristic of the lesson because this solidification provides the framework for the children4s processes of thought. The children see simultaneously the #ourney of their thinking and the highly varying nature of contemplation as sense becomes knowledge. Bognitive learning theories infuse the classroom curriculum with meaningful interaction. Bhildren grow together in intricate ways. >ot all e'periences can be measured e/ually, because everyone4s e'perience is utterly uni/ue. 5y collecting individual e'periences the classroom builds a learning environment that is both deep and authentic. The assessment of such an environment may seem difficult at first glance, because the philosophy collides with standardi;ed assessment practices. 9owever, with practice, the teacher can reali;e a more artistic approach to assessment that values depth of understanding rather than test measures. Bonstructivist earning Theories To prepare for the topic of milk production in a constructivist environment, the teacher organi;es

a field trip to the local dairy. 9e or she coordinates the field trip with the cafeteria milk delivery so the children can visit the delivery truck the following morning. The day before the field trip, the children and teacher discuss milk production. Personal e'periences are collected and hypotheses are formulated regarding the field trip. The children make a list of items to find in the dairy and draw pictures of farmers and their cows. The children spend the following day visiting the dairy. Each child carries a clipboard to record information. The teachers photograph the tour and write down the children4s verbal reflections. During the following morning, the children visit the cafeteria to meet the milk delivery man. The children tour the truck and watch him refill the cafeteria refrigerators. "ome children draw pictures of the truck while others tally the number of carts carried by the delivery man. The children and teacher gather during the afternoon to discuss their e'periences. The teacher records personal observations related by the children. 1s the children discuss their favorite e'periences, teachers encourage the children to e'plore significant elements. 1s the children relate to the group, the teachers discover which topics are most e'citing to the children. The following week the room is transformed into a dairy. The water table is e/uipped with milk #ugs and funnels. The writing area is prepared with clipboards holding inventory charts. The block area contains farm animals and semi7trucks. The dramatic play area is decorated according to farm themes. The reading area includes books about cows, dairies, and nutrition. During the morning, the children gather on a large carpet to prepare for the day and discuss the current activities. 5ased on the children4s interests, the teachers divide the children in two groups. <ne group discusses the trip to the dairy and reviews pictures and observations recorded by the students and teachers. The other group discusses the morning visit with the delivery man. Each group defines favorite moments and illustrates these moments by drawing pictures. 1fter the separate groups have finished their illustrations, they share with the class. Each group discusses the events as recounted by students according to their illustrations. To conclude, the children create a milk production timeline using their pictures. 1s the children work together to create the timeline, they discuss the different stages involved in milk production. The principles of constructivist learning re/uire that teachers ask the children many /uestions about a variety of e'amples, which occur within the learning environment. The constructivist learning environment must be authentic and learning e'periences must be relevant. 5ased on both Piaget and Oygotsky, learning e'periences must be social in conte't to augment individual development. earning should never be forced, but should be appreciated as it occurs naturally. 5y keeping the learning environment authentic and the children4s natural perceptions worthy, motivation e'ists as an element of the environment. The teacher is an observer of perception rather than a presenter of information. The teacher provides for the learner rather than imposing on the learner. During the constructivist process of studying milk production, the children use natural thinking

methods to survey an authentic environment. 1s the children become more e'perienced, play e'periences are provided to elaborate on those e'periences. To access higher order reasoning, the children are e'pected to illustrate with both drawings and conversations. ?For Oygotsky, this symbolic use of ob#ects, actions, words, and people prepares the way for the learning of literacies based on the use of symbols like reading, writing, and drawing.@ E5odrova R eong, $00+, p. *.F 1s children e'plore their new knowledge, they summari;e and reassess the information in small groups. The structured format as practiced in small groups allows children to take their learning to the ne't level. 1s children discuss their learning, the imagination is fortified for new e'periences. Bonstructivist learning theories are most problematic in areas of special education. The e'periences of constructivist education necessitate a more coercive mediator for special learners than is necessary for children of typical development. ,n this situation, the teacher must regard focused attention as the most important relationship between the teacher and the student. What detail the child focuses on is less important than the process of focusing on a detail. This detail can take on an infinite number of shapes and si;es in the mind of the teacher, but can become /uite specific and permanent to the child. While other students may be capable of observing intricate relationships between a variety of details, the special learner may be satisfied with a sole element for contemplation. This element could provide the path for the teacher to mediate focused attention without losing inherent motivation. Bonstructivist learning in special education can be effective, but it re/uires more patience, acceptance, and focus by the teacher without being absolute in areas of control. The most obscure observation of a lesson as provided by the special learner, can be the most enlightening if given a direction. Bonclusion 5ehaviorist, "ocial Bognitive, Bognitive, and Bonstructivist learning theories represent a continuum of approaches available for teaching young children. 5ehaviorist theories are described by categorical processes based on observed behavior. These theories focus on molding the child4s repertoire of behaviors using the array of behaviorist methods of classical and operant conditioning. "ocial Bognitive theories elaborate the behaviorist ideas of observed behavior by using the notion of modeling as the main approach. 5y capitali;ing on the notion of human beings as inherently social creatures, teachers can use social feedback to augment the curriculum. Bognitive learning theories focus on the thinking processes of the learner rather than the behavior of the learner. 1ccording to cognitive theory, learning is an active process taking place in the largely unobservable domain of the human brain. The learner approaches information using first the senses and later reflection. Bonstructivist learning theories also define learning as an active pursuit. =sing constructivist theory, the pursuit of knowledge is dependent on a combination of internal and e'ternal processes as the individual interacts with his or her environment. Together, the four learning theories present a highly comple' knowledge base of how individuals learn. Soung children are able to define their own e'periences both individually and as a collective. 1s children process and revisit e'perience, they define social knowledge according to their e'periences of their culture. 1t the height of learning, the learning community becomes a scientific cooperative, dedicated to researching and celebrating the world.

"ources cited 'odrova( E ) !eong * + $,--.% /ools of the mind0 /he 1ygots2ian approach to early childhood education 3errill0 &hio *e1ries( R $4556% 7hy the child8s construction of relationships is fundamentally important to constructivist teachers Prospects( 96$6%( 6,,:644 #ardner( ; $,-<4% "rt( mind and brain0 " cognitive approach to creativity 'asic 'oo2s0 =>" Chard( > C ) ?at@( ! # $455,% ProAect "pproach http0BBwww proAect: approach comBfoundationBclass htm

/heories of learning
<b#ectives!

8onsider a "ariety of theories of learning )dentify se"eral principles of learning -nderstand how indi"idual differences affect the learning process

There are many different theories of how people learn. What follows is a variety of them, and it is useful to consider their application to how your students learn and also how you teach in educational programs. ,t is interesting to think about your own particular way of learning and to recognise that everyone does not learn the way you do. 5urns E$00*, p00F Aconceives of learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour with behaviour including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and emotions.A ,t is clear that 5urns includes motivation in this definition of learning. 5urns considers that learning might not manifest itself in observable behaviour until some time after the educational program has taken place.

Sensory stimulation theory 0einforcement theory 8ogniti"e;.estalt approaches 'olistic learning theory Facilitation theory 9 periential learning +ction learning

+dult learning =+ndragogy> Why consider learning theories! 0eferences

>ensory >timulation /heory

Traditional sensory stimulation theory has as its basic premise that effective learning occurs when the senses are stimulated E aird, $0.*F. aird /uotes research that found that the vast ma#ority of knowledge held by adults E-*TF is learned through seeing. 9earing is the ne't most effective Eabout $(TF and the other senses 7 touch, smell and taste account for $&T of what we know. 5y stimulating the senses, especially the visual sense, learning can be enhanced. 9owever, this theory says that if multi7senses are stimulated, greater learning takes place. "timulation through the senses is achieved through a greater variety of colours, volume levels, strong statements, facts presented visually, use of a variety of techni/ues and media.

Reinforcement theory
This theory was developed by the behaviourist school of psychology, notably by 5.F. "kinner earlier this century E aird $0.*, 5urns $00*F. "kinner believed that behaviour is a function of its conse/uences. The learner will repeat the desired behaviour if positive reinforcement Ea pleasant conse/uenceF follows the behaviour. Positive reinforcement, or ArewardsA can include verbal reinforcement such as AThatAs greatA or ASouAre certainly on the right trackA through to more tangible rewards such as a certificate at the end of the course or promotion to a higher level in an organisation. >egative reinforcement also strengthen a behaviour and refers to a situation when a negative condition is stopped or avoided as a conse/uence of the bahaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, weakens a behaviour because a negative condition is introduced or e'perienced as a conse/uence of the behaviour and teaches the individual not to repeat the behaviour which was negatively reinforced. 1 set of conditions is created which are designed to eliminate behaviour E5urns, $00*, p.$3.F. aird considers this aspect of behaviourism has little or no relevance to education. 9owever, 5urns says that punishment is widely used in everyday life although it only works for a short time and often only when the punishing agency is present. 5urns notes that much Bompetency 5ased Training is based on this theory, and although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like multiplication tables and those work skills that re/uire a great deal of practice, higher order learning is not involved. There is criticism of this approach that it is rigid and mechanical.

Cognitive:#estalt approaches

The emphasis here is on the importance of e'perience, meaning, problem7solving and the development of insights E5urns $00*, p.$$&F. 5urns notes that this theory has developed the concept that individuals have different needs and concerns at different times, and that they have sub#ective interpretations in different conte'ts.

;olistic learning theory

The basic premise of this theory is that the Aindividual personality consists of many elements ... specifically ... the intellect, emotions, the body impulse Eor desireF, intuition and imagination E aird, $0.*, p.$&$F that all re/uire activation if learning is to be more effective.

Facilitation theory $the humanist approach%

Barl %ogers and others have developed the theory of facilitative learning. The basic premise of this theory is that learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by e'ternal factors E aird $0.*.F <ther characteristics of this theory include!

a belief that human beings ha"e a natural eagerness to learn, there is some resistance to, and unpleasant conse?uences of, gi"ing up what is currently held to be true, the most significant learning in"ol"es changing one(s concept of oneself.

Facilitative teachers are!

less protecti"e of their constructs and beliefs than other teachers, more able to listen to learners, especially to their feelings, inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship with learners as to the content of the course, apt to accept feedback, both positi"e and negati"e and to use it as constructi"e insight into themsel"es and their beha"iour.

earners!

are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, pro"ide much of the input for the learning which occurs through their insights and e periences, are encouraged to consider that the most "aluable e"aluation is self;e"aluation and that learning needs to focus on factors that contribute to sol"ing significant problems or achie"ing significant results.

Experiential learning
:olb proposed a four7stage learning process with a model that is often referred to in describing e'periential learning E6c2ill R 5eaty $00*F. The process can begin at any of the stages and is continuous, ie there is no limit to the number of cycles you can make in a learning situation. This theory asserts that without reflection we would simply continue to repeat our mistakes. The e'periential learning cycle!

E5rooks $00*, p.++F :olbAs research found that people learn in four ways with the likelihood of developing one mode of learning more than another. 1s shown in the Ae'periential learning cycleA model above, learning is!

through concrete e perience through obser"ation and reflection through abstract conceptualisation through acti"e e perimentation

ifferences in learning styles

1s already discussed, the idea that people learn in different ways has been e'plored over the last few decades by educational researchers. :olb, one of the the most influential of these, found that individuals begin with their preferred style in the e'periential learning cycle Esee aboveF. 9oney and 6umford E$0.+ cited in 6c2ill R 5eaty $00* p.$--F building on :olbAs work, identified four learning styles!

+cti"ist =enjoys the e perience itself>, 0eflector =spends a great deal of time and effort reflecting> Theorist =good at making connections and abstracting ideas from e perience>

7ragmatist =enjoys the planning stage>

There are strengths and weaknesses in each of these styles. 9oney and 6umford argue that learning is enhanced when we think about our learning style so that we can build on strengths and work towards minimising weaknesses to improve the /uality of learning.

"ction !earning
1ction earning is the approach that links the world of learning with the world of action through a reflective process within small cooperative learning groups known as Aaction learning setsA E6c2ill R 5eaty $00*F. The AsetsA meet regularly to work on individual membersA real7life issues with the aim of learning with and from each other. The AfatherA of 1ction earning, %eg %evans, has said that there can be no learning without action and no Esober and deliberateF action without learning. %evans argued that learning can be shown by the following e/uation, where is learningC P is programmed knowledge Eeg traditional instructionF and U is /uestioning insight. VPWU %evans, along with many others who have used, researched and taught about this approach, argued that 1ction earning is ideal for finding solutions to problems that do not have a ArightA answer because the necessary /uestioning insight can be facilitated by people learning with and from each other in action learning AsetsA.

"dult !earning $"ndragogy%

6alcolm :nowles E$0-., $003F is the theorist who brought the concept of adult learning to the fore. 9e has argued that adulthood has arrived when people behave in adult ways and believe themselves to be adults. Then they should be treated as adults. 9e taught that adult learning was special in a number of ways. For e'ample!

+dult learners bring a great deal of e perience to the learning en"ironment. 9ducators can use this as a resource. +dults e pect to ha"e a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated. The acti"e participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and implementing educational programs. +dults need to be able to see applications for new learning. +dult learners e pect to ha"e a high degree of influence on how learning will be e"aluated. +dults e pect their responses to be acted upon when asked for feedback on the progress of the program.

9ere is a /uote from 5urns E$00*, p.&((F 5y adulthood people are self7directing. This is the concept that lies at the heart of andragogy ... andragogy is therefore student7centred, e'perience7based, problem7oriented and collaborative very much in the spirit of the humanist approach to learning and education ... the whole educational activity turns on the student.
!dulthood as a social construction

Pogson and Tennant E$00*F provide a perspective of adulthood as a social construction. They say that the concept of a lifeAs course varies for different individuals and different culturesC therefore trainers and adult educators should be wary of definitive views of adults and their behaviour. 5urns would probably support this view as he discusses the notion that Adefinitions of the adult are not clearA and says Athe same is true of adult educationA. 9e discusses the Apetrol tankA view of school education! Afill the tank full at the only garage before the freeway, then away we go on lifeAs #ourneyA E$00*, p.&&-F. 9e goes on to discuss that problems can arise when people have not had their tank filled completely at school and he e'tends the metaphor to suggest that there should be service stations along Athe length of the highway of lifeA. The /uestion could be asked 7 when is maturity completeP ,s there no further development after a certain stage in lifeP "ome authors think that while children at appro'imately the same age are at appro'imately the same stage of development, the same cannot be said of adults. 1dults would vary in levels of knowledge and also in their life e'periences. There could be said to be tremendous variation in adult e'perience.
!n adult"s emotional response can affect learning

"ome adults can approach formal educational settings with an'iety and feelings of high or low self7efficacy. Their approach to new learning conte'ts can be influenced by how they appraise or evaluate the new e'perience. for e'ample! given two adults in a classroom where an e'ercise is about to begin, one individual may interpret the e'ercise in such a way that leads to a feeling of Ae'citementA, while the other person interprets the e'ercise in such a way that leads to the feeling of AembarrassmentA. ,t is self evident that the way the individual interprets the situation and the subse/uent emotion that arises, will affect the kind of action the individual is to take. E5urns, $00*, p.$+F 5urns considers that such appraisals, coupled with labels such as AfearA or Aan'ietyA can lead some learners to emotionally disengage from the source of discomfort that is the learning e'perience. 9owever, when coupled with labels such as Ae'citementA or AchallengeA the learner is led to take actions that focus on the task.

7hy consider learning theoriesC

This short paper has summarised a range of learning theories that can be applied in educational conte'ts. Teaching and learning activities can be designed and implemented to take principles of learning into account. 1lso, it is interesting to think about individual differences among learners and to work towards including activities that have variety and interest for all the learners in educational programs.

References

5rooks, @ %AA3 Training and &e"elopment 8ompetence$ a practical guide ,ogan 7age, #ondon. 5urns, 0. %AA3 The adult learner at work 5usiness and 7rofessional 7ublishing, Sydney. 5urns, S. %AA3 (0apid changes re?uire enhancement of adult learning( '0Monthly @une, pp %<;%B. ,nowles, M.S. %ABC The +dult #earner$ a 4eglected Species *nd edition, 'ouston$ .ulf 7ublishing 8ompany, 5ook &i"ision. ,nowles, M.S. %AAD The +dult #earner$ a 4eglected Species 2th edition, 'ouston$ .ulf 7ublishing 8ompany, 5ook &i"ision #aird, &. %AC3 +pproaches to training and de"elopment +ddison;Wesley, 0eading, Mass. Mc.ill, ) E 5eaty, # %AA3 +ction #earning, second edition$ a guide for professional, management and educational de"elopment ,ogan 7age, #ondon. 7ogson, 7. E Tennant, M. %AA3 (-nderstanding +dults( in Foley, .. ed. -nderstanding adult education and training, St #eonards, +llen E -nwin, pp.*D;/D.

ee Dunn, &333

>ummaries of !earning /heories and 3odels

/heories and 3odels of !earning for Educational Research and Practice This knowledge base features learning theories and models that address how people learn. 1 resource useful for scholars of various fields such as educational psychology, instructional design, and human7 computer interaction. 5elow is the inde' of learning theories, grouped in categories. >ote that this website is an iterative pro#ect and these entries are a work in progressC please leave comments with suggestions, corrections, and additional references.

Paradigms0

5ehaviorism Bognitivism Bonstructivism Design75ased 9umanism

'ehaviorist /heories0

'ehaviorism &verview Blassical Bonditioning EPavlovF 2<6" 6odel EBard, 6oran, and >ewellF <perant Bonditioning E"kinnerF "ocial earning Theory E5anduraF

Cognitivist /heories!

Cognitivism &verview 1ssimilation Theory E1usubelF 1ttribution Theory EWeinerF Bognitive oad Theory E"wellerF Bognitive Theory of 6ultimedia earning E6ayerF Bomponent Display Theory Elaboration Theory E%eigeluthF "chema Theory "tage Theory of Bognitive Development EPiagetF

Constructivist( >ocial( and >ituational /heories0

Constructivism &verview Bognitive 1pprenticeship EBollins et al.F Bommunities of Practice E ave and WengerF Discovery earning E5runerF "ocial Development Theory EOygtoskyF

Problem75ased earning EP5 F "ituated earning E aveF

3otivational and ;umanist /heories0

;umanism &verview 1%B" 6odel of 6otivational Design E:ellerF Emotional ,ntelligence E2olemanF E'periential earning E:olbF 6aslow4s 9ierarchy of >eeds E6aslowF "elf7Determination Theory EDeci and %yanF

*esign /heories and 3odels $Prescriptive%0

*esign:'ased Research &verview 1DD,E 6odel of ,nstructional Design 1%B" 6odel of 6otivational Design E:ellerF Elaboration Theory E%eigeluthF

*escriptive and 3eta /heories0

1ctivity Theory EOygotsky, eont4ev, uria, Engstrom, etc.F 1ctor7>etwork Theory E atour, BallonF 5loom4s Ta'onomy E5loomF Distributed Bognition E9utchinsF

Identity /heories0

Erikson4s "tages of Development EEriksonF ,dentity "tatus Theory E6arciaF "elf7Theories! Entity and ,ncremental Theory EDweckF

3iscellaneous !earning /heories and 3odels!

1ffordance Theory E2ibsonF 6ultiple ,ntelligences Theory E2ardnerF

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/heories of !earning
7rint 8ollect )tF 9mail 5y Thomas Shuell -pdated on @ul %A, *D%/

B<>BEPT,<>" <F ? E1%>,>2@ EO< O,>2 T9E<%,E" <F E1%>,>2 T9E %E 1T,<>"9,P 5ETWEE> T9E<%S 1>D P%1BT,BE D,FFE%E>T TSPE" <F E1%>,>2 earning is one of the most important activities in which humans engage. ,t is at the very core of the educational process, although most of what people learn occurs outside of school. For thousands of years, philosophers and psychologists have sought to understand the nature of learning, how it occurs, and how one person can influence the learning of another person through teaching and similar endeavors. Oarious theories of learning have been suggested, and these theories differ for a variety of reasons. 1 theory, most simply, is a combination of different factors or variables woven together in an effort to e'plain whatever the theory is about. ,n general, theories based on scientific evidence are considered more valid than theories based on opinion or personal e'perience. ,n any case, it is wise to be cautious when comparing the appropriateness of different theories. ,n addition to formal theories, people hold personal theories, including theories of learning and teaching. "ome typical /uestions such theories might involve are! 9ow does one determine if learning has occurredP What factors determine whether or not learning occursP 1re these factors located in the environment or within the individualP This entry focuses first on different conceptions and definitions of learning. >e't, the evolution of theories and conceptions of learning over the past $33 years is discussed, highlighting some of the advantages and limitations of different theoretical perspectives. Following a discussion of the relationship between theory and practice, e'amples of different types of learning are presented, and the appropriateness of different theories for different learning situations is pointed out.

C&DCEP/I&D> &F E!E"RDID#F

=nderstanding any theory re/uires a clear idea of what the theory is trying to e'plain. When a particular word is used, people usually assume everyone has a common understanding of what

the word means. =nfortunately, such is not always the case. ,n trying to understand the various theories of learning and their implications for education, it is helpful to reali;e that the term ?learning@ means different things to different people and is used somewhat differently in different theories. 1s theories of learning evolved over the past half7century, definitions of learning shifted from changes that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual to changes in participation in ongoing activities with other individuals to changes in a personAs identity within a group Ee.g., a change from being a follower to being a leaderF. 1lthough, most definitions of learning involve a change in an individualAs knowledge, ability to perform a skill, or participate in an activity with other individuals, there is considerable variation among the theories about the nature of this change. Further difficulty in understanding similarities and differences among various theories results from the fre/uently overlooked fact that there are different types of learning. ,n many cases, the various theories are relevant to different types of learning and are not necessarily incompatible with one another. %ather, they provide different perspectives on the comple' phenomena of learning and complement one another in their ability to e'plain different types of learning situations. Thus, radically different theories are relevant to the classroom by addressing different aspects of classroom learning, and it is wise to avoid comparing apples with oranges. E'amples of different types of learning are presented later in this entry.

E1&!1ID# /;E&RIE> &F !E"RDID#

The modern psychological study of learning can be dated from the work of 9ermann Ebbinghaus E$.*3N$030F, whose well7known study of memory was published in $..*. <ther early studies of learning were by Edward . Thorndike E$.-)N$0)0F, whose dissertation on problem solving was published in $.0., and ,van Pavlov E$.)0N $0(+F, whose research on classical conditioning was begun in $.00 but first published in English in $0&-. These theories focused on e'plaining the behavior of individuals and became known as behavioral theories. These theories use a stimulus7 response framework to e'plain learning and dominated psychology and education for over half a century. 5ecause behavioral theories focus on environmental factors such as reinforcement, feedback, and practice, they conceptuali;e learning as something that occurs from the outside in. 5ehavioral theories provide very good e'planations for certain kinds of learning but poor e'planations for other types of learning. <perant conditioning, for e'ample, is better than other theories at e'plaining the rote ac/uisition of information, the learning of physical and mental skills, and the development of behaviors conducive to a productive classroom Ei.e., classroom managementF. ,n these situations, the focus is on performing behavioral tasks rather than developing a learnerAs cognitive structure or understanding. 1lthough classical conditioning fre/uently is dismissed as irrelevant to human learning EPavlovAs initial research paradigm involved dogs salivatingF, this type of learning provides by far the best e'planation of how and why people, including students, respond emotionally to a wide variety of stimuli and situations. The many types of emotional reactions ac/uired through classical conditioning include! anger toward or hatred for a particular person or group, phobias to a particular sub#ect area or to school itself, and infatuation with another person. 9owever, they are very poor at e'plaining how individuals come to understand comple' ideas and phenomena.

5ut environmental factors are not the only ones that influence learning. "erious consideration of other perspectives began to enter mainstream psychological thinking about learning during the $0+3s. For e'ample, people clearly learn by observing others, and a learnerAs belief about his or her ability to perform a task Ei.e., self7efficacyF plays an important role in their learning. ,n $0+( 1lbert 5andura and %. 9. Walters published the first formal statement of social7learning theory in their book, "ocial earning and Personality Development. "ocial7learning theory has clear roots in behavioral theory but differs from these theories in significant ways. During the $0.3s the theory became known as social7cognitive theory. 1lthough essentially the same theory, the new name more accurately reflects the cognitive features of the theory and aids in differentiating it from behavioral theories of learning. During the $0-3s and $0.3s conceptions and definitions of learning began to change dramatically. 5ehavioral theories gave way to cognitive theories that focused on mental activities and the understanding of comple' material. 1n information7processing metaphor replaced the stimulus7response framework of behavioral theories. These theories emphasi;ed that learning occurred from the inside out rather than from the outside in. During the late $0-3s Mohn Flavell and 1nn 5rown each began to study metacognitionGthe learnersA awareness of their own learning, an ability to reflect on their own thinking, and the capacity to monitor and manage their learning. During the mid $0.3s the study of self7regulated learning began to emerge Esee Ximmerman R "chunk, &33$F. Then, especially during the later $0.3s and the $003s, these cognitive theories were challenged by theories that emphasi;ed the importance of social interactions and the sociocultural conte't of learning. The work of the %ussian psychologist ev Oygotsky E$.0+N$0()F first became available in >orth 1merica and along with the work of anthropologists such as Mean ave began to have a ma#or influence on theories of learning. ,ndividuals were seen as initially participating in peripheral activities of a group Eknown as legitimate peripheral participationFbefore becoming fully integrated into group activities. 1pprenticeship became a metaphor for the way people learn in natural settings. The notion that people learn by observing others, first articulated in social7 cognitive theory, was e'panded in a new conte't. Traditionally, learning has been viewed as something that occurs within an individual. ,ndividuals may participate and learn in groups, but it is the individual person that learns. With few e'ceptions, the educational systems in Europe and >orth 1merica have adopted this perspective, if not entirely with regard to instructional practices, certainly in the evaluation of student performance and the assignment of grades. 6any psychologists and educators currently consider learning to be a phenomenon that is distributed among several individuals andLor environmental affordances Esuch as calculators, computers, and te'tbooksF or situated Ee'isting or occurringF within a ?community of practice@ Eor community of learnersF. 5oth a social and a material dimension are involved in this distribution EPea, $00(F. For e'ample, a student may use a calculator to help learn how to solve a three7digit multiplication problem Ethe material dimensionF andLor work with another student to understand the proper procedures to follow Ethe social dimensionF. ,n either case, the student is not learning totally on his or her own but is taking advantages of resources EaffordancesF available in the environment. ,f the student is not able to solve a subse/uent problem without the aid of the calculator or another student, then it is

possible to see the distributed nature of learning. ,n such situations, participation or activity rather than ac/uisition becomes the defining metaphor E2reeno, &33+F. The evolution from behavioral to social to distributed to situated theories of learning was accompanied by new conceptions of knowledge Efor a good discussion of these changes, see "chraw, &33+F. Traditional theories conceive of knowledge as a commodity capable of being transmitted, more or less intact, from one individual to another. 1ccording to these theories, knowledge is something an individual ac/uiresC when a student successfully learns it, he or she can reproduce the knowledge in its original form. ,n contrast, more recent theories conceive of knowledge as something each learner constructs or creates afresh rather than something that is assimilated in its pree'isting form. 1ccording to current theories, truly ?ob#ective@ knowledge does not e'ist, although something similar e'ists in the form of collective knowledge within a particular culture or discipline. :nowledge resides in the community of learners EindividualsF that creates it and is distributed among members of the community and the various environmental affordances available to the group. 5ecause each person constructs his or her own understandings, the knowledge they ac/uire is uni/ue. Bommunities and cultures are composed of individuals with common understandings, and these groups provide opportunities for new members Ee.g., childrenF to construct similar knowledge of the world through schools andLor a variety of informal activities. The $003s were dubbed ?The Decade of the 5rain,@ and huge advances were made in neuroscience and how the brain relates to human behavior and learning. The study of how the brain relates to learning is in its infancy Efor an introduction to some of the issue, see 5ransford et al., &33+F. 1n understanding of how the neurophysiology of the brain affects learning and cognition will add greatly to our understanding of human learning and have a large influence on future theories of learning. >evertheless, a psychological component to these theories will remain critical for learning in educational settings. Education as it is presently understood is based on psychological processes and interactions capable of being influenced by instruction, and it seems likely that psychological interventions will continue to be important for the foreseeable future.

/;E RE!"/I&D>;IP 'E/7EED /;E&RG "D* PR"C/ICE

The relationship between theories of learning and educational practices is complicated by several factors. <ne would think that instructional practices should be based on the best theories of learning available, but this relationship is not as straightforward as one might think. "chools and educational practices are far more likely to be based on philosophical beliefs than on empirical studies and theoretical understanding of learning. "chools are established according to different community and cultural beliefs about the world, the nature of humankind and children, locus of authority, and what should be learned. "chools also differ in their beliefs about teaching and learning, but the philosophical beliefs often come first. Every educational system and instructional program contains a theory of learning, although fre/uently this theory is implicit and goes unrecogni;ed.

These philosophical and theoretical differences are formidable. 6any have endured for centuries, and the debate is unlikely to end anytime soon. For e'ample, the ?factory model@ of schooling dominated education in the =nited "tates for many years. This model is based on production and management procedures successful during the industrial revolution. ,t stands in sharp contrast to the voices of 9enry David Thoreau E$.$-N $.+&F, Mohn Dewey E$.*0N$0*&F, and others who advocated discovery, social reform, and freedom as the appropriate means of education. 5oth perspectives are clearly evident in modern7day discussions of education and instructional practices. The correspondence between these philosophical perspectives and the various theories of learning is /uite apparent. Blassroom activities in a traditional classroom, for e'ample, revolve around and are controlled by the teacher, who presents the to7be7learned material and dictates the type of learning activities in which students engage. "tudents are e'pected to study the information Evia classroom activities and homeworkF until it is mastered. The knowledge being learned is seen as a commodity being passed from one individual Ethe teacherF to another Ethe studentF. Oery different classrooms emerge from different philosophical perspectives. ,f one believes, for e'ample, that knowledge is something created afresh by each student, that learning occurs from working on authentic tasks in a social environment, and that the mental activities of the student determines what he or she learns, then the resulting classroom is likely to be one in which students work in groups andLor on pro#ects, discussing how best to solve a problem, or negotiating the meaning of a concept. <nce again consistency e'ists between theoretical beliefs and classroom practices. 9owever, it is not always clear which comes first, for there is evidence that individuals seek out and accept information that confirms their e'isting beliefs while tending to re#ect information that would disconfirm those beliefs. This reality leads to another reali;ation regarding the relationship between theory and practice, namely that the relationship is two7way. 1 common belief is that knowledge flows from scientific theories to the development of effective practices, that sound theories of learning dictate effective educational practices. "cience, however, does not always operate in such a linear fashion. ,n both the physical and social sciences, ideas often come from observing and /uestioning things that occur in the real world! ?Why did that apple fall from the treeP@ Ea /uestion asked by ,saac >ewton H$+)(N$-&-I that led to his discovery of the three laws of motionF. "cientific breakthroughs also come from trying to solve a practical problem E"tokes, $00-F, such as ?what is the best way to teach the concept of photosynthesisP@ Established educational practices that teachers have found effective can and should be a source of ideas in developing a viable theory of learning. 1 third caveat in understanding the relationship between theory and practice is reali;ing that the student is more important than the teacher in determining what is learned. This does not mean the teacher is not importantC only that it is the studentsA perceptions, prior knowledge, and beliefs that determine what and if they learn something appro'imating the instructional goals of the teacher. The bottom line in the teaching7learning process is the learning activities in which the students engage, not the instructional activities in which the teacher engages.

6odern7day conceptions of learning and teaching recogni;e that students are active, often proactive, participants in the learning process, even if they appear otherwise. This dynamic nature of the learning process is one reason why instructional interventions that appear the same to the teacher can result in very different student outcomes and why rather different instructional methods can result in very similar outcomes Ee.g., >uthall R 1lton7 ee, $003C <lson, &33)F.

*IFFERED/ /GPE> &F !E"RDID#

The relationship between theories of learning and educational practices is complicated by the reality that there is more than one type of learning. >one of the present theories is capable of e'plaining learning in all situations, and scholars working within a particular theoretical perspective often ignore or deny the importance of other types of learning and the relevance of other theories for different situations. >early every educational setting involves several types of learning, each with its uni/ue importance to the functioning of the classroom. There is little agreement on how many types of learning actually e'ist. >evertheless, it should not be too difficult to identify different types of learning in the following e'amples! EaF learning to tie a shoelace or necktie, EbF being afraid Efearful in a literal senseF to work in a math class after a lengthy public ridicule by a teacher two years earlier for being unable to e'plain a problem to the class, EcF understanding and e'plaining causes of the French and 1merican revolutions, EdF learning to cook by watching oneAs father or mother, and EeF negotiating an understanding of ?learning@ with a person holding a different theoretical perspective. Different theories are good for e'plaining one e'ample but poor for e'plaining other e'amples. When evaluating the validity or usefulness of different theories, especially from the perspective of the student doing the learning, it is helpful to consider what the person is learning and what is taken as evidence that learning has occurred. "tudents do not always engage in the type of learning sought by the teacher. For e'ample, a teacher conducts a lesson on the Bivil War that includes authentic activities, having students /uestion one another about the war, and finally giving the students a /ui;. ,t would not be at all uncommon for the teacher to conclude that a particular student understood what happened at 2ettysburg when in reality he or she only memori;ed certain facts. Theories of learning are efforts to e'plain how people learn. Different theories are based on different assumptions and are appropriate for e'plaining some learning situations but not others. Theories of learning can inform teaching and the use of different instructional resources including technology, but ultimately the learning activities in which the student actually engages Emental, physical, and socialF determine what a student learns in the classroom. Blassroom learning involves social, emotional, and participatory factors in addition to cognitive ones, and theories of learning need to take these factors into account. 6ost current theories of learning presuppose that the goal of education is to develop the ability of students to understand the content and to think for themselves, presumptions that are consistent with the ma#ority of modern7day schools.

"ee also!Bognitive oad Theory, Bonstructivism, Distributed Bognition, Dual Boding Theory, ,nformation Processing Theory, "elf7Efficacy Theory, "elf7%egulated earning, "ituated Bognition, "ocial Bognitive Theory, "ociocultural Theory
BIBLI#$%!&H'

1le'ander, P. 1., R Winne, P. 9. EEds.F. E&33+F. (and$oo! of educational psychology E&nd ed.F. 6ahwah, >M! Erlbaum. 5ransford, M., "tevens, %., "chwart;, D., 6elt;off, 1., Pea, %., %oschelle, M., et al. E&33+F. earning theories and education! Toward a decade of synergy. ,n P. 1. 1le'ander R P. 9. Winne EEds.F, (and$oo! of educational psychology E&nd ed., pp. &30N&))F. 6ahwah, >M! Erlbaum. 2reeno, M. 2. E&33+F. earning in activity. ,n %. :. "awyer EEd.F, he )am$ridge hand$oo! of the learning sciences Epp. -0N0+F. >ew Sork! Bambridge =niversity Press. >uthall, 2., R 1lton7 ee, 1. E$003F. %esearch on teaching and learning! Thirty years of change. *lementary School Journal" +0, *)-N*-3. <lson, D. %. E&33)F. The triumph of hope over e'perience in the search for ?What Works@! 1 response to "lavin. *ducational ,esearcher" --(1), &)N&+. Pea, %. D. E$00(F. Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. ,n 2. "alomon EEd.F, .istri$uted cognitions! psychological and educational considerations Epp. )-N.-F. >ew Sork! Bambridge =niversity Press. "alomon, 2. EEd.F. E$00(F. Distributed cognitions! psychological and educational considerations. >ew Sork! Bambridge =niversity Press. "awyer, %. :. EEd.F. E&33+F. The Bambridge handbook of the learning sciences. >ew Sork! Bambridge =niversity Press. "chraw, 2. E&33+F. :nowledge! "tructures and processes. ,n P. 1. 1le'ander R P. 9. Winne EEds.F, (and$oo! of educational psychology E&nd ed., pp. &)*N&+(F. 6ahwah, >M! Erlbaum. "tokes, D. E. E$00-F. PasteurAs /uadrant! 5asic science and technological innovation. Washington, DB! 5rookings ,nstitution Press. Ximmerman, 5. M., R "chunk, D. 9. EEds.F. E&33$F. Self/regulated learning and academic achievement0 heoretical perspectives E&nd ed.F. 6ahwah, >M! Erlbaum. earning! Theory and %esearch

&verview of !earning /heories

+lthough there are many different approaches to learning, there are three basic types of learning theory$ beha"iorist, cogniti"e constructi"ist, and social constructi"ist. This section pro"ides a brief introduction to each type of learning theory. The theories are treated in four parts$ a short historical introduction, a discussion of the "iew of knowledge presupposed by the theory, an account of how the theory treats learning and student moti"ation, and finally, an o"er"iew of some of the instructional methods promoted by the theory is presented.

'ehaviorism 1iew of 2nowledge

Cognitive Constructivism

>ocial Constructivism :nowledge is constructed within social conte'ts through interactions with a knowledge community.

:nowledge is a repertoire :nowledge systems of of behavioral responses to cognitive structures are environmental stimuli. actively constructed by learners based on pre7 e'isting cognitive structures. Passive absorption of a predefined body of knowledge by the learner. Promoted by repetition and positive reinforcement. E'trinsic, involving positive and negative reinforcement. 1ctive assimilation and accommodation of new information to e'isting cognitive structures. Discovery by learners.

1iew of learning

,ntegration of students into a knowledge community. Bollaborative assimilation and accommodation of new information.

1iew of motivation

,ntrinsicC learners set their ,ntrinsic and e'trinsic. own goals and motivate earning goals and themselves to learn. motives are determined both by learners and e'trinsic rewards provided by the knowledge community. The teacher facilitates learning by providing an environment that promotes discovery and assimilationL accommodation. Bollaborative learning is facilitated and guided by the teacher. 2roup work.

Implications Borrect behavioral for /eaching responses are transmitted by the teacher and absorbed by the students.

YY B91PTE% ,>DEZ earning! Theory and %esearch

>EZT P12E [

'ehaviorism

5ehaviorist teaching methods have proven most successful in areas where there is a ?correct@ response or easily memori;ed material.

5ackground Oiew of :nowledge Oiew of earning Oiew of 6otivation ,mplications for Teaching

'ac2ground
6ethodological behaviorism began as a reaction against the introspective psychology that dominated the late $0th and early &3th centuries. ,ntrospective psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt maintained that the study of consciousness was the primary ob#ect of psychology. Their methodology was primarily introspective, relying heavily on first7person reports of sensations and the constituents of immediate e'periences. 5ehaviorists such as M. 5. Watson and 5. F. "kinner re#ected introspectionist methods as being sub#ective and un/uantifiable. ,nstead, they focused on ob#ectively observable, /uantifiable events and behavior. They argued that since it is not possible to observe ob#ectively or to /uantify what occurs in the mind, scientific theories should take into account only observable indicators such as stimulus7response se/uences. 1ccording to "kinner E$0-+, &(F,

The mentalistic problem can be avoided by going directly to the prior physical causes while bypassing intermediate feelings or states of mind. The /uickest way to do this is to \ consider only those facts which can be ob#ectively observed in the behavior of one person in its relation to his Hor herI prior environmental history.

%adical behaviorists such as "kinner also made the ontological claim that facts about mental states are reducible to facts about behavioral dispositions.

1iew of ?nowledge
5ehaviorists such as Watson and "kinner construe knowledge as a repertoire of behaviors. "kinner argues that it is not the case that we use knowledge to guide our actionC rather ?knowledge is action, or at least rules for action@ E$*&F. ,t is a set of passive, largely mechanical responses to environmental stimuli. "o, for instance, the behaviorist would argue that to say that that someone knows "hakespeare is to say that they have a certain behavioral repertoire with respect to "hakespeare E$*&F. :nowledge that is not actively e'pressed in behavior can be e'plained as behavioral capacities. For e'ample, ?, know a bluebird when , see one@ can be seen as effectively e/uivalent to ?, have the capacity to identify a bluebird although , am not now doing so@ E$*)F. ,f knowledge is construed as a repertoire of behaviors, someone can be said to understand something if they possess the appropriate repertoire. >o mention of cognitive processes is necessary E$*+N*-F.

1iew of !earning

From a behaviorist perspective, the transmission of information from teacher to learner is essentially the transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimulus. Thus, the point of education is to present the student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioral responses to specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective reinforcement schedule E$+$F. 1n effective reinforcement schedule re/uires consistent repetition of the materialC small, progressive se/uences of tasksC and continuous positive reinforcement. Without positive reinforcement, learned responses will /uickly become e'tinct. This is because learners will continue to modify their behavior until they receive some positive reinforcement.

1iew of 3otivation
5ehaviorists e'plain motivation in terms of schedules of positive and negative reinforcement. Must as receiving food pellets each time it pecks at a button teaches a pigeon to peck the button, pleasant e'periences cause human learners to make the desired connections between specific stimuli and the appropriate responses. For e'ample, a student who receives verbal praise and good grades for correct answers is more likely to learn those answers effectively than one who receives little or no positive feedback for the same answers. ikewise, human learners tend to avoid responses that are associated with negative reinforcements such as poor grades or negative feedback.

Implications for /eaching

5ehaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so7called ?skill and drill@ e'ercises to provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. <ther methods include /uestion EstimulusF and answer EresponseF frameworks in which /uestions are of gradually increasing difficultyC guided practiceC and regular reviews of material. 5ehaviorist methods also typically rely heavily on the use of positive reinforcements such as verbal praise, good grades, and pri;es. 5ehaviorists assess the degree of learning using methods that measure observable behavior such as e'am performance. 5ehaviorist teaching methods have proven most successful in areas where there is a ?correct@ response or easily memori;ed material. For e'ample, while behaviorist methods have proven to be successful in teaching structured material such as facts and formulae, scientific concepts, and foreign language vocabulary, their efficacy in teaching comprehension, composition, and analytical abilities is /uestionable.

Reference
"kinner, 5. F. E$0-+F. 1$out 2ehaviorism. >ew Sork! Ointage 5ooks. earning! Theory and %esearch

Cognitive Constructivism

Bognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to e'isting knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their e'isting intellectual framework to accommodate that information.

5ackground Oiew of :nowledge Oiew of earning Oiew of 6otivation ,mplications for Teaching Mean Piaget William 2. Perry %eferences

'ac2ground
Dissatisfaction with behaviorism4s strict focus on observable behavior led educational psychologists such as Mean Piaget and William Perry to demand an approach to learning theory that paid more attention to what went on ?inside the learner4s head.@ They developed a cognitive approach that focused on mental processes rather than observable behavior. Bommon to most cognitivist approaches is the idea that knowledge comprises symbolic mental representations, such as propositions and images, together with a mechanism that operates on those representations. :nowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners based on their e'isting cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive developmentC understanding the learnerAs e'isting intellectual framework is central to understanding the learning process.

1iew of ?nowledge
While behaviorists maintain that knowledge is a passively absorbed behavioral repertoire, cognitive constructivists argue instead that knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures. :nowledge comprises active systems of intentional mental representations derived from past learning e'periences. Each learner interprets e'periences and information in the light of their e'tant knowledge, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural background, their personal history, and so forth. earners use these factors to organi;e their e'perience and to select and transform new information. :nowledge is therefore actively constructed by the learner rather than passively absorbedC it is essentially dependent on the standpoint from which the learner approaches it.

1iew of !earning
5ecause knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent repetition, or to goad them into learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments. %ather, the role of the teacher is to facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and

by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to accommodate the new. Teachers must thus take into account the knowledge that the learner currently possesses when deciding how to construct the curriculum and to present, se/uence, and structure new material.

1iew of 3otivation
=nlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by e'trinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. 5ecause it involves significant restructuring of e'isting cognitive structures, successful learning re/uires a ma#or personal investment on the part of the learner EPerry $000, *)F. earners must face up to the limitations of their e'isting knowledge and accept the need to modify or abandon e'isting beliefs. Without some kind of internal drive on the part of the learner to do so, e'ternal rewards and punishments such as grades are unlikely to be sufficient.

Implications for /eaching

Bognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to e'isting knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their e'isting intellectual framework to accommodate that information. Thus, while cognitivists allow for the use of ?skill and drill@ e'ercises in the memori;ation of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate new material. For instance, asking students to e'plain new material in their own words can assist them in assimilating it by forcing them to re7e'press the new ideas in their e'isting vocabulary. ikewise, providing students with sets of /uestions to structure their reading makes it easier for them to relate it to previous material by highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new material by providing a clear organi;ational structure. 5ecause learning is largely self7motivated in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists such as 1. . 5rown and M. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods which re/uire students to monitor their own learning. For instance, the use of ungraded tests and study /uestions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the material. <ther methods that have been suggested include the use of learning #ournals by students to monitor progress and highlight any recurring difficulties, and to analy;e study habits.

+ean Piaget
The most influential e'ponent of cognitivism was "wiss child psychologist Mean Piaget. Piaget re#ected the idea that learning was the passive assimilation of given knowledge. ,nstead, he proposed that learning is a dynamic process comprising successive stages of adaption to reality during which learners actively construct knowledge by creating and testing their own theories of the world E$0+., .F. Piaget4s theory has two main strands! first, an account of the mechanisms by which cognitive development takes placeC and second, an account of the four main stages of cognitive development through which children pass. The basic principle underlying Piaget4s theory is the principle of e/uilibration! all cognitive development Eincluding both intellectual and affective developmentF progresses towards

increasingly comple' and stable levels of organi;ation. E/uilibration takes place through a process of adaption, that is, assimilation of new information to e'isting cognitive structures and the accommodation of that information through the formation of new cognitive structures. For e'ample, learners who already have the cognitive structures necessary to solve percentage problems in mathematics will have some of the structures necessary to solve time7rate7distance problems, but they will need to modify their e'isting structures to accommodate the newly ac/uired information to solve the new type of problem. Thus, learners adapt and develop by assimilating and accommodating new information into e'isting cognitive structures. Piaget suggested that there are four main stages in the cognitive development of children. ,n the first two years, children pass through a sensorimotor stage during which they progress from cognitive structures dominated by instinctual drives and undifferentiated emotions to more organi;ed systems of concrete concepts, differentiated emotions, and their first e'ternal affective fi'ations. 1t this stage, children4s outlook is essentially egocentric in the sense that they are unable to take into account others4 points of view. The second stage of development lasts until around seven years of age. Bhildren begin to use language to make sense of reality. They learn to classify ob#ects using different criteria and to manipulate numbers. Bhildren4s increasing linguistic skills open the way for greater sociali;ation of action and communication with others. From the ages of seven to twelve years, children begin to develop logic, although they can only perform logical operations on concrete ob#ects and events. ,n adolescence, children enter the formal operational stage, which continues throughout the rest of their lives. Bhildren develop the ability to perform abstract intellectual operations, and reach affective and intellectual maturity. They learn how to formulate and test abstract hypotheses without referring to concrete ob#ects. 6ost importantly, children develop the capacity to appreciate others4 points of view as well as their own. Piaget4s theory was widely accepted from the $0*3s until the $0-3s. 1lthough the theory is not now as widely accepted, it has had a significant influence on later theories of cognitive development. For instance, the idea of adaption through assimilation and accommodation is still widely accepted.

7illiam # Perry
William 2. Perry, an educational researcher at 9arvard =niversity, developed an account of the cognitive and intellectual development of college7age students through a fifteen7year study of students at 9arvard and %adcliffe in the $0*3s and $0+3s. Perry generali;ed that study to give a more detailed account of post7adolescent development than did Piaget. 9e also introduces the concept of positionality and develops a less static view of developmental transitions. The se/uence of cognitive structures that make up the developmental process may be described in terms of cross7sections of cognitive structures representative of different stages in the developmental se/uence. Each stage is construed as a relatively stable, enduring cognitive structure, which includes and builds upon past structures. "tages are characteri;ed by the coherence and consistency of the structures that compose them. The transition between stages is mediated by less stable, less consistent transitional structures. Freud, Whitehead, and Piaget all use the notion of a stage in this way. Perry re#ects the notion of a stage. 9e argues that construing

development in terms of a se/uence of stable stages in which students are ?imprisoned@ is too static EPerry $000, 'iiF. ,nstead, he introduces the notion of a position. Perry accepted Piaget4s claim that learners adapt and develop by assimilating and accommodating new information into e'isting cognitive structures. 9e also accepted PiagetAs claim that the se/uence of cognitive structures that constitute the developmental process are both logically and hierarchically related, insofar as each builds upon and thus presupposes the previous structure. 9owever, he laid far greater emphasis on the idea that learners approach knowledge from a variety of different standpoints. Thus, according to Perry, gender, race, culture, and socioeconomic class influence our approach to learning #ust as much as our stage of cognitive development E'iiF. We each interpret the world from a different position E)+F and each person may occupy several positions simultaneously with respect to different sub#ects and e'periences E'iiF. The developmental process is a constantly changing series of transitions between various positions. Perry provides the following illustration different types of position E$000, &F!

\ a lecturer announces that today he will consider three theories e'planatory of ]]]]]]]]]]]]. >tudent " has always taken it for granted that knowledge consists of correct answers, that there is one right answer per problem, and that teachers e'plain these answers for students to learn. 9e therefore listens for the lecturer to state which theory to learn. >tudent ' makes the same general assumptions but with an elaboration to the effect that teachers sometimes present problems and procedures, rather than answers, ?so that we can learn to find the right answer on our own\@ >tudent C assumes that an answer can be called ?right@ only in the light of its conte't, and that conte'ts or ?frames of reference@ differ\ Whatever the lecturer then proceeds to do\, these three students will make meaning of the e'perience in different ways which will involve different assessments of their own choices and responsibilities.

Perry identifies nine basic positions, of which the three ma#or positions are duality, multiplicity, and commitment.

The most basic position is duality. The world, knowledge and morality are assumed to have a dualistic structure. Things are right or wrong, true or false, good or bad. "tudents see teachers as authority figures who impart right answers and ?the truth.@ The role of the student is seen as being to receive those answers and demonstrate that they have learned them. Detachment is difficult in this because there is only a single, correct point of view. 6ost students have passed beyond this stage by the time that they arrive in university. Those who have not /uickly do so in the inherently pluralistic culture of modern universities. Positions two through four are largely transitional. earners gradually develop an increased recognition of multiplicity but still assimilate that multiplicity to the fundamentally dualistic framework of the first position. For instance, a student may

recogni;e the e'istence of a multiplicity of different points of view in the university but still look for the point of view that the teacher ?wants us to learn@ E$&$F.

The ne't ma#or position is multiplicity. The world, knowledge and morality are accepted as relativistic in the sense that truth is seen as relative to a frame of reference rather than absolute. earners recogni;e that things can only be said to be right or wrong within a specific conte't. Teachers are seen as e'pert guides or consultants rather than as authority figures who impart ?the truth.@ Peers are accepted as legitimate sources of learning E'''iiF. This position involves a much more e'tensive restructuring of the learner4s e'isting knowledge than previous positions as knowledge can no longer be assimilated to the e'isting dualistic organi;ational scheme. Positions si' through eight are also largely transitional. %ecognition of the relativity of knowledge leads to the reali;ation that a stable locus or point of view is necessary for a sense of identity and to give some feeling of continuity. This leads to the gradual formation of commitments to certain points of view, relationships, sorts of activities, etc. The learner reali;es the necessity to find his own point of view in a relativistic world. 9e or she begins by /uestioning and reconsidering past beliefs and commitments, then develops and e'pands upon firm commitments regarding important areas of life and knowledge. The final ma#or position is commitment. The commitments that the learners have developed together with their recognition that all knowledge is relative, leads to the reali;ation both that each person partly determines his or her own fate and the recognition that commitments, and hence identity, are constantly evolving.

5ecause Perry4s initial research was based on a small and fairly non7representative sample of students, many of the details of his positions have been modified or developed by later researchers. 9owever, the idea of positionality has had a significant influence on social identity theory and his account of developmental transitions is consonant with current approaches to adult learning E'iiF.

References
Perry, William 2. E$000F. Forms of Ethical and ,ntellectual Development in the Bollege Sears. "an Francisco! Mossey75ass Publishers. Piaget, Mean E$0+.F. "i' Psychological "tudies. 1nita Ten;er ETrans.F, >ew Sork! Ointage 5ooks. earning! Theory and %esearch

>ocial Constructivism

The level of potential development is the level at which learning takes place. ,t comprises cognitive structures that are still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in collaboration with others.

5ackground Oiew of :nowledge Oiew of earning Oiew of 6otivation ,mplications for Teaching

'ac2ground
"ocial constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasi;es the collaborative nature of much learning. "ocial constructivism was developed by post7revolutionary "oviet psychologist ev Oygotsky. Oygotsky was a cognitivist, but re#ected the assumption made by cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry that it was possible to separate learning from its social conte't. 9e argued that all cognitive functions originate in, and must therefore be e'plained as products of social interactions and that learning was not simply the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge by learnersC it was the process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge community. 1ccording to Oygotsky E$0-., *-F,

Every function in the child4s cultural development appears twice! first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual levelC first, between people EinterpsychologicalF and then inside the child EintrapsychologicalF. This applies e/ually to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. 1ll the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.

Oygotsky4s theory of social learning has been e'panded upon by numerous later theorists and researchers.

1iew of ?nowledge
Bognitivists such as Piaget and Perry see knowledge as actively constructed by learners in response to interactions with environmental stimuli. Oygotsky emphasi;ed the role of language and culture in cognitive development. 1ccording to Oygotsky, language and culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in how humans perceive the world. 9umans4 linguistic abilities enable them to overcome the natural limitations of their perceptual field by imposing culturally defined sense and meaning on the world. anguage and culture are the frameworks through which humans e'perience, communicate, and understand reality. Oygotsky states E$0+., (0F,

1 special feature of human perception \ is the perception of real ob#ects \ , do not see the world simply in color and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning. , do not merely see something round and black with two handsC , see a clock \

anguage and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of language are essentially social phenomena. 1s a result, human cognitive structures are, Oygotsky believed, essentially socially constructed. :nowledge is not simply constructed, it is co7constructed.

1iew of !earning
Oygotsky accepted Piaget4s claim that learners respond not to e'ternal stimuli but to their interpretation of those stimuli. 9owever, he argued that cognitivists such as Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of language. 1s a result, he claimed they had failed to understand that learning is a collaborative process. Oygotsky distinguished between two developmental levels E.*F! The level of actual development is the level of development that the learner has already reached, and is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The level of potential development Ethe ?;one of pro'imal development@F is the level of development that the learner is capable of reaching under the guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers. The learner is capable of solving problems and understanding material at this level that they are not capable of solving or understanding at their level of actual developmentC the level of potential development is the level at which learning takes place. ,t comprises cognitive structures that are still in the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in collaboration with others.

1iew of 3otivation
5ehavioral motivation is essentially e'trinsic G a reaction to positive and negative reinforcements. Bognitive motivation is essentially intrinsic G based on the learnerAs internal drive. "ocial constructivists see motivation as both e'trinsic and intrinsic. 5ecause learning is essentially a social phenomenon, learners are partially motivated by rewards provided by the knowledge community. 9owever, because knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, learning also depends to a significant e'tent on the learnerAs internal drive to understand and promote the learning process.

Implications for /eaching

Bollaborative learning methods re/uire learners to develop teamwork skills and to see individual learning as essentially related to the success of group learning. The optimal si;e for group learning is four or five people. "ince the average section si;e is ten to fifteen people, collaborative learning methods often re/uire 2",s to break students into smaller groups, although discussion sections are essentially collaborative learning environments. For instance, in group investigations, students may be split into groups that are then re/uired to choose and research a topic from a limited area. They are then held responsible for researching the topic and presenting their findings to the class. 6ore generally, collaborative learning should be seen as a process of peer interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be

promoted by the presentation of specific concepts, problems, or scenariosC it is guided by means of effectively directed /uestions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and information, and references to previously learned material. "ome more specific techni/ues are suggested in the Teaching 2uide pages on Discussion "ections.

Reference
Oygotsky, ev E$0-.F. 6ind in "ociety. ondon! 9arvard =niversity Press.