SOIL DEGRADATION PROCESSES S.Dharumarajan NBSS&LUP Regional centre, Bangalore 1.

SOIL EROSION Soil erosion is one form of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation, and soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation, serious in themselves, usually contribute to accelerated soil erosion. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks. Erosion by Water The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water is controlled by the following factors: Rainfall Intensity and Runoff. Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts might be required to move the larger sand and gravel particles. Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during short-duration, high-intensity thunderstorms. Although the erosion caused by long-lasting and less-intense storms is not as spectacular or noticeable as that produced during thunderstorms, the amount of soil loss can be significant, especially when compounded over time. Runoff can occur whenever there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface. The amount of runoff can be increased if infiltration is reduced due to soil compaction, crusting or freezing. Runoff from the agricultural land may be greatest during spring months when the soils are usually saturated, snow is melting and vegetative cover is minimal. Soil Erodibility Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics of each soil. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of

organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and certain clay textured soils. Tillage and cropping practices which lower soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil structure, and result of compacted contribute to increases in soil erodibility. Decreased infiltration and increased runoff can be a result of compacted subsurface soil layers. A decrease in infiltration can also be caused by a formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface. On some sites, a soil crust might decrease the amount of soil loss from sheet or rain splash erosion, however, a corresponding increase in the amount of runoff water can contribute to greater rill erosion problems. Past erosion has an effect on a soils erodibility for a number of reasons. Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites tend to be more erodible than the original soils were, because of their poorer structure and lower organic matter. The lower nutrient levels often associated with subsoils contribute to lower crop yields and generally poorer crop cover, which in turn provides less crop protection for the soil. Slope Gradient and Length Naturally, the steeper the slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss from erosion by water. Soil erosion by water also increases as the slope length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff. Consolidation of small fields into larger ones often results in longer slope lengths with increased erosion potential, due to increased velocity of water which permits a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity for sediment). Conservation Measures Certain conservation measures can reduce soil erosion by both water and wind. Tillage and cropping practices, as well a land management practices, directly affect the overall soil erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When crop rotations or changing tillage practices are not enough to control erosion on a field, a combination of approaches or more extreme measures might be necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip cropping, or terracing may be considered Sheet and Rill Erosion: Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff; it occurs rather uniformly over the slope and may go unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Rill erosion results when surface runoff concentrates forming small yet well-defined channels (Figure 1). These channels are called rills when they are small enough to not interfere with field machinery operations. The same eroded channels are know as gullies when they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage.

Gully Erosion: There are farms in Ontario that are losing large quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to fully erosion (Figure 2). Surface runoff, causing gull formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of fully banks, usually associated with seepage of ground water, leads to sloughing and slumping (caving-in) of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring months when the soil water conditions are most conducive to the problem Stream and Ditch Bank Erosion: Poor construction, or inadequate maintenance, of surface drainage systems, uncontrolled livestock access, and cropping too close to both stream banks has led to bank erosion problems Erosion by Wind The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by wind is controlled by the following factors: Erodibility of Soil Very fine particles can be suspended by the wind and then transported great distances. Fine and medium size particles can be lifted and deposited, while coarse particles can be blown along the surface (commonly known as the saltation effect). The abrasion that results can reduce soil particle size and further increase the soil erodibility. Soil Surface Roughness Soil surfaces that are not rough or ridged offer little resistance to the wind. However, over time, ridges can be filled in and the roughness broken down by abrasion to produce a smoother surface susceptible to the wind. Excess tillage can contribute to soil structure breakdown and increased erosion. Climate The speed and duration of the wind have direct relationship to the extent of soil erosion. Soil moisture levels can be very low at the surface of excessively drained soils or during periods of drought, thus releasing the particles for transport by wind. This effect also occurs in freeze drying of the surface during winter months. Unsheltered Distance The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls are usually exposed and suffer the most. Vegetative Cover The lack of permanent vegetation cover in certain locations has resulted in extensive erosion by wind. Loose, dry, bare soil is the most susceptible, however, crops that produce low levels

of residue also may not provide enough resistance. As well, crops that produce a lot of residue also may not protect the soil in severe cases. The most effective vegetative cover for protection should include an adequate network of living windbreaks combined with good tillage, residue management, and crop selection. Resulting Effect Wind erosion may create adverse operating conditions in the field. Crops can be totally ruined so that costly delay and reseeding is necessary - or the plants may be sandblasted and set back with a resulting decrease in yield, loss of quality, and market values 2. SALINISATION Salinisation is the accumulation of soluble salts of sodium, magnesium and calcium in soil to the extent that soil fertility is severely reduced. salinity is the degree to which water contains dissolved salts. Salinity is usually expressed in parts per thousand or grams per thousand grams. Normal seawater has a salinity of 33 parts per thousand. This rises to 40 parts per thousand in the Red Sea. Salinisation is the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble salts in the soil. The accumulated salts include sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium, chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate (mainly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate). A distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes. Primary salinisation involves salt accumulation through natural processes due to a high salt content of the parent material or in groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g. with salt-rich irrigation water and/or insufficient drainage. Sodification is the process by which the exchangeable sodium (Na) content of the soil is increased. Na+ accumulates in the solid and/or liquid phases of the soil as crystallised NaHCO3 or Na2CO3 salts (salt effloresces), as ions in the highly alkaline soil solution (alkalisation), or as exchangeable ions in the soil absorption complex (ESP). Salinisation, also known as alkalisation or sodification, is often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall, high evapotranspiration rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the salts which subsequently build-up in the soil surface layers. Irrigation with high salt content waters dramatically worsens the problem. In coastal areas, salinisation can be associated with the over exploitation of groundwater caused by the demands of growing urbanisation, industry and agriculture. Over extraction of groundwater can lower the normal water table and lead to the intrusion of marine water. Natural disasters in coastal areas, such as tsunamis, can cause severe salinisation problems

with several years of low fertility of the affected soil before recovery. In Nordic countries, the de-icing of roads with salts can lead to localised salinisation. Salinity is one of the most widespread soil degradation processes on the Earth. According to some estimates, the total area of salt affected soil is about one billion hectares. They occur mainly in the aridsemiarid regions of Asia, Australia and South America. In Europe, salt affected soil occurs in the Caspian Basin, the Ukraine, the Carpathian Basin and the on the Iberian Peninsula. Soil salinity affects an estimated 1 million hectares in the European Union, mainly in the Mediterranean countries, and is a major cause of desertification. In Spain 3% of the 3.5 million hectares of irrigated land is severely affected, reducing markedly its agricultural potential while another 15 % is under serious risk. Salt affected soil can be divided into five main groups:

Saline soil (Solonchak) with high amount of water soluble soils. Alkaline soil (Solonetz), high alkalinity and high exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP).

Magnesium soil: high magnesium content in the soil solution. Gypsiferous soil: strong gypsum or calcium sulphate (CaSO4) accumulation. Acid sulphate soil: highly acidic iron or aluminium sulphate accumulation.

The accumulation of salts, particularly sodium salts, are one the main physiological threats to ecosystems. Salt prevents, limits or disturbs the normal metabolism, water quality and nutrient uptake of plants and soil biota. When water containing a large amount of dissolved salt is brought into contact with a plant cell, the protoplasmic lining will shrink. This action, known as plasmolysis, increases with the concentration of the salt solution. The cell then collapses. In addition, sodium salts can be both caustic (corrosive) and toxic (poisonous) to organic tissue. The nature of the salt, the plant species and even the individuality of the plant (e.g. structure and depth of the root system) determine the concentration of soil-salt levels at which a crop or plants will succumb. Examples of plants and crops with a high tolerance to salt include bermuda grass, cotton, date palm, peas, rape and sugar beet while apples, lemons, oranges, potatoes and most clovers have a very low tolerance. Salinization processes are near to irreversible in the case of heavy-textured soils with high levels of swelling clay. Although a combination of efficient drainage and flushing of the soil by water is often used, the leaching of salts from the profile is rarely effective. Because the reclamation, improvement and management of salt affected soils necessitate complex and expensive technologies, all efforts must be taken for the efficient prevention of these harmful processes. Permanent care and proper control actions are required. Adequate

soil and water conservation practices, based on a comprehensive soil or land degradation assessment, can provide an early warning system that provides possibilities for efficient salinity (or alkalinity) control, the prevention of these environmental stresses and their undesirable ecological, economical and social consequences. One of the long term effects of tsunami waves is the deposition of salty seawater on large flooded areas with consequent salinisation of soils. Depending on the climatic conditions, these effects can be temporary and the soils may recover rapidly by washing out the infiltrated salt deposits through heavy rainfall. In more arid or sub-humid areas the salinisation effects can on the other hand last for several years. Depending on the type of crops cultivated in the area and their resistance to salinisation there can be serious consequences on long term agricultural production and food security in the affected area. The 9 magnitude earthquake that occurred at 00.58 UTC on 26th December 2004 at the interface between the India and Burma plates off the west coast of Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, triggered massive tsunamis that affected several countries throughout south and south east Asia (India, Bangladesh, Mynamar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Maldives and Thailand) as well as in East Africa (Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania). The total inundated zone is estimated at ca. 60 000 sq. km. Soils of these areas have been affected by erosion and scouring that modifies the topography, land leveling and the elimination of bunds (for paddy fields), soil fertility losses when upper layer is washed away, deposition of salted sediment, salt infiltration and trash and debris accumulation. Recovery of the affected areas will require several years in some areas lacking sufficient rainfall for rapid outwash of accumulated salts and will be an additional burden to the local population 3. SOIL COMPACTION Soil compaction is the term for the deterioration of soil structure (loss of soil features) by mechanistic pressure, predominantly from agricultural practices.Soil compaction is a form of physical degradation resulting in densification and distortion of the soil where biological activity, porosity and permeability are reduced, strength is increased and soil structure partly destroyed. Compaction can reduce water infiltration capacity and increase erosion risk by accelerating run-off. The compaction process can be initiated by wheels, tracks, rollers or by the passage of animals. Some soils are naturally compacted, strongly cemented or have a thin topsoil layer on rock subsoil. Soils can vary from being sufficiently strong to resist all likely applied loads to being so weak that they are compacted by even light loads.

In arable land with annual ploughing, both topsoil and subsoil compaction is possible. A feature of compacted soils is the formation of a pan-layer, caused by the tractor tyres driving directly on the subsoil during ploughing (above). The pan-layer is less permeable for roots, water and oxygen than the soil below and is a bottleneck for the function of the subsoil. Unlike topsoil, the subsoil is not loosened annually, compaction becomes cumulative and over time, a homogeneous compacted layer is created. Driving heavy tractors on the subsoil during ploughing and harvesting is a major cause of subsoil compaction. The picture on the left clearly shows how the wheels on one side of the tractor are driven in the plough furrow and press directly on the subsoil. Large spaces in soils are known as macro pores and are created by plant roots, burrowing creatures and shrinkage caused by the drying of wet soil. These macro pores are usually continuous and form highways for air and water to travel deep into the soil. To an extent, continuous macro pores determine the soils physical and soil biological quality. Macro pores are the most vulnerable pores to soil compaction. The loss of macro porosity and pore continuity reduces strongly the ability of the soil to conduct water and air.

Reduced infiltration capacity results in surface run-off, leading eventually to flooding, erosion and transport of nutrients and agrochemicals to open water.

A poor aeration of the soil reduces plant growth and induces loss of soil nitrogen and production of greenhouse gases through denitrification in anaerobic sites.

Deformation of soil aggregates and higher bulk density increase the strength of the soil. This limits root growth which can result in a higher vulnerability of the crop to diseases. Subsoil compaction is a hidden form of soil degradation that can affect all the agricultural areas and results in gradually decreasing yields and gradually increasing problems with waterlogging.