PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y What is Psychology? Psycho o!

!y is the scientific study of "eha%ior and 'enta $rocesses. 2he $hrase %ehavior and mental processes 'eans 'any thin!s3 it enco'$asses not /ust (hat $eo$ e do "ut a so their thou!hts) e'otions) $erce$tions) reasonin! $rocesses) 'e'ories) and e%en the "io o!ica acti%ities that 'aintain "odi y functionin!. Psycho o!ists try to descri"e) $redict) e&$ ain) and contro hu'an "eha%ior and 'enta $rocesses) as (e as he $in! to chan!e and i'$ro%e the i%es of $eo$ e and the (or d in (hich they i%e. 2hey use scientific 'ethods to find ans(ers that are far 'ore %a id and e!iti'ate than those resu tin! fro' intuition and s$ecu ation) (hich are often inaccurate. Subfields in Psychology Su"fie d Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Neuroscience (Biopsychology) Clinical Psychology Clinical Neuropsychology Cognitive Psychology Counseling Psychology Cross-cultural Psychology Developmental Psychology Educational Psychology Environmental Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Experimental Psychology Forensic Psychology ealth Psychology !ndustrial"#rgani$ational Psychology #escri$tion Studies the inheritance of traits re ated to "eha%ior E&a'ines the "io o!ica "asis of "eha%ior #ea s (ith the study) dia!nosis) and treat'ent of $sycho o!ica disorders *nites the areas of +io$sycho o!y and C inica Psycho o!y) focusin! on the re ationshi$ "et(een "io o!ica factors and $sycho o!ica disorders ,ocuses on the study of hi!her 'enta $rocesses -e.!. an!ua!e) 'e'ory) and /ud!'ent0 ,ocuses $ri'ari y on educationa ) socia ) and career ad/ust'ent $ro" e's In%esti!ates the si'i arities and differences in $sycho o!ica functionin! in and across %arious cu tures and ethnic !rou$s E&a'ines ho( $eo$ e !ro( and chan!e fro' the 'o'ent of conce$tion throu!h death Concerned (ith teachin! and earnin! $rocesses) such as the re ationshi$ "et(een 'oti%ation and schoo $erfor'ance Considers the re ationshi$ "et(een $eo$ e and their $hysica en%iron'ent Considers ho( "eha%ior is inf uenced "y our !enetic inheritance fro' our ancestors Studies the $rocesses of sensin!) $ercei%in!) eanin!) and thin1in! a"out the (or d ,ocuses on e!a issues such as deter'inin! the accuracy of (itness 'e'ories E&$ ores the re ationshi$ "et(een the $sycho o!ica factors and $hysica ai 'ents or disease Concerned (ith the $sycho o!y of the (or1$ ace

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y Personality Psychology Program Evaluation Psychology o& 'omen (chool Psychology (ocial Psychology (port Psychology The Roots of Psychology A. Pre5Scientific Sta!e Se%en thousand years a!o) $eo$ e assu'ed that $sycho o!ica $ro" e's (ere caused "y e%i s$irits. 2o a o( those s$irits to esca$e fro' a $erson4s "ody) ancient hea ers chi$$ed a ho e in a $atient4s s1u (ith crude instru'ents a $rocedure ca ed trephining or trephination. Accordin! to the 1<th century $hi oso$her Rene Descartes) ner%es (ere ho o( tu"es throu!h (hich 9ani'a s$irits: conducted i'$u ses in the sa'e (ay that (ater is trans'itted throu!h a $i$e. ,ocuses on the consistency in $eo$ e4s "eha%ior o%er ti'e and the traits that differentiate one $erson fro' another ,ocuses on assessin! ar!e5sca e $ro!ra's such as the Head Start $reschoo $ro!ra' ) to deter'ine (hether they are effecti%e in 'eetin! their !oa s ,ocuses on issues such as discri'ination a!ainst (o'en and the causes of %io ence a!ainst (o'en #e%oted to counse in! chi dren in e e'entary and secondary schoo s (ho ha%e acade'ic or e'otiona $ro" e's 2he study of ho( $eo$ e4s thou!hts) fee in!s) and actions are affected "y others A$$ ies $sycho o!y to ath etic acti%ity and e&ercise

Franz Josef Gall) an 16th Century $hysician) ar!ued that a trained o"ser%er cou d discern inte i!ence) 'ora character) and other "asic $ersona ity characteristics fro' the sha$e and nu'"er of "u'$s on a $erson4s s1u . His 2heory !a%e rise to the fie d of phrenology) e'$ oyed "y hundreds of $ractitioners in the 17th century.

John Locke) theori8ed that hu'an "ein!s are "orn a tabula rasa) (hich 'eans 9" an1 s ate: and that their e&$eriences in ife sha$e their su"se;uent "eha%ior.

+. 2he Scientific Era and the E'er!ence of the Schoo s of Psycho o!y 2he for'a "e!innin! of Psycho o!y as a scientific disci$ ine is !enera y considered to "e in the ate 17th century) (hen) in Lei$8i!) Ger'any) Wilhelm Wundt esta" ished the

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y first e&$eri'enta a"oratory de%oted to $sycho o!ica $heno'ena. At a"out the sa'e ti'e) William James (as settin! u$ his a"oratory in Ca'"rid!e) =assachusetts. >hen >undt esta" ished his a"oratory in 16<7) his ai' (as to study the "ui din! " oc1s of the 'ind. He considered $sycho o!y to "e the study of the conscious e&$erience. His $ers$ecti%e) (hich ca'e to "e 1no(n as structuralism) focused on unco%erin! the funda'enta 'enta co'$onents of $erce$tion) consciousness) thin1in!) e'otions) and other 1inds of 'enta states and acti%ities. 2o deter'ine ho( "asic sensory $rocesses sha$e our understandin! of the (or d) >undt and other structura ists used a $rocedure ca ed introspection) in (hich they $resented $eo$ e (ith a sti'u us such as a "ri!ht !reen o"/ect or a sentence $rinted on a card and as1ed the' to descri"e in their o(n (ords and in as 'uch detai as they cou d) (hat they (ere e&$eriencin!. >undt ar!ued that "y ana y8in! their re$orts) $sycho o!ists cou d co'e to a "etter understandin! of the structure of the 'ind. Structura is' (as then re$ aced "y functionalism. Rather than focusin! on the 'ind4s structure) functiona is' concentrated on (hat the 'ind does and ho( "eha%ior functions. ,unctiona ists) (hose $ers$ecti%e "eca'e $ro'inent in the ear y 17??4s as1ed (hat ro e "eha%ior $ ays in a o(in! $eo$ e to ada$t to their en%iron'ents) ed "y the A'erican $sycho o!ist William James) the functiona ists e&a'ined ho( "eha%ior a o(s $eo$ e to satisfy their needs and ho( our 9strea' of consciousness: $er'its us to ada$t to our en%iron'ent. Another schoo of $sycho o!y (as that of John B. Watson) (ho noted that consciousness cou d on y "e studied throu!h the $rocess of intros$ection) (hich (as a notorious y unre ia" e research too . ,or >atson) since consciousness cou d not "e re ia" y studied) it shou d not "e studied at a . 2o "e scientific) $sycho o!y needed a su"/ect 'atter that (as sta" e enou!h to "e re ia" y 'easured) and that su"/ect (as "eha%ior. ,or >atson) "eha%ior is (hat (e cou d see and therefore "eha%ior is (hat (e need to study. 2his then ed to a schoo of $sycho o!y ca ed Beha iorism. !igmund Freud a so founded his o(n schoo of $sycho o!y under the na'e of "sychoanalysis. At the center of this theory is the conce$t of the unconscious the thou!hts) attitudes) i'$u ses) (ishes) 'oti%ations) and e'otions of (hich (e are una(are. ,reud "e ie%ed that chi dhood4s unacce$ta" e -i.e. for"idden or $unished0 (ishes are dri%en out of conscious a(areness and "eco'e $art of the unconscious) (here they continue to inf uence our thou!hts) fee in!s) and actions. 2he ite's in the unconscious are then e&$ressed in drea's) s i$s of the ton!ue) and $hysica 'anneris's. C assic ,reudian theory is often unacce$ted "y 'ost 'odern $sycho o!ists since it is 'ost y "ased on se& and@or a!!ression. Ho(e%er) (hat they do acce$t is the fact that $eo$ e4s ideas) !oa s) and 'oti%es can at ti'e o$erate outside conscious a(areness.

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y

Another i'$ortant reaction to structura is' (as the de%e o$'ent of Gesta t $sycho o!y in the ear y 17??4s. Gestalt psychology e'$hasi8es ho( $erce$tion is or!ani8ed. Instead of considerin! the indi%idua $arts that 'a1e u$ thin1in!) !esta t $sycho o!ists too1 the o$$osite tac1) studyin! ho( $eo$ e consider indi%idua e e'ents to!ether as units or (ho es.

Led "y Ger'an scientists such as #erman $bbinghaus and %a& Wertheimer) !esta t $sycho o!ists $ro$osed that 92he (ho e is different fro' the su' of its $arts:) 'eanin! that our $erce$tion or understandin! of o"/ects is !reater and 'ore 'eanin!fu than the indi%idua e e'ents that 'a1e u$ our $erce$tions.

C. Post5(ar schoo s of $sycho o!y

'arl Rogers and (braham %aslo) "eca'e the forerunners of the #umanistic schoo of $sycho o!y. Accordin! to the') hu'an "ein!s ha%e enor'ous $otentia for $ersona !ro(th. 2hey hi!h y e'$hasi8ed the i'$ortance of free )ill) the hu'an a"i ity to 'a1e choices and the uni;ueness of the indi%idua .

Jean "iaget started the 'ogniti e schoo of $sycho o!y) (hich studied the interna ) 'enta re$resentations that are used in $ercei%in!) re'e'"erin!) thin1in!) and understandin!.

Summary of the Timeline of Psychology )*** BCE +)* BC ,-./ ,-0* ,3*/ ,3/0 2re$hinin! (as used to a o( the esca$e of e%i s$irits Hi$$ocrates ar!ues for four te'$era'ents of $ersona ity #escartes descri"es ani'a s$irits Aohn Loc1e introduces idea of 1a%ula 2asa ,ran8 Aosef Ga $ro$oses phrenology >i he ' >undt inau!urates the first $sycho o!y a"oratory in Lei$8i!)

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y Ger'any ,30* ,30) ,0** ,*0+ ,0*) ,0,) ,04* 5,04+ ,043 ,0), ,0). ,0)+ ,0)/ ,0-0 ,03, ,03) ,00* 4*** 4*,* - Present Principles o& Psychology $u" ished "y >i ia' Aa'es ,unctiona ist 'ode for'u ated Si!'und ,reud de%e o$s Psychoana ysis I%an Pa% o% (ins the No"e $ri8e for (or1 on di!estion that ed to funda'enta $rinci$ es of earnin! =ary Ca 1ins (or1s on =e'ory Stron! e'$hasis on inte i!ence testin! Gesta t $sycho o!y is for'ed) "eco'in! the 'ost inf uentia schoo of $sycho o!y Aohn +. >atson) an ear y "eha%iorist $u" ishes Behaviorism Leta Stetter Ho in!(orth $u" ishes (or1 on ado escence and (o'en issues Car Ro!ers $u" ishes Client-Centered 1herapy he $in! to esta" ish the hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e +.,. S1inner $u" ishes (cience and uman Behavior) ad%ocatin! the "eha%iora $ers$ecti%e A"raha' =as o( $u" ishes 6otivation and Personality) de%e o$in! the conce$t of se f5actua i8ation Leon ,estin!er $u" ishes 7 1heory o& Cognitive Dissonance) $roducin! a 'a/or i'$act on socia $sycho o!y Ar!u'ents re!ardin! the !enetic "asis of IB fue in!erin! contro%ersies #a%id Hu"e and 2orsten >iese (in No"e $ri8e for (or1 on %ision ce s in the "rain Increasin! e'$hasis on the Cognitive Perspective of $sycho o!y arises Greater e'$hasis on 'u ticu tura is' and di%ersity arises E i8a"eth Loftus does $ioneerin! (or1 on fa se 'e'ory and eye(itness testi'ony Ne( su"fie ds de%e o$ such as C inica Neuro$sycho o!y and E%o utionary Psycho o!y

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y Perspectives of Psychology

The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood S!eat and "ears 2his $ers$ecti%e considers ho( $eo$ e and nonhu'ans function "io o!ica y3 ho( indi%idua ner%e ce s are /oined to!ether) ho( the inheritance of certain characteristics fro' $arents and other ancestors inf uences "eha%ior) ho( the functionin! of the "ody affects ho$es and fears) (hich "eha%iors are instinctua ) and so forth. E%en 'ore co'$ e& 1inds of "eha%iors) such as a "a"y4s res$onse to stran!ers) are %ie(ed as ha%in! critica "io o!ica co'$onents "y $sycho o!ists (ho e'"race the neuroscience $ers$ecti%e.

2his $ers$ecti%e inc udes the study of heredity and e%o ution) (hich considers ho( heredity 'ay inf uence "eha%ior3 and "eha%iora neuroscience) (hich e&a'ines ho( the "rain and the ner%ous syste' affect "eha%ior.

+ecause e%ery "eha%ior u ti'ate y can "e "ro1en do(n into its "io o!ica co'$onents) the neuroscience $ers$ecti%e has "road a$$ea . Psycho o!ists (ho su"scri"e to this $ers$ecti%e ha%e 'ade 'a/or contri"utions to the understandin! and "etter'ent of hu'an ife) ran!in! fro' cures fro' certain ty$es of deafness to dru! treat'ents for $eo$ e (ith se%ere 'enta disorders.

,urther'ore) ad%ances in 'ethods for e&a'inin! the anato'y and function of the "rain ha%e $er'itted the neuroscientific $ers$ecti%e to e&tend its inf uence across a "road ran!e of su"fie ds in $sycho o!y.

The Psychodynamic Perspective: #nderstanding the $nner Person Pro$onents of the $sychodyna'ic $ers$ecti%e ar!ue that "eha%ior is 'oti%ated "y inner forces and conf icts a"out (hich (e ha%e itt e a(areness or contro . 2hey %ie( drea's and s i$s of the ton!ue as indications of (hat a $erson is tru y fee in! (ithin a seethin! cau dron of unconscious $sychic acti%ity. 2he ori!ins of the $sychodyna'ic %ie( are in1ed to one $ersonC Si!'und ,reud. ,reud (as a Diennese $hysician in the ear y 17??4s (hose ideas a"out unconscious deter'inants of "eha%ior had a re%o utionary

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y

effect on E?th century thin1in!) not /ust in $sycho o!y "ut in re ated fie ds as (e . A thou!h so'e of the ori!ina ,reudian $rinci$ es ha%e "een round y critici8ed) the conte'$orary $sychodyna'ic $ers$ecti%e has $ro%ided a 'eans of not on y to understand and treat so'e 1inds of $sycho o!ica disorders "ut a so to understand e%eryday $heno'ena such as $re/udice and a!!ression.

The Behavioral Perspective: %bserving the %uter Person 2he "eha%iora $ers$ecti%e !re( out of a re/ection of $sycho o!y4s ear y e'$hasis on the inner (or1in!s of the 'ind. Instead "eha%iorists su!!ested that the fie d shou d focus on o"ser%a" e "eha%ior that can "e 'easured o"/ecti%e y.

Aohn +. >atson (as the first A'erican $sycho o!ist to ad%ocate a "eha%iora a$$roach. >or1in! in the 17E?4s) >atson "e ie%ed that one cou d !ain a co'$ ete understandin! of "eha%ior "y studyin! and 'odifyin! the en%iron'ent in (hich $eo$ e o$erate. In fact) >atson thou!ht that it (as $ossi" e to $roduce any desired ty$e of "eha%ior "y contro in! a $erson4s en%iron'ent.

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y 2he "eha%iora $ers$ecti%e (as cha'$ioned "y +.,. S1inner) a $ioneer in the fie d. =uch of our understandin! of ho( $eo$ e earn ne( "eha%iors is "ased on the "eha%iora $ers$ecti%e. A on! (ith its inf uence in the area of earnin! $rocesses) this $ers$ecti%e has 'ade contri"utions in such di%erse areas s treatin! 'enta disorders) cur"in! a!!ression) reso %in! se&ua $ro" e's) and endin! dru! addiction.

The &ognitive Perspective: $dentifying the roots of #nderstanding

2he co!niti%e $ers$ecti%e focuses on ho( $eo$ e thin1) understand) and 1no( a"out the (or d. 2he e'$hasis is on earnin! ho( $eo$ e co'$rehend and re$resent the outside (or d (ithin the' and ho( our (ays of thin1in! a"out the (or d inf uence our "eha%ior.

=any $sycho o!ists (ho adhere to the co!niti%e $ers$ecti%e co'$are hu'an thin1in! to the (or1in!s of a co'$uter) (hich ta1es in infor'ation and transfor's) stores) and retrie%es it. In their %ie() thin1in! is infor'ation $rocessin!.

Psycho o!ists (ho re y on the co!niti%e $ers$ecti%e as1 ;uestions ran!in! fro' ho( $eo$ e 'a1e decisions to (hether a $erson can (atch te e%ision and study at the sa'e ti'e. 2he co''on e e'ents that in1 co!niti%e a$$roaches are an e'$hasis on ho( $eo$ e understand and thin1 a"out the (or d and in descri"in! the $atterns and irre!u arities in the o$erations of our 'inds.

The 'umanistic Perspective: The #ni(ue )ualities of the 'uman Species

2he hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e su!!ests that a indi%idua s natura y stri%e to !ro() de%e o$) and "e in contro of their i%es and "eha%ior. Hu'anistic $sycho o!ists 'aintain that each of us has the ca$acity to see1 and reach fu fi 'ent.

Accordin! to Car Ro!ers and A"raha' =as o() (ho (ere centra fi!ures in the de%e o$'ent of the hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e) $eo$ e (i stri%e to reach their fu $otentia if !i%en the o$$ortunity. 2he e'$hasis of the hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e is on

PSY 1 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY Handout # 1 Introduction to the Science of Psycho o!y &ree 8ill) the a"i ity to free y 'a1e decisions a"out one4s o(n "eha%ior and ife. 2he notion of free (i stands in contrast to determinism) (hich sees "eha%ior as caused) or deter'ined) "y thin!s "eyond a $erson4s contro .

2he hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e assu'es that $eo$ e ha%e the a"i ity to 'a1e their o(n choices a"out their "eha%ior rather than re yin! on societa standards. =ore than any other a$$roach) it stresses the ro e of $sycho o!y in enrichin! $eo$ e4s i%es and he $in! the' achie%e se f5fu fi 'ent. +y re'indin! $sycho o!ists of their co''it'ent to the indi%idua $erson in society) the hu'anistic $ers$ecti%e has "een an i'$ortant inf uence. *ey $ssues and &ontroversies in Psychology 2here are fi%e 'a/or 1ey issues and contro%ersies that sti $sycho o!y) they areC Nature vs9 Nurture Conscious vs9 :nconscious determinants o& %ehavior #%serva%le %ehaviors vs9 !nternal mental processes Free 8ill vs9 Determinism !ndividual di&&erences vs9 :niversal principles in!er in the fie d of

In *ature s. *urture) the 'ain to$ic "ein! de"ated u$on is (hether "eha%ior is $atterned accordin! to the $erson4s !enetic 'a1e5u$ or inf uenced "y the $erson4s i''ediate en%iron'ent. At $resent) $sycho o!ists a!ree that neither nature nor nurture a one is the so e deter'inant of "eha%ior. 2he issue is then $ressed on ho( 'uch of hu'an "eha%ior is due to !enetics -nature0 and ho( 'uch is due to the en%iron'ent -nurture0F In the issue of conscious s. unconscious determinants of beha ior ) it is "ein! as1ed (hether ho( 'uch of hu'an "eha%ior is $roduced "y forces that one is a(are of and ho( 'uch is $roduced "y forces outside our consciousness. Are $eo$ e a(are of (hat they are doin! or are they directed "y unconscious (ishes and desiresF 2he ne&t issue tac1 es (hether $sycho o!y shou d concentrate so e y on obser able beha iors that can "e 'easured "y outside rater or shou d it focus on unseen internal thinking processes. Is it i'$erati%e to study $sycho o!y on y (ith res$ect to o"ser%a" e "eha%iors or does $sycho o!y need to incor$orate (hat ha$$ens "ehind (hat can "e seen in the na1ed eyeF Another issue is the dichoto'y of free )ill and determinism. In this issue it is "ein! as1ed (hether "eha%ior is a ready $re5deter'ined "y factors outside 'an4s contro or does 'an ha%e the a"i ity to choose (hat "eha%ior to e icit. Are $eo$ e i1e trains that /ust $assi%e y fo o( rai s aid "efore the' or do they ha%e the a"i ity to steer the'se %es to (hat they (ant to doF Last y) on the issue of indi idual differences and uni ersal principles) it is "ein! de"ated (hether ho( 'uch of hu'an "eha%ior is due to our uni;ue ;ua ities and ho( 'uch is due to our co''on characteristics. #o (e act "ecause it is the $roduct of our idiosyncrasy) or do (e act "ecause it is natura for our s$eciesF