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Recall the formula for determinants of k k matrices for k = 1, 2, 3: det[a] = a, det a1 b1 a2 b2 = a1 b2 a2 b1 and
a1 b1 c1 det a2 b2 c2 = a1 b2 c3 a1 b3 c2 a2 b1 c3 +a3 b1 c2 +a2 b3 c1 a3 b2 c1 . a3 b3 c3 Our approach to determinants of n n matrices is via their properties (rather than via an explicit formula as above). Let d be a function that associates a scalar d(A) R with every n n matrix A with entries in R. We use the following notation. If the columns of A are A1 , A2 , . . . , An , we write d(A) = d([A1 , A2 , . . . , An ]) simply as d(A1 , A2 , . . . , An ). Thus d can be regarded as a function on Rn1 Rn1 , the n-fold product of n1 column vectors.
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(i) d is called multilinear if for each j = 1, 2, . . . , n, scalars , and n 1 column vectors A1 , . . . , Aj 1 , Aj +1 , . . . , An , B, C , we have
d(A1 , . . . , Aj 1 , B + C, Aj +1 , . . . , An ) = d(A1 , . . . , Aj 1 , B, Aj +1 , . . . , An ) + d(A1 , . . . , Aj 1 , C, Aj +1 , . . . , An ).
(ii) d is called alternating if d(A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = 0 whenever Ai = Aj for some i = j, i, j = 1, . . . , n. (iii) d is called normalized if d(I ) = d(e1 , e2 , . . . , en ) = 1, where ej is the j th basic column vector, j = 1, . . . , n. (iv) A normalized, alternating and multillinear function d on the set of all n n matrices is called a determinant function of order n.
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Proof: (a) Let Aj = 0. For any column C , by the multilinearity, d(A1 , A2 , . . . , Aj , . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , C C, . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , C, . . . , An ) d(A1 , A2 , . . . , C, . . . , An ) = 0. (b) Put Aj = B, Aj +1 = C. By the alternating property,
0 = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , B + C, B + C, . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , B, B + C, . . . , An ) + d(A1 , A2 , . . . , C, B + C, . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , B, C, . . . , An ) + d(A1 , A2 , . . . , C, B, . . . , An )
where the sum is over all functions h : {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n}. Since f is alternating, we obtain f (A1 , . . . , An ) =
h
where the sum is now over all bijections h : {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n}.
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where the sum is over all bijections h : {1, 2, . . . , n} {1, 2, . . . , n}. Since f (e1 , . . . , en ) = 0, we obtain f (A) = 0. Theorem: Let f be an alternating multilinear function of order n, and let d be a determinant function of order n. Then for every n n matrix A = [A1 , A2 , . . . , An ], we have f (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , An )f (e1 , e2 , . . . , en ). In particular, if f is also a determinant function, then f (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = d(A1 , A2 , . . . , An ).
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Since f, d are alternating and multilinear, so is g. Since g (e1 , e2 , . . . , en ) = 0, the result follows from the previous lemma. Notation: We shall denote the determinant of A by det A. Setting det[a] = a gives the existence for n = 1. Assume that we have proved the existence of the determinant function det of order n 1. The determinant function of order n can be dened in terms of the determinant function of order n 1 as follows. Let Aij denote the (n 1) (n 1) matrix obtained from an nn matrix A by deleting the ith row and j th column of A for i, j = 1, . . . , n.
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Multiplicity of det
Since U is upper triangular the only choice of the bijection h yeilding a nonzero term is the identity bijection (and this gives a plus sign). (ii) follows from part (i). (iii) E is obtained from the identity matrix by exchanging columns i and j . The result follows since the determinant function is alternating. (iv) follows form part (i). Theorem: (Multiplicativity of det) For any nn matrices A and B , det(AB ) = det A det B. Proof: Since AB = A[B1 , . . . , Bn ] = [AB1 , . . . , ABn ], we need prove det(AB1 , AB2 . . . , ABn ) = det A det B. Keep A xed, and for an arbitrary nn matrix B , dene f (B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn ) = det(AB1 , AB2 , . . . , ABn ).
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= f (B1 , . . . , C, . . . Bn ) + f (B1 , . . . , D, . . . , Bn )
Since f is alternating and multilinear, an earlier theorem gives f (B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn ) = det(B1 , . . . , Bn )f (e1 , e2 , . . . , en ). But f (e1 , e2 , . . . , en ) = det(Ae1 , . . . , Aen ) = det(A1 , . . . , An ) = det A. Thus det(AB1 , AB2 , . . . , ABn ) = det(B1 , . . . , Bn ) det A = det A det B , as desired.
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det A =
i=1
for each k = 1, . . . , n.
Theorem: For any square matrix A, A(cof A)t = (det A)I = (cof A)t A. 1 In particular, if det A is nonzero, then A1 = (cof A)t . det A
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cof aki .
If i = j, then cij is the expansion of det A by the j th column of A. Let i = j . Consider the matrix B = [bij ] obtained by replacing the ith column of A by the j th column of A. Then B has a repeated column. Expanding det B by its ith column, cij = n k=1 bki cof bki = det B = 0. The other equation A(cof A)t = (det A)I is proved similarly. Cramers Rule: Consider the system a11 a12 a1n a21 a22 a2n . . . . . . . . . . . . an1 an2 ann
x1 x2 . . . xn
b1 b2 . . . bn
Cramers Rule
Suppose the coecient matrix A = [aij ] is invertible. Let Cj be the matrix obtained from A by replacing its j th column by the right side b = [b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ]t . Then the unique solution of the system Ax = b is given by det Cj for j = 1, . . . n. xj = det A Proof: Let A1 , . . . , An be the columns of A. If x = [x1 , . . . , xn ]t satises Ax = b, then b = x1 A1 + x2 A2 + + xn An . Since the determinant function is multilinear and alternating, we obtain det Cj = det[A1 , . . . , Aj 1 , b, Aj +1 , . . . , An ] = xj det A. Hence xj = det Cj for j = 1, 2, . . . , n. det A
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