Bates, Crispin (2007) Subalterns and the Raj; South Asia since 1600 p56-79, London, Routledge Ghalib

(1857) Today every British officer thinks himself an absolute potentateterror reigns over the peoplethe city sq. is an execution ground, Home is a ghost of itself, Delhis very dust seems to cry out for the blood of Muslims. Pax-Britannica was a myth. Bayly (1988) states that the only sock about the IM was its scale. India was rife with mutinies IM mainly in N India and Bengal Army made worse by incompetent command and the fact that not all regiments were full-European B currently fighting R intervention in Herat (who was supporting the Persians). B supports Afghans IM spread to be civil insurrection not just mutiny. Lasted 9 months Contemporary B historians minimise BEIC fault, while I historians regard it as first glimmer of nationalist war NO, both are exaggerated, there was always I resistance pre-1857 After 1818 Maratha defeat B dominant. But rule still challenged by dacoity (thuggee) Main aim was suppressing sati and thuggee as part of civilising mission Board of Control in Ldn and Statement Exhibiting Moral and material Progress and Conditions of India reporting these advances after 1859 Kali and Shiva were the gods to blame for inducing Hindus to act barbarically as thuggees. William Sleeman (1836) blames majority of Indians being thugs because they're Hindu Gordon, 1969: Thuggee discovered in 1820s in Narmada valley in central India. But truth was, they were extension of Maratha guerrilla warfare as they shared their winnings with local Maratha and Muslim zamindars and only targeted off duty BEIC sepoys (angry with them for serving B) Farooqui, 1998: Connected with undercover trade of Opium from Maratha states of Scindia and Holkar in Malwa to China. B had monopoly on this from Bengal Sleeman was head of Thuggee and Dacoity Department. His job was to suppress the movement because B feared a widespread Indian support for thuggee. Led to thug entering B language, led to superstitious literation like Meadows Taylors Confessions of a Thug in 1839 Special non-jury courts held trials on thugs But even by 1916 tribes of thugs remained. Hardly anyone spoke to B about them, though some did (and often repeatedly so as to push up numbers) because of personal rivalries, etc. Bayly 1997: lack of information on thuggee was issue for police force. Daroga = local constable. Previously apptd by zamindars, now directly by BEIC. But police force had little cooperation form population Pindaris another issue: raided villages on horseback. Had served as Maratha army men. Real big threat. B were preoccupied with uprisings from these men, especially in adivasi (tribal areas) 1820s many Bhil tribe revolts in Gujarat followed by Kol revolts in Bihar lasting until 1833 1855 Santhals revolted, most impt revolt pre-IM where more than 10,000 rebels killed. No wonder Gond tribal in central India hated B Huge lands used by Gujars, Rangars, Bhattis given to Jats for cultivation. Angered, so these groups first to rebel. Economic issues played key role. Gujars and Bhattis lost land because B failed to recognise pastors rights to land/tenancy. Tribes who sporadically cultivated were also denied rights. WANTED TO GET BACK B UNFAIR LAND SETTLEMENTS Stokes, 1978: Jat and Rajput peasants got most out of B because were settled cultivators. But still split internally. Others took part b/c of tax and water rates/salinization But many groups rebelled. 1842 Bundela Rajputs (rich landowners) in reaction to tax increase and oppressive court judgement thats took away their land Arrival of tax assessment teams provoked anger, e.g. Khandesh revolt 1852 In Malabar coast, Mappila Muslims revolted against Hindu landlords apptd by B

But rioting communal e.g. unemployed Muslim artisans v Hindu moneylenders prospering, replacement of law officers such as khazi, mufti with colonial officers So widespread anger, not known because of rubbish intelligence system, which avoided this. IM unique because all groups actually flared up simultaneously BEIC desperate to renew charter, had to convince P that they were modernising India and deserved to stay. But actually radical experiments employed that only angered New lands had most increased tax. Biggest anger esp. as they were in GD. Penal policies angered, those who defaulted would have lands seized. This method shocked and was illegitimate to I Hardiman 1996: B courts increased power of moneylenders (sahukar or bania). More furiousness. Rounding up of prostitutes as soon as troops got diseases also angered Aristocrats or ulema (M scholars) lost power to courts that didnt even have religious power. Strange to many, esp. as many judges only got posts from having sat a CS exam in Ldn :/ Under Mughals tax collection had scope for negotiation. Usually zamindars made gifts of inam lands to former public servants but BEIC insisted that these were taxed too. Stokes, 1959: didnt allow surplus production to replace some amount of land tax. Just took it. Plus want cash tax so as to recoup money from their wars. Shocked people, no idea of money. B legal procedures alien. Required public investigation. Scared high caste people who didnt want ignominy Cohn 1982: Mughal system gave positions based on religious and social status e.g. zamindars. But B gave promotions based on ability to raise yields, zamindars lost jobs if couldnt pay due to BEIC IM seen as anticolonial but not true. Many wanted return to pre-colonial order; others had no alternative but to turn to traditional leaders when B authority collapsed in 1857. Yet B avenged even those who were forced to join :/ Sepoys had mixed motives too. 1) Install Shah as emperor, made mistake of marching to Delhi than overthrowing B powerbase in Calcutta. But at least they had an aim esp. as I lacked a nationalist ethos Yet alienated Hindu rulers who did well under B and those elements who hated Mughal rule e.g. Punjab Sikhs Those who rebelled often fought for their states not India itself Main cause for failure: no overall structure V.D. Savarkar 1908: first war of indp. Reacting against B views it was just a mutiny, a treason that justified B barbarity. R.C. Majumdar (1963) rejects this. B created a scapegoat to justify blame and enhance own power e.g. blamed leaders whom they didnt like i.e. Mahmud Khan, Pathan nawab of Najibad. Local Rajput leader Sheoraj Singh rewarded for loyalty though in reality corresponded with rebels and gave support to rebel leader Khan Bahadur Khan (Brodkin, 1972) So blinded where B to who started it, they blamed R tsar for working with leaders to overthrow B rule and even Nana Sahib (former Peshwa of Maratha, deprived of pension since 1951) and Jhansi rani Wrong. Sahib on B side, trusted to look after treasury of B. only then changed sides mainly because of Tatya Topes urge. Blamed for Cawnpore Massacre, but we dont know truth. 19th Native cavalry in Barackpore reacted first against Lee Enfield rifles, court told them to disband. Pandey of 34th regiment (next day) fired at Sir John Hearsay (leader) but died. Meerut (6 weeks later) sepoys humiliated and prisoned. March to Delhi after freed by fellow sepoys on May 10 B blamed IM on cartridges but reality, more issues. Did so because to highlight anger over something as trivial as bullets would prove how I needs civilisation, divert from BEIC maladministration. Though the cartridge issue demonstrates poor relationship b/w sepoys and commanders. BUT more importantly, widespread distrust 1806 Vellore: leather headgear annoyed sepoys.

Madras, Bombay, Bengal units got allowance if fought beyond frontiers. By 1856 B realised since they ruled 2/3 of India, no need. Worse, new B policy of recruiting from all areas annoyed villages and states e.g. Oudh which mainly supplied men. 1850 Doctrine of Lapse? Started with taking Nagpur kingdom (biggest one), then Jhansi, Carnatic, Tanjore. Took Oudh on mismanagement issues, angered cos it was most loyal Fisher 1993: did so to justify end of I ruling despotism Ironically, B seen as rebels. B only had revenue collecting rights yet when took Oudh overrode nawab of Oudhs authority as vizier (guardian) of Mughal empire. After taking over, cut taluqdar numbers by Martin Gubbins. These taluqdars led by Raja of Mahmudabad were first to rebel in rural area Suspended nawabs 50,000 troops. Annoyed. Kant: B rule only accepted by people because of native armys loyalty. They respect native army more By nature, BEIC rule was military occupation, used cantonments to overawe the population Sikh regiment of Ranjit Singh incorporated in BEIC in 1840. 15,000 of them, helped B Many thought IM planned for some time but others argue, NO, this was only widespread unrest. No coordinated conspiracy (RANAJIT GUHA). Yet by imprisoning sepoys on 10 May B forced their hand at a revolt Roy 2003, Dalrymple 2006: almost 100,000 of 139,000 mutinous sepoys went to Delhi, proclaiming war of Din (M) and Dharma (Hindu duty). Mainly led by Shahs fifth son Mirza Mughal Azamgarh proclamation: it is well know to all, that in this age the people of Hindustan, both Hindoos and Mahomedans, are being ruined under the tyranny and oppression of the infidel and treacherous English Section 1: seeks to rally zamindars. Under ryot (police guy) the respectable zamindars are summoned to court and lands seized. Those who help will only pay revenue Section 2: merchants. BEIC monopolising everything. Under us every trade of article open to you, those with no ships will have government streamed vessels for foreign trade and loans Section 3: CS those under BEIC treated rubbish, those who help them will go to hell. Under us well give you high posts and 200-300 rupees per month. Sepoys will get double what BEIC pay after win. Section 4: reg. artisans. Under BEIC they are reduced to beggary. Under us theyll be entitled to secular and eternal happiness of employment in high courts Section 4: reg. pundits. Those who help will NOT be condemned and receive rent-free lands Gen. James George Neill of Madras Fusiliers blamed for escalation. Upon hearing events in Oudh went to Varanasi, disbanded local regiment and shot them. The Sikh regiment, who saw this and were usually loyal, revolted. News spread, Kanpur regiments revolted and marched to Bithur where persuaded Nana Sahib to help. Neill was ordered by telegraph from Calcutta to move to Allahabad and Kanpur but refused Kanpur regiments commanded by Wheeler. By the time Neill arrives in Allahabad, too late. Wheeler surrenders to Nana Sahib and Tatya Tope in hope of safe passage to Calcutta. Nana Sahib tried to suppress Cawnpore Massacre when ears of it, asks 70 remaining 70 officers be taken to Bibighar where massacred next day. B erected memorial in that place. Lucknow: B retreated to the residency, couldnt get in because Oudhs masses involved. Foolishly (under Henry Lawrence) start war in Chinhut village but outnumbered. Such was popularity of revolt in Oudh that 10 EU died/day while supporters increased by 10,000 per day Neills delay because of his mop up operations (indiscriminate murders of I) Gen Havelock sent from Calcutta to relive Cawnpore BUT on 4th Aug John Nicholson finally arrived at Delhi with huge troops of Sikhs from NW Frontier. Bombed Kashmiri gate, rushed into Delhi city. William Hodson captured Mughal emperor who was hiding in Humayuns tomb and surrendered in exchange for his life.

Hodson then captured the three princes leading the rebels and shot them after stripping in public. Mirror image of barbarity followed. Informers helped them as they got the loot from dead men Took Red Fort, only allowed emperor to live there. Destroyed city, only kept 1/5 th of Red Forts size end of Muslim Urdu cultural dominance in North India But Lucknow (Oudh capital): stuck. Sir Colin Campbell came from Calcutta with Ldn (British Expeditionary Force) troops directed to China Sahib ran, Tatya went to Jhansi to help rani against Gen. Walpole. But Gen. Hugo Rose defeated ranis forces in Kopatti Serai Lucknow was prioritised by Tatya because it was former capital of Oudh; royal connections/symbol. The expense was failing to cut B power in Calcutta as this was main reason why B able to win Popular revolt: Failed to penetrate village levels in zamindari areas e.g. Bihar Indians in Hyderabad believed yet another war between B and Maratha in progress. South India quiet. Bayly 1998: planted seeds of later nationalism. Yet presently regional affair Bengal and Punjab loyal. B troops heavy there, plus many in borders of Afghanistan. Clearly shows how B power only collapsed in 1857 in areas where there was few B troops therefore more practical manoeuvring opportunities The desire for old system prompted rebels to look to traditional leaders, many aristocrats e.g. Khan Bahadur Khan who was last indpt ruler of Rohilkand when B annexed in 1801 and Birjis Qadir, one of the sons of nawab of Oudh, taluqdars, and the nawab of Oudhs ex-wife Begum Hazrat Mahal Yet historians like Gautam Bhadra (1985) show how many opportunists took part e.g. Shah Mal, an over-taxed Jat of Bijraul. He created a militia of similar minded people to take over. Devi Singh: main one. Acted without outsider contact. Came from Raya, a Mathura district where the brotherhood land tenure system (bhaiyachara) was existent: that is, land divided between families who paid revenue jointly. But B revoked this for individual ownership, moneylender Raja Gokul Das (largest Marwari moneylenders benefited because where families couldnt pay, took land. Singh fought against Das and other lenders. Rebel leaders like these had a common goal: they were organised, caste did not divide them, and united in anti-B/Eu feeling B reprisal of cannon shooting was aimed to scare public and offend Hindus/Muslims because prevented cremation or proper burial Letters sent home demonstrate blood thirst: we have power of life and death in our hands, and we assure you we spare not. Fredrick Cooper, deputy commissioner of Amritsar killed 237 sepoys and subjected 45 more to cell overcrowding in re-enactment of Zephaniah Holwells Black Hole Indians did same while fighting e.g. Tatya ordered collaborates to have noses and ears cut off so cant hear insurgents. Both desperate to use violence to intimidate because it was the only language they understood. Canning: promises clemency. But doesnt happen on foot level. Yet promises taluqdars non confiscation of lands if give up, 14 in Oudh immediately follow. Clemency still helped to reduce anger, and by 1859 Tatya killed and all opposition ends. Shah tried for treason transported to Rangoon where he died in an unmarked grave :( 1858 Royal Proclamation of Allahabad promises to respect princes. IM used as political tool. To justify rule despite unpopularity. Main result: Delhi court vacated. Advent of B imperial rule. But the IM resistance was harnessed by later nationalists; this was its greatest legacy.