Relocating Green Themes in Modern Ideological Thinking

Indian Political Science Association
ECOPOLITICS AND IDEOLOGY RELOCATING GREEN THEMES IN MODERN IDEOLOGICAL THINKING Author(s): Padam Nepal Source: The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 65, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec., 2004), pp. 603-619 Published by: Indian Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41856079 . Accessed: 17/12/2013 13:39
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Science The IndianJournal of Political Vol.LXV,No.4,Oct-Dec., 2004 ECOPOLITICS GREEN AND IDEOLOGY THEMES RELOCATING
IN MODERN THINKING Padam Nepal
IDEOLOGICAL
is Theorigin anddevelopment ofecopolitics oftheconcept andcontent debated andso is thenature oftheconcept of nature This owes tothe concept ofthe fluid ecopolitics itself at the same nascent still in its which is stage, ofecopolitics inantiquity. tobe rooted time itsroot occasionally claiming and even on t'hecomplex Thepresent paper, focusing andmodernity, between ecopolitics paradoxical relationship the and torelocate matter, green forthat attempts ecopolitics, canvass modern thebroad andideasacross ofthe thoughts an insight into the togive is expected This exercise ideologies. and the modern between ideologies ecopolitics. relationship divided in to three Forthis the purpose, paperis broadly . The a conceptualization sections section ofthe attempts first across the the second section explores concept ofecopolitics; and to broad modern canvass ideologies attemptsexplore of in theGreen -nessor otherwise ideologies ofthevarious in shall section bepresented The third andthe question. final lieuofa conclusion. I. Conceptualizing Ecopolitics ' 4 Theterm Ecopolitics(Conley:1997:CoverPage) hasappeared will that a further confusion Henceitis all themorelikely onlyrecently. and environment be added to thatwhichsometimes developsbetween an of the a to elucidation There is, therefore, ecology. necessity attempt of at the of However, understanding any attempt concept ecopolitics. a prior consideration of the without theconceptmaynotbear fruition from the French words and Derived of environment ecology. concepts ' or 'environner' ' aroun 'round-abou 4 environ , 'tosurround', , meaning ' ' refers 6 to the to encompass' in English usage theterm environment 4 - including around an organism total of thingsor circumstances
of an indicates thesurroundings humans The term, therefore, broadly of to the entire individual or a ranging up organism communityorganisms, life.By surroundings thezone of earth that is able to sustain Biosphere, that materials and living is meantall thenon-living playanyrolein an
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from soil andairtowhat an organism feeds on and existence, organism's thatmay feedon it. Otherfactors theorganisms like heat,lightand on theorganism also constitutes itsenvironment. Even gravitation acting ' a brief encounter with theword4 environment two provokes persuasive for of a contemporary definition. First suggestions , possiblestructuring it is identified as a 4 that each and all ', everything totality encompasses of us, and this association is establishedenoughto be not highly In thesecondsense,theterm dismissed. a processderivative, indicates one that alludesto somesortof actionor interaction, at theveryleast that theencompassing is active, in someswisereciprocal, that inferring theenvironment, whatever itsnature, is notsimply inert to phenomenon be impacted without orwithout theorganism innature. response affecting The second meaning of theterm environment bearsdynamism, which can be illustrated a through Systems Theory. Simply put, system maybe defined as having thefollowing features: is theinter, thesystem first connected elements; second , it formsa special unitywith the third is an element of a environment; , usuallyanyinvestigated system order andfourth of anyinvestigated in , elements higher system; system their turn as of a lower order. Hence,a system usuallyappear systems has a hierarchical manifested bothin the'chainof systems' character, inclusions intoone another and in the interaction of individual subandYudin:1977). Thereis also thethird systems (Blanberg, Sadovsky environment. Itis the environment usageoftheterm popular usagewhere 4 ' is seen as a problem with issues like house area, green effect' acid ' ' ontheother is thescientific rain' soil erosionetc.Ecology, hand, study of the inter-relations of plants, animals, and the environment ofKnowledge, focused Vol.6, 1993, (Encyclopedia P.325).Itis a discipline on studying theinteractions between an organism of somekindand its environment (Environmental (2nd Encyclopedia Edition): 1999:p.343). there are some confusions thatariseout of the Occasionally, use of theconceptsof ecologyand environment. When synonymous thetwoare synonymously third senseof the used,theaforementioned termenvironment gets mixed up withecology,thereby, leading to confusions. In thethird senseas aforementioned, environment connotes a problem area.What as theproblem areais butthehuman is recognized effects on thebiophysical whichis often The human system, negative. that attitude which dictates that effects have madeon to been generates the environment thatneeds to be withheld to save the environment
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constitutes theimplicitly of Hence,themeanings ecological perspective. the two termsunconsciously and mixed get overlapped up, thereby leadingto subtleconfusion. In the fieldof interdisciplinary studies, ecologyis seen as a The standard forms of studiesare: first, perspective. interdisciplinary borrowing concepts, tools, techniques, and models fromother a givenproblem from theperspectives of second,studying disciplines; different referred to as where barriers disciplines interpntration', betweenvariousdisciplines are broken creation of a down;and third, across boundaries often a to new disciplinary hybrid leading discipline. These techniques whichare used o facilitate integration amongsocial scienceshave beenpointed outy Giovanni Sartori in his article entitled of "Sociology Politicsand PoliticalSociology"in Lipson(ed) Politics and the Social Sciences(De and Bhattacharya: in all 1983). Although thesethreesenses we can see thatEcopoliticsas whatexistsin the form is butonly thefirst Political Sciencehasborrowed present technique. from like the of techniques ecology concepts ecotage, ecoteur, ecoterrorism etc. but it has notborrowed the anymodelas such from of Ecology. Whenecologyis considered as a perspective in discipline thestudy of a discipline, thesaid discipline remains external to ecology, and ecologyin turn, external to thediscipline. The above contention can be illustrated with certain examples. Social ecologyfirst as a perspective in Geography; itwas not emerged internalized. WhenSocialist internalized and vie-versa ideology ecology at thehands of Murray it emerged as a separate academic Bookchin, identified as Deep Ecology.Similarly feminism has been a discipline, branch of for as manifested in Mary separate knowledge quite long Wollstonecrafs Vindication of theRights of Women (1792) and Mills Subjection of Women. When it startedconsideringecology as a the two were external to each other. Eco-feminism thus perspective, as a perspective within theliterature of feminism, 'eco' and emerged 'feminism'separatedby a 'hyphen'. Here, Ecology had not been internalized In courseof time, itwas realizedthat thetwo by feminism. wereinseparable. Feminism hadinternalized andecology hadinternalized to the of a new field of 'Ecofeminism' feminism, leading emergence study where the separating 'hyphen' between 'eco' and 'feminism' Thus a new interdisciplinary called conspicuously disappeared. hybrid
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of ecologyand acrosstheboundaries 'Ecofeminisn emerged, cutting feminism Shiva and Maes: 1993). (see between what we see is themarriage Whenitcomestopolitics, ofan 4 intheemergence Political results Scienceandecology ecopoliticaV So far,since politicalscience has borrowed onlysome perspective. ithas notbeen from framework, anyseparate concepts ecologywithout lizedinthediscipline ofpolitical science.Henceitmaynotbe out interna of place to statethatecopoliticsemergesas a resultof the mutual internalization between ecologyandpoliticsin thesameveinas public and administration grewout of politicalscience as an independent makesit imperative to autonomous academicdiscipline. This,however, and environmental between politics. distinguish ecopolitics of theenvironmental to thestudy issues Environmental politicsrefers of science. and theoretical framework with Here, political exiting concepts is external topolitical science. On theother hand, ecological perspective anecological where ofpolitics from is thestudy perspective, ecolopolitics Inecopolitics, a political itself is seenfrom perspective. ecological ecology believes is internalized science. This by perspective political perspective awareness and that no political is without judgement possible ecological The emergence without of no ecologicalawareness political judgement. a is a distant This is as but because discipline hope. 'ecopolitics' separate is yetto be crystallized. Yetwe hope itseemsapparently theperspective elements which can becausewe havemany with ecopolitical perspective we mayhave latent be developed.Possibly, ecopoliticalperspective withinpolitical science in major political ideologies, theoriesof traditions of political thought, activitiesof the nondevelopment, (NGOs), growing body of environmental governmental organizations and growing research on protest new movements, legislation outputs socialmovements, etc. II. Ecopolitics and Modern Ideological Thinking An apparent and modernity paradoxseemsto bindecopolitics of at thesametime theformer thefailure together: emerges denouncing several ofthe ofmodernity, itdoesso bymaking use ofelements promises that lieinthevery coreofthelatter 2001: p.1) Thus, (Tavolaro: ecopolitics shares a very with of modernity. the This complex relationship project obviouscontradiction be from various may approached perspectives. Becauseofthiscontradiction, ofecopolitics, and for that understanding
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matter,ecologism as an ideology has been seen fromdifferent One wayof understanding is through a 'thick' ecopolitics perspectives. likeAndrew and'thin' ofit.Scholars Dobson(2000: p. 7), Yannis reading Stravrakakis Baxter 2000),andBrian ( 1997: p. 266-270; ( 1999:p. 1) perceive it as a full-fledged and independent 'ecologism' as 'thick',regarding in the manner of Liberalism and socialism. Freeden ideology Contrarily, itas a 'thin' Freeden makes a morphological (1994; 1996)regards ideology. analysis of the ideologies in which he perceives the structural of political concepts in termsof 'core, adjacent and arrangement to Freeden,thecore consistsof the peripheral'elements. According on of a particular which, an empirical conceptualcomponents, study arealmost found to be at thecentre of ideologicaldiscourse, universally theoretical concerns. The core shapes and constrains thecontent and andperipheral of theadjacent Freeden that structuring concepts. argues inonly has a coreconsisting four viz theman-nature ecologism concepts, values andimplementation ofecological holism, preservation, relationship, whichare "insufficient in their ownto conjure lifestyles, up a visionor of human and social interaction or interpretation purpose"(Freeden: other 'thick' likeLiberalism, Freeden hand, 1996:p.527). On the ideologies to theconceptual elements core. Sincetheconceptual says,have twelve failed to supplya strong core here has conspicuously constraining it has allowed existenceof structure for adjacent decontestations, multivariatein ecopolitical thought. to Freeden's'thin'reading of ecologism, we have Concurring andquiteoften of locatedtwoparallel, variants competing contradictory ' trend.The ' this One is the of ofModernity origin ecopolitics. Critique in thewritings of trend century may be tracedto the late eighteenth Kantand,moreforcefully, whomade thinkers like Immanuel Rousseau, as thewrongful use of industry and efforts to checkwhat was perceived backto nature Thistrend andpreached philosophy. technology; appears The second trendis the as a continuity of theprojectof modernity. ' ' with Limits t Growth as its Instrumental trend, Rationality Scientific the The trend within discourse basis. second ecopolitical philosophical itself as a dominant runs sometimes trend, manifesting parallelto thefirst trend. The rallying maybe locatedin theecological pointof thistrend in thesecondhalfof manifested that started boldly being catastrophe to that the 1960s. Hence,it asserts modernity gave mana materialistic
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as never before nature which to destroy outlook, gave also thepotential 1 993: as there wasno ideological tothe restraint (Adams: p.315). process the as a reaction as an ideology, therefore, against Ecopolitics emerged the failure of themodernity to address consequences appalling project view of man of the on environment producedby the materialistic and in thelikesofSocialism The modern modernity project. ideologies, were found Liberalismthe thinking, inadequate produced by enlightment and other social to addresstheproblem of environmental degradation issues like oppressionof women,which led to the emergenceof clubbed under and feminist others, many ecopolitical among ideologies this thecommon on name ofNewRadicalIdeologies. reading Ecopolitics can be seen bothas a product of themodernity and a critique project, which thetwo. accounts forthecomplex between relationship andtherefore, the 'thin' of Thus, adopting reading 'ecopolitics', ofecopolitics, theexistence variations ofmultiple present acknowledging work the strands of modern is a humble to survey major attempt briefly as categorized ideologies,thatis, socialism(whichhas been further forthe Guild Socialism,Democratic Marxism, Socialism,Anarchism of the and te tradition conservatism liberalism, purpose present study) ofCritical on ecopolitics andtrace outifthey haveanybearing Theory, and analyse their This is to thereto. perception expected givean insight as towhat is rooted inthehistory extent theecopolitical oftoday thinking of modern ideological thinking, of course with ' changes' and ' continuities'at the same time of the , leading to the development ideology of ecologism to bridge the inadequacies of the modern ideologies. Liberalism Liberalism is a political committed to therights and ideology of the individual. Laissez Classical Liberalism, liberty by underpinned Faireeconomy and defended Locke and Adam in thewritings of John as hasbeenpointed 1992:p. 23), see outbyEckersley Smith, (Eckersley: thenon-human world inpurely It is seenas no more terms. instrumental thana meansto humanends. John Locke sees theearthas givento humans for "thesupport andregards andcomfort oftheir nature being", as valuableonlyif human labouris mixedto it forappropriation and
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valueless. Liberalismalso has a belief in the continuous otherwise, in theability of scientific and a faith forthe economicgrowth progress and sustainable future. of an equitable achievement Hence,ecopolitics whereit requires withliberalism coercive seen as conflicting is often This of to environmental solutions literature, body problems. significant with cannot reconcile ideas. ofclassicalliberalism, ecological particularly ofliberalism, which the Hereinlies theecologicalcritique paves wayfor as an ideology. and ecologism of ecopolitics thedevelopment Locke has been usually the other on hand,although However, whoencouraged reckless as an arch-individualist ecologically critiqued on his theory of property, of nature yetit is the building exploitation whichspeaksvolumeson his deeplygreenideas. Locke same theory, he contended God was thewholecosmos.In other believedthat words, human In to God. that universe creating persons god confers belonged theownership ofhis ownperson. a limited on persons self-ownership whatever held that with and of thelabour He advocated theory property Thislabour-centric hisprivate hislabour, itconstitutes he mixes property. Locke had of of deep green shades, which the theory property andtheir North American ingeneral wilderness ecologists contemporary in their have borrowed in theorizing. green counterpartsparticular heavily have and otherliberalutilitarians Moreover, Mill, Bentham As world. the non-human for showncertain qualifications dominating ofecological a defence wecanlocate inMill'sworks for diversity. example, viewed can be on J. S. Mill's of amount A significant writings happiness Williams a GreenIdeology. at producing to anyattempt as fundamental had such on happiness (1995: p. 123) pointsout thatMill's writings and social feeling, as personalaffection, attributes art,poetry, history materialist thesis. of the clear forerunner is a which mental culture, post toall sentient Bentham calculus ofhisutilitarian The extension beings by a which has within liberaltradition, element is yetanother provided liberation theories. animal for the touchstone contemporary philosophical of These may be cited as both logical extension liberalism,and thatliberalthought theargument as evidenceto support furthermore, has influenced thinking. ecopolitical Marxism
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areat oncecentral that features Marxism has at itscorecertain 1995: toecologism 1993: 1998: (Garner: pp.59pp;Williams: p. 58; Pepper, their reveal ideasof ofMarxandEngelsthemselves p. 139).Thewritings labourer andconcern for nature. Marxism showshowunder capitalism, Economic and and soil, man and naturewere exploited. In the 4 the nature as 44 the has described 1 Marx of 844, Philosophic Manuscripts' direct meansof is man's inorganic bodyof man in as muchas nature " 44 ". It of his activity life and thematerialtheobjectand instrument had been increasingly humanefforts into an assimilatedthrough 4 ' to thelabour ofhumanity. organicpart YoungMarxwas herereferring ' of natureand 4 as humanisation the process effecting progressive 4 ' of and external naturalisation He argued tatbothhumanity humanity. nature as labourprocessexpanded transformed each other humanity's Marx in his Capital was more productive powers.However,mature and he saw limits to man's mastery over economically pre-occupied nature and consistently as beinginversely related saw human freedom to humanity's He came to the view thatthe dependenceon nature. of man This with nature could be transformed butnotabolished. struggle was thecental feature offreedom andnecessity. ofMarx's juxtaposition * The continuity from Marx is his of only concept homo faber', Young which remained a central theme inhis writings. Man- Naturerelationship has been further elaboratedby 4 Frederick in his makes a distinction Dialectics Nature Engels of Engels ' 4 4 between Man and Animal*and says that the animal uses its environment andbrings aboutchanges in itsimply man by itspresence; is it. He, however, by his changesmakes it serve its ends, masters to such a of man over nature and contends that the skeptical victory nature takesits revenge on us foreveryvictory over it. He citesthe of the ill effects of the destruction in Mesopotamia, of forests example to showhow nature Greece,Asia Minor, Alps and elsewhere avenges on man.He further states man no means rules over nature likea that by overa foreign outside nature. conqueror people,likesomeone standing under classical environmental are traced to Hence, Marxism, problems theexploitative of capitalism where solutions are seen in the dynamics transformation of therelations of production. Despite havingdealt in depthwiththe issues of ecological
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likeEckersley ecofor theorthodox some scholars crisis, pointoutthat to no sense that the to makes non-human world it Marxists, say ought forits own sake. Guha and Alier(Guha and be valued and protected with suchas Raymond Alier: 1998: p. 23) saythat Williams, exceptions choseto interpret environmentalism as a frivolous mostMarxists upper that environmentalism was a class fad.SomeMarxists thought dangerous, trend. David Held(Held: 1991: p. 6) romantic andantiindustrial Further, of ecologicalquestions does notsee theimpotence says thatMarxism and evenexcludesit from as it can not and hencemarginalizes politics matters. sucharguments be reducedto class related However, maynot be wholly tenable. Guild Socialism aretraceable tothe GuildSocialist ideastoo, Ecologicalelements Gill and Read. and in the of Hobson writings Penty, Orage, especially but Gill, Orage and Read Cole developed the Guild ideas of Penty, with a sort of shift theme more on ethical a in focusing developed by-way critical attitude commercialism andaesthetic dimensions. towards Penty's ofcapitalism, andGill's opposition to industrialism revealsuchideasas ina quite ofGandhi, andhenceapproximate thought, ecological although outto theneedto simplify life crudeand rudimentary form. Penty points in a radicalway,thedesirefora unified human existence based on the ' of the wisdom and thebeliefin the4 unconscious emotions, people.He that he saw,which the'artificial' civilization condemned was,according a more to him,doomedto collapsetrough itstotal rottenness. However, inRead. Read portrayed a ofthis idea can be found powerful exposition ' freefrom 4 the of life based on the earth cultivation of simpleway all 4 and antiof the4 commercial immoral disruptions spiri and from of Te ecologists also focuson thenegative social tendencies'. impact on environment and advocate fora commercialspiritof capitalism onthebiophysical lifestyle, which wouldreduce strain system. simplified tat mankind direct contact with the Read also warned any organic lacking wouldwalklikeblind animals and balanced ofnature rhythms processes in a had everknown. His ideas appeared in to a darker history age that 4 Child ' Pierson in 1935 called the Green Stanley fantasy published as 4 socialists ethical socialists (Pierson:1979: pp. 201-249)calls these criticalattitude However,theiroppositionto industrialism,
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and ethical towards advocacyof simplelifeand aesthetic capitalism, natural dimension are all in of theirthought harmony appreciating oftoday. with thetenets ofecological Hence,itwould thought proximity ' insteadof ' ethical not be a misnomer to call them' eco-socialists socialists'. Democratic Socialism can Democratic socialistsideas on ecologyand environment whoputsin a verylucid be had from O' Conner thewritings of James canbe addressed how and the of environment from way ecology problem a socialistperspective. He pointsout theweaknessof bothorthodox Marxism and liberaldemocracy and developsa sortof middlepath. Conner andcentralism, that orde-centralism, is, selfsaystatliberalism and controlof coordination determination and theoverallplanning, mustbe sublatedfordeveloping production greensocialism.This is inMerchant: 1996:pp. 165pp), as according toConner because, (Conner localism on democratic state in work and the liberal se won't per relying ' ' or formal which democracyhas merely willnot a procedural meaning workeither. form tatmight to him, theonlypolitical Hence,according in a democratic statein whichthe work, suiting ecologicalproblems administration is democratically ofthe division ofsociallabour organized. it that his ideas center on the needs to be noted more However, form inaddressing unlike Marxism political ecological problems required which concentrates moreon man-nature relationship. Anarchism variant of socialism, also embodies some another Anarchism, elements of ecopoliticalthought. are Ecopoliticalideas in anarchism traceable of social anarchists likeKropotkin, and later, to thethoughts in theworks who is generally branded as a social of Murray Bookchin is Nisbet who associated with the and also Robert ecologist, the foundation fora Ecocommunal laid School. Kropotkin conceptual radicaltheory histheory of mutual of human whiledeveloping ecology aid in his 4 outbyBenewick andGreen, MutualAi (1917). As pointed as organic, viewednature and peoplein nature interrelated Kropotkin wholes. To harmonise the relationship betweenpeople and nature, saw theneed to createa human whichlivedin Kropotkin community,
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with itself. decried thehumanizing effects Moreover, harmony Kropotkin ofbureaucracy and institutional eveninadvertently, cause forms, which, theatrophy of people's desireto mould, their environments (Benewick andGreen: 1998:p.l37). theorist ofandspokesman for socialecology, Bookchin, Murray to the of Social anarchism His numerous belonged camp publications ' have on 4 social ecology to restore a senseofcontinuity between sought the human and creative of natural evolution as the basis society process forthereconstruction of an ecoanarchist His social ecologyis politics. inan ecological that theinstrumental grounded sensibility rejects posture toward nature thatis characteristic of socialist Social ecology thought. ofBookchin outofa classicalphilosophical tradition, emerges picksoff theorganismic thread in western that runs from ontological philosophy Aristotle to Hegel,thesocialtradition initiated byMarxandKropotkin, and the historical perspectiveopened by the age. of democratic It tries revolutions. to advancea definition of nature as an evolutionary in contrast to thelargely ahistorical abound phenomenon, imagesthat in muchof thecurrent literature Bookchin: 1990: (see ecopolitical p.l). 's socialecology, Bookchin which ofecoanarchism, is a version articulates 4 ' a socialecologicalvision ofparticipatory, eco-communities egalitarian, in whichhumans see themselves and act,notas dominators of nature but as participants in it His 'Our Synthetic Environment'Scarcity Anarchism 'The Philosophyof Social Ecology', and ' Towarda ' thedomination between ofhumans EcologicalSocietyshowconnections another nature one and the domination of humans. He asserts by by thatsuch hierarchy is a social invention, introduced intowhatwere communities. His rich essentially egalitarian, mutually interdependent De 1999: to Soumitra are ideas, (De: ecological according p 46), categorized ofemancipatory inthe as representing theecocentric theme wing journey from environmentalism to ecocentrismtheculminating pointin the of ecocentric development theory. political Ecocommunalism is another schoolof thought that Ekersley a vein of as anarchism is a term to Ecocommunalism attributed regards likeRobert theworkof scholars to Nisbet. is it According Eckersley, a that term a diverse ofUtopian, and generic encompasses range visionary anarchist that theories seek the of humanessentially green development that communities and mutualistic enabletherounded scale,cooperative
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of humans whileat thesametime theintegrity development respecting ofnon-human world. ecocommunalism and differences, Despitecertain social ecologysharesome common features. Bothseek to abolishthe modern nationstate, botharguethatanarchism drawsits inspirations from andfinally, ofsocialdomination both and ecology, opposeall forms thedomination of thenon-human world. Anarchist as revealed thought, has greenelements by theabove discussion, quitein abundance. Conservatism Conservatism is a political that is averse toprogressive ideology oriented to of the institutions and values and change, preservation committedto traditionand authority. It is concerned with the ofthebestof thepastandofhierarchy conservation andthestatusquo. Thereis a necessity and usefulness to explore therelationship between and conservatism becausemanyobservers on the ecopolitical thought Lefthave often(wrongly) characterized GreenPolitical thought or as a new incarnation of conservatism ecopolitics Theypointputsome notablepointsof commonality between conservatism and ecopolitics, themost of which are an on ininnovation, significant emphasis prudence thedesireto preserve theexisting to maintain with the things continuity etc. some of the that tributaries have flowed Moreover, past, political intocontemporary ecopolitical thought maybe tracedto conservative sourceslike in theideas of Edmund Burkeand others. it is Therefore, to delve into of the ideas Oakeshott and other Burke, imperative conservatives whilerelocating or ecopolitical in modern themes green Butthisshallnotbe theattempt forthe present. ideological thinking. ideas are also traceable to Nazi thinking which is Ecopolitical branded as a strand of conservatism Thereare some instances of the between theideasof Environmentalism and Nazism,which congruence oncebecamea dominant inGermany. SomeNazi thinkers have ideology a the between the and the forest, emphasized mystic peasant, unity national Other Nazisrailed the ofthecities. In 1932, spirit. against growth thenewspaper of theparty that theinfluence of themetropolis worried have grown so muchso thatitsasphalt culture strong overwhelmingly was destroying therural and the(national) peasantthinking, lifestyle, in Environmental causes. The strength. LeadingNazis wereprominent thenMinister forAgriculture in Nazi Germany, Walter Darrewas an
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fororganic Another secondonly enthusiast Hermon farming. Goering, in party nature toAdolfHitler hierarchy, strongly protection, supported himself Master of theGerman Huntas wellas Master ofthe appointing Thisapparent between forests. Nazism and German affinity thinking green to claim thatenvironmentalism to has led commentators is conducive and vice out versa. However some authoritarian Guha thinking points in Nazism thatcontradict thetenets of Greenideology. This elements inNazi's attempt is revealed tobuildan industrial contradiction economy tookoverGermany. motor as soon as they built roads, Theyfeverishly the armament fortifications etc thatis scarcely aerodromes, factories, of the environmentalists. also Moreover,they vigorously agenda which inessenceis opposedtoenvironmentalism consumerism, promoted however cannot be denied tat therefore (Guha: 2000: ppl8-19). The fact with at leastsomegreen themes. Nazismas an ideology was imbued The Tradition of Critical Theory associatedwiththeFrankfurt Herbert School,in his Marcuse, to the changing historical conditions also to adopt Marxism attempt who a in Marxist tradition. Marcuse was envisagesecologicalthought from Marxfrom thequestion ofecology and differs critic ofIndustrialism didnot as a tool-making Marcuse environment. Unlike man Marx, perceive 's ecopolitical has beena tenor of Marcuse animal.The general thought conceivedand practiced by a traditionally critiqueof the domination the "unfreedorrC of man,butalso science.Marcusenotonlylamented of man and nature. He found theessence the scientific lamented conquest Work in a loses itspositive of manin Eros and playful quality activity. of his attack. Marcuserefused to whichis thetarget consumer culture, of and to theproblem technology developed solution seektechnological of manand nature the ' new science'' a newlyconceivedrelationship (De: 1999:pp.50-54) of Marcuse 's 'newscience who is critical Habermas, ' Jrgen a nature that does notargueforthe"resurrection ", is, of fallen healing and non-humannaturethathas been of the riftbetweenhumanity thata about by therationalization process.Habermasinsists brought to apply instrumental reasonto our rationalsocietywould continue dealings with the non- human world throughhuman work and be solved to him,must Environmental according problem, technology.
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reasonbecausethatis theonlykind of instrumental by theapplication in man's dealingswithnature of reasonthathe sees to be efficacious in survival. ofviewofhuman from their Although speciesinterest point andenvironment, Habermas makes ofecology thequestion he dealswith crisis in his extensive the to reference occasional ecological writings. only builton a similarity, The ecocentric has,therefore, perspective that both see thenonhuman andLiberalism Marxism between especially from terms. thesetwo instrumental worldin purely However, amongst of theemancipatory strands ofideologies, perspective ecopolitics prefers of Capitalismas a sourceof Marxismto Liberalismforits critique environmental degradation. III. Conclusion references togreen havecertain modern the ideologies Although All three modern differs. the Green-ness of their themes, magnitude major and Conservatism, despitehaving ideologies-Socialism, Liberalism address have failed to the in of ecopolitics them, elements properly environment. the theexploitations from from Hence, problems emanating of 'industrialism' which is see the'superideology' ecologicaltheorists andencompass and andLiberalism, Marxism toboth common capitalism " " as the Problem socialism, Left-Wing and Right-Wing thought of modern to ideological thinking (Heywood:1999:p.275).The failure led inthelastcouple andsuchlikequestions address these has,therefore, anddemands whosestyle ofmovements ofdecadesorso,toproliferation and forthat or welfare. claimsfor matter, Ecopolitics, rights go beyond movement one such environmentalism (Young: 1998:p.49i). represents movement become has, therefore, Ecopoliticsand theenvironmental of the as manifest modernity project onlyquiterecently critique boldly the ofmodern itinitself society. certainly product Although being despite its roots lay scatteredin various modernideological moorings, as a response to the in thepresetform primarily emerged ecopolitics the of the in of global capitalism aftermath destructive effects only in thedecadesof the 1960s SecondWorld War,and morespecifically, and the 1970s. The ideologyof the 'ecopolitical' or 'ecopolitics', was conspicuous or Ecologism calledtheGreenIdeology by commonly its absence at the timewhen the modernideologies emergedand
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developed. But, it grewwiththe modern ideologiesand themodern it in thewombsof themodern to be institutions, nourishing ideologies bornas an ideologywitha difference in thedecades of the 1960s and 1970s. Therefore,developmentof ecologism as an ideology and as a discipline is coival withthedevelopment of capitalism ecopolitics state. Andtherefore, and themodern and at leastas longas thenature statelive,ecopolitics themodern is hereto stay.Howeverit is notto that thepossibledemise ofthemodern thedeath willinvite state suggest of ecopolitics. Possiblythenmaybegin a non-antagonistic struggle man and nature! between REFERENCES 1. 2 3. 4. :
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Indian Political Science Association

IN MODERN THINKING Padam Nepal

of Political The IndianJournal Science

and Ideology Ecopolitics Relocating

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and Ideology Ecopolitics Relocating

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and Ideology Relocating Ecopolitics

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and Ideology Relocating Ecopolitics

The IndianJournal ofPolitical Science

and Ideology Ecopolitics Relocating

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and Ideology Ecopolitics Relocating

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and Ideology Ecopolitics Relocating

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