Welding and joining processes

Process terminology
The European standard, BS EN ISO 4063:2000 Welding and allied processes No!enclature o" processes and re"erence nu!#ers, assigns a uni$ue nu!#er to the !ain %elding processes& These are grouped as "ollo%s:

'rc %elding (esistance %elding )as %elding *orge %elding Other %elding processes Bra+ing, soldering and #ra+e %elding

Each process is identi"ied %ithin the group #, a nu!erical inde- or re"erence nu!#er& *or e-a!ple, the .I) %elding process has a re"erence nu!#er o" /3/ %hich is deri0ed as "ollo%s:

/ 'rc %elding 3 )as shielded !etal arc %elding / .etal arc inert gas %elding

The !ain arc %elding process re"erence nu!#ers are: /// !anual !etal arc %elding1 //4 sel" shielded tu#ular cored arc %elding1 /2/ su#!erged arc %elding %ith one %ire electrode1 /22 su#!erged arc %elding %ith tu#ular cored electrode1 /3/ !etal inert gas %elding 3.I) %elding41 /32 !etal acti0e gas %elding 3.') %elding41 /36 tu#ular cored !etal arc %elding %ith acti0e gas shield1 /4/ tungsten inert gas arc %elding 3TI) %elding41 /2 plas!a arc %elding1 The re"erence nu!#ers are used as a con0enient %a, o" identi",ing the %elding process in docu!entation such as %elding procedure 3BS EN ISO /26/44 and %elder $uali"ication 3BS EN 256 and BS EN 76064 records&

Process options
*actors %hich !ust #e ta8en into account %hen choosing a suita#le %elding or 9oining process are: !aterial t,pe plate or tu#ular $ualit, and strength re$uire!ents

degree o" !echanisation capital cost

'lthough consideration o" these "actors %ill identi", the !ost suita#le %elding process, the choice %ithin a co!pan, !a, #e restricted #, the cost o" i!ple!enting a ne% process, a0aila#ilit, o" plant or current %or8"orce s8ill& Welding and 9oining processes a0aila#le to the %elding engineer can #e separated into the "ollo%ing generic t,pes:

*usion arc gas po%er #ea! resistance Ther!o!echanical o "riction o "lash o e-plosi0e .echanical o "asteners Solid state o adhesi0e o soldering o #ra+ing
o o o o

The suita#ilit, o" the processes "or %elding and 9oining !aterials, 9oint t,pes and co!ponents are sho%n in Ta#le /& Inde Ste Stainle Process x el ss no. 'rc )as <aser / 3 22 :es :es :es La Mechani Butt p Plat Portabil Manu sed Sit Tube joint join e ity al Automat e t ed :es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es No :es :es No :es No :es :es :es ;ossi#le :e s :e s No No No :e s

Al

:es

;ossi#l ;ossi# :es e le ;ossi# :es le :es :es :es

:es :es :es :es :es :es :es :es

(esistan 2 ce *riction 42 Bra+ing 7

;ossi# ;ossi# :es :es ;ossi#le :es le le :es No No :es No :es :es No No :es ;ossi# :es le

*astener none :es :es s 'dhesi0 none :es :es es

:es :es

No No

:es :es No :es :es :es

;ossi#le :es :es :es

:es ;ossi#le

:e s :e s

In selecting a suita#le process, consideration !ust also #e gi0en to the t,pe o" application, "or e-a!ple, the porta#ilit, o" e$uip!ent, %hether it can #e used on site, %hether it is !anual or !echanised, and the o0erall cost o" the %elding plant&

usion !elding processes

When %elding using a "usion process, the edges o" a co!ponent are !elted together to "or! %eld !etal& Parent $eposition Shield metal rate #g%hr thic#ness mm )as="lu- / /00 )as )as *lu0&2 /00 0&/ /00 2 220 4 20 )as )as 0&6 /0 0&2 22 /2 /4 /5 /4 2 20 2 20

Process Arc ..' .I) TI) S'W ES=E) Stud &as O-,"uel <aser EB 'esistance

"eat source

'rc 'rc 'rc 'rc 'rc *la!e (adiation Electrons

(esistance=arc *lu-=gas 2 220

Po!er beam >acuu! 0&2 220 0&2 /0 )as /0 /00

Spot=Sea! (esistance Thermit Ther!it ?he!ical

Ta#le 2 sho%s heat source, !ode o" shielding, thic8ness range and !etal deposition rates "or a range o" "usion processes& 'lthough "usion %elding is one o" the si!plest 9oining techni$ues, pro#le!s li8el, to occur include porosit, in the %eld !etal, and crac8ing in

either the %eld or heat a""ected +one 3@'A4& ;orosit, is a0oided #, ensuring ade$uate shielding o" the %eld pool and, "or !aterials such as alu!iniu!, the addition o" "iller %ire& ?onsideration o" the 9oint design and the che!istr, o" the %eld !etal %ill pre0ent %eld !etal crac8ing& @'A crac8ing %hich !ight #e caused #, h,drogen, is a0oided #, using lo% h,drogen consu!a#les and controlling the heat input and the rate o" cooling o" the parent !etal&

The Manual Metal Arc process

.anual !etal arc %elding %as "irst in0ented in (ussia in /555& It in0ol0ed a #are !etal rod %ith no "lu- coating to gi0e a protecti0e gas shield& The de0elop!ent o" coated electrodes did not occur until the earl, /700s %hen the B9ell#erg process %as in0ented in S%eden and the Cuasi arc !ethod %as introduced in the DB& It is %orth noting that coated electrodes %ere slo% to #e adopted #ecause o" their high cost& @o%e0er, it %as ine0ita#le that as the de!and "or sound %elds gre%, !anual !etal arc #eca!e s,non,!ous %ith coated electrodes& When an arc is struc8 #et%een the !etal rod 3electrode4 and the %or8piece, #oth the rod and %or8piece sur"ace !elt to "or! a %eld pool& Si!ultaneous !elting o" the "lu- coating on the rod %ill "or! gas and slag %hich protects the %eld pool "ro! the surrounding at!osphere& The slag %ill solidi", and cool and !ust #e chipped o"" the %eld #ead once the %eld run is co!plete 3or #e"ore the ne-t %eld pass is deposited4& The process allo%s onl, short lengths o" %eld to #e produced #e"ore a ne% electrode needs to #e inserted in the holder& Weld penetration is lo% and the $ualit, o" the %eld deposit is highl, dependent on the s8ill o" the %elder&

Types o( (lux%electrodes

'rc sta#ilit,, depth o" penetration, !etal deposition rate and positional capa#ilit, are greatl, in"luenced #, the che!ical co!position o" the "lu- coating on the electrode& Electrodes can #e di0ided into three !ain groups:

?ellulosic (utile Basic

)ellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion o" cellulose in the coating and are characterised #, a deepl, penetrating arc and a rapid #urn o"" rate gi0ing high %elding speeds& Weld deposit can #e coarse and %ith "luid slag, deslagging can #e di""icult& These electrodes are eas, to use in an, position and are noted "or their use in the Esto0epipeE %elding techni$ue& eatures*

deep penetration in all positions suita#ilit, "or 0ertical do%n %elding reasona#l, good !echanical properties high le0el o" h,drogen generated ris8 o" crac8ing in the heat a""ected +one 3@'A4

'utile electrodes contain a high proportion o" titaniu! o-ide 3rutile4 in the coating& Titaniu! o-ide pro!otes eas, arc ignition, s!ooth arc operation and lo% spatter& These electrodes are general purpose electrodes %ith good %elding properties& The, can #e used %ith '? and F? po%er sources and in all positions& The electrodes are especiall, suita#le "or %elding "illet 9oints in the hori+ontal=0ertical 3@=>4 position& eatures*

!oderate %eld !etal !echanical properties good #ead pro"ile produced through the 0iscous slag positional %elding possi#le %ith a "luid slag 3containing "luoride4 easil, re!o0a#le slag

Basic electrodes contain a high proportion o" calciu! car#onate 3li!estone4 and calciu! "luoride 3"luorspar4 in the coating& This !a8es their slag coating !ore "luid than rutile coatings this is also "ast "ree+ing %hich assists %elding in the 0ertical and o0erhead position& These electrodes are used "or %elding !ediu! and hea0, section "a#rications %here higher %eld $ualit,, good !echanical properties and resistance to crac8ing 3due to high restraint4 are re$uired&

eatures*

lo% h,drogen %eld !etal re$uires high %elding currents=speeds poor #ead pro"ile 3con0e- and coarse sur"ace pro"ile4 slag re!o0al di""icult

Metal po!der electrodes contain an addition o" !etal po%der to the "lu- coating to increase the !a-i!u! per!issi#le %elding current le0el& Thus, "or a gi0en electrode si+e, the !etal deposition rate and e""icienc, 3percentage o" the !etal deposited4 are increased co!pared %ith an electrode containing no iron po%der in the coating& The slag is nor!all, easil, re!o0ed& Iron po%der electrodes are !ainl, used in the "lat and @=> positions to ta8e ad0antage o" the higher deposition rates& E""iciencies as high as /30 to /40G can #e achie0ed "or rutile and #asic electrodes %ithout !ar8ed deterioration o" the arcing characteristics #ut the arc tends to #e less "orce"ul %hich reduces #ead penetration&

Po!er source
Electrodes can #e operated %ith '? and F? po%er supplies& Not all F? electrodes can #e operated on '? po%er sources, ho%e0er '? electrodes !a, #e used on either '? or F?&

Welding current
Welding current le0el is deter!ined #, the si+e o" electrode the nor!al operating range and current are reco!!ended #, !anu"acturers& T,pical operating ranges "or a selection o" electrode si+es are illustrated in the ta#le& 's a rule o" thu!# %hen selecting a suita#le current le0el, an electrode %ill re$uire a#out 40' per !illi!etre 3dia!eter4& There"ore, the pre"erred current le0el "or a 4!! dia!eter electrode %ould #e /60', #ut the accepta#le operating range is /40 to /50'&

What+s ne!
Transistor 3in0erter4 technolog, is no% ena#ling 0er, s!all and co!parati0el, lo% %eight po%er sources to #e produced& These po%er sources are "inding increasing use "or site %elding %here the, can #e readil, transported "ro! 9o# to 9o#& 's the, are electronicall, controlled, add on units are a0aila#le "or TI) and .I) %elding %hich increase the "le-i#ilit,& Electrodes are no% a0aila#le in her!eticall, sealed containers& These 0acuu! pac8s o#0iate the need "or #a8ing the electrodes i!!ediatel, prior to use& @o%e0er, i" a container has #een opened or da!aged, it is essential that the electrodes are redried according to the !anu"acturerEs instructions&

The oxyacetylene process

Process (eatures
O-,acet,lene %elding, co!!onl, re"erred to as gas %elding, is a process %hich relies on co!#ustion o" o-,gen and acet,lene& When !i-ed together in correct proportions %ithin a hand held torch or #lo%pipe, a relati0el, hot "la!e is produced %ith a te!perature o" a#out 3,200 deg&?& The che!ical action o" the o-,acet,lene "la!e can #e ad9usted #, changing the ratio o" the 0olu!e o" o-,gen to acet,lene& Three distinct "la!e settings are used, neutral, o-idising and car#urising&

Neutral "la!e

O-idising "la!e

?ar#urising "la!e Welding is generall, carried out using the neutral "la!e setting %hich has e$ual $uantities o" o-,gen and acet,lene& The o-idising "la!e is o#tained #, increasing 9ust the o-,gen "lo% rate %hile the car#urising "la!e is achie0ed #, increasing acet,lene "lo% in relation to o-,gen "lo%& Because steel !elts at a te!perature a#o0e /,200 deg&?, the !i-ture o" o-,gen and acet,lene is used as it is the onl, gas co!#ination %ith enough heat to %eld steel& @o%e0er, other gases such as propane, h,drogen and coal gas can #e used "or 9oining lo%er !elting point non "errous !etals, and "or #ra+ing and sil0er soldering&

,-uipment
O-,acet,lene e$uip!ent is porta#le and eas, to use& It co!prises o-,gen and acet,lene gases stored under pressure in steel c,linders& The c,linders are "itted %ith regulators and "le-i#le hoses %hich lead to the #lo%pipe& Speciall, designed sa"et, de0ices such as "la!e traps are "itted #et%een the hoses and the c,linder regulators& The "la!e trap pre0ents "la!es generated #, a E"lash#ac8E "ro! reaching the c,linders1 principal causes o" "lash#ac8s are the "ailure to purge the hoses and o0erheating o" the #lo%pipe no++le& When %elding, the operator !ust %ear protecti0e clothing and tinted coloured goggles& 's the "la!e is less intense than an arc and 0er, little D> is e!itted, general purpose tinted goggles pro0ide su""icient protection&

.perating characteristics

The action o" the o-,acet,lene "la!e on the sur"ace o" the !aterial to #e %elded can #e ad9usted to produce a so"t, harsh or 0iolent reaction #, 0ar,ing the gas "lo%s& There are o" course practical li!its as to the t,pe o" "la!e %hich can #e used "or %elding& ' harsh "orce"ul "la!e %ill cause the !olten %eld pool to #e #lo%n a%a,, %hile too so"t a "la!e %ill not #e sta#le near the point o" application& The #lo%pipe is there"ore designed to acco!!odate di""erent si+es o" Es%an nec8 copper no++le %hich allo%s the correct intensit, o" "la!e to #e used& The relationship #et%een !aterial thic8ness, #lo%pipe no++le si+e and %elding speed, is sho%n in the chart& When carr,ing out "usion %elding the addition o" "iller !etal in the "or! o" a rod can #e !ade %hen re$uired& The principal techni$ues e!plo,ed in o-,acet,lene %elding are le"t%ard, right%ard and all positional right%ard& The "or!er is used al!ost e-clusi0el, and is ideall, suited "or %elding #utt, "illet and lap 9oints in sheet thic8nesses up to appro-i!atel, 2!!& The right%ard techni$ue "inds application on plate thic8nesses a#o0e 2!! "or %elding in the "lat and hori+ontal 0ertical position& The all positional right%ard !ethod is a !odi"ication o" the right%ard techni$ue and is ideall, suited "or %elding steel plate and in particular pipe%or8 %here positional %elding, 30ertical and o0erhead4 has to #e carried out& The right%ard and all positional right%ard techni$ues ena#le the %elder to o#tain a uni"or! penetration #ead %ith added control o0er the !olten %eldpool and %eld !etal& .oreo0er, the %elder has a clear 0ie% o" the %eldpool and can %or8 in co!plete "reedo! o" !o0e!ent& These techni$ues are 0er, highl, s8illed and are less "re$uentl, used than the con0entional le"t%ard techni$ue&

Solid !ire MI& !elding

.etal inert gas 3.I)4 %elding %as "irst patented in the DS' in /747 "or %elding alu!iniu!& The arc and %eld pool "or!ed using a #are %ire electrode %as protected #, heliu! gas, readil, a0aila#le at that ti!e& *ro! a#out /722 the process #eca!e popular in

the DB "or %elding alu!iniu! using argon as the shielding gas, and "or car#on steels using ?O 2 & ?O 2 and argon ?O 2 !i-tures are 8no%n as !etal acti0e gas 3.')4 processes& .I) is an attracti0e alternati0e to ..', o""ering high deposition rates and high producti0it,&

Process characteristics
.I) is si!ilar to ..' in that heat "or %elding is produced #, "or!ing an arc #et%een a !etal electrode and the %or8piece1 the electrode !elts to "or! the %eld #ead& The !ain di""erences are that the !etal electrode is a s!all dia!eter %ire "ed "ro! a spool and an e-ternall, supplied shielding gas is necessar,& 's the %ire is continuousl, "ed, the process is o"ten re"erred to as se!i auto!atic %elding& Metal trans(er mode The !anner, or !ode, in %hich the !etal trans"ers "ro! the electrode to the %eld pool largel, deter!ines the operating "eatures o" the process& There are three principal !etal trans"er !odes: Short circuiting Froplet = spra, ;ulsed Short circuiting and pulsed !etal trans"er are used "or lo% current operation %hile spra, !etal trans"er is onl, used %ith high %elding currents& In short circuiting orEdipE trans"er, the !olten !etal "or!ing on the tip o" the %ire is trans"erred #, the %ire dipping into the %eld pool& This is achie0ed #, setting a lo% 0oltage1 "or a /&2!! dia!eter %ire, arc 0oltage 0aries "ro! a#out /6> 3/00'4 to 22> 3200'4& ?are in setting the 0oltage and the inductance in relation to the %ire "eed speed is essential to !ini!ise spatter& Inductance is used to control the surge in current %hich occurs %hen the %ire dips into the %eld pool& *or droplet or spra, trans"er, a !uch higher 0oltage is necessar, to ensure that the %ire does not !a8e contact i&e&short circuit, %ith the %eld pool1 "or a /&2!! dia!eter %ire, the arc 0oltage 0aries "ro! appro-i!atel, 26> 3220'4 to 32> 3400'4& The !olten !etal at the tip o" the %ire trans"ers to the %eld pool in the "or! o" a spra, o" s!all droplets 3a#out the dia!eter o" the %ire and s!aller4& @o%e0er, there is a !ini!u! current le0el, threshold, #elo% %hich droplets are not "orci#l, pro9ected across the arc& I" an open arc techni$ue is atte!pted !uch #elo% the threshold current le0el, the lo% arc "orces %ould #e insu""icient to pre0ent large droplets "or!ing at the tip o" the %ire& These droplets %ould trans"er erraticall, across the arc under nor!al gra0itational "orces& The pulsed !ode %as de0eloped as a !eans o" sta#ilising the open arc at lo% current le0els i&e& #elo% the threshold le0el, to a0oid short

circuiting and spatter& .etal trans"er is achie0ed #, appl,ing pulses o" current, each pulse ha0ing su""icient "orce to detach a droplet& S,nergic pulsed .I) re"ers to a special t,pe o" controller %hich ena#les the po%er source to #e tuned 3pulse para!eters4 "or the %ire co!position and dia!eter, and the pulse "re$uenc, to #e set according to the %ire "eed speed&

Shielding gas
In addition to general shielding o" the arc and the %eld pool, the shielding gas per"or!s a nu!#er o" i!portant "unctions: "or!s the arc plas!a sta#ilises the arc roots on the !aterial sur"ace ensures s!ooth trans"er o" !olten droplets "ro! the %ire to the %eld pool Thus, the shielding gas %ill ha0e a su#stantial e""ect on the sta#ilit, o" the arc and !etal trans"er and the #eha0iour o" the %eld pool, in particular, its penetration& )eneral purpose shielding gases "or .I) %elding are !i-tures o" argon, o-,gen and ?O 2 , and special gas !i-tures !a, contain heliu!& The gases %hich are nor!all, used "or the 0arious !aterials are:

steels ?O 2 argon H2 to 2G o-,gen argon H2 to 22G ?O 2 non "errous o argon o argon = heliu!
o o o

'rgon #ased gases, co!pared %ith ?O 2 , are generall, !ore tolerant to para!eter settings and generate lo%er spatter le0els %ith the dip trans"er !ode& @o%e0er, there is a greater ris8 o" lac8 o" "usion de"ects #ecause these gases are colder& 's ?O 2 cannot #e used in the open arc 3pulsed or spra, trans"er4 !odes due to high #ac8 plas!a "orces, argon #ased gases containing o-,gen or ?O 2 are nor!all, e!plo,ed&

Applications
.I) is %idel, used in !ost industr, sectors and accounts "or !ore than 20G o" all %eld !etal deposited& ?o!pared to ..', .I) has the ad0antage in ter!s o" "le-i#ilit,, deposition rates and suita#ilit, "or !echanisation& @o%e0er, it should #e noted that %hile .I) is ideal "or Es$uirtingE !etal, a high degree o" !anipulati0e s8ill is de!anded o" the %elder&

Submerged/arc Welding

The "irst patent on the su#!erged arc %elding 3S'W4 process %as ta8en out in /732 and co0ered an electric arc #eneath a #ed o" granulated "lu-& Fe0eloped #, the E O ;aton Electric Welding Institute, (ussia, during the Second World War, S'WEs !ost "a!ous application %as on the T34 tan8&

Process (eatures
Si!ilar to .I) %elding, S'W in0ol0es "or!ation o" an arc #et%een a continuousl, "ed #are %ire electrode and the %or8piece& The process uses a "lu- to generate protecti0e gases and slag, and to add allo,ing ele!ents to the %eld pool& ' shielding gas is not re$uired& ;rior to %elding, a thin la,er o" "lu- po%der is placed on the %or8piece sur"ace& The arc !o0es along the 9oint line and as it does so, e-cess "lu- is rec,cled 0ia a hopper& (e!aining "used slag la,ers can #e easil, re!o0ed a"ter %elding& 's the arc is co!pletel, co0ered #, the "lu- la,er, heat loss is e-tre!el, lo%& This produces a ther!al e""icienc, as high as 60G 3co!pared %ith 22G "or !anual !etal arc4& There is no 0isi#le arc light, %elding is spatter "ree and there is no need "or "u!e e-traction&

.perating characteristics

S'W is usuall, operated as a "ull, !echanised or auto!atic process, #ut it can #e se!i auto!atic& Welding para!eters: current, arc 0oltage and tra0el speed all a""ect #ead shape, depth o" penetration and che!ical co!position o" the deposited %eld !etal& Because the operator cannot see the %eld pool, greater reliance !ust #e placed on para!eter settings&

Process 0ariants
'ccording to !aterial thic8ness, 9oint t,pe and si+e o" co!ponent, 0ar,ing the "ollo%ing can increase deposition rate and i!pro0e #ead shape& Wire S'W is nor!all, operated %ith a single %ire on either '? or F? current& ?o!!on 0ariants are:

t%in %ire !ultiple %ire 3tande! or triple4 single %ire %ith hot or cold %ire addition !etal po%der addition tu#ular %ire

'll contri#ute to i!pro0ed producti0it, through a !ar8ed increase in %eld !etal deposition rates and=or tra0el speeds& ' narro% gap process 0ariant is also esta#lished, %hich utilises a t%o or three #ead per la,er deposition techni$ue& lux *lu-es used in S'W are granular "usi#le !inerals containing o-ides o" !anganese, silicon, titaniu!, alu!iniu!, calciu!, +irconiu!, !agnesiu! and other co!pounds such as calciu! "luoride& The "lu- is speciall, "or!ulated to #e co!pati#le %ith a gi0en electrode %ire t,pe so that the co!#ination o" "lu- and %ire ,ields desired !echanical properties& 'll "lu-es react %ith the %eld pool to produce the %eld !etal che!ical co!position and !echanical properties& It is co!!on practice to re"er to "lu-es as Eacti0eE

i" the, add !anganese and silicon to the %eld, the a!ount o" !anganese and silicon added is in"luenced #, the arc 0oltage and the %elding current le0el& The the !ain t,pes o" "lu- "or S'W are:

Bonded (luxes produced #, dr,ing the ingredients, then #onding the! %ith a lo% !elting point co!pound such as a sodiu! silicate& .ost #onded "lu-es contain !etallic deo-idisers %hich help to pre0ent %eld porosit,& These "lu-es are e""ecti0e o0er rust and !ill scale& used (luxes produced #, !i-ing the ingredients, then !elting the! in an electric "urnace to "or! a che!icall, ho!ogeneous product, cooled and ground to the re$uired particle si+e& S!ooth sta#le arcs, %ith %elding currents up to 2000' and consistent %eld !etal properties, are the !ain attraction o" these "lu-es&

Applications
S'W is ideall, suited "or longitudinal and circu!"erential #utt and "illet %elds& @o%e0er, #ecause o" high "luidit, o" the %eld pool, !olten slag and loose "lu- la,er, %elding is generall, carried out on #utt 9oints in the "lat position and "illet 9oints in #oth the "lat and hori+ontal 0ertical positions& *or circu!"erential 9oints, the %or8piece is rotated under a "i-ed %elding head %ith %elding ta8ing place in the "lat position& Fepending on !aterial thic8ness, either single pass, t%o pass or !ultipass %eld procedures can #e carried out& There is 0irtuall, no restriction on the !aterial thic8ness, pro0ided a suita#le 9oint preparation is adopted& .ost co!!onl, %elded !aterials are car#on !anganese steels, lo% allo, steels and stainless steels, although the process is capa#le o" %elding so!e non "errous !aterials %ith 9udicious choice o" electrode "iller %ire and "lu- co!#inations&

TI& Welding

Tungsten inert gas 3TI)4 %elding #eca!e an o0ernight success in the /740s "or 9oining !agnesiu! and alu!iniu!& Dsing an inert gas shield instead o" a slag to protect the %eldpool, the process %as a highl, attracti0e replace!ent "or gas and !anual !etal arc %elding& TI) has pla,ed a !a9or role in the acceptance o" alu!iniu! "or high $ualit, %elding and structural applications&

Process characteristics
In the TI) process the arc is "or!ed #et%een a pointed tungsten electrode and the %or8piece in an inert at!osphere o" argon or heliu!& The s!all intense arc pro0ided #, the pointed electrode is ideal "or high $ualit, and precision %elding& Because the electrode is not consu!ed during %elding, the %elder does not ha0e to #alance the heat input "ro! the arc as the !etal is deposited "ro! the !elting electrode& When "iller !etal is re$uired, it !ust #e added separatel, to the %eldpool&

Po!er source
TI) !ust #e operated %ith a drooping, constant current po%er source either F? or '?& ' constant current po%er source is essential to a0oid e-cessi0el, high currents #eing dra%n %hen the electrode is short circuited on to the %or8piece sur"ace& This could happen either deli#eratel, during arc starting or inad0ertentl, during %elding& I", as in .I) %elding, a "lat characteristic po%er source is used, an, contact %ith the %or8piece sur"ace %ould da!age the electrode tip or "use the electrode to the %or8piece sur"ace& In F?, #ecause arc heat is distri#uted appro-i!atel, one third at the cathode 3negati0e4 and t%o thirds at the anode 3positi0e4, the electrode is al%a,s negati0e polarit, to pre0ent o0erheating and !elting& @o%e0er, the alternati0e po%er source connection o" F? electrode positi0e polarit, has the ad0antage in that %hen the cathode is on the %or8piece, the sur"ace is cleaned o" o-ide conta!ination& *or this reason, '? is used %hen %elding !aterials %ith a tenacious sur"ace o-ide "il!, such as alu!iniu!&

Arc starting
The %elding arc can #e started #, scratching the sur"ace, "or!ing a short circuit& It is onl, %hen the short circuit is #ro8en that the !ain %elding current %ill "lo%& @o%e0er, there is a ris8 that the electrode !a, stic8 to the sur"ace and cause a tungsten inclusion in the %eld& This ris8 can #e !ini!ised using the Eli"t arcE techni$ue %here the short circuit is "or!ed at a 0er, lo% current le0el& The !ost co!!on %a, o" starting the TI) arc is to use @* 3@igh *re$uenc,4& @* consists o" high 0oltage spar8s o" se0eral thousand 0olts %hich last "or a "e% !icroseconds& The @* spar8s %ill cause the electrode %or8piece gap to #rea8 do%n or ionise& Once an electron=ion cloud is "or!ed, current can "lo% "ro! the po%er source& Note: As HF generates abnormally high electromagnetic emission (EM), welders should be aware that its use can cause interference especially in electronic e uipment! As EM emission can be airborne, li"e radio wa#es, or transmitted along power cables, care must be ta"en to a#oid interference with control systems and instruments in the #icinity of welding! @* is also i!portant in sta#ilising the '? arc1 in '?, electrode polarit, is re0ersed at a "re$uenc, o" a#out 20 ti!es per second, causing the arc to #e e-tinguished at each polarit, change& To ensure that the arc is reignited at each re0ersal o" polarit,, @* spar8s

are generated across the electrode=%or8piece gap to coincide %ith the #eginning o" each hal" c,cle&

,lectrodes
Electrodes "or F? %elding are nor!all, pure tungsten %ith / to 4G thoria to i!pro0e arc ignition& 'lternati0e additi0es are lanthanu! o-ide and ceriu! o-ide %hich are clai!ed to gi0e superior per"or!ance 3arc starting and lo%er electrode consu!ption4& It is i!portant to select the correct electrode dia!eter and tip angle "or the le0el o" %elding current& 's a rule, the lo%er the current the s!aller the electrode dia!eter and tip angle& In '? %elding, as the electrode %ill #e operating at a !uch higher te!perature, tungsten %ith a +irconia addition is used to reduce electrode erosion& It should #e noted that #ecause o" the large a!ount o" heat generated at the electrode, it is di""icult to !aintain a pointed tip and the end o" the electrode assu!es a spherical or E#allE pro"ile&

Shielding gas
Shielding gas is selected according to the !aterial #eing %elded& The "ollo%ing guidelines !a, help: Argon the !ost co!!onl, used shielding gas %hich can #e used "or %elding a %ide range o" !aterials including steels, stainless steel, alu!iniu! and titaniu!& Argon 1 2 to 34 "2 the addition o" h,drogen to argon %ill !a8e the gas slightl, reducing, assisting the production o" cleaner loo8ing %elds %ithout sur"ace o-idation& 's the arc is hotter and !ore constricted, it per!its higher %elding speeds& Fisad0antages include ris8 o" h,drogen crac8ing in car#on steels and %eld !etal porosit, in alu!iniu! allo,s& "elium and helium%argon mixtures adding heliu! to argon %ill raise the te!perature o" the arc& This pro!otes higher %elding speeds and deeper %eld penetration& Fisad0antages o" using heliu! or a heliu!=argon !i-ture is the high cost o" gas and di""icult, in starting the arc&

Applications
TI) is applied in all industrial sectors #ut is especiall, suita#le "or high $ualit, %elding& In !anual %elding, the relati0el, s!all arc is ideal "or thin sheet !aterial or controlled penetration 3in the root run o" pipe %elds4& Because deposition rate can #e $uite lo% 3using a separate "iller rod4 ..' or .I) !a, #e pre"era#le "or thic8er !aterial and "or "ill passes in thic8 %all pipe %elds& TI) is also %idel, applied in !echanised s,ste!s either autogenousl, or %ith "iller %ire& @o%e0er, se0eral Eo"" the shel"E s,ste!s are a0aila#le "or or#ital %elding o" pipes, used in the !anu"acture o" che!ical plant or #oilers& The s,ste!s re$uire no !anipulati0e s8ill,

#ut the operator !ust #e %ell trained& Because the %elder has less control o0er arc and %eldpool #eha0iour, care"ul attention !ust #e paid to edge preparation 3!achined rather than hand prepared4, 9oint "it up and control o" %elding para!eters&

Plasma Welding

Process characteristics
;las!a %elding is 0er, si!ilar to TI) as the arc is "or!ed #et%een a pointed tungsten electrode and the %or8piece& @o%e0er, #, positioning the electrode %ithin the #od, o" the torch, the plas!a arc can #e separated "ro! the shielding gas en0elope& ;las!a is then "orced through a "ine #ore copper no++le %hich constricts the arc& Three operating !odes can #e produced #, 0ar,ing #ore dia!eter and plas!a gas "lo% rate:

Microplasma* 0&/ to /2'& The !icroplas!a arc can #e operated at 0er, lo% %elding currents& The colu!nar arc is sta#le e0en %hen arc length is 0aried up to 20!!& Medium current* /2 to 200'& 't higher currents, "ro! /2 to 200', the process characteristics o" the plas!a arc are si!ilar to the TI) arc, #ut #ecause the plas!a is constricted, the arc is sti""er& 'lthough the plas!a gas "lo% rate can #e increased to i!pro0e %eld pool penetration, there is a ris8 o" air and shielding gas entrain!ent through e-cessi0e tur#ulence in the gas shield& 5eyhole plasma* o0er /00'& B, increasing %elding current and plas!a gas "lo%, a 0er, po%er"ul plas!a #ea! is created %hich can achie0e "ull penetration in a !aterial, as in laser or electron #ea! %elding& Furing %elding, the hole progressi0el, cuts through the !etal %ith the !olten %eld pool "lo%ing #ehind to "or! the %eld #ead under sur"ace tension

"orces& This process can #e used to %eld thic8er !aterial 3up to /0!! o" stainless steel4 in a single pass&

Po!er source
The plas!a arc is nor!all, operated %ith a F?, drooping characteristic po%er source& Because its uni$ue operating "eatures are deri0ed "ro! the special torch arrange!ent and separate plas!a and shielding gas "lo%s, a plas!a control console can #e added on to a con0entional TI) po%er source& ;urpose #uilt plas!a s,ste!s are also a0aila#le& The plas!a arc is not readil, sta#ilised %ith sine %a0e '?& 'rc reignition is di""icult %hen there is a long electrode to %or8piece distance and the plas!a is constricted, .oreo0er, e-cessi0e heating o" the electrode during the positi0e hal" c,cle causes #alling o" the tip %hich can distur# arc sta#ilit,& Special purpose s%itched F? po%er sources are a0aila#le& B, i!#alancing the %a0e"or! to reduce the duration o" electrode positi0e polarit,, the electrode is 8ept su""icientl, cool to !aintain a pointed tip and achie0e arc sta#ilit,&

Arc starting
'lthough the arc is initiated using @*, it is "irst "or!ed #et%een the electrode and plas!a no++le& This EpilotE arc is held %ithin the #od, o" the torch until re$uired "or %elding then it is trans"erred to the %or8piece& The pilot arc s,ste! ensures relia#le arc starting and, as the pilot arc is !aintained #et%een %elds, it o#0iates the need "or @* %hich !a, cause electrical inter"erence&

,lectrode
The electrode used "or the plas!a process is tungsten 2Gthoria and the plas!a no++le is copper& The electrode tip dia!eter is not as critical as "or TI) and should #e !aintained at around 30 60 degrees& The plas!a no++le #ore dia!eter is critical and too s!all a #ore dia!eter "or the current le0el and plas!a gas "lo% rate %ill lead to e-cessi0e no++le erosion or e0en !elting& It is prudent to use the largest #ore dia!eter "or the operating current le0el& Note: too large a #ore dia!eter, !a, gi0e pro#le!s %ith arc sta#ilit, and !aintaining a 8e,hole&

Plasma and shielding gases

The nor!al co!#ination o" gases is argon "or the plas!a gas, %ith argon plus 2 to 2G h,drogen "or the shielding gas& @eliu! can #e used "or plas!a gas #ut #ecause it is hotter this reduces the current rating o" the no++le& @eliu!Es lo%er !ass can also !a8e the 8e,hole !ode !ore di""icult&

Applications

Microplasma !elding .icroplas!a %as traditionall, used "or %elding thin sheets 3do%n to 0&/ !! thic8ness4, and %ire and !esh sections& The needle li8e sti"" arc !ini!ises arc %ander and distortion& 'lthough the e$ui0alent TI) arc is !ore di""use, the ne%er transistorised 3TI)4 po%er sources can produce a 0er, sta#le arc at lo% current le0els& Medium current !elding When used in the !elt !ode this is an alternati0e to con0entional TI)& The ad0antages are deeper penetration 3"ro! higher plas!a gas "lo%4, and greater tolerance to sur"ace conta!ination including coatings 3the electrode is %ithin the #od, o" the torch4& The !a9or disad0antage lies in the #ul8iness o" the torch, !a8ing !anual %elding !ore di""icult& In !echanised %elding, greater attention !ust #e paid to !aintenance o" the torch to ensure consistent per"or!ance& 5eyhole !elding This has se0eral ad0antages %hich can #e e-ploited: deep penetration and high %elding speeds& ?o!pared %ith the TI) arc, it can penetrate plate thic8nesses up to l0!!, #ut %hen %elding using a single pass techni$ue, it is !ore usual to li!it the thic8ness to 6!!& The nor!al !ethods is to use the 8e,hole !ode %ith "iller to ensure s!ooth %eld #ead pro"ile 3%ith no undercut4& *or thic8nesses up to /2!!, a 0ee 9oint preparation is used %ith a 6!! root "ace& ' t%o pass techni$ue is e!plo,ed and here, the "irst pass is autogenous %ith the second pass #eing !ade in !elt !ode %ith "iller %ire addition& 's the %elding para!eters, plas!a gas "lo% rate and "iller %ire addition 3into the 8e,hole4 !ust #e care"ull, #alanced to !aintain the 8e,hole and %eld pool sta#ilit,, this techni$ue is onl, suita#le "or !echanised %elding& 'lthough it can #e used "or positional %elding, usuall, %ith current pulsing, it is nor!all, applied in high speed %elding o" thic8er sheet !aterial 3o0er 3 !!4 in the "lat position& When pipe %elding, the slope out o" current and plas!a gas "lo% !ust #e care"ull, controlled to close the 8e,hole %ithout lea0ing a hole&

Thermal &ouging
Ther!al gouging is an essential part o" %elding "a#rication& Dsed "or rapid re!o0al o" un%anted !etal, the !aterial is locall, heated and !olten !etal e9ected usuall, #, #lo%ing it a%a,& Nor!al o-,"uel gas or arc processes can #e used to produce rapid !elting and !etal re!o0al& @o%e0er, to produce a groo0e o" speci"ic di!ensions, particularl, regarding depth and %idth, the %elder !ust e-ercise care"ul control o" the gouging operation& I" this does not happen, an erratic and #adl, serrated groo0e %ill result& Ther!al processes, operations and !etals %hich !a, #e gouged or other%ise shaped:

Thermal Process operations process Primary Secondary O-,"uel gas "la!e .anual !etal arc

Metals

<o% car#on steels, car#on !anganese steels )roo0ing 3structural4, pressure 0essel steels 3car#on not o0er )ouging Washing 0&32G4, lo% allo, steels 3less than 2G?r4 cast iron 3i" ?ha!"ering preheated to 400 420 deg&?4 <o% car#on steels car#on !anganese steels )roo0ing )ouging 3structural4, pressure 0essel steels, lo% allo, steels, ?ha!"ering stainless steels, cast iron, nic8el #ased allo,s

<o% car#on steels car#on !anganese steels 'ir car#on )roo0ing 3structural4, pressure 0essel steels, lo% and high allo, )ouging arc ?ha!"ering steels, cast iron, nic8el #ased allo,s, copper and copper allo,s, copper=nic8el allo,s, alu!iniu! ?ha!"ering ;las!a arc )ouging )roo0ing 'lu!iniu!, stainless steels Washing Note: 'll processes are capa#le o" cutting=se0ering operations& ;reheat !a, or !a, not #e re$uired on so!e !etals prior to gouging

Sa(ety
It should #e e!phasised that #ecause gouging relies on !olten !etal #eing "orci#l, e9ected, o"ten o0er $uite large distances, the %elder !ust ta8e appropriate precautions to protect hi!sel", other %or8ers and his e$uip!ent& Sensi#le precautions include protecti0e clothing "or the %elder, shielding inside a speciall, enclosed #ooth or screens, ade$uate "u!e e-traction, and re!o0al o" all co!#usti#le !aterial "ro! the i!!ediate area&

Industrial applications
Ther!al gouging %as de0eloped pri!aril, "or re!o0al o" !etal "ro! the re0erse side o" %elded 9oints, re!o0al o" tac8 %elds, te!porar, %elds, and %eld i!per"ections& *igure / illustrates the 0alue o" t,pical #ac8 gouging applications carried out on arc %elded 9oints&, %hile *ig& 2 sho%s i!per"ection re!o0al in preparation "or %eld repair&

*ig&/ T,pical #ac8 gouging applications carried out on arc %elded 9oints

*ig& 2 I!per"ection re!o0al in preparation "or %eld repair The gouging process has pro0ed to #e so success"ul that it is used "or a %ide spectru! o" applications in engineering industries:

repair and !aintenance o" structures #ridges, earth !o0ing e$uip!ent, !ining !achiner,, rail%a, rolling stoc8, ships, o""shore rigs, piping and storage tan8s re!o0al o" crac8s and i!per"ections #lo% holes and sand traps in #oth "errous and non "errous "orgings and castings preparation o" plate edges "or %elding re!o0al o" surplus !etal riser pads and "ins on castings, e-cess %eld #ead pro"iles, te!porar, #ac8ing strips, ri0et %ashing and shaping operations, de!olition o" %elded and un%elded structures site %or8

Ther!al gouging is also suita#le "or e""icient re!o0al o" te!porar, %elded attach!ents such as #rac8ets, strong#ac8s, li"ting lugs and redundant tac8 %elds, during 0arious stages o" "a#rication and construction %or8&

&ouging processes
)ouging operations can #e carried out using the "ollo%ing ther!al processes: o-,"uel gas "la!e !anual !etal arc air car#on arc plas!a arc

Weldability o( materials

Steels
In arc %elding, as the %eld !etal needs !echanical properties to !atch the parent !etal, the %elder !ust a0oid "or!ing de"ects in the %eld& I!per"ections are principall, caused #,:

poor %elder techni$ue1 insu""icient !easures to acco!!odate the !aterial or %elding process1 high stress in the co!ponent&

Techni$ues to a0oid i!per"ections such as lac8 o" "usion and slag inclusions, %hich result "ro! poor %elder techni$ues, are relati0el, %ell 8no%n& @o%e0er, the %elder should #e a%are that the !aterial itsel" !a, #e suscepti#le to "or!ation o" i!per"ections caused #, the %elding process& In the !aterials section o" the Io# Bno%ledge "or Welders, guidelines are gi0en on !aterial %elda#ilit, and precautions to #e ta8en to a0oid de"ects&

Material types
In ter!s o" %elda#ilit,, co!!onl, used !aterials can #e di0ided into the "ollo%ing t,pes:

Steels Stainless steels 'lu!iniu! and its allo,s Nic8el and its allo,s ?opper and its allo,s Titaniu! and its allo,s ?ast iron

*usion %elding processes can #e used to %eld !ost allo,s o" these !aterials, in a %ide range o" thic8ness& When i!per"ections are "or!ed, the, %ill #e located in either the %eld !etal or the parent !aterial i!!ediatel, ad9acent to the %eld, called the heat a""ected +one 3@'A4& 's che!ical co!position o" the %eld !etal deter!ines the ris8 o" i!per"ections, the choice o" "iller !etal !a, #e crucial not onl, in achie0ing ade$uate !echanical properties and corrosion resistance #ut also in producing a sound %eld& @o%e0er, @'A i!per"ections are caused #, the ad0erse e""ect o" the heat generated during %elding and can onl, #e a0oided #, strict adherence to the %elding procedure& This part o" the !aterials section o" Io# Bno%ledge "or Welders considers the %elda#ilit, o" car#on !anganese 3? .n4 steels and lo% allo, steels&

Imper(ections in !elds
?o!!onl, used steels are considered to #e readil, %elded& @o%e0er, these !aterials can #e at ris8 "ro! the "ollo%ing t,pes o" i!per"ection:

porosit,1 solidi"ication crac8ing1 h,drogen crac8ing1 reheat crac8ing&

Other "a#rication i!per"ections are la!ellar tearing and li$uation crac8ing #ut using !odern steels and consu!a#les, these t,pes o" de"ects are less li8el, to arise& In discussing the !ain causes o" i!per"ections, guidance is gi0en on procedure and %elder techni$ues "or reducing the ris8 in arc %elding&

Porosity
;orosit, is "or!ed #, entrap!ent o" discrete poc8ets o" gas in the solidi",ing %eld pool& The gas !a, originate "ro! poor gas shielding, sur"ace conta!inants such as rust or grease, or insu""icient deo-idants in the parent !etal 3autogenous %eld4, electrode or "iller %ire& ' particularl, se0ere "or! o" porosit, is E%or!holesE, caused #, gross sur"ace conta!ination or %elding %ith da!p electrodes& The presence o" !anganese and silicon in the parent !etal, electrode and "iller %ire is #ene"icial as the, act as deo-idants co!#ining %ith entrapped air in the %eld pool to "or! slag& (i!!ing steels %ith a high o-,gen content, can onl, #e %elded satis"actoril, %ith a consu!a#le %hich adds alu!iniu! to the %eld pool& To o#tain sound porosit, "ree %elds, the 9oint area should #e cleaned and degreased #e"ore %elding& ;ri!er coatings should #e re!o0ed unless considered suita#le "or %elding #, that particular process and procedure& When using gas shielded processes, the !aterial sur"ace de!ands !ore rigorous cleaning, such as #, degreasing, grinding or !achining, "ollo%ed #, "inal degreasing, and the arc !ust #e protected "ro! draughts&

Solidi(ication crac#ing
Solidi"ication crac8s occur longitudinall, as a result o" the %eld #ead ha0ing insu""icient strength to %ithstand the contraction stresses %ithin the %eld !etal& Sulphur, phosphorus, and car#on pic8 up "ro! the parent !etal at high dilution increase the ris8 o" %eld !etal 3solidi"ication4 crac8ing especiall, in thic8 section and highl, restrained 9oints& When %elding high car#on and sulphur content steels, thin %eld #eads %ill #e !ore suscepti#le to solidi"ication crac8ing& @o%e0er, a %eld %ith a large depth to %idth ratio can also #e suscepti#le& In this case, the centre o" the %eld, the last part to solidi",, %ill ha0e a high concentration o" i!purities increasing the ris8 o" crac8ing&

Solidi"ication crac8ing is #est a0oided #, care"ul attention to the choice o" consu!a#le, %elding para!eters and %elder techni$ue& To !ini!ise the ris8, consu!a#les %ith lo% car#on and i!purit, le0els and relati0el, high !anganese and silicon contents are pre"erred& @igh current densit, processes such as su#!erged arc and ?O 2 , are !ore li8el, to induce crac8ing& The %elding para!eters !ust produce an ade$uate depth to %idth ratio in #utt %elds, or throat thic8ness in "illet %elds& @igh %elding speeds also increase the ris8 as the a!ount o" segregation and %eld stresses %ill increase& The %elder should ensure that there is a good 9oint "it up so as to a0oid #ridging %ide gaps& Sur"ace conta!inants, such as cutting oils, should #e re!o0ed #e"ore %elding&

"ydrogen crac#ing
' characteristic "eature o" high car#on and lo% allo, steels is that the @'A i!!ediatel, ad9acent to the %eld hardens on %elding %ith an attendant ris8 o" cold 3h,drogen4 crac8ing& 'lthough the ris8 o" crac8ing is deter!ined #, the le0el o" h,drogen produced #, the %elding process, suscepti#ilit, %ill also depend upon se0eral contri#utor, "actors:

!aterial co!position 3car#on e$ui0alent41 section thic8ness1 arc energ, 3heat4 input1 degree o" restraint&

The a!ount o" h,drogen generated is deter!ined #, the electrode t,pe and the process& Basic electrodes generate less h,drogen than rutile electrodes 3..'4 and the gas shielded processes 3.I) and TI)4 produce onl, a s!all a!ount o" h,drogen in the %eld pool& Steel co!position and cooling rate deter!ines the @'A hardness& ?he!ical co!position deter!ines !aterial hardena#ilit,, and the higher the car#on and allo, content o" the !aterial, the greater the @'A hardness& Section thic8ness and arc energ, in"luences the cooling rate and hence, the hardness o" the @'A& *or a gi0en situation there"ore, !aterial co!position, thic8ness, 9oint t,pe, electrode co!position and arc energ, input, @'A crac8ing is pre0ented #, heating the !aterial& Dsing preheat %hich reduces the cooling rate, pro!otes escape o" h,drogen and reduces @'A hardness so pre0enting a crac8 sensiti0e structure #eing "or!ed1 the reco!!ended le0els o" preheat "or 0arious practical situations are detailed in the appropriate standards e&g& BS EN/0// 2:200/& 's crac8ing onl, occurs at te!peratures slightl, a#o0e a!#ient, !aintaining the te!perature o" the %eld area a#o0e the reco!!ended le0el during "a#rication is especiall, i!portant& I" the !aterial is allo%ed to cool too $uic8l,, crac8ing can occur up to se0eral hours a"ter %elding, o"ten ter!ed Edela,ed h,drogen crac8ingE& '"ter %elding, there"ore, it is #ene"icial to !aintain the heating "or a gi0en period 3hold ti!e4, depending on the steel thic8ness, to ena#le the h,drogen to di""use "ro! the %eld area& When %elding ? .n structural and pressure 0essel steels, the !easures %hich are ta8en to pre0ent @'A crac8ing %ill also #e ade$uate to a0oid h,drogen crac8ing in the %eld

!etal& @o%e0er, %ith increasing allo,ing o" the %eld !etal e&g& %hen %elding allo,ed or $uenched and te!pered steels, !ore stringent precautions !a, #e necessar,& The ris8 o" @'A crac8ing is reduced #, using a lo% h,drogen process, lo% h,drogen electrodes and high arc energ,, and #, reducing the le0el o" restraint& ;ractical precautions to a0oid h,drogen crac8ing include dr,ing the electrodes and cleaning the 9oint "aces& When using a gas shielded process, a signi"icant a!ount o" h,drogen can #e generated "ro! conta!inants on the sur"ace o" the co!ponents and "iller %ire so preheat and arc energ, re$uire!ents should #e !aintained e0en "or tac8 %elds&

'eheat crac#ing
(eheat or stress rela-ation crac8ing !a, occur in the @'A o" thic8 section co!ponents, usuall, o" greater than 20!! thic8ness, *ig& 4& The !ore li8el, cause o" crac8ing is e!#rittle!ent o" the @'A during high te!perature ser0ice or stress relie" heat treat!ent& 's a coarse grained @'A is !ore suscepti#le to crac8ing, lo% arc energ, input %elding procedures reduce the ris8& 'lthough reheat crac8ing occurs in sensiti0e !aterials, a0oidance o" high stresses during %elding and eli!ination o" local points o" stress concentration, e&g& #, dressing the %eld toes, can reduce the ris8&

Weldability o( steel groups

;F ?EN ISO=T( /2605:2002 identi"ies a nu!#er o" steels groups %hich ha0e si!ilar !etallurgical and %elding characteristics& The !ain ris8s in %elding these groups are: &roup 6. Lo! carbon unalloyed steels7 no speci(ic processing re-uirements7 speci(ied minimum yield strength ' e" 89:;%mm 2 . *or thin section, unallo,ed !aterials, these are nor!all, readil, %elda#le& @o%e0er, %hen %elding thic8er sections %ith a "lu- process, there is a ris8 o" @'A h,drogen crac8ing, %hich %ill need increased h,drogen control o" the consu!a#les or the use o" preheat& &roup 2. Thermomechanically treated (ine grain steels and cast steels !ith a speci(ied miniumum yield strength ' e" < =9:;%mm 2 . *or a gi0en strength le0el, a ther!o!echanicall, processed 3 T.?;4 steel %ill ha0e a lo%er allo, content than a nor!alised steel, and thus %ill #e !ore readil, %elda#le %ith regard to a0oidance o" @'A h,drogen crac8ing and the achie0e!ent o" !a-i!u! hardness li!its& @o%e0er, there is al%a,s so!e degree o" so"tening in the @'A a"ter %elding T.?; steels, and a restriction on the heat input used, so as not to degrade the properties o" the 9oint +one 3e&g& 2&28I=!! li!its "or /2!! plate4& &roup =. >uenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened steels ?except stainless steels@7 ' e" < =9:;%mm 2

These are %elda#le, #ut care !ust #e ta8en to adhere to esta#lished procedures, as these o"ten ha0e high car#on contents, and thus high hardena#ilit,, leading to a hard @'A suscepti#ilit, to crac8ing& 's %ith T.?; steels, there !a, #e a restriction on heat input or preheat to a0oid degradation o" the steel properties& &roups 87 3 and 9. )hromium/molybdenum and chromium/molybdenum/0anadium creep resisting steels. These are suscepti#le to h,drogen crac8ing, #ut %ith appropriate preheat and lo% h,drogen consu!a#les, %ith te!per #ead techni$ues to !ini!ise crac8ing, the steels are "airl, %elda#le& ;ost%eld heat treat!ent is used to i!pro0e @'A toughness in these steels& &roup A. erritic7 martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels. When using a "iller to produce !atching %eld !etal strength, preheat is needed to a0oid @'A crac8ing& ;ost%eld heat treat!ent is essential to restore @'A toughness& &roup B. Austenitic stainless steels. These steels do not generall, need preheat, #ut in order to a0oid pro#le!s %ith solidi"ication or li$uation crac8ing upon %elding, the consu!a#les should #e selected to gi0e %eld !etal %ith a lo% i!purit, content, or i" appropriate, residual "errite in the %eld !etal& &roup C. ;ic#el alloy steels7 ;i 6:4. These ha0e a si!ilar %elda#ilit, to )roups 4, 2 J 6& &roup 6:. Austenitic (erritic stainless steels ?duplex@. In %elding these steels, !aintaining phase #alance in the %eld !etal and in the @'A re$uires care"ul selection o" consu!a#les, the a#sence o" preheat and control o" !a-i!u! interpass te!perature, along %ith !ini!u! heat input le0els, as slo% cooling encourages austenite "or!ation in the @'A& &roup 66. "igh carbon steels. These steels %ill #e less %elda#le o%ing to their increased car#on content %ith respect to )roup /& It is li8el, that care o0er the choice o" consu!a#les and the use o" high preheat le0els %ould #e needed& It is i!portant to o#tain ad0ice #e"ore %elding an, steels that ,ou do not ha0e e-perience in

Weldability o( materials

Stainless steel
Stainless steels are chosen #ecause o" their enhanced corrosion resistance, high te!perature o-idation resistance or their strength& The 0arious t,pes o" stainless steel are identi"ied and guidance gi0en on %elding processes and techni$ues %hich can #e e!plo,ed in "a#ricating stainless steel co!ponents %ithout i!pairing the corrosion, o-idation and !echanical properties o" the !aterial or introducing de"ects into the %eld&

Material types
The uni$ue properties o" the stainless steels are deri0ed "ro! the addition o" allo,ing ele!ents, principall, chro!iu! and nic8el, to steel& T,picall,, !ore than /0G chro!iu! is re$uired to produce a stainless iron& The "our grades o" stainless steel ha0e #een classi"ied according to their !aterial properties and %elding re$uire!ents:

'ustenitic *erritic .artensitic 'ustenitic "erritic 3duple-4

The allo, groups are designated largel, according to their !icrostructure& The "irst three consist o" a single phase #ut the "ourth group contains #oth "errite and austenite in the !icrostructure& 's nic8el 3plus car#on, !anganese and nitrogen4 pro!otes austenite and chro!iu! 3plus silicon, !ol,#denu! and nio#iu!4 encourages "errite "or!ation, the structure o" %elds in co!!erciall, a0aila#le stainless steels can #e largel, predicted on the #asis o" their che!ical co!position& The predicted %eld !etal structure is sho%n in the Schae""ler diagra! in %hich austenite and "errite pro!oting ele!ents are plotted in ter!s o" the nic8el and chro!iu! e$ui0alents& Because o" the di""erent !icrostructures, the allo, groups ha0e #oth di""erent %elding characteristics and suscepti#ilit, to de"ects&

Austenitic stainless steel

'ustenitic stainless steels t,picall, ha0e a co!position %ithin the range /6 26G chro!iu! 3?r4 and 5 22G nic8el 3Ni4& ' co!!onl, used allo, "or %elded "a#rications is

T,pe 304 %hich contains appro-i!atel, /5G?r and /0GNi& These allo,s can #e readil, %elded using an, o" the arc %elding processes 3TI), .I), ..' and S'4& 's the, are non hardena#le on cooling, the, e-hi#it good toughness and there is no need "or pre or post %eld heat treat!ent& A0oiding !eld imper(ections 'lthough austenitic stainless steel is readil, %elded, %eld !etal and @'A crac8ing can occur& Weld !etal solidi"ication crac8ing is !ore li8el, in "ull, austenitic structures %hich are !ore crac8 sensiti0e than those containing a s!all a!ount o" "errite& The #ene"icial e""ect o" "errite has #een attri#uted largel, to its capacit, to dissol0e har!"ul i!purities %hich %ould other%ise "or! lo% !elting point segregates and interdendritic crac8s& 's the presence o" 2 /0G "errite in the !icrostructure is e-tre!el, #ene"icial, the choice o" "iller !aterial co!position is crucial in suppressing the ris8 o" crac8ing& 'n indication o" the "errite austenite #alance "or di""erent co!positions is pro0ided #, the Schae""ler diagra!& *or e-a!ple, %hen %elding T,pe 304 stainless steel, a T,pe 305 "iller !aterial %hich has a slightl, di""erent allo, content, is used&

erritic stainless steel

*erritic stainless steels ha0e a ?r content t,picall, %ithin the range // 25G& ?o!!onl, used allo,s include the 430 grade, ha0ing /6 /5G ?r and 406 grade ha0ing /0 /2G ?r& 's these allo,s can #e considered to #e predo!inantl, single phase and non hardena#le, the, can #e readil, "usion %elded& @o%e0er, a coarse grained @'A %ill ha0e poor toughness& A0oiding !eld imper(ections The !ain pro#le! %hen %elding this t,pe o" stainless steel is poor @'A toughness& E-cessi0e grain coarsening can lead to crac8ing in highl, restrained 9oints and thic8 section !aterial& When %elding thin section !aterial, 3less than 6!!4 no special precautions are necessar,& In thic8er !aterial, it is necessar, to e!plo, a lo% heat input to !ini!ise the %idth o" the grain coarsened +one and an austenitic "iller to produce a tougher %eld !etal& 'lthough preheating %ill not reduce the grain si+e, it %ill reduce the @'A cooling rate, !aintain the %eld !etal a#o0e the ductile #rittle transition te!perature and !a, reduce residual stresses& ;reheat te!perature should #e %ithin the range 20 220 deg&? depending on !aterial co!position&

Martensitic stainless steel

The !ost co!!on !artensitic allo,s e&g& t,pe 4/0, ha0e a !oderate chro!iu! content, /2 /5G ?r, %ith lo% Ni #ut !ore i!portantl, ha0e a relati0el, high car#on content& The

principal di""erence co!pared %ith %elding the austenitic and "erritic grades o" stainless steel is the potentiall, hard @'A !artensitic structure and the !atching co!position %eld !etal& The !aterial can #e success"ull, %elded pro0iding precautions are ta8en to a0oid crac8ing in the @'A, especiall, in thic8 section co!ponents and highl, restrained 9oints& A0oiding !eld imper(ections @igh hardness in the @'A !a8es this t,pe o" stainless steel 0er, prone to h,drogen crac8ing& The ris8 o" crac8ing generall, increases %ith the car#on content& ;recautions %hich !ust #e ta8en to !ini!ise the ris8, include:

using lo% h,drogen process 3TI) or .I)4 and ensure the "lu- or "lu- coated consu!a#le are dried 3..' and S'W4 according to the !anu"acturerEs instructions1 preheating to around 200 to 300 deg&?& 'ctual te!perature %ill depend on %elding procedure, che!ical co!position 3especiall, ?r and ? content4, section thic8ness and the a!ount o" h,drogen entering the %eld !etal1 !aintaining the reco!!ended !ini!u! interpass te!perature& carr,ing out post %eld heat treat!ent, e&g& at 620 620 deg&?& The ti!e and te!perature %ill #e deter!ined #, che!ical co!position&

Thin section, lo% car#on !aterial, t,picall, less than 3!!, can o"ten #e %elded %ithout preheat, pro0iding that a lo% h,drogen process is used, the 9oints ha0e lo% restraint and attention is paid to cleaning the 9oint area& Thic8er section and higher car#on 3K 0&/G4 !aterial %ill pro#a#l, need preheat and post %eld heat treat!ent& The post %eld heat treat!ent should #e carried out i!!ediatel, a"ter %elding not onl, to te!per 3toughen4 the structure #ut also to ena#le the h,drogen to di""use a%a, "ro! the %eld !etal and @'A&

$uplex stainless steels

Fuple- stainless steels ha0e a t%o phase structure o" al!ost e$ual proportions o" austenite and "errite& The co!position o" the !ost co!!on duple- steels lies %ithin the range 22 26G ?r, 4 6G Ni and 0 3G .o nor!all, %ith a s!all a!ount o" nitrogen 30&/ 0&3G4 to sta#ilise the austenite& .odern duple- steels are readil, %elda#le #ut the procedure, especiall, !aintaining the heat input range, !ust #e strictl, "ollo%ed to o#tain the correct %eld !etal structure& A0oiding !eld imper(ections 'lthough !ost %elding processes can #e used, lo% heat input %elding procedures are usuall, a0oided& ;reheat is not nor!all, re$uired and the !a-i!u! interpass te!perature !ust #e controlled& ?hoice o" "iller is i!portant as it is designed to produce a %eld !etal structure %ith a "errite austenite #alance to !atch the parent !etal& To co!pensate "or

nitrogen loss, the "iller !a, #e o0erallo,ed %ith nitrogen or the shielding gas itsel" !a, contain a s!all a!ount o" nitrogen&

Weldability o( materials

Aluminium alloys
'lu!iniu! and its allo,s are used in "a#rications #ecause o" their lo% %eight, good corrosion resistance and %elda#ilit,& 'lthough nor!all, lo% strength, so!e o" the !ore co!ple- allo,s can ha0e !echanical properties e$ui0alent to steels& The 0arious t,pes o" alu!iniu! allo, are identi"ied and guidance is gi0en on "a#ricating co!ponents %ithout i!pairing corrosion and !echanical properties o" the !aterial or introducing i!per"ections into the %eld&

Material types
's pure alu!iniu! is relati0el, so"t, s!all a!ounts o" allo,ing ele!ents are added to produce a range o" !echanical properties& The allo,s are grouped according to the principal allo,ing ele!ents, Speci"ic co!!ercial allo,s ha0e a "our digit designation according to the international speci"ications "or %rought allo,s or the ISO alpha nu!eric s,ste!& The allo,s can #e "urther classi"ied according to the !eans #, %hich the allo,ing ele!ents de0elop !echanical properties, non heat treata#le or heat treata#le allo,s&

;on/heat/treatable alloys
.aterial strength depends on the e""ect o" %or8 hardening and solid solution hardening o" allo, ele!ents such as !agnesiu!, and !anganese1 the allo,ing ele!ents are !ainl, "ound in the /---, 3--- and 2--- series o" allo,s& When %elded, these allo,s !a, lose the e""ects o" %or8 hardening %hich results in so"tening o" the @'A ad9acent to the %eld&

"eat/treatable alloys
.aterial hardness and strength depend on allo, co!position and heat treat!ent 3solution heat treat!ent and $uenching "ollo%ed #, either natural or arti"icial ageing produces a "ine dispersion o" the allo,ing constituents4& ;rincipal allo,ing ele!ents are de"ined in the 2---, 6--- and 6--- series& *usion %elding redistri#utes the hardening constituents in the @'A %hich locall, reduces !aterial strength&

Processes

.ost o" the %rought grades in the /---, 3---, 2---, 6--- and !ediu! strength 6--3e&g& 60204 series can #e "usion %elded using TI), .I) and o-,"uel processes& The 2--series allo,s, in particular, ha0e e-cellent %elda#ilit,& @igh strength allo,s 3e&g& 60/0 and 60204 and !ost o" the 2--- series are not reco!!ended "or "usion %elding #ecause the, are prone to li$uation and solidi"ication crac8ing& The techni$ue o" *riction Stir Welding is particularl, suited to alu!iniu! allo,s& It is capa#le o" producing sound %elds in !an, allo,s, including those heat treata#le allo,s %hich are prone to hot crac8ing during "usion %elding&

iller alloys
*iller !etal co!position is deter!ined #,:

%elda#ilit, o" the parent !etal !ini!u! !echanical properties o" the %eld !etal corrosion resistance anodic coating re$uire!ents

No!inall, !atching "iller !etals are o"ten e!plo,ed "or non heat treata#le allo,s& @o%e0er, "or allo, lean !aterials and heat treata#le allo,s, non !atching "illers are used to pre0ent solidi"ication crac8ing& The choice o" "iller !etal co!position "or the 0arious %elda#le allo,s is speci"ied in BS EN /0// ;t 4:2000 "or TI) and .I) %elding1 reco!!ended "iller !etal co!positions "or the !ore co!!onl, used allo,s are gi0en in the $able&

Alloy $esignation EN 'W /050' EN 'W 3/03 EN 'W 4043' EN 'W 2053 EN 'W 222/

)hemical $esignation EN 'W 'l 77&53'4 EN 'W 'l .n/ EN 'W 'l Si23'4 EN 'W 'l .g4&2.n0&6 EN 'W 'l .g2.n0&3

)lassi(ication N@T N@T

iller ( /050' ( 3/03

Application ?he!ical plant Buildings, heat e-changers *iller %ire=rod

N@T N@T

( 2226' ( 2326

Ships, rail %agons, #ridges (oad 0ehicles, !arine

EN 'W 2326 EN 'W 2226' EN 'W 606/

EN 'W 'l .g2?r3'4 EN 'W 'l .g2.n EN 'W 'l .g/Si?u EN 'W 'l An4&2.g/ @T ( 4043' ( 2326 ( 2226'

*iller %ire=rod *iler %ire=rod Structural, pipes

EN 'W 6020

@T

Structural, transport

@T L @eat treata#le, N@T L Non @eat treata#le

Imper(ections in !elds
'lu!iniu! and its allo,s can #e readil, %elded pro0iding appropriate precautions are ta8en& The !ost li8el, i!per"ections in "usion %elds are:

porosit, crac8ing poor %eld #ead pro"ile

Porosity
;orosit, is o"ten regarded as an inherent "eature o" .I) %elds1 t,pical appearance o" "inel, distri#uted porosit, in a TI) %eld is sho%n in the photograph& The !ain cause o" porosit, is a#sorption o" h,drogen in the %eld pool %hich "or!s discrete pores in the solidi",ing %eld !etal& The !ost co!!on sources o" h,drogen are h,drocar#ons and !oisture "ro! conta!inants on the parent !aterial and "iller %ire sur"aces, and %ater 0apour "ro! the shielding gas at!osphere& E0en trace le0els o" h,drogen !a, e-ceed the threshold concentration re$uired to nucleate #u##les in the %eld pool, alu!iniu! #eing one o" the !etals !ost suscepti#le to porosit,& To !ini!ise the ris8, rigorous cleaning o" !aterial sur"ace and "iller %ire should #e carried out& Three cleaning techni$ues are suita#le1 !echanical cleaning, sol0ent degreasing and che!ical etch cleaning& In gas shielded %elding, air entrain!ent should #e a0oided #, !a8ing sure there is an e""icient gas shield and the arc is protected "ro! draughts& ;recautions should also #e

ta8en to a0oid %ater 0apour pic8up "ro! gas lines and %elding e$uip!ent1 it is reco!!ended that the %elding s,ste! is purged "or a#out an hour #e"ore use& Mechanical cleaning Wire #rushing 3stainless steel #ristles4, scraping or "iling can #e used to re!o0e sur"ace o-ide and conta!inants& Fegreasing should #e carried out #e"ore !echanical cleaning& Sol0ents Fipping, spra,ing or %iping %ith organic sol0ents can #e used to re!o0e grease, oil, dirt and loose particles& )hemical etching ' solution o" 2G sodiu! h,dro-ide can #e used "or #atch cleaning #ut this should #e "ollo%ed #, rinsing in @NO 3 and %ater to re!o0e reaction products on the sur"ace&

Solidi(ication crac#s
?rac8ing occurs in alu!iniu! allo,s #ecause o" high stresses generated across the %eld due to the high ther!al e-pansion 3 t%ice that o" steel4 and the su#stantial contraction on solidi"ication t,picall, 2 G !ore than in e$ui0alent steel %elds& Solidi"ication crac8s "or! in the centre o" the %eld, usuall, e-tending along the centreline during solidi"ication& Solidi"ication crac8s also occur in the %eld crater at the end o" the %elding operation& The !ain causes o" solidi"ication crac8s are as "ollo%s:

incorrect "iller %ire=parent !etal co!#ination incorrect %eld geo!etr, %elding under high restraint conditions

The crac8ing ris8 can #e reduced #, using a non !atching, crac8 resistant "iller 3usuall, "ro! the 4--- and 2--- series allo,s4& The disad0antage is that the resulting %eld !etal !a, ha0e a lo%er strength than the parent !etal and not respond to a su#se$uent heat treat!ent& The %eld #ead !ust #e thic8 enough to %ithstand contraction stresses& 'lso, the degree o" restraint on the %eld can #e !ini!ised #, using correct edge preparation, accurate 9oint set up and correct %eld se$uence&

Li-uation crac#ing

<i$uation crac8ing occurs in the @'A, %hen lo% !elting point "il!s are "or!ed at the grain #oundaries& These cannot %ithstand the contraction stresses generated %hen the %eld !etal solidi"ies and cools& @eat treata#le allo,s, particularl, 6--and 6--- series allo,s, are !ore suscepti#le to this t,pe o" crac8ing& The ris8 can #e reduced #, using a "iller !etal %ith a lo%er !elting te!perature than the parent !etal, "or e-a!ple the 6--- series allo,s are %elded %ith a 4--- "iller !etal& @o%e0er, 4--- "iller !etal should not #e used to %eld high !agnesiu! allo,s 3such as 20534 as e-cessi0e !agnesiu! silicide !a, "or! at the "usion #oundar, decreasing ductilit, and increasing crac8 sensiti0it,&

Poor !eld bead pro(ile

Incorrect %elding para!eter settings or poor %elder techni$ue can introduce %eld pro"ile i!per"ections such as lac8 o" "usion, lac8 o" penetration and undercut& The high ther!al conducti0it, o" alu!iniu! and the rapidl, solidi",ing %eld pool !a8e these allo,s particularl, suscepti#le to pro"ile i!per"ections&

$e(ects%imper(ections in !elds / porosity

The characteristic "eatures and principal causes o" porosit, i!per"ections are descri#ed& Best practice guidelines are gi0en so %elders can !ini!ise porosit, ris8 during "a#rication&

Identi(ication
;orosit, is the presence o" ca0ities in the %eld !etal caused #, the "ree+ing in o" gas released "ro! the %eld pool as it solidi"ies& The porosit, can ta8e se0eral "or!s: distri#uted sur"ace #rea8ing pores

%or!hole crater pipes

)ause and pre0ention

$istributed porosity and sur(ace pores
Fistri#uted porosit, (Fig! %) is nor!all, "ound as "ine pores throughout the %eld #ead& Sur"ace #rea8ing pores (Fig! &) usuall, indicate a large a!ount o" distri#uted porosit,

ig. 6. Dni(ormly distributed porosity

ig. 2. Sur(ace brea#ing pores ?T (illet !eld in primed plate@

)ause ;orosit, is caused #, the a#sorption o" nitrogen, o-,gen and h,drogen in the !olten %eld pool %hich is then released on solidi"ication to #eco!e trapped in the %eld !etal& Nitrogen and o-,gen a#sorption in the %eld pool usuall, originates "ro! poor gas shielding& 's little as /G air entrain!ent in the shielding gas %ill cause distri#uted porosit, and greater than /&2G results in gross sur"ace #rea8ing pores& <ea8s in the gas line, too high a gas "lo% rate, draughts and e-cessi0e tur#ulence in the %eld pool are "re$uent causes o" porosit,& @,drogen can originate "ro! a nu!#er o" sources including !oisture "ro! inade$uatel, dried electrodes, "lu-es or the %or8piece sur"ace& )rease and oil on the sur"ace o" the %or8piece or "iller %ire are also co!!on sources o" h,drogen& Sur"ace coatings li8e pri!er paints and sur"ace treat!ents such as +inc coatings, !a, generate copious a!ounts o" "u!e during %elding& The ris8 o" trapping the e0ol0ed gas %ill #e greater in T 9oints than #utt 9oints especiall, %hen "illet %elding on #oth sides (see Fig &)! Special !ention should #e !ade o" the so called %elda#le 3lo% +inc4 pri!ers& It should not #e necessar, to re!o0e the pri!ers #ut i" the pri!er thic8ness e-ceeds the

!anu"acturerEs reco!!endation, porosit, is li8el, to result especiall, %hen using %elding processes other than ..'&

Pre0ention
The gas source should #e identi"ied and re!o0ed as "ollo%s: Air entrainment seal an, air lea8 a0oid %eld pool tur#ulence use "iller %ith ade$uate le0el o" deo-idants reduce e-cessi0el, high gas "lo% a0oid draughts "ydrogen dr, the electrode and "luclean and degrease the %or8piece sur"ace Sur(ace coatings clean the 9oint edges i!!ediatel, #e"ore %elding chec8 that the %elda#le pri!er is #elo% the reco!!ended !a-i!u! thic8ness

,longated pores or !ormholes

Wormholes
?haracteristicall,, %or!holes are elongated pores (Fig! ') %hich produce a herring #one appearance on the radiograph& )ause Wor!holes are indicati0e o" a large a!ount o" gas #eing "or!ed %hich is then trapped in

the solidi",ing %eld !etal& E-cessi0e gas %ill #e "or!ed "ro! gross sur"ace conta!ination or 0er, thic8 paint or pri!er coatings& Entrap!ent is !ore li8el, in cre0ices such as the gap #eneath the 0ertical !e!#er o" a hori+ontal 0ertical, T 9oint %hich is "illet %elded on #oth sides& When %elding T 9oints in pri!ed plates it is essential that the coating thic8ness on the edge o" the 0ertical !e!#er is not a#o0e the !anu"acturerEs reco!!ended !a-i!u!, t,picall, 20M!, through o0er spra,ing&

Pre0ention
Eli!inating the gas and ca0ities pre0ents %or!holes& &as generation clean the %or8piece sur"aces re!o0e an, coatings "ro! the 9oint area chec8 the pri!er thic8ness is #elo% the !anu"acturerEs !a-i!u! Eoint geometry a0oid a 9oint geo!etr, %hich creates a ca0it,

)rater pipe
' crater pipe "or!s during the "inal solidi"ied %eld pool and is o"ten associated %ith so!e gas porosit,& )ause This i!per"ection results "ro! shrin8age on %eld pool solidi"ication& ?onse$uentl,, conditions %hich e-aggerate the li$uid to solid 0olu!e change %ill pro!ote its "or!ation& S%itching o"" the %elding current %ill result in the rapid solidi"ication o" a large %eld pool& In TI) %elding, autogenous techni$ues, or stopping the %ire #e"ore s%itching o"" the %elding current, %ill cause crater "or!ation and the pipe i!per"ection&

Pre0ention
?rater pipe i!per"ection can #e pre0ented #, re!o0ing the stop or #, %elder techni$ue& 'emo0al o( stop use run o"" tag in #utt 9oints grind out the stop #e"ore continuing %ith the ne-t electrode or depositing the su#se$uent %eld run Welder techni-ue progressi0el, reduce the %elding current to reduce the %eld pool si+e

add "iller 3TI)4 to co!pensate "or the %eld pool shrin8age

Porosity susceptibility o( materials

)ases li8el, to cause porosit, in the co!!onl, used range o" !aterials are listed in the Ta#le& Principal gases causing porosity and recommended cleaning methods Material ? .n steel Stainless steel 'lu!iniu! and allo,s ?opper and allo,s Nic8el and allo,s &as @,drogen, Nitrogen and O-,gen @,drogen @,drogen @,drogen, Nitrogen Nitrogen )leaning )rind to re!o0e scale coatings Fegrease H %ire #rush H degrease ?he!ical clean H %ire #rush H degrease H scrape Fegrease H %ire #rush H degrease Fegrease H %ire #rush H degrease

$etection and remedial action

I" the i!per"ections are sur"ace #rea8ing, the, can #e detected using a penetrant or !agnetic particle inspection techni$ue& *or su# sur"ace i!per"ections, detection is #, radiograph, or ultrasonic inspection& (adiograph, is nor!all, !ore e""ecti0e in detecting and characterising porosit, i!per"ections& @o%e0er, detection o" s!all pores is di""icult especiall, in thic8 sections& (e!edial action nor!all, needs re!o0al #, localised gouging or grinding #ut i" the porosit, is %idespread, the entire %eld should #e re!o0ed& The 9oint should #e re prepared and re %elded as speci"ied in the agreed procedure&

Weld de(ects % imper(ections / incomplete root (usion or penetration

The SS Schenectady7 an all !elded tan#er7 bro#e in t!o !hilst lying in doc# in 6C8=. Principal causes o( this (ailure !ere poor design and bad !or#manship The characteristic "eatures and principal causes o" inco!plete root "usion are descri#ed& )eneral guidelines on E#est practiceE are gi0en so %elders can !ini!ise the ris8 o" introducing i!per"ections during "a#rication&

abrication and ser0ice de(ects and imper(ections

's the presence o" i!per"ections in a %elded 9oint !a, not render the co!ponent de"ecti0e in the sense o" #eing unsuita#le "or the intended application, the pre"erred ter! is i!per"ection rather than de"ect& *or this reason, production $ualit, "or a co!ponent is de"ined in ter!s o" a $ualit, le0el in %hich the li!its "or the i!per"ections are clearl, de"ined, "or e-a!ple <e0el B, ? or F in accordance %ith the re$uire!ents o" BS EN ISO 25/6& *or the '!erican standards 'S.E N/ and 'WS F/&/, the acceptance le0els are contained in the standards& The application code %ill speci", the $ualit, le0els %hich !ust #e achie0ed "or the 0arious 9oints& I!per"ections can #e #roadl, classi"ied into those produced on "a#rication o" the co!ponent or structure and those "or!ed as result o" ad0erse conditions during ser0ice& The principal t,pes o" i!per"ections are: fabrication:

lac8 o" "usion crac8s porosit, inclusions incorrect %eld shape and si+e

ser#ice:

#rittle "racture stress corrosion crac8ing "atigue "ailure

Welding procedure and %elder techni$ue %ill ha0e a direct e""ect on "a#rication i!per"ections& Incorrect procedure or poor techni$ue !a, produce i!per"ections leading to pre!ature "ailure in ser0ice&

Incomplete root (usion or penetration

Identi(ication
Inco!plete root "usion is %hen the %eld "ails to "use one side o" the 9oint in the root& Inco!plete root penetration occurs %hen #oth sides o" the 9oint are un"used& T,pical i!per"ections can arise in the "ollo%ing situations:

an e-cessi0el, thic8 root "ace in a #utt %eld 3*ig& /a4 too s!all a root gap 3*ig& /#4 !isplaced %elds 3*ig& /c4 "ailure to re!o0e su""icient !etal in cutting #ac8 to sound !etal in a dou#le sided %eld 3*ig& /d4 inco!plete root "usion %hen using too lo% an arc energ, 3heat4 input 3*ig& /e4 too s!all a #e0el angle, too large an electrode in ..' %elding 3*ig 24

ig. 6 )auses o( incomplete root (usion a@ c@ b@ d@ a4 E-cessi0el, thic8 root "ace #4 Too s!all a root gap c4 .isplaced %elds d4 ;o%er input too lo% e4 'rc 3heat4 input too lo%

e@ ig. 2 ,((ect o( electrode siFe on root (usion

a@ a4 <arge dia!eter electrode #4 S!all dia!eter electrode b@

)auses
These t,pes o" i!per"ection are !ore li8el, in consu!a#le electrode processes 3.I), ..' and su#!erged arc %elding4 %here the %eld !etal is Eauto!aticall,E deposited as

the arc consu!es the electrode %ire or rod& The %elder has li!ited control o" %eld pool penetration independent o" depositing %eld !etal& Thus, the non consu!a#le electrode TI) process in %hich the %elder controls the a!ount o" "iller !aterial independent o" penetration is less prone to this t,pe o" de"ect& In ..' %elding, the ris8 o" inco!plete root "usion can #e reduced #, using the correct %elding para!eters and electrode si+e to gi0e ade$uate arc energ, input and deep penetration& Electrode si+e is also i!portant in that it should #e s!all enough to gi0e ade$uate access to the root, especiall, %hen using a s!all #e0el angle 3*ig 24& It is co!!on practice to use a 3&22!! dia!eter electrode "or the root so the %elder can !anipulate the electrode "or penetration and control o" the %eld pool& @o%e0er, "or the "ill passes %here penetration re$uire!ents are less critical, a 4 or 2!! dia!eter electrode is used to achie0e higher deposition rates& In .I) %elding, the correct %elding para!eters "or the !aterial thic8ness, and a short arc length, should gi0e ade$uate %eld #ead penetration& Too lo% a current le0el "or the si+e o" root "ace %ill gi0e inade$uate %eld penetration& Too high a le0el, causing the %elder to !o0e too $uic8l,, %ill result in the %eld pool #ridging the root %ithout achie0ing ade$uate penetration& It is also essential that the correct root "ace si+e and #e0el angles are used and that the 9oint gap is set accuratel,& To pre0ent the gap "ro! closing, ade$uate tac8ing %ill #e re$uired&

Best practice in pre0ention

The "ollo%ing techni$ues can #e used to pre0ent lac8 o" root "usion:

In TI) %elding, do not use too large a root "ace and ensure the %elding current is su""icient "or the %eld pool to penetrate "ull, the root In ..' %elding, use the correct current le0el and not too large an electrode si+e "or the root In .I) %elding, use a su""icientl, high %elding current le0el #ut ad9ust the arc 0oltage to 8eep a short arc length When using a 9oint con"iguration %ith a 9oint gap, !a8e sure it is o" ade$uate si+e and does not close up during %elding Fo not use too high a current le0el causing the %eld pool to #ridge the gap %ithout "ull, penetrating the root&

Acceptance standards
The li!its "or lac8 o" penetration are speci"ied in BS EN ISO 25/6 "or the three $ualit, le0els&

<ac8 o" root penetration is not per!itted "or Cualit, <e0el B 3stringent4 and <e0el ? 3inter!ediate4& *or Cualit, <e0el 3!oderate4 short lac8 o" penetration i!per"ections are per!itted& Inco!plete root penetration is not per!itted in the !anu"acture o" pressure 0essels #ut is allo%a#le in the !anu"acture o" pipe%or8 depending on !aterial and %all thic8ness&

'emedial actions
I" the root cannot #e directl, inspected, "or e-a!ple using a penetrant or !agnetic particle inspection techni$ue, detection is #, radiograph, or ultrasonic inspection& (e!edial action %ill nor!all, re$uire re!o0al #, gouging or grinding to sound !etal, "ollo%ed #, re %elding in con"or!it, %ith the original procedure&

'ele0ant standards
BS EN ISO 25/6:2003 Welding "usion %elded 9oints in steel, nic8el, titaniu! and their allo,s 3#ea! %elding e-cluded4 Cualit, le0els "or i!per"ections& BS EN ISO /0042:2002 Welding 'rc %elded 9oints in alu!iniu! and its allo,s Cualit, le0els "or i!per"ections&

Weld de(ects%imper(ections in !elds / lac# o( side!all and inter/run (usion

$emagnetising a pipe

This article descri#es the characteristic "eatures and principal causes o" lac8 o" side%all and inter run "usion& )eneral guidelines on #est practice are gi0en so that %elders can !ini!ise the ris8 o" i!per"ections during "a#rication&

Identi(ication
<ac8 o" "usion i!per"ections can occur %hen the %eld !etal "ails

to "use co!pletel, %ith the side%all o" the 9oint 3*ig& /4 to penetrate ade$uatel, the pre0ious %eld #ead 3*ig& 24&

ig. 6. Lac# o( side !all (usion

ig. 2. Lac# o( inter/run (usion

)auses
The principal causes are too narro% a 9oint preparation, incorrect %elding para!eter settings, poor %elder techni$ue and !agnetic arc #lo%& Insu""icient cleaning o" oil, or scaled sur"aces can also contri#ute to lac8 o" "usion& These t,pes o" i!per"ection are !ore li8el, to happen %hen %elding in the 0ertical position&

Eoint preparation
Too narro% a 9oint preparation o"ten causes the arc to #e attracted to one o" the side %alls causing lac8 o" side %all "usion on the other side o" the 9oint or inade$uate penetration into the pre0iousl, deposited %eld #ead& Too great an arc length !a, also increase the

ris8 o" pre"erential !elting along one side o" the 9oint and cause shallo% penetration& In addition, a narro% 9oint preparation !a, pre0ent ade$uate access into the 9oint& *or e-a!ple, this happens in ..' %elding %hen using a large dia!eter electrode, or in .I) %elding %here an allo%ance should #e !ade "or the si+e o" the no++le&

Welding parameters
It is i!portant to use a su""icientl, high current "or the arc to penetrate into the 9oint side%all& ?onse$uentl,, too high a %elding speed "or the %elding current %ill increase the ris8 o" these i!per"ections& @o%e0er, too high a current or too lo% a %elding speed %ill cause %eld pool "looding ahead o" the arc resulting in poor or non uni"or! penetration&

Welder techni-ue
;oor %elder techni$ue such as incorrect angle or !anipulation o" the electrode=%elding gun, %ill pre0ent ade$uate "usion o" the 9oint side%all& Wea0ing, especiall, d%elling at the 9oint side%all, %ill ena#le the %eld pool to %ash into the parent !etal, greatl, i!pro0ing side%all "usion& It should #e noted that the a!ount o" %ea0ing !a, #e restricted #, the %elding procedure speci"ication li!iting the arc energ, input, particularl, %hen %elding allo, or high notch toughness steels&

Magnetic arc blo!

When %elding "erro!agnetic steels lac8 o" "usion i!per"ections can #e caused through uncontrolled de"lection o" the arc, usuall, ter!ed arc #lo%& 'rc de"lection can #e caused #, distortion o" the !agnetic "ield produced #, the arc current 3*ig& 34, through:

residual !agnetis! in the !aterial through using !agnets "or handling earthEs !agnetic "ield, "or e-a!ple in pipeline %elding position o" the current return

The e""ect o" %elding past the current return ca#le %hich is #olted to the centre o" the place is sho%n in *ig& 4& The interaction o" the !agnetic "ield surrounding the arc and that generated #, the current "lo% in the plate to the current return ca#le is su""icient to de"lect the %eld #ead& Fistortion o" the arc current !agnetic "ield can #e !ini!ised #, positioning the current return so that %elding is al%a,s to%ards or a%a, "ro! the cla!p and, in ..' %elding, #, using '? instead o" F?& O"ten the onl, e""ecti0e !eans is to de!agnetise the steel #e"ore %elding&

ig. =. Interaction o( magnetic (orces causing arc de(lection

ig. 8. Weld bead de(lection in $) MMA !elding caused by !elding past the current return connection

Best practice in pre0ention

The "ollo%ing "a#rication techni$ues can #e used to pre0ent "or!ation o" lac8 o" side%all "usion i!per"ections:

use a su""icientl, %ide 9oint preparation select %elding para!eters 3high current le0el, short arc length, not too high a %elding speed4 to pro!ote penetration into the 9oint side %all %ithout causing "looding ensure the electrode=gun angle and !anipulation techni$ue %ill gi0e ade$uate side %all "usion use %ea0ing and d%ell to i!pro0e side %all "usion pro0iding there are no heat input restrictions i" arc #lo% occurs, reposition the current return, use '? 3in ..' %elding4 or de!agnetise the steel

Acceptance standards
The li!its "or inco!plete "usion i!per"ections in arc %elded 9oints in steel are speci"ied in BS EN ISO 25/6 "or the three $ualit, le0els 3see Ta#le4& These t,pes o" i!per"ection are not per!itted "or Cualit, <e0el B 3stringent4 and ? 3inter!ediate4& *or Cualit, le0el F 3!oderate4 the, are onl, per!itted pro0iding the, are inter!ittent and not sur"ace #rea8ing& *or arc %elded 9oints in alu!iniu!, long i!per"ections are not per!itted "or all three $ualit, le0els& @o%e0er, "or $ualit, le0els ? and F, short i!per"ections are per!itted #ut the total length o" the i!per"ections is li!ited depending on the #utt %eld or the "illet %eld throat thic8ness& Acceptance limits (or speci(ic codes and application standards

Application Steel

)ode%Standard BS EN ISO 25/6:2003

Acceptance limit <e0el B and ? not per!itted& <e0el F short i!per"ections per!itted #ut not sur"ace #rea8ing& <e0els B, ?, F& <ong i!per"ections not per!itted& <e0els ? and F& Short i!per"ections per!itted& Not per!itted Not per!itted ElE not greater than /2!! 3depending on %all thic8ness4 ElE not greater than 22!! 3less %hen %eld length O300!!4

'lu!iniu!

BS EN ISO /0042:2002

;ressure 0essels Storage tan8s ;ipe%or8 <ine pipe

;F2200:2006 BS EN /40/2:2004 BS2633:/774 ';I //04:2002

$etection and remedial action

I" the i!per"ections are sur"ace #rea8ing, the, can #e detected using a penetrant or !agnetic particle inspection techni$ue& *or su# sur"ace i!per"ections, detection is #, radiograph, or ultrasonic inspection& Dltrasonic inspection is nor!all, !ore e""ecti0e than radiograph, in detecting lac8 o" inter run "usion i!per"ections& (e!edial action %ill nor!all, re$uire their re!o0al #, localised gouging, or grinding, "ollo%ed #, re %elding as speci"ied in the agreed procedure& I" lac8 o" "usion is a persistent pro#le!, and is not caused #, !agnetic arc #lo%, the %elding procedures should #e a!ended or the %elders retrained& ig. 6. 'adiograph o( a butt !eld sho!ing t!o slag lines in the !eld root Slag is nor!all, seen as elongated lines either continuous or discontinuous along the length o" the %eld& This is readil, identi"ied in a radiograph, Fig %! Slag inclusions are usuall, associated %ith the "luprocesses, ie ..', *?' and su#!erged arc, #ut the, can also

occur in .I) %elding&

)auses
's slag is the residue o" the "lu- coating in ..' %elding, it is principall, a deo-idation product "ro! the reaction #et%een the "lu-, air and sur"ace o-ide& The slag #eco!es trapped in the %eld %hen t%o ad9acent %eld #eads are deposited %ith inade$uate o0erlap and a 0oid is "or!ed& When the ne-t la,er is deposited, the entrapped slag is not !elted out& Slag !a, also #eco!e entrapped in ca0ities in !ulti pass %elds through e-cessi0e undercut in the %eld toe or the une0en sur"ace pro"ile o" the preceding %eld runs, Fig &! 's the, #oth ha0e an e""ect on the ease o" slag re!o0al, the ris8 o" slag i!per"ections is in"luenced #,

T,pe o" "lu- coating Welder techni$ue

The t,pe and con"iguration o" the 9oint, %elding position and access restrictions all ha0e an in"luence on the ris8 o" slag i!per"ections& ig. 2. The in(luence o( !elder techni-ue on the ris# o( slag inclusions !hen !elding !ith a basic MMA ?,A:6B@ electrode

a@ Poor ?con0ex@ !eld bead pro(ile resulted in poc#ets o( slag being trapped bet!een the !eld runs

b@ Smooth !eld bead pro(ile allo!s the slag to be readily remo0ed bet!een runs

Type o( (lux coating

One o" the !ain "unctions o" the "lu- coating in %elding is to produce a slag %hich %ill "lo% "reel, o0er the sur"ace o" the %eld pool to protect it "ro! o-idation& 's the slag a""ects the handling characteristics o" the ..' electrode, its sur"ace tension and "ree+ing rate can #e e$uall, i!portant properties& *or %elding in the "lat and hori+ontal=0ertical positions, a relati0el, 0iscous slag is pre"erred as it %ill produce a s!ooth %eld #ead pro"ile, is less li8el, to #e trapped and, on solidi",ing, is nor!all, !ore easil, re!o0ed& *or 0ertical %elding, the slag !ust #e !ore "luid to "lo% out to the %eld pool sur"ace #ut ha0e a higher sur"ace tension to pro0ide support to the %eld pool and #e "ast "ree+ing& The co!position o" the "lu- coating also pla,s an i!portant role in the ris8 o" slag inclusions through its e""ect on the %eld #ead shape and the ease %ith %hich the slag can #e re!o0ed& ' %eld pool %ith lo% o-,gen content %ill ha0e a high sur"ace tension producing a con0e- %eld #ead %ith poor parent !etal %etting& Thus, an o-idising "lu-, containing "or e-a!ple iron o-ide, produces a lo% sur"ace tension %eld pool %ith a !ore conca0e %eld #ead pro"ile, and pro!otes %etting into the parent !etal& @igh silicate "luproduces a glass li8e slag, o"ten sel" detaching& *lu-es %ith a li!e content produce an adherent slag %hich is di""icult to re!o0e& The ease o" slag re!o0al "or the principal "lu- t,pes are:

(utile or acid "lu-es large a!ounts o" titaniu! o-ide 3rutile4 %ith so!e silicates& The o-,gen le0el o" the %eld pool is high enough to gi0e "lat or slightl, con0e%eld #ead& The "luidit, o" the slag is deter!ined #, the calciu! "luoride content& *luoride "ree coatings designed "or %elding in the "lat position produce s!ooth #ead pro"iles and an easil, re!o0ed slag& The !ore "luid "luoride slag designed "or positional %elding is less easil, re!o0ed& Basic "lu-es the high proportion o" calciu! car#onate 3li!estone4 and calciu! "luoride 3"luospar4 in the "lu- reduces the o-,gen content o" the %eld pool and there"ore its sur"ace tension& The slag is !ore "luid than that produced %ith the rutile coating& *ast "ree+ing also assists %elding in the 0ertical and o0erhead positions #ut the slag coating is !ore di""icult to re!o0e&

?onse$uentl,, the ris8 o" slag inclusions is signi"icantl, greater %ith #asic "lu-es due to the inherent con0e- %eld #ead pro"ile and the di""icult, in re!o0ing the slag "ro! the %eld toes especiall, in !ulti pass %elds&

Welder techni-ue
Welding techni$ue has an i!portant role to pla, in pre0enting slag inclusions& Electrode !anipulation should ensure ade$uate shape and degree o" o0erlap o" the %eld #eads to a0oid "or!ing poc8ets %hich can trap the slag& Thus, the correct si+e o" electrode "or the 9oint preparation, the correct angle to the %or8piece "or good penetration and a s!ooth %eld #ead pro"ile are all essential to pre0ent slag entrain!ent&

In !ulti pass 0ertical %elding, especiall, %ith #asic electrodes, care !ust #e ta8en to "use out an, re!aining !inor slag poc8ets and !ini!ise undercut& When using a %ea0e, a slight d%ell at the e-tre!e edges o" the %ea0e %ill assist side%all "usion and produce a "latter %eld #ead pro"ile& Too high a current together %ith a high %elding speed %ill also cause side%all undercutting %hich !a8es slag re!o0al di""icult& It is crucial to re!o0e all slag #e"ore depositing the ne-t run& This can #e done #et%een runs #, grinding, light chipping or %ire #rushing& ?leaning tools !ust #e identi"ied "or di""erent !aterials eg steels or stainless steels, and segregated& When %elding %ith di""icult electrodes, in narro% 0ee #utt 9oints or %hen the slag is trapped through undercutting, it !a, #e necessar, to grind the sur"ace o" the %eld #et%een la,ers to ensure co!plete slag re!o0al&

Best practice
The "ollo%ing techni$ues can #e used to pre0ent slag inclusions:

Dse %elding techni$ues to produce s!ooth %eld #eads and ade$uate inter run "usion to a0oid "or!ing poc8ets to trap the slag Dse the correct current and tra0el speed to a0oid undercutting the side%all %hich %ill !a8e the slag di""icult to re!o0e (e!o0e slag #et%een runs pa,ing particular attention to re!o0ing an, slag trapped in cre0ices Dse grinding %hen %elding di""icult #utt 9oints other%ise %ire #rushing or light chipping !a, #e su""icient to re!o0e the slag&

Acceptance standards
Slag and "lu- inclusions are linear de"ects #ut #ecause the, do not ha0e sharp edges co!pared %ith crac8s, the, !a, #e per!itted #, speci"ic standards and codes& The li!its in steel are speci"ied in BE EN ISO 25/6: 2003 "or the three $ualit, le0els& <ong slag i!per"ections are not per!itted in #oth #utt and "illet %elds "or Cualit, <e0el B 3stringent4 and ? 3!oderate4& *or Cualit, <e0el F, #utt %elds can ha0e i!per"ections pro0iding their si+e is less than hal" the no!inal %eld thic8ness& Short slag related i!per"ections are per!itted in all three $ualit, le0els %ith li!its placed on their si+e relati0e to the #utt %eld thic8ness or no!inal "illet %eld throat thic8ness&

$e(ects / solidi(ication crac#ing

Weld repair on a cast iron exhaust mani(old

' crac8 !a, #e de"ined as a local discontinuit, produced #, a "racture %hich can arise "ro! the stresses generated on cooling or acting on the structure& It is the !ost serious t,pe o" i!per"ection "ound in a %eld and should #e re!o0ed& ?rac8s not onl, reduce the strength o" the %eld through the reduction in the cross section thic8ness #ut also can readil, propagate through stress concentration at the tip, especiall, under i!pact loading or during ser0ice at lo% te!perature&

Identi(ication
Gisual appearance
Solidi"ication crac8s are nor!all, readil, distinguished "ro! other t,pes o" crac8s due to the "ollo%ing characteristic "actors:

the, occur onl, in the %eld !etal the, nor!all, appear as straight lines along the centreline o" the %eld #ead, as sho%n in *ig&/, #ut !a, occasionall, appear as trans0erse crac8ing depending on the solidi"ication structure solidi"ication crac8s in the "inal crater !a, ha0e a #ranching appearance as the crac8s are o"ten EopenE, the, can #e 0isi#le to the na8ed e,e

ig.6 Solidi(ication crac# along the centre line o( the !eld

On #rea8ing open the %eld, the crac8 sur"ace in steel and nic8el allo,s !a, ha0e a #lue o-idised appearance, sho%ing that the, %ere "or!ed %hile the %eld !etal %as still hot&

Metallography
The crac8s "or! at the solidi"ication #oundaries and are characteristicall, inter dendritic& The !orpholog, re"lects the %eld solidi"ication structure and there !a, #e e0idence o" segregation associated %ith the solidi"ication #oundar,&

)auses
The o0erriding cause o" solidi"ication crac8ing is that the %eld #ead in the "inal stage o" solidi"ication has insu""icient strength to %ithstand the contraction stresses generated as the %eld pool solidi"ies& *actors %hich increase the ris8 include:

insu""icient %eld #ead si+e or shape %elding under high restraint !aterial properties such as a high i!purit, content or a relati0el, large a!ount o" shrin8age on solidi"ication&

Ioint design can ha0e a signi"icant in"luence on the le0el o" residual stresses& <arge gaps #et%een co!ponent parts %ill increase the strain on the solidi",ing %eld !etal, especiall, i" the depth o" penetration is s!all& There"ore, %eld #eads %ith a s!all depth to %idth ratio, such as "or!ed in #ridging a large gap %ith a %ide, thin #ead, %ill #e !ore suscepti#le to solidi"ication crac8ing, as sho%n in *ig&2& In this case, the centre o" the %eld %hich is the last part to solidi",, is a narro% +one %ith negligi#le crac8ing resistance&

ig.2 Weld bead penetration too small

Segregation o" i!purities to the centre o" the %eld also encourages crac8ing& ?oncentration o" i!purities ahead o" the solidi",ing %eld "ront "or!s a li$uid "il! o" lo% "ree+ing point %hich, on solidi"ication, produces a %ea8 +one& 's solidi"ication proceeds, the +one is li8el, to crac8 as the stresses through nor!al ther!al contraction #uild up& I" li$uid "ro! the %eld pool can "eed into an incipent crac8, it can #e pre0ented& *or this reason, an ellipticall, shaped %eld pool is pre"era#le to a tear drop shape, and "ast %elding speeds, %hich result in a large separation #et%een the %eld pool and crac8ing locations, increase the ris8 o" crac8ing& Welding %ith conta!inants such as cutting oils on the sur"ace o" the parent !etal %ill also increase the #uild up o" i!purities in the %eld pool and the ris8 o" crac8ing& 's the co!positions o" the plate and the "iller deter!ine the %eld !etal co!position the, %ill, there"ore, ha0e a su#stantial in"luence on the suscepti#ilit, o" the !aterial to crac8ing& Steels ?rac8ing is associated %ith i!purities, particularl, sulphur and phosphorus, and is pro!oted #, car#on %hereas !anganese and silicon can help to reduce the ris8& To !ini!ise the ris8 o" crac8ing, "illers %ith lo% car#on and i!purit, le0els and a relati0el, high !anganese content are pre"erred& 's a general rule, "or car#on !anganese steels, the total sulphur and phosphorus content should #e no greater than 0&06G& Weld !etal co!position is do!inated #, the consu!a#le and as the "iller is nor!all, cleaner than the !etal #eing %elded, crac8ing is less li8el, %ith lo% dilution processes such as ..' and .I)& ;late co!position assu!es greater i!portance in high dilution situations such as %hen %elding the root in #utt %elds, using an autogenous %elding techni$ue li8e TI), or a high dilution process such as su#!erged arc %elding& In su#!erged arc %elds, as descri#ed in EN /0// 2:200/ 'nne- E, the crac8ing ris8 !a, #e assessed #, calculating the Dnits o" ?rac8 Suscepti#ilit, 3D?S4 "ro! the %eld !etal che!ical co!position 3%eight G4: D?S L 230?P H /70S H 62; H 42N# /2&3Si 2&4.n / ?P L car#on content or 0&05 %hiche0er is higher 'lthough ar#itrar, units, a 0alue o" O/0 indicates high crac8ing resistance %hereas K30 indicates a lo% resistance& Within this range, the ris8 %ill #e higher in a %eld run %ith a high depth to %idth ratio, !ade at high %elding speeds or %here the "it up is poor& *or "illet %elds, runs ha0ing a depth to %idth ratio o" a#out one, D?S 0alues o" 20 and a#o0e %ill indicate a ris8 o" crac8ing& *or a #utt %eld, 0alues o" a#out 22 D?S are critical& I" the depth to %idth ratio is decreased "ro! / to 0&5, the allo%a#le D?S is increased #, a#out nine& @o%e0er, 0er, lo% depth to %idth ratios, such as o#tained %hen penetration into the root is not achie0ed, also pro!ote crac8ing& Aluminium

The high ther!al e-pansion 3appro-i!atel, t%ice that o" steel4 and su#stantial contraction on solidi"ication 3t,picall, 2G !ore than in an e$ui0alent steel %eld4 !eans that alu!iniu! allo,s are !ore prone to crac8ing& The ris8 can #e reduced #, using a crac8 resistant "iller 3usuall, "ro! the 4--- and 2--- series allo,s4 #ut the disad0antage is that the resulting %eld !etal is li8el, to ha0e non !atching properties such as a lo%er strength than the parent !etal& Austenitic Stainless Steel ' "ull, austenitic stainless steel %eld is !ore prone to crac8ing than one containing #et%een 2 /0G o" "errite& The #ene"icial e""ect o" "errite has #een attri#uted to its capacit, to contain har!"ul i!purities %ithin the grains %hich %ould other%ise "or! lo% !elting point segregates and conse$uentl, interdendritic crac8s& There"ore the choice o" "iller !aterial is i!portant to suppress crac8ing so a t,pe 305 "iller is used to %eld t,pe 304 stainless steel&

Best practice in a0oiding solidi(ication crac#ing

'part "ro! the choice o" !aterial and "iller, the principal techni$ues "or !ini!ising the ris8 o" %elding solidi"ication crac8ing are:

?ontrol 9oint "it up to reduce gaps& Be"ore %elding, clean o"" all conta!inants "ro! the !aterial Ensure that the %elding se$uence %ill not lead to a #uild up o" ther!all, induced stresses& Select %elding para!eters and techni$ue to produce a %eld #ead %ith an ade$uate depth to %idth ratio, or %ith su""icient throat thic8ness 3"illet %eld4, to ensure the %eld #ead has su""icient resistance to the solidi"ication stresses 3reco!!end a depth to %idth ratio o" at least 0&2:/4& '0oid producing too large a depth to %idth ratio %hich %ill encourage segregation and e-cessi0e trans0erse strains in restrained 9oints& 's a general rule, %eld #eads %hose depth to %eld ratio e-ceeds 2:/ %ill #e prone to solidi"ication crac8ing& '0oid high %elding speeds 3at high current le0els4 %hich increase the a!ount o" segregation and the stress le0el across the %eld #ead& 't the run stop, ensure ade$uate "illing o" the crater to a0oid an un"a0oura#le conca0e shape&

Acceptance standards
's solidi"ication crac8s are linear i!per"ections %ith sharp edges, the, are not per!itted "or %elds !eeting the $ualit, le0els B, ? and F in accordance %ith the re$uire!ents o" BS EN 225/6 3ISO 25/64& ?rater crac8s are per!itted "or $ualit, le0el F&

$etection and remedial action

Sur"ace #rea8ing solidi"ication crac8s can #e readil, detected using 0isual e-a!ination, li$uid penetrant or !agnetic particle testing techni$ues& Internal crac8s re$uire ultrasonic or radiographic e-a!ination techni$ues& .ost codes %ill speci", that all crac8s should #e re!o0ed& ' crac8ed co!ponent should #e repaired #, re!o0ing the crac8s %ith a sa"et, !argin o" appro-i!atel, 2!! #e,ond the 0isi#le ends o" the crac8& The e-ca0ation is then re %elded using a "iller %hich %ill not produce a crac8 sensiti0e deposit&

$e(ects / hydrogen crac#s in steels / identi(ication

Preheating to a0oid hydrogen crac#ing

@,drogen crac8ing !a, also #e called cold crac8ing or dela,ed crac8ing& The principal distinguishing "eature o" this t,pe o" crac8 is that it occurs in "erritic steels, !ost o"ten i!!ediatel, on %elding or a short ti!e a"ter %elding& In this issue, the characteristic "eatures and principal causes o" h,drogen crac8s are descri#ed&

Identi(ication
Gisual appearance
@,drogen crac8s can #e usuall, #e distinguished due to the "ollo%ing characteristics:

In ? .n steels, the crac8 %ill nor!all, originate in the heat a""ected +one 3@'A4, #ut !a, e-tend into the %eld !etal (Fig %)!

?rac8s can also occur in the %eld #ead, nor!all, trans0erse to the %elding direction at an angle o" 42Q to the %eld sur"ace& The, "ollo% a 9agged path, #ut !a, #e non #ranching& In lo% allo, steels, the crac8s can #e trans0erse to the %eld, perpendicular to the %eld sur"ace, #ut are non #ranching, and essentiall, planar&

ig. 6 "ydrogen crac#s originating in the "AH and !eld metal. ?;ote that the type o( crac#s sho!n !ould not be expected to (orm in the same !eldment.@

On #rea8ing open the %eld 3prior to an, heat treat!ent4, the sur"ace o" the crac8s %ill nor!all, not #e o-idised, e0en i" the, are sur"ace #rea8ing, indicating the, %ere "or!ed %hen the %eld %as at or near a!#ient te!perature& ' slight #lue tinge !a, #e seen "ro! the e""ects o" preheating or %elding heat&

Metallography
?rac8s %hich originate in the @'A are usuall, associated %ith the coarse grain region, (Fig &)! The crac8s can #e intergranular, transgranular or a !i-ture& Intergranular crac8s are !ore li8el, to occur in the harder @'A structures "or!ed in lo% allo, and high car#on steels& Transgranular crac8ing is !ore o"ten "ound in ? .n steel structures& In "illet %elds, crac8s in the @'A are usuall, associated %ith the %eld root and parallel to the %eld& In #utt %elds, the @'A crac8s are nor!all, oriented parallel to the %eld #ead&

ig. 2 )rac# along the coarse grain structure in the "AH

)auses
There are three "actors %hich co!#ine to cause crac8ing:

h,drogen generated #, the %elding process a hard #rittle structure %hich is suscepti#le to crac8ing tensile stresses acting on the %elded 9oint

?rac8ing usuall, occurs at te!peratures at or near nor!al a!#ient& It is caused #, the di""usion o" h,drogen to the highl, stressed, hardened part o" the %eld!ent& In ? .n steels, #ecause there is a greater ris8 o" "or!ing a #rittle !icrostructure in the @'A, !ost o" the h,drogen crac8s are to #e "ound in the parent !etal& With the correct choice o" electrodes, the %eld !etal %ill ha0e a lo%er car#on content than the parent !etal and, hence, a lo%er car#on e$ui0alent 3?E4& @o%e0er, trans0erse %eld !etal crac8s can occur, especiall, %hen %elding thic8 section co!ponents1 the ris8 o" crac8ing is increased i" the %eld !etal car#on content e-ceeds that o" the parent steel& In lo% allo, steels, as the %eld !etal structure is !ore suscepti#le than the @'A, crac8ing !a, #e "ound in the %eld #ead& The !ain "actors %hich in"luence the ris8 o" crac8ing are:

%eld !etal h,drogen parent !aterial co!position

parent !aterial thic8ness stresses acting on the %eld during %elding or i!posed 3shortl,4 a"ter %elding heat input

Weld metal hydrogen content The principal source o" h,drogen is !oisture contained in the "lu-, i&e& the coating o" ..' electrodes, the "lu- in cored %ires and the "lu- used in su#!erged arc %elding& The a!ount o" h,drogen generated is in"luenced #, the electrode t,pe& Basic electrodes nor!all, generate less h,drogen than rutile and cellulosic electrodes& It is i!portant to note that there can #e other signi"icant sources o" h,drogen, e&g& "ro! the !aterial, %here processing or ser0ice histor, has le"t the steel %ith a signi"icant le0el o" h,drogen or !oisture "ro! the at!osphere& @,drogen !a, also #e deri0ed "ro! the sur"ace o" the !aterial or the consu!a#le& Sources o" h,drogen %ill include:

oil, grease and dirt rust paint and coatings cleaning "luids

Parent metal composition This %ill ha0e a !a9or in"luence on hardena#ilit, and, %ith high cooling rates, the ris8 o" "or!ing a hard #rittle structure in the @'A& The hardena#ilit, o" a !aterial is usuall, e-pressed in ter!s o" its car#on content or, %hen other ele!ents are ta8en into account, its car#on e$ui0alent 3?E4 0alue& The %ith as are Parent material thic#ness .aterial thic8ness %ill in"luence the cooling rate and there"ore the hardness le0el, the !icrostructure produced in the @'A and the le0el o" h,drogen retained in the %eld& higher the ?E 0alue, the greater the ris8 o" h,drogen crac8ing& )enerall,, steels a ?E 0alue o" O0&4 are not suscepti#le to @'A h,drogen crac8ing, as long lo% h,drogen %elding consu!a#les or processes used&

The Eco!#ined thic8nessE o" the 9oint, ie the su! o" the thic8nesses o" !aterial !eeting at the 9oint line, %ill deter!ine, together %ith the 9oint geo!etr,, the cooling rate o" the @'A and its hardness& ?onse$uentl,, as sho%n in Fig! ', a "illet %eld is li8el, to ha0e a greater ris8 than a #utt %eld in the sa!e !aterial thic8ness&

ig.= )ombined thic#ness measurements (or butt and (illet joints

Stresses acting on the !eld ?rac8s are !ore li8el, to initiate at regions o" stress concentration, particularl, at the toe and root o" the %eld& The stresses generated across the %elded 9oint as it contracts %ill #e greatl, in"luenced #, e-ternal restraint, !aterial thic8ness, 9oint geo!etr, and "it up& ;oor "it up 3e-cessi0e root gap4 in "illet %elds !ar8edl, increases the ris8 o" crac8ing& The degree o" restraint acting on a 9oint %ill generall, increase as %elding progresses, due to the increase in sti""ness o" the "a#rication& "eat input The heat input to the !aterial "ro! the %elding process, together %ith the !aterial thic8ness and preheat te!perature, %ill deter!ine the ther!al c,cle and the resulting !icrostructure and hardness o" #oth the @'A and the %eld !etal& Increasing the heat input %ill reduce the hardness le0el, and there"ore reduce the ris8 o" @'A crac8ing& @o%e0er, as the di""usion distance "or the escape o" h,drogen "ro! a %eld #ead increases %ith increasing heat input, the ris8 o" %eld !etal crac8ing is increased&

@eat input per unit length is calculated #, !ultipl,ing the arc energ, #, a ther!al e""icienc, "actor, according to the "ollo%ing "or!ula:

> L arc 0oltage 3>4 ' L %elding current 3'4 S L %elding speed 3!!=!in4 8 L ther!al e""icienc, "actor In calculating heat input, the ther!al e""icienc, !ust #e ta8en into consideration& The ther!al e""icienc, "actors gi0en in EN /0// /: /775 "or the principal arc %elding processes, are: Su#!erged arc 3single %ire4 ..' .I)=.') and "lu- cored %ire TI) and plas!a /&0 0&5 0&5 0&6

In ..' %elding, heat input is nor!all, controlled #, !eans o" the run out length "ro! each electrode, %hich is proportional to the heat input& 's the run out length is the length o" %eld deposited "ro! one electrode, it %ill depend upon the %elding techni$ue, e&g& %ea0e %idth =d%ell&

$e(ects / hydrogen crac#s in steels / pre0ention and best practice

Preheating o( a jac#et structure to pre0ent hydrogen crac#ing

Techni$ues and practical guidance on the a0oidance o" h,drogen crac8s are descri#ed&

Preheating7 interpass and post heating to pre0ent hydrogen crac#ing

There are three "actors %hich co!#ine to cause h,drogen crac8ing in arc %elding:

h,drogen generated #, the %elding process a hard #rittle structure %hich is suscepti#le to crac8ing tensile stresses acting on the %elded 9oint

?rac8ing generall, occurs %hen the te!perature has reached nor!al a!#ient& In practice, "or a gi0en situation 3!aterial co!position, !aterial thic8ness, 9oint t,pe, electrode co!position and heat input4, the ris8 o" h,drogen crac8ing is reduced #, heating the 9oint&

Preheat
;reheat, %hich slo%s the cooling rate, allo%s so!e h,drogen to di""use a%a,, and generall, reduces the hardness, and there"ore suscepti#ilit, to crac8ing, o" hard, crac8 sensiti0e !icrostructural regions& The reco!!ended le0els o" preheat "or car#on and car#on !anganese steel are detailed in EN /0// 2: 200/ 3%hich incorporates no!ogra!s deri0ed "ro! those in BS 2/32: /7544& The preheat le0el !a, #e as high as 200Q? "or e-a!ple, %hen %elding thic8 section steels %ith a high car#on e$ui0alent 3IIW ?E4 0alue&

Interpass and post/heating

's crac8ing rarel, occurs at te!peratures a#o0e a!#ient, !aintaining the te!perature o" the %eld!ent during "a#rication is e$uall, i!portant& *or suscepti#le steels, it is usuall, appropriate to !aintain the preheat te!perature "or a gi0en period, t,picall, #et%een t%o to three hours, to ena#le the h,drogen to di""use a%a, "ro! the %eld area& In crac8 sensiti0e situations, such as %elding higher IIW ?E steels or under high restraint conditions, the te!perature and heating period should #e increased, t,picall, 220 300Q? "or three to "our hours& *or !an, steels, post %eld heat treat!ent 3;W@T4 !a, #e used i!!ediatel, on co!pletion o" %elding, i&e& %ithout allo%ing the preheat te!perature to "all& @o%e0er, in practice, as inspection can onl, #e carried out at a!#ient te!perature, there is the ris8 that Ere9ecta#le,E de"ects %ill onl, #e "ound a"ter ;W@T& 'lso, "or highl, hardena#le steels, a second heat treat!ent !a, #e re$uired to te!per the hard !icrostructure present a"ter the "irst ;W@T& Dnder certain conditions, !ore stringent procedures 3%ith a higher preheat te!perature and=or a lo%er %eld !etal h,drogen le0el4 are needed to a0oid crac8ing than those

deri0ed "ro! the no!ogra!s "or esti!ating preheat in *ig& ?2 o" EN /0// 2& Section ?&2&7 o" this standard !entions the "ollo%ing conditions: a& high restraint, including %elds in section thic8nesses a#o0e appro-i!atel, 20!!, and root runs in dou#le #e0el 9oints #& thic8 sections 3 appro-i!atel, 20!!4 c& lo% car#on e$ui0alent steels 3? .n steels %ith ? 0&/G and IIW ?E appro-i!atel, 0&424 d& EcleanE or lo% sulphur steels 3S appro-i!atel, 0&005G4, as a lo% sulphur and lo% o-,gen content %ill increase the hardena#ilit, o" a steel& e& allo,ed %eld !etal %here preheat le0els to a0oid @'A crac8ing !a, #e insu""icient to protect the %eld !etal& <o% h,drogen processes and consu!a#les should #e used& Sche!es "or predicting the preheat re$uire!ents to a0oid %eld !etal crac8ing generall, re$uire the %eld !etal di""usi#le h,drogen le0el and the %eld !etal tensile strength as input&

Dse o( austenitic and nic#el alloy !eld metal to pre0ent crac#ing

In situations %here preheating is i!practical, or does not pre0ent crac8ing, it %ill #e necessar, to use an austenitic consu!a#le& 'ustenitic stainless steel and nic8el allo, electrodes %ill produce a %eld !etal %hich at a!#ient te!perature has a higher solu#ilit, "or h,drogen than "erritic steel& Thus, an, h,drogen "or!ed during %elding #eco!es loc8ed in the %eld !etal, %ith 0er, little di""using to the @'A on cooling to a!#ient te!perature& ' co!!onl, used austenitic ..' electrode is 23?r:/2Ni, e&g& "ro! EN /600: /756& @o%e0er, as nic8el allo,s ha0e a lo%er coe""icient o" ther!al e-pansion than stainless steel, nic8el allo, electrodes are pre"erred, to reduce the shrin8age strain, %hen %elding highl, restrained 9oints& *igure / is a general guide on the le0els o" preheat %hen using austenitic electrodes& When %elding steels %ith up to 0&2G?, a preheat %ould not nor!all, #e re$uired& @o%e0er, a#o0e 0&4G? a !ini!u! te!perature o" /20Q? %ill #e needed to pre0ent @'A crac8ing& The in"luence o" h,drogen le0el and the degree o" restraint are also illustrated in the "igure&

ig.6 &uide to preheat temperature !hen using austenitic MMA electrodes at 6/ 2#E%mm a@ lo! restraint ?e.g. material thic#ness I=:mm@ b@ high restraint ?e.g. material thic#ness <=:mm@

Best practice in a0oiding hydrogen crac#ing

'eduction in !eld metal hydrogen
The !ost e""ecti0e !eans o" a0oiding h,drogen crac8ing is to reduce the a!ount o" h,drogen generated #, the consu!a#le, ie #, using a lo% h,drogen process or lo% h,drogen electrodes& Welding processes can #e classi"ied as high, !ediu!, lo%, 0er, lo% and ultra lo%, depending on the a!ount o" %eld !etal h,drogen produced in a standard test #loc8& The %eld !etal di""usi#le h,drogen le0els 3!l=/00g o" deposited !etal, !easured in a test %eld, as speci"ied in BS EN ISO 3670:200/4, and the h,drogen scale designations o" EN /0// 2: 200/ are as "ollo%s:

@igh .ediu! <o% Dltra lo%

K/2 K2 O/0 3

Scale ' Scale ? Scale F Scale E

K/0 O/2 Scale B

>er, lo% K3 O2

*igure 2 illustrates the relati0e a!ounts o" %eld !etal h,drogen produced #, the !a9or %elding processes& ..', in particular, has the potential to generate a %ide range o" h,drogen le0els& Thus, to achie0e the lo%er 0alues, it is essential that #asic electrodes are used, and the, are #a8ed in accordance %ith the !anu"acturerEs reco!!endations, or ta8en "ro! special pac8aging i!!ediatel, #e"ore use, and e-posed to a!#ient conditions

"or no longer than the ti!e period speci"ied #, the !anu"acturer& *or the .I) process, cleaner %ires %ill #e re$uired to achie0e 0er, lo% h,drogen le0els&

ig.2 &eneral relationships bet!een potential hydrogen and !eld metal hydrogen le0els (or arc !elding processes

&eneral guidelines
The "ollo%ing general guidelines are reco!!ended "or the 0arious t,pes o" steel, #ut re$uire!ents "or speci"ic steels should #e chec8ed according to EN /0// 2: 200/

Mild steel ((E )*!+) readil, %elda#le, preheat generall, not re$uired i" lo% h,drogen processes or electrodes are used preheat !a, #e re$uired %hen %elding thic8 section !aterial, high restraint and %ith higher le0els o" h,drogen #eing generated (,Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels ((E *!+ to *!-) thin sections can #e %elded %ithout preheat, #ut thic8er sections %ill re$uire lo% preheat le0els, and lo% h,drogen processes or electrodes should #e used Higher carbon and alloyed steels ((E .*!-)

preheat, lo% h,drogen processes or electrodes, post %eld heating and slo% cooling re$uired& More detailed guidance on the a0oidance o( hydrogen crac#ing is described in ,; 6:66/2* 2::6.

Practical Techni-ues
The "ollo%ing practical techni$ues are reco!!ended to a0oid h,drogen crac8ing:

clean the 9oint "aces and re!o0e conta!inants such as paint, cutting oils, grease use a lo% h,drogen process, i" possi#le #a8e the electrodes 3..'4 or the "lu- 3su#!erged arc4 and then either store the! %ar! or restrict the duration o" e-posure to a!#ient conditions, all in accordance %ith the !anu"acturerEs reco!!endations reduce stresses on the %eld #, a0oiding large root gaps and high restraint i" preheating is speci"ied in the %elding procedure, it should also #e applied %hen tac8ing or using te!porar, attach!ents preheat the 9oint to a distance o" at least 62!! "ro! the 9oint line, ensuring uni"or! heating through the thic8ness o" the !aterial !easure the preheat te!perature on the "ace opposite that #eing heated& Where this is i!practical, allo% ti!e "or the e$ualisation o" te!perature a"ter re!o0ing the preheating #e"ore the te!perature is !easured adhere to the preheat and !ini!u! interpass te!perature, and heat input re$uire!ents !aintain heat "or appro-i!atel, t%o to "our hours a"ter %elding, depending on crac8 sensiti0it, In situations %here ade$uate preheating is i!practica#le, or crac8ing cannot #e a0oided, austenitic electrodes !a, #e used

Acceptance standards
's h,drogen crac8s are linear i!per"ections %hich ha0e sharp edges, the, are not per!itted "or %elds !eeting the $ualit, le0els B, ? and F in accordance %ith the re$uire!ents o" EN ISO 25/6&

$etection and remedial action

's h,drogen crac8s are o"ten 0er, "ine and !a, #e su# sur"ace, the, can #e di""icult to detect& Sur"ace #rea8ing h,drogen crac8s can #e readil, detected using 0isual e-a!ination, li$uid penetrant or !agnetic particle testing techni$ues& Internal crac8s re$uire ultrasonic or radiographic e-a!ination techni$ues& Dltrasonic e-a!ination is pre"erred, as radiograph, is restricted to detecting relati0el, %ide crac8s that are parallel to the #ea!& 's the "or!ation o" crac8s !a, #e dela,ed "or !an, hours a"ter co!pletion

o" %elding, the dela, ti!e #e"ore inspection, according to the rele0ant "a#rication code, should #e o#ser0ed& .ost codes %ill speci", that all crac8s should #e re!o0ed& ' crac8ed co!ponent should #e repaired #, re!o0ing the crac8s %ith a sa"et, !argin o" appro-i!atel, 2!! #e,ond the 0isi#le ends o" the crac8& The e-ca0ation is then re %elded& To !a8e sure that crac8ing does not re occur, %elding should #e carried out %ith the correct procedure, i&e& preheat and an ade$uate heat input le0el "or the !aterial t,pe and thic8ness& @o%e0er, as the le0el o" restraint %ill #e greater and the interpass ti!e shorter %hen %elding %ithin an e-ca0ation co!pared to %elding the original 9oint, it is reco!!ended that a higher le0el o" preheat is used 3t,picall, #, 20Q?4&

'e(erences
BS 2/32:/754 'rc Welding o" ?ar#on and ?ar#on .anganese Steels 3no% superceded #, EN /0//: 200/4 BS EN ISO 3670:200/ Welding and allied processes Feter!ination o" h,drogen content in "erritic steel arc %eld !etal& EN /0// /: 200/ Welding (eco!!endations "or Welding o" .etallic .aterials ;art / )eneral )uidance "or 'rc Welding ;art 2 'rc Welding o" *erritic Steels EN ISO /37/6: /776 Welding )uidance on the .easure!ent o" ;reheating Te!perature, Interpass Te!perature and ;reheat .aintenance Te!perature EN ISO 25/6: 2003 Welding *usion %elded 9oints in steel , nic8el, titaniu! and their allo,s 3Bea! %elding e-cluded4& Cualit, le0els "or i!per"ections N Baile, et al, Welding steels %ithout h,drogen crac8ing, Woodhead ;u#lishing, 2004

$e(ects / lamellar tearing

BP orties plat(orm lamellar tears !ere produced !hen attempting the repair o( lac# o( root penetration in a brace !eld <a!ellar tearing can occur #eneath the %eld especiall, in rolled steel plate %hich has poor through thic8ness ductilit,& The characteristic "eatures, principal causes and #est practice in !ini!ising the ris8 o" la!ellar tearing are descri#ed&

Identi(ication
Gisual appearance
The principal distinguishing "eature o" la!ellar tearing is that it occurs in T #utt and "illet %elds nor!all, o#ser0ed in the parent !etal parallel to the %eld "usion #oundar, and the plate sur"ace , (Fig %)! The crac8s can appear at the toe or root o" the %eld #ut are al%a,s associated %ith points o" high stress concentration&

racture (ace
The sur"ace o" the "racture is "i#rous and E%ood,E %ith long parallel sections %hich are indicati0e o" lo% parent !etal ductilit, in the through thic8ness direction, (Fig &)!

ig. 6. Lamellar tearing in T butt !eld

ig. 2. Appearance o( (racture (ace o( lamellar tear

Metallography
's la!ellar tearing is associated %ith a high concentration o" elongated inclusions oriented parallel to the sur"ace o" the plate, tearing %ill #e transgranular %ith a stepped appearance&

)auses
It is generall, recognised that there are three conditions %hich !ust #e satis"ied "or la!ellar tearing to occur: /& Trans0erse strain the shrin8age strains on %elding !ust act in the short direction o" the plate ie through the plate thic8ness 2& Weld orientation the "usion #oundar, %ill #e roughl, parallel to the plane o" the inclusions 3& .aterial suscepti#ilit, the plate !ust ha0e poor ductilit, in the through thic8ness direction Thus, the ris8 o" la!ellar tearing %ill #e greater i" the stresses generated on %elding act in the through thic8ness direction& The ris8 %ill also increase the higher the le0el o" %eld !etal h,drogen

actors to be considered to reduce the ris# o( tearing

ig. =. 'elationship bet!een the ST'A and sulphur content (or 62.3 to 3:mm thic# plate

The choice o" !aterial, 9oint design, %elding process, consu!a#les, preheating and #uttering can all help reduce the ris8 o" tearing&

Material
Tearing is onl, encountered in rolled steel plate and not "orgings and castings& There is no one grade o" steel that is !ore prone to la!ellar tearing #ut steels %ith a lo% Short Trans0erse (eduction in 'rea 3ST('4 %ill #e suscepti#le& 's a general rule, steels %ith ST(' o0er 20G are essentiall, resistant to tearing %hereas steels %ith #elo% /0 to /2G ST(' should onl, #e used in lightl, restrained 9oints (Fig! ')! Steels %ith a higher strength ha0e a greater ris8 especiall, %hen the thic8ness is greater than 22!!& 'lu!iniu! treated steels %ith lo% sulphur contents 3O0&002G4 %ill ha0e a lo% ris8& Steel suppliers can pro0ide plate %hich has #een through thic8ness tested %ith a guaranteed ST(' 0alue o" o0er 20G&

Eoint $esign
<a!ellar tearing occurs in 9oints producing high through thic8ness strain, eg T 9oints or corner 9oints& In T or cruci"or! 9oints, "ull penetration #utt %elds %ill #e particularl, suscepti#le& The cruci"or! structures in %hich the suscepti#le plate cannot #end during %elding %ill also greatl, increase the ris8 o" tearing& In #utt 9oints, as the stresses on %elding do not act through the thic8ness o" the plate, there is little ris8 o" la!ellar tearing&

's angular distortion can increase the strain in the %eld root and or toe, tearing !a, also occur in thic8 section 9oints %here the #ending restraint is high& Se0eral e-a!ples o" good practice in the design o" %elded 9oints are illustrated in Fig! +!

's tearing is !ore li8el, to occur in "ull penetration T #utt 9oints, i" possi#le, use t%o "illet %elds, Fig! +a! Fou#le sided %elds are less suscepti#le than large single sided %elds and #alanced %elding to reduce the stresses %ill "urther reduce the ris8 o" tearing especiall, in the root, Fig! +b <arge single side "illet %elds should #e replaced %ith s!aller dou#le sided "illet %elds, Fig! +c (edesigning the 9oint con"iguration so that the "usion #oundar, is !ore nor!al to the suscepti#le plate sur"ace %ill #e particularl, e""ecti0e in reducing the ris8, Fig! +d

ig. 8 'ecommended joint con(igurations to reduce the ris# o( lamellar tearing

ig. 8a

ig. 8b

ig. 8c

ig. 8d

Weld siFe
<a!ellar tearing is !ore li8el, to occur in large %elds t,picall, %hen the leg length in "illet and T #utt 9oints is greater than 20!!& 's restraint %ill contri#ute to the pro#le!, thinner section plate %hich is less suscepti#le to tearing, !a, still #e at ris8 in high restraint situations&

Welding process
's the !aterial and 9oint design are the pri!ar, causes o" tearing, the choice o" %elding process has onl, a relati0el, s!all in"luence on the ris8& @o%e0er, higher heat input processes %hich generate lo%er stresses through the larger @'A and deeper %eld penetration can #e #ene"icial& 's %eld !etal h,drogen %ill increase the ris8 o" tearing, a lo% h,drogen process should #e used %hen %elding suscepti#le steels&

)onsumable
Where possi#le, the choice o" a lo%er strength consu!a#le can o"ten reduce the ris8 #, acco!!odating !ore o" the strain in the %eld !etal& ' s!aller dia!eter electrode %hich can #e used to produce a s!aller leg length, has #een used to pre0ent tearing& ' lo% h,drogen consu!a#le %ill reduce the ris8 #, reducing the le0el o" %eld !etal di""usi#le h,drogen& The consu!a#les !ust #e dried in accordance %ith the !anu"acturerEs reco!!endations&

Preheating
;reheating %ill ha0e a #ene"icial e""ect in reducing the le0el o" %eld !etal di""usi#le h,drogen& @o%e0er, it should #e noted that in a restrained 9oint, e-cessi0e preheating could ha0e a detri!ental e""ect #, increasing the le0el the le0el o" restraint produced #, the contraction across the %eld on cooling&

;reheating should, there"ore, #e used to reduce the h,drogen le0el #ut it should #e applied so that it %ill not increase the a!ount o" contraction across the %eld&

Buttering
Buttering the sur"ace o" the suscepti#le plate %ith a lo% strength %eld !etal has #een %idel, e!plo,ed& 's sho%n "or the e-a!ple o" a T #utt %eld (Fig! -) the sur"ace o" the plate !a, #e groo0ed so that the #uttered la,er %ill e-tend /2 to 22!! #e,ond each %eld toe and #e a#out 2 to /0!! thic8&

ig. 3. Buttering !ith lo! strength !eld metal

a@ general deposit on the sur(ace o( the susceptible plate

b@ in/situ buttering

In situ #uttering ie %here the lo% strength %eld !etal is deposited "irst on the suscepti#le plate #e"ore "illing the 9oint, has also #een success"ull, applied& @o%e0er, #e"ore adopting this techni$ue, design calculations should #e carried out to ensure that the o0erall %eld strength %ill #e accepta#le&

Acceptance standards

's la!ellar tears are linear i!per"ections %hich ha0e sharp edges, the, are not per!itted "or %elds !eeting the $ualit, le0els B, ? and F in accordance %ith the re$uire!ents o" BS EN ISO 25/6:2003&

$etection and remedial action

I" sur"ace #rea8ing, la!ellar tears can #e readil, detected using 0isual e-a!ination, li$uid penetrant or !agnetic particle testing techni$ues& Internal crac8s re$uire ultrasonic e-a!ination techni$ues #ut there !a, #e pro#le!s in distinguishing la!ellar tears "ro! inclusion #ands& The orientation o" the tears nor!all, !a8es the! al!ost i!possi#le to detect #, radiograph,&

$e(ects%imper(ections in !elds / reheat crac#ing

Location o( reheat crac#s in a nuclear pressure 0essel steel

The characteristic "eatures and principal causes o" reheat crac8ing are descri#ed& )eneral guidelines on #est practice are gi0en so that %elders can !ini!ise the ris8 o" reheat crac8ing in %elded "a#rications&

Identi(ication
Gisual appearance
(eheat crac8ing !a, occur in lo% allo, steels containing allo,ing additions o" chro!iu! and !ol,#denu! or chro!iu!, !ol,#denu! and 0anadiu! %hen the %elded co!ponent

is #eing su#9ected to post %eld heat treat!ent, such as stress relie" heat treat!ent, or has #een su#9ected to high te!perature ser0ice 3t,picall, in the range 320 to 220Q?4& ?rac8ing is al!ost e-clusi0el, "ound in the coarse grained regions o" the heat a""ected +one 3@'A4 #eneath the %eld, or cladding, and in the coarse grained regions %ithin the %eld !etal& The crac8s can o"ten #e seen 0isuall,, usuall, associated %ith areas o" stress concentration such as the %eld toe& ?rac8ing !a, #e in the "or! o" coarse !acro crac8s or colonies o" !icro crac8s& ' !acro crac8 %ill appear as a EroughE crac8, o"ten %ith #ranching, "ollo%ing the coarse grain region, 3Fig! %a4& ?rac8ing is al%a,s intergranular along the prior austenite grain #oundaries 3Fig! %b4& .acro crac8s in the %eld !etal can #e oriented either longitudinal or trans0erse to the direction o" %elding& ?rac8s in the @'A, ho%e0er, are al%a,s parallel to the direction o" %elding&

ig.6a. )rac#ing associated !ith the coarse grained heat a((ected Fone

ig.6b. Intergranular morphology o( reheat crac#s

.icro crac8ing can also #e "ound #oth in the @'A and %ithin the %eld !etal& .icro crac8s in !ultipass %elds %ill #e "ound associated %ith the grain coarsened regions %hich ha0e not #een re"ined #, su#se$uent passes&

)auses
The principal cause is that %hen heat treating suscepti#le steels, the grain interior #eco!es strengthened #, car#ide precipitation, "orcing the rela-ation o" residual stresses #, creep de"or!ation at the grain #oundaries& The presence o" i!purities %hich segregate to the grain #oundaries and pro!ote te!per e!#rittle!ent, e&g& anti!on,, arsenic, tin, sulphur and phosphorus, %ill increase the suscepti#ilit, to reheat crac8ing& The 9oint design can increase the ris8 o" crac8ing& *or e-a!ple, 9oints li8el, to contain stress concentration, such as partial penetration %elds, are !ore lia#le to initiate crac8s& The %elding procedure also has an in"luence& <arge %eld #eads are undesira#le, as the, produce a coarse grained @'A %hich is less li8el, to #e re"ined #, the su#se$uent pass, and there"ore %ill #e !ore suscepti#le to reheat crac8ing&

Best practice in pre0ention

The ris8 o" reheat crac8ing can #e reduced through the choice o" steel, speci",ing the !a-i!u! i!purit, le0el and #, adopting a !ore tolerant %elding procedure = techni$ue&

Steel choice
I" possi#le, a0oid %elding steels 8no%n to #e suscepti#le to reheat crac8ing& *or e-a!ple, ' 205 ?lass 2 is 8no%n to #e particularl, suscepti#le to reheat crac8ing, %hereas crac8ing associated %ith %elding and cladding in '205 ?lass 3 is largel, un8no%n& The t%o steels ha0e si!ilar !echanical properties, #ut '205 ?lass 3 has a lo%er ?r content and a higher !anganese content& Si!ilarl,, in the higher strength, creep resistant steels, an appro-i!ate ran8ing o" their crac8 suscepti#ilit, is as "ollo%s: 2 ?r /.o 2&22?r / .o 0&2.o B 0&2?r 0&2.o 0&22> higher ris8 lo%er ris8

Thus, in selecting a creep resistant, chro!iu! !ol,#denu! steel, 0&2?r 0&2.o 0&22> steel is 8no%n to #e suscepti#le to reheat crac8ing #ut the 2&22?r /.o %hich has a si!ilar creep resistance, is signi"icantl, less suscepti#le& Dn"ortunatel,, although so!e 8no%ledge has #een gained on the suscepti#ilit, o" certain steels, the ris8 o" crac8ing cannot #e relia#l, predicted "ro! the che!ical co!position& >arious indices, including )/, ; S( and (s, ha0e #een used to indicate the suscepti#ilit, o" steel to reheat crac8ing& Steels %hich ha0e a 0alue o" )/ o" less than 2, ; S( less than +ero or (s less than 0&03, are less suscepti#le to reheat crac8ing )/ L /0? H ?r H 3&3.o H 5&/> 2 ; S( (s L ?r H?u H 2.o H /0> H6N# H 2Ti 2 L 0&/2?u H0&/7S H0&/0's H ; H/&/5Sn H /&47S#

Irrespecti0e o" the steel t,pe, it is i!portant to purchase steels speci"ied to ha0e lo% le0els o" i!purit, ele!ents 3anti!on,, arsenic, tin, sulphur and phosphorus4&

Welding procedure and techni-ue

The %elding procedure can #e used to !ini!ise the ris8 o" reheat crac8ing #,

;roducing the !a-i!u! re"ine!ent o" the coarse grain @'A <i!iting the degree o" austenite grain gro%th Eli!inating stress concentrations

The procedure should ai! to re"ine the coarse grained @'A #, su#se$uent passes& In #utt %elds, !a-i!u! re"ine!ent can #e achie0ed #, using a steep sided 9oint preparation %ith a lo% angle o" attac8 to !ini!ise penetration into the side %all, 3 Fig &a4& In co!parison, a larger angle > preparation produces a %ider @'A, li!iting the a!ount o" re"ine!ent achie0ed #, su#se$uent passes, 3 Fig &b4& Narro% 9oint preparations, ho%e0er, are !ore di""icult to %eld, due to the increased ris8 o" lac8 o" side %all "usion&

ig.2a. Welding in the (lat position / high degree o( "AH re(inement

ig.2b. Welding in the horiFontal%0ertical position / lo! degree o( "AH re(inement

(e"ine!ent o" the @'A can #e pro!oted #, "irst #uttering the sur"ace o" the suscepti#le plate %ith a thin %eld !etal la,er using a s!all dia!eter 33&2!!4 electrode& The 9oint is then co!pleted using a larger dia!eter 34 4&5!!4 electrode, %hich is intended to generate su""icient heat to re"ine an, re!aining coarse grained @'A under the #uttered la,er& The degree o" austenite grain gro%th can #e restricted #, using a lo% heat input& @o%e0er, precautionar, !easures !a, #e necessar, to a0oid the ris8 o" h,drogen assisted crac8ing and lac8 o" "usion de"ects& *or e-a!ple, reducing the heat input %ill al!ost certainl, re$uire a higher preheat te!perature to a0oid h,drogen assisted crac8ing& The 9oint design and %elding techni$ue adopted should ensure that the %eld is "ree "ro! localised stress concentrations %hich can arise "ro! the presence o" notches& Stress concentrations !a, #e produced in the "ollo%ing situations:

%elding %ith a #ac8ing #ar a partial penetration %eld lea0ing a root i!per"ection internal %eld i!per"ections such as lac8 o" side%all "usion

the %eld has a poor sur"ace pro"ile, especiall, sharp %eld toes

The %eld toes o" the capping pass are particularl, 0ulnera#le, as the coarse grained @'A !a, not ha0e #een re"ined #, su#se$uent passes& In suscepti#le steel, the last pass should ne0er #e deposited on the parent !aterial, #ut al%a,s on the %eld !etal, so that it %ill re"ine the @'A& )rinding the %eld toes %ith the preheat !aintained has #een success"ull, used to reduce the ris8 o" crac8ing in 0&2?r 0&2.o 0&22> steels&