DESIGN OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

WATER CONVEYANS SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by

JEYALALITHA.K RAMESH KUMAR.N.S SANTHOSH KUMAR.R SATHISH KUMAR.N

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

RATNAVEL SUBRAMANIAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, DINDIGUL - 5 ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600 025
NOVEMBER - 2008

DESIGN OF HYDRO POWER PLANT

WATER CONVEYANS SYSTEM

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted by

JEYALALITHA.K RAMESH KUMAR.N.S SANTHOSH KUMAR.R SATHISH KUMAR.N

91305103003 91305103333 91305103335 91305103338

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

RATNAVEL SUBRAMANIAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, DINDIGUL - 5 ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600 025
NOVEMBER - 2008

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI - 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report DESIGN OF HYTRO POWER PLANT (WATER CONVEYANCE SYSTEM). is the bonafide work of JEYALALITHA.K, KUMAR.R, RAMESH KUMAR.N.S, SANTHOSH

SATHISH KUMAR.N who carried out the project work

under my supervision.

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE

Mrs.B. KAMESHWARI,ME.ME.Ph.D., HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Mr. A.MANI, MTech.Phd., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Civil Engineering, Ratnavel Subramaniam College of Engineering And Technology, Dindigul.

Department of Civil Engineering Ratnavel Subramaniam College of Engineering And Technology, Dindigul.

Submitted for viva-voce examination held on

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNALEXAMINER

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION The growing energy demand worldwide on the one hand and the emerging ecological awareness on the other are leading to an increased demand for regenerative energy. As a continuously available base-load energy supply option, hydropower is significant regenerative energy source. Studies to determine new locations for hydropower plants have explored innovative avenues, with due consideration of ecological and economic aspects. There is, however, a strong need for updating the methods for determining establishing and as far as predictable, future developments. The hydropower plants that are currently being realized or about to be realized are predominantly based on old studies, with economic data (investment costs and revenue) having been updated, but without addressing the general actual issue in view of energy demand, ecology and globalization. Water is the most abundant resource in the world, it is important to utilize the power of flowing water. The most efficient way to harness the power of water is to collect the potential energy. This is done by damming up a body of flowing water. A dam is an object that restricts the flow of water. In todays hydroelectric dams, the restricted water is diverted to a turbine using a penstock and exits the turbine through the tailrace. The turbine is made up of a shaft with blades attached. As a fluid flows through the blades a rotational force is created. This force causes a torque on the shaft. The turbine shaft is coupled to a generator, where electricity is produced. The backbone of most power generation system is the generator. An electric generator is any machine that converts mechanical energy into electricity for transmission and distribution. The generator works by spinning a rotor that is turned by a turbine.

The rotor is a shaft that has field windings. These windings are supplied with an excitation current or voltage. As the rotor turns, the excitation current creates a magnetically induced current onto a stator. The stator is a cylindrical ring made of iron that is incased by another set of field windings and is separated from the rotor by a small air gap. Hydroelectric generations can vary from 1 watt to 100s megawatts. With todays technology it is possible to generate power with small scale parameters. With low flow and low head parameters a micro generator can be used to produce electric power. From the source of the flowing water, a weir, small scale dam, can be used to restrict the flow of water. From this the water can be piped to a turbine. Since the turbine is coupled to the generator, a micro generator can generate about 1 watt to 100 kilowatts. This generator can be used to power residential loads. One of the first steps in planning is to measure the power potential of the stream. The amount of power that can be obtained from a stream depends on: - The amount of water flow - The height which the water falls (head) The efficiency of the plant to convert mechanical energy to

electrical energy.

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND The implementation of the requirements is effected through a framework plan. When elaborating the framework plan the following relevant data are incorporated:

Basic data-energy aspects: Hydrology: gauge levels from hydrological yearbooks. Topography: catchments area sizes and potential head conditions. Existing facilities: surveying using questionnaires and water registers.

Basic data-ecological aspects: General information (e.g. protected areas). Linear information such as morphological structure, distribution of sensitive species along a river stretch. Selective in formation such as biological quality of rivers and streams.

CHAPTER 3

NOMENCLATURE

Ao AP At A, A,

= = = = =

Area of orifice or ports Cross-sectional area of penstocks Area of riser of differential surge tank Net cross-sectional area of surge tank Cross-sectional area of head race tunnel Thoma area of surge tank Velocity of propagation of pressure wave Diameter of head race tunnel Friction factor governing head loss [to be taken from IS : 4880 ( Part 3 ) - 1976 ]

J&h = c D F = = =

F, g H Ho hr hrp L Ls, m P Ph

= = = = = = = = = = =

Factor of safety over Ath Acceleration due to gravity Gross head on turbines Net head on turbines Total head loss in head race tunnel system Total head loss in penstock system Length of head race tunnel Length of riser spill in crest Reciprocal of Poissons ratio for rock Power generated Pressure due to water hammer in the conduit upstream of surge tank

Qd

Maximum discharge supplied by the surge tank in case of specified load acceptance

R1

Internal radius of the pressure conduit

R2, V Yt

= = =

Outer radius of the pressure conduit Volume of water in surge tank corresponding to Z Volume of water in the conduit in a given time interval t = V1,At. t

vo*

Velocity of flow in tunnel corresponding to maximum steady flow, upstream of surge tank

V1* V2* Z

Velocity of flow in tunnel at any instant, upstream of surge Tank

Velocity of flow in conduit at any instant, downstream of surge tank

Water level in surge tank measured positive above reservoir level

Zm C E fi fy l L M P P1 q1 Y rl S St

Maximum surge level above maximum reservoir level longitudinal stresses, N/mm2 moment coefficient modulus of elasticity total circumferential stress, N/mm2 total longitudinal stress, N/mm2 height of stiffener ring or ring girder, mm span length of pipe, mm moments internal pressure including water hammer, N/mm2 total reaction at support, N shear stress, N/mm2 radius of pipe shell, mm mean radius of shell, mm hoop stress in pipe, N/mm2 equivalent stress, N/mm2 principal stresses, N/mm2

fi, f2, = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

Sa, S, =

I t tl W

= = = =

temperature rise or drop, C thickness of pipe shell, mm thickness of stiffener ring or ring girder, mm total distributed weight, that is, self-weight of shell + weight of water, N/m2

WI z

= = =

total weight, that is, weight of shell + weight of water, N section modulus of pipe shell, ma coefficient of linear expansion or contraction of pipe shell material, per C

coefficient of friction.

CHAPTER 4

OBJECTIVE The objective is to design a hydroelectric plant utilizing optimal energy in the water, with minimum submergence and economic costs, considering seasonal variation in power generation to meet the region's demand during all seasons.

DEFINITIONS: Head: Water level is the highest possible water level at the station intake in full operation and with zero bypass flow. Tail: Water level is the energy head of the water flowing out of the turbines. Total (gross) head: = Vertical distance between head- and tail water. Gross capacity: Maximum capacity if all head losses, hydraulic and otherwise, are considered zero. Effective head: It is losses subtracted from the gross head at installed capacity output.

CHAPTER 5

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS AND PARAMETERS:

Assumptions: Detailed geological and topographical investigations carried out by the Department of Mines and Geology to determine the best site for the dam, pressure shaft alignment, power house location, etc., can be used for implementing this design.

Parameters: Input data consist of site specific data (discharge, water yield, generation head, evaporation rate, seepage rate etc.), technical data (efficiency of turbine and generator, and dependability norm for storage capacity, load factor, etc.) and economic data (civil construction costs for various types and heights of dam, cost of electrical machinery of various capacities, environmental costs, rehabilitation costs, etc.).

Decision variables: The decision variables determine the optimum storage capacity, installed generation capacity and seasonal power drafts; net energy availability in the region (objective function) needs to be maximized subject to seasonal hydrological constraints, and costs and submergence area are to be minimized.

CHAPTER 6

HYDRO POWER Head is defined as the difference in elevation between two particular cross sections of the river. Making a head useful for hydropower use needs a concentration by means of hydropower impoundment, diversion or tail water lowering. At the point of concentration the powerhouse is situated. The conversion of the energy potential of the river into electricity requires a turbine (potential and kinetic energy into mechanical energy) [rotation] and a generator [rotation into electrical energy]. The output of a hydropower plant is given in terms of power [kW] and electricity production [kWh]. Following an equation which computes monthly hydropower production as a function of volume of water discharged (Q), gross head of this water (H) and efficiency of the couple turbine generator (r), between 0.7 and 0.85).

Hydropower (kW) is given by: P (kW) = Q (m /s) x H (m) x tot x 9,81 and approximately = Q x H x 7.8 tot = total efficiency (turbine x generator x speed increaser x trafo) P Q H = electrical power output = rated discharge = net head
3

Electricity production - the thing we pay for - is power during a certain time period.

The annual electricity production of a hydropower (HP) station is approximately calculated as E (kWh) = P (kW) x 4500 (h) The head of a HP station is mainly determined by geographical and topographical parameters. The discharge varies due to the natural flow regime. Usually a Hydropower station runs at full load for roughly three months. The rest of the year according to the lesser discharge the station is operated at part load.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROPOWER PLANT:

Hydroelectric facilities range in size from large-scale power plants to small- and micro-scale plants. Though the definitions may vary, hydropower plants can be classified as follows:

Large hydropower plants have a generation capacity of more than 30 000 kW (or 30 MW);

Small hydropower plants have a generation capacity of between 1000 kW and 30 000 kW;

Mini hydropower plants have a generation capacity of between 100kW and 1000 kW;

Micro hydropower plants have a generation capacity of less than 100 kW.

THE BENEFITS OF HYDROPOWER:

Hydropower offers several environmental advantages: Hydropower uses the renewable power of naturally flowing water, With out wasting or depleting it;

Hydropower produces very few greenhouse gases and no other air contaminants, and it does not generate any polluting or toxic waste by-products;

Hydropower projects with reservoirs can store water to generate electricity for future use. This storage capacity means that hydropower can support intermittent renewable sources of electricity, such as wind and solar power, as well as run-of-river hydropower;

The storage capacity combined with unique operational flexibility allows for optimized use of fossil fuel power plants, and therefore leads to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutants from the electricity sector. In addition to having many environmental benefits, hydropower facilities can provide the following social and economic benefits:

Hydropower is a local resource and is not subject to the drastic fluctuation of international oil markets;

Low operating and maintenance costs, and long lifetime make small hydropower projects virtually inflation proof;

Hydropower projects have the flexibility to complement other renewable energy technologies and help support a larger deployment of the technologies;

When built in conjunction with existing infrastructure, such as dams and water level controls, the cost of developing small hydropower projects are competitive with those of other energy projects.

Hydropower is a clean, domestic and renewable source of energy. Hydropower plants provide inexpensive electricity and produce no pollution. And, unlike other energy sources such as fossil fuels, water is not destroyed during the production of electricity. It can be reused for other purposes.

HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS?

Hydropower converts the energy in flowing water into electricity. The quantity of electricity generated is determined by the volume of water flow and the amount of "head" (the height from turbines in the power plant to the water surface) created by the dam. The greater the flow and head, the more electricity produced. A typical hydropower plant includes a dam, reservoir, penstocks (pipes), a powerhouse and an electrical power substation.

The dam stores water and creates the head; penstocks carry water from the reservoir to turbines inside the powerhouse; the water rotates the turbines, which drive generators that produce electricity. The electricity is then transmitted to a substation where transformers increase voltage to allow transmission to homes, businesses and factories.

TYPES OF HYDRPOWER PLANTS 1. Conventional Most hydropower plants are conventional in design, meaning they use one-way water flow to generate electricity. There are two categories of conventional plants:1 run-ofriver and 2: storage plants.

1.1. Run-of-river plants: These plants use little, if any, stored water to provide water flow through the turbines. Although some plants store a day or week's worth of water, weather changes - especially seasonal changes - cause run-of-river plants to experience significant fluctuations in power output.

(Figure No 1). The Tazimina project in Alaska is an example of a diversion hydropower plant. No dam was required.

1.2. Storage plants: These plants have enough storage capacity to off-set seasonal fluctuations in water flow and provide a constant supply of electricity throughout the year. Large dams can store several years worth of water.

2. Pumped Storage In contrast to conventional hydropower plants, pumped storage plants reuse water. After water initially produces electricity, it flows from the turbines into a lower reservoir located below the dam. During off-peak hours (periods of low energy demand), some of the water is pumped into an upper reservoir and reused during periods of peak-demand.

3. Sizes of Hydroelectric Power Plants Facilities range in size from large power plants that supply many consumers with electricity to mall and micro plants that individuals operate for their own energy needs or to sell power to utilities. 3.1 Large Hydropower Although definitions vary, DOE defines large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of more than 30 megawatts. 3.2 Small Hydropower Although definitions vary, DOE defines small hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of 100 kilowatts to 30 megawatts. 3.3 Micro Hydropower A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a home, farm, ranch, or village.

WATER CONVEYANCE SYSTEM Power Canals: Introduction, design-uniform flow, location and construction, unlined canals in soft ground, lined canal in soft ground, canals in rocks.

Tunnels: Introduction, geometric design, hydraulic design, cross-sectional forms and size, rock tunneling procedure, tunnel support, tunnel lining , grouting.

Concrete Pipes: Applications, pre cast concrete pipes, reinforced concrete pipes.

Penstocks: Types of Penstocks, stresses in penstocks, economical diameter of penstocks, design of penstock, number of penstocks and equivalent penstock diameter, joints in pipeline, anchors and supports, valves.

Surge Tanks: General function of a surge tank, types of surge tanks, design consideration of surge tanks, stability of surge tanks, Lined canals, Layout of lined canals.

CHAPTER 7

TUNNELS 1. INTRIDUCTION: Tunnels can be designed as underground passages made without removing the overlying rock or soil. The headrace tunnel extending from the head pond to the surge tank has a length of 11860 m. It has a D shaped cross section (20.42 m2) with a concrete lining. The equivalent hydraulic diameter of the horseshoe section is approximately D = 4.75 m. The original tunnel layout has a horizontal in the downstream direction. In order to shorten the construction time of the tunnel it was thought of working both from the upstream and the downstream end. For the drilling from the upstream end of the tunnel this brings the question of evacuation of the water which may come from eventual karstic springs. Therefore it was proposed to investigate a change in the vertical profile of the tunnel, where a high point created somewhere in the tunnel will allow to carry out the drilling works upslope going from both ends. Of course such a solution can only be feasible if the high point can be placed such that L1L2.

Hydraulic calculations were performed for several headrace tunnel alternatives. It was seen that, it is not possible to create a high point at almost equal distances from the two adits even by adding a penstock, which was not envisaged in feasibility study. After all it is decided to keep the headrace layout in the feasibility study.

CLASSIFICATION OF TUNNELS: Tunnels may be classified according to their purpose, shape and supporting arrangements. Depending on their purpose the following two main groups of tunnels may be distinguished: Traffic tunnels: Railway tunnels Highway tunnels Navigation tunnels A. Conveyance tunnels: Hydroelectric power station tunnels-these shall be referred as hydraulic tunnels in all further discussions. Water supply tunnels Sewer tunnels transportation tunnels in industrial plants. B. Hydraulic tunnels can be further sub-divided into the following categories: Pressure tunnels Free flowing tunnels Free flowing cum-pressure tunnels C. Depending on their shape, tunnels may be classified as: D-shaped Horse-shoe shaped Circular shaped Elliptical shaped Square or rectangular shaped

THE SELECTION OF THE TUNNEL CROSS-SECTION IS INFLUENCED BY: The clearances specified in view of the vehicles and materials transported in the tunnel, Geological conditions, The method of driving the tunnel, and The material and strength of tunnel lining.

Tunnels may also be classified as lined or unlined tunnels. If the rock conditions are favorable and the tunnel is required to be used for a short period of time, e.g., a diversion tunnel constructed for the construction of a dam, the tunnel may be left unlined. However, in most cases, hydraulic tunnels are invariably lined with cement concrete (Plain or reinforced) or short Crete, hydraulic tunnels discharging silt - ladden water under high velocities. (E.g. silt flushing tunnels) are required to be steel-lined. Depending upon the type of supports, tunnels may be classified as: i. ii. iii. iv. Tunnels supported by R.S.J sections. Tunnels supported by rock bolts. Tunnels supported by short Crete. Tunnels supported by a combination of (i), (ii), (iii).

TUNNEL CROSS SECTION Cross section of a tunnel depends on the following factors: Geological conditions prevailing along the alignment, Hydraulic requirements, Structural considerations, and Functional requirements.

D-SHAPED SECTION: D-shaped section is found to be suitable in tunnels located in good quality, intact sedimentary rocks and massive external igneous, hard, compacted, metamorphic rocks where the external or internal pressures.

SURGES IN TUNNELS Water hammer is created in long closed tunnels by the sudden closure of the turbine gates. The water hammer pressure provides the necessary force to retard the flow in tunnel when load is rejected by the turbine. For very long tunnels, the water hammer corresponding to normal operation of the turbine may be very great and may require extra ordinary strength of the tunnel to withstand it and the violent fluctuations of pressure in the tunnel may seriously interfere with proper turbine regulation. Similarly, for sudden opening of the gates, the resulting negative water hammer, or reduction of pressure, provides the necessary force to accelerate the water and is correspondingly objectionable for very long tunnels.

The simplest means of eliminating the positive and negative water hammer pressures is to provide a surge tank at the lower end of the tunnel. The steady state water level in the surge tank fluctuates up and down as the turbine rejects or accepts the load. The tunnel should be designed to withstand the maximum excess pressure that is likely to occur. Similarly, it is very essential to determine the sub-normal pressures in the surge tank for sudden acceptance of the load. Care should be taken that the pressure in the tunnel never becomes negative as, under such conditions, the tunnel is likely to collapse. For head race tunnels full, maximum pressures occur at the time of load acceptance. However, for tail race acceptance. Hence, to meet the safety requirements of a tail race tunnel, a surge tank may be provided downstream of the power house also. Methods of tunneling: Full face attack Top heading and benching Bottom heading and stopping Drift method.

TUNNEL SUPPORT: When an underground opening is made, it generally becomes necessary to install supports to hold the rock which has a tendency to drop out of the roof of the opening .in the earlier days timber sections were used as temporary supported till permanent lining could be placed. With the gradual availability of steel sections, timber supports have now become almost obsolete. More recently on the basics of work done by beiniiiawaski , Barton , rabcewicz and others, even steel supports are being dispensed with and the present trend is to reinforce the rock by means of rock bolting and shortcreting.

THE NEED FOR TUNNEL SUPPORT: The necessity of tunnel support arises from the fact that the excavated rock has a tendency to drop out of the roof of the tunnel. The time which the loosened rock takes to drop out and also the amount of rock expected to fall depend upon the bridge action period of the rock. The bridge action period to be defined as the time which elapses between blasting and the beginning of collapse of the unsupported roof. It may range from a few hors to a few weeks. The bridge action period for cohesion less and or completely crushed rock is almost zero.

TYPES OF STEEL SUPPORT SYSTEMS: Tunnel support system by way of steel ribs may be classified into the following:

(a) Continuous rib, (b) Rib and post, (c) Rib and wall plate, (d) Rib, wall plate and post, (e) full circle rib; and, (f) Invert strut in addition to those shown in types (a) to (d).

CONSTITUENTS OF TUNNEL SUPPORTS: Every type of tunnel support system consists of two or more different elements, each of which serves a different function, the basic elements are: (a) Ribs (b) Posts (c) Invert strut (d) Wall plates (e) Crown bars (f) Truss panels (g) Bracings and spreaders (h) Blocking

DESIGN PROCEDURE: Construction of load diagram Construction of force polygon Determination of thrusts and Computation of stresses in the arch rib

Lining in tunnels is a very important component and makes up for 30 to 40 percent of the total cost of tunnel. Tunnels forming part of water conductor system have to be invariably lined with cement concrete-plain or reinforced: or steel lined. However, in cases where it has served the purpose e.g., diversion tunnels the lining could be avoided.

CONCRETE LINING: The function of concrete lining is one or more of the following: To reduce head losses in the system; To protect steel ribs from deteriorating; To prevent leakage of water; To protect the turbines by preventing loose rock particles falling into the water and being carried to the turbines; To take that part of the internal pressure. Which is not taken by the rocking.

STEEL LINING General: As briefly described earlier, steel lining is provided where the tunnel has to withstand high pressures. Steel lining consists of a steel plate of adequate thickness provided to the inner surface of the tunnel and serves the following purposes: To prevent water loss fro the tunnel; To resist the bursting pressure of water carried by the tunnel; To provide protection from seepage of water from the surrounding mass like rock, concrete etc. and To provide a smooth surface for flow of water.

CHAPTER 8 HYDRO PROJECT IN UTTARAKHENT

DESIGN DATAS: FRL MWL MDDL Length of HRT = = = = 1017.00 1020.00 1009.50 11.86Km D Shape 3 3 x 33 MW 810 204.5 16.4 188.1m 204.5m 59.60 Cumec

Proposed shape of HRT = NO of units Power TWL Net head = = = = = Gross head =

Design discharge =

1. HYDRAULIC DESIGN: Discharge .. Q = VxA A 0.905 D2 59.6 / ( 3 x 0.905 ) 4.68m 4.75m 3.58 D 17M A/P 0.2528 D 1.2m ( MDDL TWL ) + 2/3 ( FRL MDDL ) ( 1009.5 810 ) + 2/3 ( 1017 1009.5 ) 204.5m QH 9.81 x 103 x 59.6 x 204.5 x 0.92 110 MW

Q/V = = =

.. dia

D D

= = = =

.. Vetted perimeter P P

Hydraulic Radius = = = Net head =H = = H Hydro power P = = = Power =

TFL at the end of the tunnel = total head friction loss

Mannings Formula: hf where N Take N = = Rugosity Co efficient ( for inner tunnel ) 0.014 32 x 0.0142 x 11.86 x 103 / 1.24/3 16.4m = V2 x N2 x L / R4/3

.. hf = hf = .. inner end of the tunnel TFL = = 188.1m =

204.5 16.4 188m

TYPE OF FLOW Reynold No = R = = VD / 1000 x 3 x 4.75 / 1x10-2 1.425x106 > 4000

.. it is a turbulent flow

2. STRUCTURAL DESIGN: Internal diameter of tunnel Thick of lining (t) = = = = Mean radius of tunnel lining (R) = = Youngs modulus of lining material (E) = = Moment of inertia (I) (considering 1m strip of lining) = = = Unit weight of water (W) Unit weight of concrete (Wc) Total rock load on mean dia (P) Pressure p = = = = 4.75m 0.2m 4.75/2 2.375m 2.375+0.1 2.475m 2.1x106/13 kg/cm2 1.6154x106 t/m2 bd3/12 (1 x 0.23)/12 0.0007 m4 1.0 t/m3 2.5 t/m3 5.15x1.287x2.5x1 (4.75+0.4)x(0.25x 4.75+0.2+0.2) = From table 4.2(S.l no:2) = = 16.57 t 0.25 x (B) 0.25x(4.75+0.22)

Internal radius of tunnel (r)

BENDING MOMENTS

00

Due to uniform vertical load = 0.125 PR = 0.125 x 17.06 x 2.475 = 5.278 Zero = - 0.125 PR = - 5.278

Due to conduit weight = 0.4406 Wct R2 = 0.4406 x 2.4 x 0.2 x 2.4752 = 1.295 = - 0.0334 Wct R2 = - 0.0334 x 2.4 x 0.2 x2.4752 = - 0.0970 = - 0.3927 Wct R2 = - 1.1546 = 0.0334 Wct R2 = 0.097 = 0.3448 Wct R2 = 1.0138

Due to contained water = 0.2203 Wr2R = 0.2203 x 1 x 2.3752 x 2.475 = 3.0755 = - 0.0167 Wr2R = - 0.33 = - 0.1963 Wr2R = - 2.7403 = 0.0167 Wr2R = 0.33 = 0.1724 Wr2R = 2.407

Total

9.945

450 900

- 0.427

- 9.172

1350 Zero 1800 = 0.125 PR = 5.218

0.427

8.698

Now m = Qbd2 .. d = 9945/(13 x 100)

Q = 13 =

b = 100 cm 7.68 cm Actual thickness of lining provided = 20 cm

Including over break in rock, Total thickness of concrete lining up to the payline = 30 cm Hence the depth is considered to be adequated.

RADIAL SHEAR

00 450 900 1350 1800

Due to uniform vertical load Zero = - 0.25 P = - 4.142 Zero = 0.25 P = 4.142 Zero =

Due to conduit weight

Due to contained water

Total

Zero = - 0.8976 WctR = - 1.066 = 0.1667 WctR = 0.1980 = 0.6732 WctR = 0.739 Zero 8.551 t 4.28 kg/cm2

Zero = - 0.4488 Wr2 = - 2.749 = 0.0833 Wr2 = 0.510 = 0.3366 Wr2 = 2.062 Zero

Zero - 8.551 0.708 7.003 Zero

Maximum radial shear

.. Shear stress

8.551/(100 x 20)

<

5 kg/cm2

Hence the design is safe

NORMAL THRUST

00 450 900 1350 1800

Due to uniform vertical load Zero = 0.25 P = 0.5 P = 0.25 P

Due to conduit weight = 0.1667 WctR = 0.198 = 1.1332 WctR = 1.346 = 1.5708 WctR = 1.866 = 0.4376 WctR = 0.519 = - 0.1667 WctR = - 0.198

Due to contained water = - 1.4166 Wr2 = - 8.678 = - 0.7869 Wr2 = 4.82 = - 0.2146 Wr2 = - 1.314 = - 0.4277 Wr2 = - 2.620 = - 0.5834 Wr2 = - 3.574

Total

- 8.48 0.668 8.837

2.041

Zero =

- 3.772

Maximum negative thrust

- 8.48 t

( which indicates tension at the crown) 4.24 kg/cm2 5 kg/cm2

Tensile stress in concrete at crown = 8.48 x 1000/(100 x 20) = <

Hence the design is safe

HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION

00 450

Due to uniform vertical Due to conduit weight load Zero Zero = 0.01473 x PR3/EI = 3.17 mm = O.504 x WctR4/EI = 0.81 mm = O.13090 x WctR4/EI = 2.10 mm = 0.1309 x WctR4/EI = 0.67 mm Zero

Due to contained water Zero = 0.0252 x Wr2R3/EI = 1.9 mm = 0.06545 x Wr2R3/EI = 5.29 mm = 0.02108 x Wr2R3/EI = 1.59 mm Zero

Total Zero 5.88

900

= 0.04167 x PR3/EI = 8.95 mm

16.34

1350

= 0.01473 x PR3/EI = 3.17 mnm

5.43

1800

Zero

Zero

Deflections are with in permissible limits.

VERTICAL DEFLECTION

00 450

Due to uniform vertical Due to conduit weight load Zero Zero = 0.02694 x PR3/EI = 5.9 mm = 0.09279 x WctR4/EI = 1.54 mm = 0.13917 x WctR4/EI = 2.31 mm = 0.18535 x WctR4/EI = 3.08 mm = 0.2618 x WctR4/EI = 4.34 mm

Due to contained water Zero = 0.0464 x Wr2R3/EI = 3.5 mm = 0.06958 x Wr2R3/EI = 5.26 mm = 0.09268 x Wr2R3/EI = 6.96 mm = 0.1309 x Wr2R3/EI = 9.89 mm

Total Zero 10.94 mm 16.77 mm 22.56 mm 32.73 mm

900

= 0.04167 x PR3/EI = 9.2 mm

1350

= 0.0564 x PR3/EI = 12.52 mm

1800

= 0.0833 x PR3/EI = 18.50 mm

Deflections are with in permissible limits.

CHAPTER 9 FOR ECONOMICAL DIMENTIONS FOR TUNNELS Using the following symbols and assumptions: D = Tunnel Diameter in meters. d = Mean he of Lining. E = Mean unit price of tunnel excavation Rs.290/- per cum L = Unit price of concrete lining = Rs. 485-per m3 G = Mean unit price of grouting = Rs. 250/- m3 A = Total cost of tunnel per meter length. C = Contingencies [percentage of total cost = 5%] S = Supervision charges [percentage of total cost = 15%] O = Operating and maintenance cost = 10% Y = Life project in years = 5 years P = Depreciation factor ( for straight line method = 1/50) N = Rate of interest ( 8%) B = Mannings co-efficient (0.014 for concrete lined tunnel ) R = Hydraulic mean radius ( D/4 for circular tunnel) Q = Equivalent discharge = 120 m3/sec U = Value of one unit of power = 0.10 e = Overall efficiency of plant = 0.85

Economical diameter of tunnel as per hand book of hydroelectric engineering by Dr. P.S.Nigam is given by D7.33 = (19.35Q3n2e x 4x105)/[(E+0.36)L x O] D = Diameter of tunnel Q = Discharge through tunnel = 59.6 m3/sec n = Rigidity co-efficient = 0.014 e = overall efficiency = 85% u = cost of power = 16 paisa/unit

CONSTRUCTION COST AND FIXED CHARGES: (a) Cost of excavation: = [E(D+2d)2]/4 Rs/m (b) Cost of lining = L [ (D+2d)ss-D2]/4 Rs/m (c) Cost of grouting: = g(D+2d) That fore total cost per linear meter. A A A = E[D+2d]/4 + L[(D+2d)2-D2]/4 + g(D+2d) = [ED2/4] + EDd + Ed2 + Ld2 + LDd + gD + 2gd = [ED2/4] + D[Ed + Ld + g] + Ed2+ Ld2 + 2gd

This must be increased by C for contingencies and by S for supervision charges. Overall cost = A (1+c) x (1+s)/m

Annual charges of tunnel due to supervision & interest = A (1+c) x (1+s) x (P+N)/m

OPERATION & MAINTENANCE COST: Gross grass annual cost and expressed operation & maintenance cost = A (1+c) x (1+s) x O Value of annual cost: Loss of head due to friction per M length = h = n2 v2/R4/3 = n2 Q2/ [(D2/4)2 x (D/4)4/3] h = 101.12 D-16/3 n2Q2

Power Loss = 9.8 Qh x e Total number of hours of separation per year = 7925 hours = 9.8 eTQ(101.12D-16/3 n2 Q2) = 1000 en2 TQ3D-16/3U That fore total annual cost. T1 = A(1+c) x (1+s) x (P+N) + A(1+c) x (1+s) x O+1000en2TQD-16/3 x w

Where A = ED2/4 + D[Ed + Ld + G] + Ed2 + Ld2 + 2Gd

For the economy dT1/dD = 0

Difference the above [ED/2 + d(E+L) + g] x (1+c) x (1+s) x (p+N) - [(1000 x 16)/3] x n2Q3TUeD-16/3 = 0 (OR) [D+2d(E+L)+G]/E = [322000/3] x {[(n2Q3TUeD-19/3)]/ [E(1+c)x(1+s)x(P+N)} (OR) (32000/3) en2Q3 x [T.U/E(1+c).(1+s).(p+N)] x D-19/3 = D + [2d(E+L)+G]/E (OR) mD-19/3 = D + K (OR) loge m D-19/3 = D + K (OR) loge m D-19/3 = loge (D + K)

(OR) loge m (19/3) x loge D = loge (D + K) By substituting loge D = [2(D+1)/(D+1)] loge (D + K) = loge K + 2D/(2K+D) then, loge m-19/3 x 2(D-1)/(D+1) = loge K + 2D/(2K+D) (OR) 2D/2(K+D)+(19/3) x 2(D-1)/(D+1) = loge m - loge K By multiplying (2K+D)(D+1) We obtain 2D(D+1)+(38/3) x (2K+D)(D-1) (2K+D)(D+1) x (loge m- loge k) = 0 By substituting the volume assumed we hence, m = (32000/3) x en2Q3 x [(T x U) / E(1+C)(P+N)(1+S)] m = (32000/3) x [(0.85x0.0142x56.93x8400x0.16) / (350x(1+0.05)(0.02+0.07)(1+0.10)] m = 1.9240 x 108 loge = 19.24 K = [2 x 0.4(350+750) + 250] / 350

loge = 1.172 2D(D+1) + (38/3)(6.526xD)(D-1)-(6.556+D)(D+1) (19.24-1.425) = 0 Solving this equation we will get. D = 2.58 m

DESIGN OF TUNNEL C.S.I.R METHOD: BIENIAWSKI (OR) C.S.I.R METHOD: (a) Access the various parameters (b) Access the rating of each the above parameters using table ten percentages from tunnel design manual. (c) Once the basic, rock mass value has been arrived at adjust for the joint orientation. (d) Arrived at the total rock mass rating and the classify the rock mass accordingly. (e) Having accessed the rock mass classification determined the expected standard time figure 10.8 from tunnel design manual. (f) After determined the rock mass classification and the stand up time arrive at the support requirements in the table 10.2 from tunnel design manual.

BARTONS N.G.I METHOD: Design of rock bolts and facing of rock bolts. (i) Access various rock parameters and there corresponding values using table 10.3 from tunnel design manual. Q = [RQD/Jn] x [Jr/Ja] x [Jw/SRF] (ii) Work out the value of De called the equivalent dimension using

the relationship .
(iii)

Roof support. Proof = (2/Jr)(Q)-1/3

(iv)

Depending upon the value of rock mass quality.

DESIGN: (1) Q = [RQD/Jn] x [Jr/Ja] x [Jw/SRF]

RQD = Rock quality of designation Jn Jr Ja Jw = Jt, structural number = Jt, roughness number = Jt, Alteration number = Jt, Water reduction factor

SRF = Stress reduction factor Dc = Equivalent dimension

(ii)

Dc = excavation span, Dia & Height/Excavation support ratio

Table 10.4

(iii) Roof pressure Proof = [2/Jr] x Q-1/3 = (2/2) x (12)-1/3 = 0.44 kg/cm2 (v) substituting (1) value for (i) Q = [RQD/Jn] x [Jr/Ja] x [Jw/SRF] = (72/6) x (2/2) x (1/1) = 12 Very good rock. Using table 10.4 [from tunnel manual] Value of ESR = 1.6 Excavated diameter of tunnel Dc = 5m = 3.125 (1)

Provide rock bolt 3m long @ 1.5 m c/c. Determination of thrusts T = 63000 kg

Computations of stresses in the area Rib C = Chords length between following point in cm C = 150 cm In our case R = Radius of neutral axis of the rib in cm R = 1750 cm h = Rise of arc between blocking points in cm h = R- sq root [R2-(c/2)]2 h = 1750 - sq root (17502 (150/2)2 h = 1.6 cm T = Thrust in kg = 6300 kg Mt = Bending moment in kg.cm Mt = hT = 1.6 x 63000 = 1,00,,800 kg.cm M max = Maximum 3m in kg.cm in the rib = 0.86 x 100800 = 86,608 kg.cm Z = section modulus of the rib in cm3 Z = 8603.6 cm3 x RST x 300 x 140 A = 56.76 cm2 fr = (T/A) + (M max/Z) kg/cm2

fr = (63000/56.76) + (100800/8603.6) fr = 1109.94 + 11.72 fr = 1121.76 kg/cm2Since allowable stress in the rib is 1150 kg/cm2 The Design considers being safe. Hence ok.

ROCK MASS CALCULATION: i) Q = ( RQD x Jr x Jw ) / ( Jn x Ja x SRF ) Where RQD = Rock quality designation Jr Ja Jw = Joint roughness number = Joint alteration number = Joint water reduction factor

SRF = Stress reduction factor Dc ii) = Equivalent dimension

Dc = Excavation span, Dia ( or ) Height / Excavation support ratio [ESR]

iii)

Root Pr Proof = 2 x Q-1/3/ J6 = 2 x 12-1/3/ J6 = 0.44 Kg / Cm2

iv)

Q = ( RQD x Jr x Jw ) / ( Jn x Ja x SRF ) = 72 x 2 x 1 / 6 x 2 x 1 = 12, Very good rock Using table 10.4 value of ESR = 1.6

Excavated dia of tunnel = 5m Dia = 5 / 1.6 = 3.125

Provide rock bolt 3m long @ 1.5m C/C

CHAPTER 10 SURGE TANK

A surge tank is provided at the end of the headrace tunnel in order to protect the hydro mechanical equipment and the tunnel lining against a possible damage from water hammer. The operation of storage power plants requires a completely free operation without any restrictions on changes in loading or flow of neither the pumps nor the turbines. Examinations of traditional, simple Shafter chamber type surge tanks show their ineffectiveness due to the required chamber volume and the resulting costs. This demand led to the development of a more effective throttling device in connection with dual chamber surge tanks.

SELECTION OF SURGE TANK TYPE: The principle demand on a surge tank is to compensate the mass oscillation of the water flow in the pressure tunnel of load changes of turbines and/or pumps, whereas the construction type in connection with a suitable throttling device should effect in a most powerful damping of the amplitude already in the very first period of oscillation. Partial or full-load rejection leads to on upsurge oscillation, whereby the maximum pressure is limited by the bearable stress of the concrete lining of the power tunnel. Load demand, however is followed by a down surge oscillation and the damping effect of the throttling device should avoid reaction on the turbine or pump. In this case the minimum pressure must not come below the elevation of the power tunnel. For the design of the pumped-storage power plant and later for rebuilding of a new waterway of high-head power plant an investigation for the most economic type of surge tank fulfilling the operational requirements has been carried out. Four types of surge tanks with different throttling devices were

investigated with specific computer software developed by Verbundplan and the results compared. - (type 1) Shaft surge tank with orifice - (type 2) Chamber surge tank with symmetric orifice - (type 3) Differential surge tank with asymmetric orifice - (type 4) Differential surge tank with reverse flow throttle

The obvious different characteristics and damping effects of chamber surge tanks and differential types are compared as for example in figure 1 for a single load case full load rejection. The graphs simply show the benefit of differential surge tanks due to the much more effectiveness in damping of the oscillation.

Loading cases for comparison of different surge tanks

Fig: 1 Different Characteristics and Damping Effect

SELECTION OF A SUITABLE THROTTLING DEVICE Shaft surge tanks (type 1) and simple chamber surge tanks (type 2) usually are equipped with simple throttle blends or asymmetric orifices. For the latter the ratio of upsurge to down surge losses varies from 1:2 about to 1:3 depending on the geometric construction. New methods were required to get this ratio up higher for economical surge tank design. Such asymmetric reacting throttling devices can be used in principle only with differential surge tanks. (type 3).

Fig. 2: Surge Tank with Reverse Flow Throttle

These consist of two separate hydraulic systems: The lower chamber narrows at the end to a ventilation pipe with much smaller diameter, leading upward into the upper chamber. The second system consists of the upper chamber and shaft. The throttling device is located at the bottom of the shaft and dramatically retards emptying of the shaft and the upper chamber.

The pressure is controlled by the level in the ventilation pipe which drops very fast, because as it empties suddenly and unhindered into the lower chamber. The so-called reverse flow throttle was developed based on an idea of Thoma. It consists of a steel torus similar to a spiral casing of a Francis turbine (fig. 2). The downsurge oscillation produces a vortex flow which stabilizes within a few seconds. The water is forced to exit the torus through a small connection pipe rectangular to the plane of the vortex flow and is discharged into the lower chamber. This change of flow direction results in very high pressure losses, these are 20 50 times higher than in reverse direction (type 4).

Steady Flow Calculations For normal operation conditions, neglecting small (automatic) discharge adjustments by the turbine governor (closing or opening the wicket gates), the flow in the hydraulic conveyance system can be assumed to be in steady state. To be able to obtain the available head (which is defined as the lake level minus the total head loss) at the turbine entrance for a given discharge, the head losses in the conveyance system must be calculated. By subtracting the tail water elevation from the computed available head, the net head for the operation of turbines is obtained. In order to be able to compute the net head for all possible "incomingdischarge/ turbine-discharge" combinations, a computation sheet for the steady state calculations was established for all discharges appearing in the flow duration curve. The results presented in the computation sheet are then used in obtaining the duration curves for ; turbine discharges, available head, net head, total power generation, overall turbine efficiency.

LOAD CASES CONSIDERED FOR SIMULATIONS: The transient calculations have been carried out, with the program SIMPIP, for 4 principal load cases:

Load case 1: Full load rejection: At the beginning of the simulation, all three Francis turbines are functioning at their nominal discharge, namely 19.87m3/s. The total discharge passing through the headrace tunnel is 59.6m3/s. After 8 seconds of normal operation, all three turbines are rapidly closed.

Load case 2: Load demand during power plant start-up: At the beginning of the simulation all three turbines are stopped. Everywhere in the system the discharge is null and hydrostatic conditions prevail. The three Francis turbines are started as follows: The wicket gates of the all turbines are opened 15% in 3s (This assumes that the wicket gates can be opened from 0 to 100% in 20s). For the next 60s the turbines operate at 15% opening while the machines are synchronized with the network. It is admitted that at the end of this period the synchronization is obtained and the units are connected to the network. The wicket gates of the units are opened to 100% in the next 17s. From then on, turbines continue to operate at constant nominal discharge which is 59.6m3/s.

Load case 3: Combined turbine emergency closure and start-up: At the beginning of the simulation, all three Francis turbines are functioning at their nominal discharge, namely 19.87m3/s. The total discharge passing through the headrace tunnel is 59.6m3/s. After 8 seconds of normal operation, all three turbines are rapidly closed. After closure, all three turbines are started following the start-up procedure described in load case 2, when the water level in the surge tank reaches its minimum level.

Load case 4: Load demand during power plant start-up: At the beginning of the simulation all three turbines are stopped. Everywhere in the system the discharge is null and hydrostatic conditions prevail. The three Francis turbines are started as follows: The wicket gates of the first turbine are opened 15% in 3s (This assumes that the wicket gates can be opened from 0 to 100% in 20s). The wicket gates are left at 15% opening for 2s in order to let the turbine to take up speed. The wicket gates are closed partially to 10% opening in 1s. For the next 60s the turbines operate at 10% opening while the machines are synchronized with the network. It is admitted that at the end of this period the synchronization is obtained and the unit is connected to the network. The wicket gates of the first unit are opened to 100% in the next 18s. From then on, the first turbine continues to operate at constant nominal discharge which is 19.87m3/s. The above start-up procedure for the next unit starts when the preceding machine is synchronized. Therefore during the first three seconds of the 18s period, during which the first turbine discharges is increased from 10% to 100%, the wicket gates of the second unit is opened to 15%; and so on.

CHAPTER 11

HYDRAULIC DESIGN OFSURGE TANK: Ath ` At L V1 H0 Ath hf V1 .. = = = = = = = = = = = Lat/bV12 H0 . V12 /2g 20.41m 11.86km 3m/sec 204.5m (11860x20.41/1.822x32x204.5 ) x (32 / 2x9.81) 33.112m hf / V12 16.40m 3m/sec 1.822m

AREA OF SURGE TANK: As = = SURGE HEIGHT: Z* = = = Z* = 40.72m Maximum upsurge = = = Zm = = V0 L/g .At /A s 3 11860/9.81 x 20.41/138.94 40.72m Po = 0.2048 1- 2/3 Po + 1/9 Po2 1-0.137+0.0047 0.863 neglecting the 3rd term, 0.863 x 40.72 35.14m Ath [ 1-1.5(1-K)] 133.94m

The following down surge Zm Zm = = = = - 1/(1+0.478) - 0.676 - 0.676 x 40.72 - 27.53m

Instantaneous complete loading Z m = = Zm = = Assume 50% load, LOAD REJECTION L/2gb2 VO2 - Zm / b VO2 - L/2gb2 VO2 [ e 2g/L(2m+ b VO2)] = 0 e = 0.92 [turbine constant x 11.86/2x9.81x6.56x1.8222x32 - 35.14/1.822x32 - 11.86x103/(2x9.81x6.56x1.8222x32 [0.92/[(2x9.81x6.56)/(11.86x103)] x [35.14+(1.822x32)] = 0 = = 3.08 2.143 3.08 [0.92-0.01085 x (51.54)] = 0 - 0.174 - 1 - 0.0256 - 1.0256 - 1.0256 x 40.72 - 41.76m

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF CIRCULAR SURGE TANK:

Circular tank with fixed base for capacity 4,00,000 litres. The depth of water is to be 4m.

Area of surge tank Dia

= =

133.94 13.06m.

Use M20 grade concrete and grade I mild steel. 1.2N/mm2 100 N/mm2 400000litres. 13.06m. 200mm. 10KN/m3 100N/mm2 7N/mm2 0.841 14.01 13 4+0.2 = 4.2m.

Permissible direct tensile stress in concrete = Permissible stress in direct section Capacity of tank Dia Free board Density of water w, Tensile stress in steel cbc j Q m overall height of tank = = = = = = = = = = =

The thickness of walls and base slab are assumed to be 160mm thick. Bending moment, ring tension and shear [H2/Dt] = = = [4.22/(13.06 x 0.16)] 8.4 8.5

Is : 3370 part (iv) -1967 table 14.2 Max bending moment = = = Max shear = = = Max ring tension = = = -0.0122 wH3 at base (-0.0122x8.5x4.2 3) -7.683KNm 0.158wH2 (0.158x8.5x4.22) 23.7 KN at base 0.608[(WHO/2)] at 0.64 from top 0.608 x 8.5 x 4.2 x (13.06/2) 141.74 KN

Acting at 2.52 m from top. Steel for hoop tension Ast = 141.74x103 /100 = 1417mm2 Using 20mm bars spacing = = [(100x314)/1417] 221.6m

Use 20mm bars at 200mm c/c (As = 1571mm2) Wall thickness required from hoop stress consider is given by, { (141.74x103)/(100t+(13-1)x1571)} = 1.2 T = 99.3mm <150mm adopted

Steel for bending moment: The thick required from bending moment consideration is usually very small. Hence the area of steel required will be calculated. [(7.683x106)/(100x0.84x1.30)] 702.7mm2

Ast

= =

Use 12mm bars at 130mm centers.

Vertical reinforcements: Max vertical reinforcements at top = = Distributing for each face As = 225 mm2 Provide 12mm bars at 400mm c/c on both faces Base slab reinforcements: At junction of wall and slab provide 12mm at 130mm centers. At center, top and bottom As = = Providing top and bottom As = 450mm2 Use 8mm bars at 200c/c both at top and bottom and both ways. Check for shear stress: Max shear at base v = Max shear stress v = = = 23.7 KN/m (v/bjd) [(23.7x103)/(1000x0.841x130)] 0.22 N/mm2 < 1.7 N/mm2 permissible. [(0.3/100)x150x1000] 450mm2 [(0.3/100)x150x1000] 450mm2

CHAPTER 12

PEN STOCK

INTRODUCTION: A penstock is a piping system normally used in hydraulic power plant for conveying water from the reservoir to the powerhouse where the turbines are located to generate power. The height maintained between the powerhouse and the reservoir is the driving potential for the water to flow through the penstock and reaching to the turbine. When water flows through the penstock from the reservoir, it induces pressure in the inside surface of the penstock pipe. This pressure is the essential cause vibration in the pipe.

The cause of vibration may be due to bending of pipes, vortex shedding, turbulence, water hammering. Vortex shedding occurs when the flow past an obstacle such a sphere or any other disturbing object, resulting in vortices behind the object which may induce vibration.

Water hammer normally occurs during the opening or closing of valves. Severe vibrations may cause failure of the piping system that can cause the economic loss for the plant and in extreme cases it leads to loss of human lives. In order to minimize the vibration level to the best possible extent, Anchor Blocks (AB) which is concrete structures provided at the pipe joint with the ground and the intermediate portions of the pipe are supported by Rocker Arms (RA).

The aim of this work is to study the effect of flow-induced vibration in a penstock by coupling the fluid flow and the solid surface through the forces exerted on the wall by fluid flow.

The fluid flow causes the structure to deform it, and then produces changes in the flow; as a result feedback between the structure and flow occurs. This phenomenon is called as fluid structure interaction (FSI). FSI involves mainly three discipline; namely, computational fluid dynamics, structural mechanics and to some extent control systems theory.

The simulation is carried out by using a software package ANSYS where sequentially coupled physics analysis method is used for solving FSI problems.

PENSTOCKS

Penstocks can be installed over or under the ground, depending on factors such as the nature of the ground itself, the penstock mate rial, the ambient temperatures and the environmental requirements. Interred penstocks should be generally preferred to exposed ones, because of the smaller visual impact and possible movement barri ers for animals. Nevertheless the burying of penstocks could have major geological risks connected with the stability of steep slopes traversed by pipes, both during construction and operation. In fact during operation water leakage from an interred penstock could trig ger landslides much more easily than an exposed one. The following measures help to reduce the environmental impact of penstocks: PENSTOCK INTERMENT: Penstock interment should take place whenever possible. Pipe and coating technologies have reached a very good reliability level, so that an interred penstock requires practically no maintenance for decades and on the other hand the result for the environment and especially for the landscape is excellent. However to avoid problems connected with steel pipe corrosion, with eddy currents in the ground and to reduce maintenance, the use of plastic pipes (glass reinforced plastic or HDPE) is advisable.

UNCOVERED ANCHORING BLOCKS: The impact of an exposed outdoor penstock can be further reduced if the uncovered solution for anchoring blocks is adopted. That means that the penstock is not covered with concrete at the anchoring blocks but is connected to them by steel beams. This solution reduces the visual impact and allows for the inspection of the whole pipe resulting in higher construction and operation reliability.

Schematic diagram of water flow through the penstock.

PENSTOCKS WITHOUT EXPANSION JOINTS: Where a penstock cannot be interred for some reason, construction without expansion joints is preferable because it doesnt require any maintenance or any associated access tracks or roads to the penstock with the consequent reduction of environmental impact.

The factors include but are not limited to the following: a. Type of shutoff at the penstock intake: A quick closing shutoff at the penstock intake, operable under emergency conditions, may be an alternative to a shutoff at the powerhouse. Where maintenance and emergency shutdown can be satisfied with the intake shutoff, the requirement for powerhouse valves can seldom be justified. b. Length of penstock: A long section of penstock downstream of the shutoff will increase the time required to shut the unit down during an emergency closure, increase the time required to unwater the unit, and increase leakage losses. Maintenance and emergency shutdown requirements will usually justify a powerhouse shutoff when the penstock is several hundred feet long.

c. Head: A shutoff valve near the unit will reduce the effective head on the unit, which in turn will reduce the leakage. d. Multiple units per penstock: Operational and maintenance flexibility will normally require a separate shutoff valve for each unit. Generally, maintenance requirements alone will justify powerhouse shutoff valves for multiple unit penstocks. e. Type of wicket gate seal: A tight seal reduces leakage losses. However, deterioration of the seal with time should be considered when determining the effects of leakage. Evaluation of the factors should consider their effects on maintenance, emergency operations, and costs. The factors considered and basis of determination should be included in the mechanical design memorandum.

PENSTOCK SUPPORTS: Ring Girders Ring girders, which are used to support long span elevated penstocks, are constructed by welding steel plate rings to penstocks. All loads are transferred from the penstock to the ring girder and support legs. The support legs are welded to the ring girder, then attached to bearing plates. The bearing plates are attached to a concrete foundation. Ring girders should be visually inspected for signs of deterioration and distortion. Inspection of ring girders should also include the condition of the .coatings. The potential for premature coating failure is greater at ring girders than at adjacent smooth penstock surfaces because ring girder surfaces are irregular.

Often, ring girder supports must allow penstock movement caused by changes in temperature. This movement is usually accommodated in bearings located under the support legs. -Rocker, roller, and low friction slide bearings are commonly used for ring girder support. The bearings should be inspected to verify theirintegrity. They should be clean and well maintained to allow full penstock movement throughout the full range of design temperatures. Clean, well maintained bearings will help minimize forces in the penstock and anchorages. Saddle Supports Saddle supported penstocks typically span shorter distances between supports than ring girder supported penstocks discussed above. Stress concentrations occur at the tip of the saddle where "horn stresses" result in the penstock shell becoming unsupported. Saddles are usually constructed from reinforced concrete and support the lower 120-degree arc at the penstock invert. However, saddle supports may also be fabricated from rolled steel plate. Sheet packing that may be lubricated with graphite can be used as a cushion between the saddle support and the penstock. The sheet packing also permits limited movement of the penstock relative to the support as a result of temperature changes. If required, the penstock shell at saddle supports is stiffened by welding steel rings to the shell at each side of the saddle support. Saddle support inspection should include a coating inspection and inspection for signs of deterioration and high stress areas similar to ring girders. Localized buckling or distortion can occur at the penstock's upper contact points with a saddle support.

In addition, the condition of the concrete saddles should be noted and investigated for any signs of settlement or concrete deterioration. Inspection of the surfaces between the saddle and the shell is difficult, but important, because significant corrosion may be occurring in the contact area.

Anchor/Thrust Blocks Anchor/thrust blocks are designed to provide restraint to exposed penstocks at changes in alignment. They should be assessed to verify their support function has not been compromised. Thrust blocks should be examined for signs of settlement and movement and for any cracking or spalling of concrete.

TYPES OF JOINTS: Unrestrained Joints (Expansion

Joints and Bolted Sleeve-Type Couplings) Unrestrained joints include

expansion joints and bolted sleeve-type couplings. Typically, unrestrained joints are not working if any water is leaking past the seal or if the joint is seized. Look for leakage, cracked welds, base metal flaws, loose or missing bolts, and heavily corroded areas. In unrestrained joints, scrape marks or unpainted surfaces may be visible where the pipe has moved in relation to the follower ring.

Restrained or Fixed Joints Some basic types of restrained joints include lap welds, butt welds, flanges, butt straps, and various rubber-gasketed joints. Several methods used to attach these types of connections include rivets, forged welds, and arc-welds. Corrosion, erosion, and flaws in the original construction can affect the condition of structural welds, bolts, and rivets in the penstock.

i.

Riveted Joints In riveted joints, examine the

rivet head, butt strap, plate, and caulked edge conditions (fig. 5). Look for leakage past the rivets or the edges of the bands. Rivets may be missing, broken, or may have corroded or abraded heads. The base metal may also be corroded to the extent that rivets can pull through and be ineffective.

ii.

Forge-Welded Joints Experience with forge-welded joints has not been good. Flaws and

other fabrication defects, such as lack of fusion and slag, may be prevalent. The welding process used in forge-welded penstocks, in which the steel is heated to about 2000 EF, produces a loss of carbon, which makes the steel more susceptible to corrosion. As a result, if forge-welded joints are not well protected, corrosion may occur faster in the joints than in the base metal.

iii.

Welded Joints A representative portion of all

structural welding performed on the inside and outside of the penstock is visually examined for signs of rusting, pitting, or other structural defects. For welded joints, look for cracked base metal or welds, surface flaws, etc. Flaws in welds during construction can occur from high carbon content of the base material, embrittlement of the heat affected zone, improper preheat, and improper rate of cooling after welding. Typically, these problems are more likely to occur as the plate becomes thicker or when the joint is made under adverse construction conditions.

HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PENSTOCK Design discharge for penstock pipe ( 10% over design discharge ) = .. for single Full supply level at fore bay Lowest elevation of penstock Length of penstock (approximately) Dia of penstock D1 = = = = = = Velocity through penstock Area of penstock Head loss through penstock HL = 0.34 x ( V1.9 / D1.1 ) x ( L / 1000) Substitute in feet = 0.34 ( 18.041.9 / 12.211.1 ) x ( 984 / 1000 ) = = 5.2 feet 1.6m = = 59.60 cumec 19.87 cumec 1020.00 810.00 300m 1.12 Q0.45 H-0.12 3.72m 5.5 m/Sec 10.87 m2

WATER HAMMER PRESSURE Ph = ( C V0 / g ) x { 1 / ( 1+ 0.5 ) x [ 1 + As2 /( 4 Ao2 ) Vo / C x ( 1/ ( 1 + 0.5 )) ]} Where, Vo = velocity of flow in tunnel corresponding to maximum study flow, upstream of surge tank. As Ao Ph = = = = Ratio of surge tank to that of conduit = As/At = 6.56 Net cross section or of surge tank Area of the orifice ( or ) port = 20.42m2 ( 930.16 x 3 / 9.81) x [ 1/( 1 + 0.5 x 6.56 ) x { 1 + 133.942 x 6.56 / ( 4 x 20.422) 3 / ( 930.16 ) x ( 1 / ( 1 + 0.5 x 6.56 ))}] = 4.75MN/m2 in upstream side.

Consider C is a thin pipe the thick of which is small as compared to its diameter. C = [ ( g / w) / ( 1/ Ew ) + D / E.e]

Where g w Ew D = = = = acceleration due to gravity ( 9.81 m2 / Sec). Specific weight of water. Youngs modulus of elasticity of water. Dia of Head race tunnel.

E e

= =

Youngs modulus of elasticity of the conduit wall ( steel ) 0.92 ( constitutional joint efficiency )

Propagation of pressure wave: From clause 5.5.3.6 in IS 7396 ( part 1 ) 1985 Yo Interpolation: C = 883 + ( 1000 883 ) / ( 300 140 ) x ( 204.5 140 ) C = 930.16m/Sec = 204.5

TO FIND THE PRESSURE P: The internal pressure P is due to Static head + Dynamic head P = = = = = Static Head + Dynamic Head Ps + Ph h + Ph 9.81 x 204.5 + 4.755x103 6.761 N/mm2

LONGITUTINAL STRESS DUE TO BEAM ACTION: f Weight of water = = = .. Maximum moment at center = = M/Z 9.81 x 22/7 x 3.722/4 106.62 kN/m Wl2/8 2.998x106 Nm 0.45x106 Nm

Add 15% Extra moment due to self weight = .. M Moment of inertia I = = = Y Z = = = .. f = = 3.5x106 Nm

22 x (3.7564 - 3.724 )/( 7 x 64 ) 0.369 m4 1.86 m I/Y 0.1985 m3 M/Z 17.63 N/mm2

.. Assume allowable stress f1 = 17.63 N/mm2

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS: Circumferential Stress .. t f1 = = = Pd/2t f1 x 2 / P x d 0.0014 mm

But we provide 18 mm thick steel pipe Hence The Design Is Safe

LONGITUDINAL STRESS: Longitudinal Stress = = half of the hoop stress 8.815 N/mm2

CHECK: Longitudinal Stress Circumferential Stress = f1 Max Shear Stress = q Sx Sx Sy Se Se = = = = = = = = 8.815 N/mm2 17.63 N/mm2 800 N (f1 + f2)/2 + (f1 + f2)2/2 +q2 813.24 N/mm2 - 786.8 N/mm2 Sx2 + Sy2 + 2 Sx Sy 26.44 N/mm2

For exceptional condition Se 26.44 N/mm2 Maximum Longitudinal stress x 0.8 8.81 x 0.8 7.048 N/mm2

Hence The Design In Safe In Stress

DIAMETER OF BRANCH PIPE Y junction is required to be provided at the end of the Penstock for more then one unit. The present case having three units, The area required for each unit = Dia of Pensock D2 = = 3.62 m2 D1/20.4 2.82 m

Provide 2.82 m internal Dia Penstock of 18 mm thick having Outer Dia of 2.856 m. Area provided = 6.24 m2 > 3.62 m2

Hence the Design Is Safe

LINER THICKNESS: .. Thickness of steel liner as per Clause 8.2 in IS11639 (part 1) 1986 t = = = (D + 50)/ 800 (372+50)/800 0.53cm

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK: Essential results of the study are: Evaluation and assessment of the existing small-scale hydropower plants. Evaluation of ecologically justifiable development potential in existing plants that is of interest with regard to energy production Evaluation of ecologically justifiable development potential in undeveloped river stretches that is of interest with regard to energy production. On account of the worldwide growing energy demand renewable energy sources play an increasingly important role. Energy generated from hydropower which, in contrast to wind energy, ensures base-load supply, comprises an important component of the diversifications of energy resources. The interdisciplinary study of existing energy resources permits ecologically sustainable resources to be systematically developed in future in order to join the worldwide efforts for environmentally friendly and sustainable construction. New studies on the erection of new hydropower projects are needed. Most of the power plant projects currently being designed and built are based on more than 20-year-old studies. The technical, economic and ecological boundary conditions have changed significantly when one takes into account the globalization of the energy market. That is why it is necessary to elaborate power plant studies which address these changed conditions in order to achieve the best possible efficiency and effectiveness when implementing new hydropower projects.