U.S.

History

Europe

England:

• Economics – enclosure
o Economy began to revive
o Enclosure: property owners fence off land for grazing
 Squatters kicked off Hiof land => landless population
o Colonies = solution for landless peoples
• Merchant capitalism
o Merchants in look for investment opportunities
 Development of joint-stock companies
• Nationalism
o Spain = Britain’s greatest rival
o Defeat of Spanish Armada
o Belief that Britain could compete with Spain
• Mercantilism
o Economic theory
o Increase nation’s wealth at expense of other countries
 Export more
 Import less
o Colonies to provide raw materials nonexistent in mother-country
o Colonies = increased consumers
o Colonies seen as subservient to mother-country
• Religion: Protestant Reformation, Henry VIII
o Henry VIII married to Catharine of Aragon
 Birth of Mary Tudor
o Impregnates Anne Boleyn
 Demands annulment from Pope
 Pope refuses
o Henry VIII breaks away from Catholic church
 Forms Catholic Church
 Himself as head
o Anne Boleyn gives birth to girl
 Elizabeth I
 Anne Boleyn beheaded
o Marries Jane Seymour
 Gives birth to boy
• Edward
 Jane Seymour dies shortly after birth
o Marries Catherine Howard
 Commits adultery
 Beheaded
o Marries Catherine Parr

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 Protestant ideals
o Throne inherited by Edward
 Dies before adulthood
o Throne left to Mary Tudor and Elizabeth
 Mary Tudor becomes queen
• Replaces Anglican church with Catholic church
• Allowed persecution of protestants
• Marries Philip II of Spain
• Dies from growth in stomach
 Elizabeth I becomes queen
• Replaces Catholic church with Anglican Church
• Intense persecution of Catholics

Ireland:

• First English Colony

• Native population = Catholic
o Intense/brutal struggle
o Overwhelmed Irish with military force
o Continual struggle over centuries
• Image of Indians
o ‘Once a savage, always a savage’
o Fierce discrimination
o Persecution
o Extremely anti-Catholic
o Rationales for colonization
 Indians do not use the land the way it is intended
 ‘Savages’ to be saved from eternal damnation
 Land won’t be ‘taken away’, but shared

Colonial America

The Chesapeake:

• Virginia
o Roanoke
 Vanished Colony
 Assumed Indian ambush
o Jamestown
 John Smith
o Tobacco
 Economic salvation
 Needed cheap labor
 Needed land
o Indentured Servants

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 Temporary solution to cheap labor needs

 ‘indentured’ for a certain number of years
 Both male and female
 ‘buy-outs’ of servant term if married to rich spouse
o Headright system
 50 acre land grant per person brought to colonies
 Not for servants, but for those who pay for passage
o Legislature developed
 House of Burgesses
o Indian conflict
 Demand for land
 Bankrupts Virginia Company => leads to establishment of Royal
government
 Indians seen as obstacles
o Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)
 Against the elite by followers who wanted expansion
 Recognized problems of white indentured servants
 Alternative labor system needed
• African Slavery
• Maryland
o Proprietary
 Under control of a lord-proprietor
o Catholics
 Established as safe haven for Catholics (at beginning)
 Later, persecution of Catholics begins

New England:

• Puritans
o Purify church and society
 Make society better
o Work ethic
 Key to glorification of God
 Served his purpose
o Congregation and salvation
o Responsibility for unconverted
• Separatists-Puritans
o Went to Holland
o Attained charter to settle in New World
 Settle in Plymouth
o Built the Mayflower
o Mayflower compact
o
 Rules by which they would live

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• Massachusetts Bay Colony

o Larger Puritan migration
 Much more successful
o American exceptionalism: “city on a hill”
 John Winthrop’s ‘model community’/utopian society
o No diversity of opinion
 Diversity of opinion allows people to become confused and
develop radical new ideas
o Good of the community
 Paramount
 Individual sacrifice for the greater good
o Government by church members
o Leaders
o Families
o Education
o Problems: land, Indians, dissent
• Connecticut
o Very rich soil
o More liberal, more voting
• Rhode Island – Roger Williams
• Anne Hutchinson
o Claimed that many ministers were not part of the Elect
o Started bible-study meetings
 Worried ministers
o Claimed direct connection to God
 Put on trial for heresy
• Indians
o Problems
 Land disputes
o King Philip’s war
 Philip himself was killed
 Many killed on both sides
 English colonists felt extremely threatened
• New England Life
o Growing population
 Even mixture of genders
o Women played important roles
 Produce better food, everyday necessities
 Midwives
o Family economy
 All members support family in whole
o Food Production
 Large gardens

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 Domestic livestock
• Women took care of livestock preparation
 Food preservation for winter
o Town life
 Intra-town trading for needed goods

Restoration Colonies:

• English Civil War

o Charles I
 Beheaded
o Oliver Cromwell
 Established Puritan dictatorship
o Charles II
 Rewarded royalists
• Land in colonial America
• Dutch Colonies
o New York
 Already center of great ethnic diversity before arrival of English
o New Jersey
• Carolinas
o North and South Carolinas
 Originally thought of as one colony
 Esteemed by planters
• Especially southern portion
 Rice
 Tidewater = coastal area
 Piedmont = mesa-like inland area
 Appalachians to the west
• Barrier to expansion
 Scots-Irish peoples
• Pennsylvania
o Quakers
 Considered to be ‘dangerously radical’
 Society of Friends
 Doctrine of inward light
• Light of God present in everyone
o Even in slaves and Indians
o First ‘abolitionists’
 Pacifism
• Did not believe in any form of violence
 Civil disobedience
 Women
• Championed women’s rights

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• Equality
o William Penn
 Receives charter from king
 Advertises colonies/land in Europe
 Offers freedom of religion
o Immigration
 Germans
• Experiencing religious discrimination in Europe
• Known as ‘Pennsylvania Deutsch’
 Scots-Irish
 Swedes
o Conditions
 Fertile land
 Healthy climate
o Life
 Best relationship with Indians out of all colonies
 Immigrants = successful farmers
 Very liberal
• Georgia
o Last colony to be established (1733)
o General Oglethorpe
 Ruled with heavy hand
o Purpose
 Established as military buffer-zone against Spaniards in Florida
o Immigrants
 Convicts/criminals
 Fewest English colonists
 Largest Jewish population
• Extremely strong anti-Semitic sentiments
o Life
 Colonists demand more land
 General Oglethorpe replaced by royal rule

Maturing Colonial Society:

• Population Boom
o More women, larger families
o Mortality rates drop
o Very few immigrants actually attained dreams of wealth and property
• Interior
o France wanted to keep English from expanding west
o Spain wanted to keep English from expanding south
• Farming Society in the North
o Land ownership

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 Higher ownership
 Smaller income gap between rich and poor
 Division of land amongst sons
o Farm size and fertility
 Division of land = smaller farms per person
 Land becomes less and less fertile
• Due to over-farming
o New values
 More materialistic
 More individualistic
 Less spiritual
 Concerns that younger generation is losing focus
o Women
 Acted as business-partners for husbands
o More diversified economy
• Plantation South
o Improvements
o Tobacco coast
 Gentry lifestyle (culture of leisure)
• To be a gentleman
o Gentleman of leisure
o Do not work for a living
o Negative association with work
o Higher education
o Arts
o Government service
o ‘Grand Tour’ of Europe
o Plantations
 Large working farms
 Fairly isolated
o Rice coast
 Very rank/class-conscious society
 Tobacco and rice = main crops
o Economic problems
 Surplus of rice = lower prices
 Ups and downs
• Witchcraft
• International Conflict
o European wars
 Indians hired as mercenaries
 Problems in North East (New England) due to Indian wars
• Slavery
o Beginnings

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 Labor shortage for labor-intensive crop agriculture

o Slave labor in the South – change
o Slavery and the North
 Dependent on slave trade
• Production of slave ships
• Rum trade (Caribbean sugar)
• Sold fish to Caribbean plantations
o Change in nature of slavery
 Black slavery
• First association of skin color and caste
 Forced labor
 Pattern of relationships
 Slave codes
• Degradation of slaves into property
• Stripped of right to marriage
o Culture
 North
• Adapted faster to European culture
• Worked as servants (butlers, maids)
 Resistance/Rebellion
• Rebellion was not actually a major issue
• Resistance = major story for enslaved slaves
 Religion
• Traditional African religion
• Intense expressions of faith
 Family
• Fictive kin network
o Because blood-relations almost always separated
• Interracial sexual relationships
• Mixed race
o (mulatto)
o White slave owners, black women
• Slavery inherited by mother
o Therefore, mulattos = slaves

Witch Trials:

• Origins
o Family/class rivalries
o Hysteria/superstition
o Lack of understanding
o Fear led to scapegoating
• Witchcraft tests
o Usually defied logical sense
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o Usually unable to be rationally proven

o Tests eventually seen as fallacies
o But belief in witches still existed
o ‘guilty’ tended to be older, less attractive women (the vulnerable)

Instability:

• Revival of Mercantilism
o Colonies begin to trade with many other countries other than Britain
o Britain begins to unify empire
o Navigation Acts
 Taxes on trade
 Customs house in ever port to enforce trade rules and taxes
 Colonies begin to evade these regulations
• Dominion of New England
o Revoke charter of Massachusetts
o Under royal rule
o Colonies lost constitutional assemblies
o Unified all colonies of New England
• Glorious Revolution (1688)
o Rise of parliamentary power in England
o James II’s child accused of being ‘smuggled’
 In reality, he was legitimate
o Son was baptized Roman Catholic
 Religious motives to prevent inheritance of throne
 Royal family forced to flee
o William and Mary of Orange = new rulers of England
 Appointed by parliament
• Urban growth
o Political and economic importance
 Centers of social and political exchange
 Exchange of new ideas
• Enlightenment
o Contributed to revolutionary mindset
o Reason and self-thinking
o Potential for improvement
• Great Awakening 1720-1760
o Individual responsibility
o Religious pluralism
o Separation of church and state
 Established church = official church of the state
o Rehearsal for revolution
 Idea of being in charge of one’s own life
 Vastly empowering

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• Political life
o Colonial government
 Balanced interests
 Composition
 Voting and office-holding
• Women do not vote
• Indians do not vote
• Most blacks do not vote
 Representation: actual/virtual
• Colonists = actual
o Elected representatives truly represent the local
voter
• British = virtual
o Elected representatives represent the whole of
Britain
o Legislative assemblies
 Power to initiate legislation
• Ability to make laws themselves
 Power of the purse
• Control of money
o Local politics
o Political protest tradition
 Colonists believed that political protest was absolutely normal
and right
 English believed complete opposite
 Freedom of expression
• Political Ideas
o Republicanism
 People rule through elected representatives
o People retain sovereignty
 Political authority
o Government derives powers from people
 Leaders answer to the people
 Not God alone
o Government based on Locke’s social contract
 Life
 Liberty
 Property
 Government must be given consent by people
o Tyranny, slavery, liberty, virtue (virtuous citizen)
 Hobbes v. Locke
 Debate over whether human nature is evil or virtuous
• Seven Years War/French & Indian War

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o France & England, Indian allies

 For control of continent
o Trade
 English tried to control colonial trade
o Colonial revenue, cooperation
 War was extremely expensive
o Importance of Indians
 Good as allies or neutral
o Colonial military experience
 George Washington = horrible general
o Results
 British win, France lose
o Proclamation of 1763 – West of the Appalachians for Indians
 Stated that land west of Appalachians were reserved for Indians
 Colonists realized that British intentions were bad for ALL
colonists
• Aftermath
o Mercantilism
 Sugar Act
 Courts
 Stamp Act
• Everyone is affected
• Everyday needs taxed
o Concern about economic problems & need for self-government
o Stamp act protests, boycotts, Sons of Liberty
 Groups to organize protests of British policies
o Repeal of Stamp Act, passage of Declaratory Act
 Complete parliamentary authority over colonies
o Townshend Acts
 Duties on English goods
 Suspension of NY assembly
• Too many protests
• Boston Massacre
o British soldiers
 Fired upon crowd
 Massacre (became rallying point for protestors)
o Protest at customs house
 Boston had been suffering very severely after French & Indian
War
• Committees of Correspondence
o Tea Controversy
 Benefits to British company excused from tax
 Boycott

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 Boston Tea Party

• Coercive/Intolerable Acts – Massachusetts
o Aftermath of Boston Tea Party
• First Continental Congress (Sept. 1774)
o Philadelphia
 Met not to revolt, but to voice grievances only
o Galloway Plan
 Power to veto parliamentary legislation for colonies
 Rejected as ‘too conservative’
o Declaration of rights & resolves
o Non-importation, non-exportation, non-consumption association
 Hurts British
 Boycott of all British goods
o Military defense in Massachusetts
 British begin to get angry
• Lexington & Concord
o Opening battles of American Revolution
o Engaged in military contest with British

Second Continental Congress

• Decision for independence

o Cost of war
 British = most militarily powerful nation
 Momentum of spent money and lives
o Reaction against British recruitment
 British recruit Indians
 British recruit slaves with promise of freedom
 British recruit foreign mercenaries
• Germans (Hessians) from Hesse
 Feelings of betrayal
o Prohibitory Act
 Closed America to overseas trade
 To bring economy down
o Common Sense – Thomas Paine
 Considered most powerful political literature
 Pamphlet
• Declaration of Independence
o Thomas Jefferson
 Assigned to draft declaration
o Natural rights
 Stemming from enlightenment and republicanism
o Locke contract theory
 Violation of contract by king

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o Crimes of king
 List of grievances
o Public relations document
 To secure foreign support
 Clarify causes for break
 “all men are created equal”
• ‘Men’ = white property owners
 “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”
• Locke’s ‘property’ changed to ‘pursuit of happiness’

American Revolutionary War:

• 3 phases
• Revolution in North
o British troops from Canada/Nova Scotia
o Boston taken
o George Washington
 Great leader
 Much experience
 Weak military strategies
o Treaty of Paris
 Ends war

America

Revolutionary Effects:

• Loyalists, slaves, Indians

o Loyalists lost property/money/sometimes everything
o Slaves moved around
o Western expansion begins
• Women: army, rights
o English common law – coverture
 All of common law abolished except for coverture
• Applied to married women
• Women ‘covered’ by husband’s identity
• Husbands own everything including body
o Physical discipline ok
o Loss of dower rights
 Dower rights: right to 1/3 of INCOME of husband’s property
o Republican motherhood
 To instill patriotism in children
 Therefore, historical/patriotic education of women
• Economic change
o Shipping, domestic manufacturing

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 No more English provision of goods

 Importation of industrial technology from England

States:

• Republican government & property owners

o Power rests with people
o Written constitutions
• Ideals v. reality
o Elected officials instead of appointed
• State constitutions
o Constitutions put in place before government can be formed
o Many critical of state constitutions due to lack of uniformity
• Slavery – eliminated in North
o Slave trade ended in South
 Outlawed
o Problems with elimination of slavery
 Racism
 Investment
• Invested in slaves/trade
 Alternatives needed for dependent people
• Labor shortage

Congress and Confederation:

• Articles of Confederation (1781)

• Powers
o War
o Foreign relations
o Borrow & issue money
• No power to tax, regulate trade
o Stemming from disagreements with British during revolution
o Taxation
 Requests to states
 Must be unanimous
 Each state had 1 vote in congress
• Problems
o Diplomacy/border problems: Britain, Spain
 Britain refused to pull out all military
• Restricted expansion/trade
• Stirred up Indian trouble
 Spain closed Mississippi river to travel
• New Orleans = important trade port
o Trade: British restriction

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 Economy in stranglehold
o Revenue
 States in debt
 No money anywhere
o Congress
 Unsuccessful in decisions
• Success
o Land policy
 States ceded lands to Congress
 Ordinance of 1784
• Process of statehood
 Ordinance of 1785
• Grid system for land allocation
• Public school in every township section 16
 Northwest Ordinance of 1787
• Established Northwest Territory north of Ohio River
o Religious freedom
o Jury trial
o No slavery
 Pressure on Indians for Treaties
• Wayne
o Military commander
• Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)

Economic Problems:

• Shays’ Rebellion
o Massachusetts
o Debt relief
o Daniel Shays
• Depression and debt
• State debt and taxation
o To counter debts
• Poor farmer resistance & demand for paper money
o Increased printing of money = inflation

The Constitution:

• Demands
o Propertied interests
o Creditors
o Manufacturers
o Soldiers
• Annapolis Convention (1786)

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o Colonial representatives
o Discuss trade
o Only five states attended
o No quorum
• Shays’ Rebellion
o Unified states in recognition of problem and need for solution
• Constitutional Convention (1787)
o Key decisions
 Washington
• Presides over convention
 Secrecy
• Convention to be held in complete secrecy
• No leaks at all
• Wanted freedom from public pressure/political
repercussions
• James Madison (father of constitution)
 Madison’s Virginia Plan
• Based on population
• Two house Congress
• Proportional representation (population)
• New Jersey Plan
o 1 house congress
o Equal sate representation
• Great Compromise
o Lower house
 Population
o Upper house
 Equal state representation elected by state legislatures
o 3/5 clause for representation & taxation
o Slave trade to continue for 20 years
o Fugitive slave provision
 Provides for return of escaped slaves in North
• 3 Branches, new powers, checks & balances
o Power to tax, regulate commerce, etc.
o Necessary & proper clause
 Congress can do what is within their power to fulfill constitution
o Solved revenue problem
 Nation no longer dependent on state decisions for money
• No definition of citizenship, protected rights
• Federalism
o Solved problems of sovereignty
 Both states and fed. Government derived power from people
 Federal Government can tax in addition to state

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 Solved problem of concentrated authority

• Checks & balances: 3 branches
o Federalism:
 The division of power between the states and national
government
• Ratification & Federalist papers
o Nine states needed for ratification
o Federalists believed that separation of power = safer

Establishing the New Government:

• George Washington
• John Adams
o 1st vice president
• Executive branch
o State
 Thomas Jefferson = Secretary of State
o Treasury
 Alexander Hamilton = Secretary of the Treasury
o War
• Judiciary Act of 1789
o Set up federal court system (lower)
• Bill of Rights
o First 10 amendments to Constitution
 1
• Freedom of religion
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom of press
• Fight to petition
• Peaceful assembly
 2
• Right to bear arms
 3
• Quartering of soldiers
 4
• Search without warrant
 5
• Capital crime by grand jury
• Cannot be forced to testify against yourself
• Can’t be tried twice for same conviction (double jeopardy)
• Due process of law
• Eminent domain
o Compensation for public usage of property

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 6
• Speedy and public trial
• Right to witnesses
• Informed of nature of crime
• Right to have a lawyer
 7
• Jury for civil trials
 8
• No excessive bail
• No cruel or unusual punishment
 9
• Existence of people’s other rights not mentioned
 10
• Additional powers not mentioned left to the states/people
(implied powers) necessary powers can be followed
through by Congress

Political Parties:

• George Washington did not want to see parties “factions” develop

• 2 parties: Federalists and Republicans
• Alexander Hamilton & Federalists
o Objectives
 Centralized government
 Promote economic growth
• Domestic manufacturing
• International commerce
 Promote commercial alliance with British
o Actions
 Creates government bonds, sells back to war creditors
 Relieves all states of all war debts
 Formation of national bank
 Excise taxes
• Placed on goods
• Most famous = whiskey tax
o Whiskey rebellion (1794)
 Western Pennsylvania
 Class conflict
• Farmers vs. rich men
 Excise tax
• Tax placed on whiskey hurts small farmers
• Rebelled
 George Washington personally rides out to Pennsylvania
 Military force exercised
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• Jeffersonian Republicans
o French Revolution
 French asks America for help
o Genet Affair
 Frenchman criticizes Washington
o 1796 Adams Vs. Jefferson
o Quasi War
o France
 High tensions between America and France
o XYZ Affair
 French agents ask for bribes before negotiations
o Alien and Sedition Acts
 Alien act: president has power to expel, imprison aliens without
trial
 Sedition act: crime to express any ideas that criticizes/disrespects
government
 Brings government into disrepute
o Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions 1789/99 nullification
 Jefferson suggested that states have right to determine
constitutionality of federal laws
 Nullification: right to pick and choose which laws to enforce
 No supporters, but provoked much discussion on alien and
sedition acts, and the course of country
• Strong federal powers or more power to people
o Revolution of 1800
 Election of 1800
• Thomas Jefferson elected
• More open, more liberal direction
o Judiciary Act of 1801 & Midnight Appts.
 Passed by congress under Madison
• Marbury Vs. Madison (1803)
o Marbury = suing judge
o John Marshall
 Member of supreme court
 Made many important rulings
 Rules that Marbury is entitled to court commission, BUT decides
Judiciary Act of 1789’s Writ of Mandamus unconstitutional
o Judicial review
 Power of judicial branch to review/deem laws unconstitutional
• McCulloch Vs. Maryland (1819)
o Implied powers
 Government has powers to do what is deemed ‘necessary and
proper’

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Jeffersonian Era:

• Limited Government
o Supported by Jefferson
o Did not think that government had/needed much power
 Only needed foreign affairs, land management, etc.
 Focus should be at state level
 Wanted to reduce national debt
• Agrarian Republic
o Political liberty
 In order to have true political liberty, equal distribution of political
power (equality)
 Broad wealth distribution
 Believed political equality lay in farming society
o Independent yeoman farmer
 Independent, self-sustaining farmer
 Concerned with public good (virtuous citizen)
 Has investment in community
 Need land for such society
o Benefits of expansion
 Secure borders
 More living room
 Sale of public lands = reduce national debt
• Louisiana Purchase
o Lewis & Clark Expedition
 Searched for water-route to Pacific
 Collected information on flora and fauna
 Retuned home with animals and plant samples
o Indians
 Hostile, and docile groups
• Foreign Affairs and Neutral Rights
o Trade: Britain & France
 Both countries try to prevent American trade with the other
• Violation of American rights as neutral country
o Impressment
 British practice
 Captured American/Frenchmen and forced them into service
 Brutal conditions/discipline
 Seized American merchant ships (claimed desertion)
• British did not recognize ‘naturalization’ of French
immigrants
 Violation of American rights as neutral country
 H.M.S. Leopard Vs. U.S.S. Chesapeake

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• American demands of reparations and end of

impressments
• Only demands of reparations met
o Non-importation and Embargo
 In response to impressments
 Prohibited U.S. ships to dock at foreign ports
 Much too harsh, caused depression
o Non-intercourse act
 Limited embargo
• Hurt England
• Convinced them to repeal blockade
• Frontier Problems
o Western conflict – Tecumseh
 Head of Indian resistance
 Tried to unite tribes
 British influence to stir up trouble with Indians
o Florida and Spain
 Spanish control
 Blocked access to gulf ports
• War Hawks
o Advocated war, tired of suppression
o Clay
 Elected youngest speaker of the house
 Pressured for war
o Calhoun
 Nationalistic
• War of 1812
o Canadian Invasion
 Ended in failure
 Lack of sufficient military forces
o British blockade
 Damages economy
o Great Lakes
o Jackson V. Indians/Spanish
 Southeast
 Invades Indian villages
 Invades Spanish Florida
o Burning of Washington
 Invasion of east coast by British
o Battle of New Orleans
 War technically over, but word had not arrived to battlefront
 Jackson’s force
• Including African Americans/Pirates/Indians

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• 8 American dead, 13 wounded - American

• 700 dead, 1400 wounded – British
• Trench warfare by Americans
• Jackson becomes national hero
• Hartford Convention
o New Englanders/Federalists fed up with war
o Believed to be “Madison’s war”
o Wanted to ‘nullify’ war
o Extremely desperate to revive trade
 Willing to secede from Union
 Considered treason
o Tainted Federalist part
 Convention = death blow to Federalists
 Fades away
• Treaty of Ghent 1814
o Ended fighting
o Issues of impressments, Indians, trade, etc. not resolved

Development and Nationalism:

• Effects of War
o Nationalism
o Economic growth, manufacturing, tariffs
 Tariffs = taxes on imported goods
 Importation of manufacturing technologies
 Hurts south, who had always imported goods
o Expansion
 Indians
 Transportation
• Steamboat
• Railways
 West
• Opening of western land
• Land speculation increase
• Era of Good Feelings
o After War of 1812
o President Monroe tours all of country
o Only one political party
• Panic of 1819
o Economic depression
o Began in land speculation
 Easy credit policies
 Bad loans
 Foreclosures

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o 6-year long depression

o Divisions in Republican party
 Questions about national growth
• Missouri Compromise
o Missouri appeals for admission to Union (1819)
o Wants to enter as slave state
o Also known as the Compromise of 1820
o Three parts
 Enter as slave state
 Slave/free state balance to be equalized by creation of state of
Maine
 36⁰ 30’ line of latitude
• Slavery below, none above
• Election of 1824
o National Republicans
 Later known as Whigs
 John Quincy Adams
• Son of John Adams
 Clay
• Speaker of the house
 Crawford
 Jackson
• Wins plurality vote
• Most votes of all candidates, but not majority
• Accuses Clay and Adams of corrupt bargaining
o Democratic Republicans
 Jeffersonian Republican descent
 Later called Democrats
o “Corrupt bargain”
• Election of 1828
o Jacksonian Democracy
 Believed in Jeffersonian Republic
• Farming society
 Believed that every man entitled to right to rise in society and to
vote
o Mass Politics
 Expansion of suffrage
• Extended vote to every white man landed or unlanded
o Way to expand power of government and the
common white man
 New political styles and parties
• Engaged in mass voter-conversion campaigns
• Needed to reach thousands of new voters

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• Required national, state, local party organizations

o Rallies
o Parades
o Picnics
• Relied more on popular emotion/flavor of the month
issues
 Patronage
• Vast amounts of money needed to campaign for office
o Washington Politics
 Sex Scandals
• Election of 1828
o Polygamy committed by Rachel Jackson
o Partially true (occurred much too long ago to be
relevant)
• Eaton Affair
o Secretary of War John Eaton
 Margaret Eaton = mistress
• Tariff of Abominations
o South Carolina Exposition of 1828
 Pamphlet that opposed Tariff
 Written anonymously by Calhoun (Vice President)
 Cited Jefferson in view of nullification
• Believed that Tariff was unconstitutional
o 1828 = Highest tariff ever
o Differences between North and South
• Webster-Hayne Debate
o Webster – North
o Hayne – South
o Calhoun’s Compact Theory (supported by Hayne)
 Idea that states forged Constitution union
 If states made union, they have power to break it
o Permanent union (supported by Webster)
 People of America created union, so no group of people/states
has right to destroy this union
 Sectionalism = extremely dangerous
 Considered the best political speaker of time
• Jefferson Birthday Dinner
o Annual Democratic party
o Jefferson announces support of Permanent union
o Calhoun disagrees “Union NEXT to liberty”
• Nullification Crisis 1832-33
o Calhoun leads nullification effort in South Carolina of Tariff
o Force Bill passed by Congress for Andrew Jackson to use force

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o Henry Clay – Compromise

 Tariff would be gradually decreased
• Indian Removal
o Trail of Tears
 Removal of Indians from Southeastern land/territory
 Relocated to present day Oklahoma
• Cherokee – No resistance
• Seminoles – Swamp Guerilla
• Chickasaw – Tried to move in luxury, but taken advantage
of by white settlers
• Bank War
o Jefferson believed that the National Bank would turn US into
manufacturing country
o Replaced National Bank with his own
 Complete failure
 Economic disaster
o Later replaced by new plan

Economic Growth:

• Economic Expansion
o Great population increase
 Both natural and by immigration
• Immigrants = cheap labor
o Transportation
 Roads, canals, railroads
o Government sponsorship for economic growth
 Court-supported property laws
 Innovation
 New businesses
 Emphasis on education
• Free public education
• North – Agriculture
• South – Cotton
• Manufacturing
o Mainly in north
o Industrial manufacturing
• Capitalism
o Economic policies (capitalism) of Adam Smith
o Economic competition
 Free market
 Based on supply and demand/competition

The South:

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• Cotton
o Brokers/factors as bankers
 Advances/lends money to planters for growing season
o Lack of transportation
 Planters did not need/build means of transportation
o Profitability of cotton
 Bulk of southern economy
 Due to northern textile mill growth
o Investment in land and slaves
o Values
 Culture of leisure
• Did not believe in actual work
 Gentry lifestyle
• Frowned upon factory management
• Society
o ¼ slave owners
 ¼ of whites
 Majority owned 5 or fewer slaves
o Planter class – new rich
 20 slaves = requirement to enter Planter class
o Risky business, instability
 Cycles of prosperity and inflation
o Determination to defend status
o Avoid ‘work’, admiration of military
o Honor – dignity and authority, manhood
o Lady – right of protection, duty to obey, active producers, little education
• Poor Whites
o Yeoman farmer, no education
 Unable to break in to planting
 Lived near cotton terrain, tried to set aside some land to move up
to cotton
 Supported planters by ginning and other small jobs
o Hill people and subsistence agriculture
 Small family farmers
 Lived in mountainous terrain
 ‘Hillbillies’
 Just enough income to feed family
o Isolated from commercial cotton economy
 Lack of education and status
 Nowhere to go
 Stuck in their class
o Other small farmers dependent on planters
 Gins
 Markets
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 Credit
o Household economy
• Free Blacks

Reform:

• Cycles of history
• Foundations of reform
o Areas that need improvement become noticed
• Second Great Awakening
o Emphasis on personal responsibility
o Idea of universal salvation
• Poverty, Women, Slavery
o Women play more active role in charity organizations
o Human equality before God
 Churches come to believe that slavery is morally wrong
• Most significant reform movements & why?
o Abolition
 Many believed transition should be gradual rather than
immediate
• Compensation for owners?
• Sudden loss of labor
• Colonization of Africans in Africa was possible solution
o Present day Liberia – African colonization effort
o Temperance (anti-alcohol)
 Seen as
• Religious reform
• Pro-family
• Pro-children
 Problems of domestic violence
 Squandering of family wage by men
• Drinking
• Gambling at the saloons
• Prostitution
o Venereal diseases
o Women’s Rights
 Closely allied with abolitionist movement
 Lack of suffrage seen as main problem
• Women had no political clout
 Large convention at Seneca Falls
• Wide array of issues/grievances
 Later on, women seen as tool to gather more votes
• To further men’s own agendas
• (slavery, temperance, etc.)
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o Education
 Growth of public schools
 Growth of colleges
 Standardization of curriculum
 Webster’s dictionary
o Prisons
 Old prisons modeled on European system
 Limits on who could be jailed (no debtors, etc.)
 Emphasis shift from punishment to more rehabilitation

Sectionalism:

• Manifest Destiny
o Idea that America’s cultural and ideological superiority gave us right and
duty to expand to rest of continent
• Texas
o Alamo
 Major defeat
 Mexican general Santana overwhelms Fort Alamo
 Americans fight to the death
• Martyrs
o San Jacinto
 American Victory
 Texas established as the ‘Lone Star’
• Wants to join the union as state
• Turned down because of upset of free-slave state balance
• James Polk
o Wanted territory
o Sends negotiators to Mexico
 Wants to purchase California and Mexican territories
• The Mexican War
o Motivation
 Expansion
 Territorial greed
o War
 American army stationed along border
 Mexicans => Pre-emptive attack
o Objections
 Northerners opposed to war
• Saw war as a Southern war for expansion of slavery
o Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
 U.S. receives 1/3 of Mexican land
• Includes land all the way to entire western seaboard
• Development of Sectionalism

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• Wilmot Proviso & Compromise of 1850

o Wilmot Proviso
 Slavery debated instead of as economic issue, but as moral issue
o Compromise of 1850
 Aggregate of many little compromises
 Extremely controversial
 Sets stage for sectional divisions/conflicts and secession crisis
o Compromises that formed the Compromise of 1850
 California
• Admission to state would upset free-slave state balance
 Utah & New Mexico
• Popular sovereignty
o Advocated by Steven Douglas of Illinois
o States should decide for themselves whether to
enter as slave or free state
 District of Columbia
• Northerners did not want slavery in the capitol
• Compromise stated that slave trade would stop, but
slavery would continue
 Fugitive Slave Act
• Organized special courts for slave trials
o Testimony by slaves not allowed
o No jury
o Any northerner could be requested to help capture
slave
o Helpers of fugitive slaves subject to prison and
fines
 Outcomes
• Uncle Tom’s Cabin
• Kansas-Nebraska Act
o Repealed Missouri Democrats
o Formed Republican party
• Republican Party
• Bleeding Kansas and Caning of Sumner

Civil War:

• Union strategy
o Split Confederacy down Mississippi
 Capture of Louisiana successful
• Confederate strategy
o Based on defense (easier)
• Policy and politics
o Foreign policy

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 South looked for ally in British

• Lincoln alarmed
• Due to British need of cotton for textiles
• Alliance never occurs due to British focus on other
colonization efforts
• British had growing anti-slavery movement
o Finance
 Raise taxes
• Temporary income tax
o First time
o Small
 Borrow money
 Print more money
o Northern Draft
 New York City Draft Riot
• Immigrants revolt against unfair draft policies
• Policies favored certain classes
• Believe policies are discriminatory
 Draft substitutes policy
• Hiring of people to serve your term in military
• Generally only benefit rich
o Southern Draft
 Draft policy
• Every 20 slaves owned could exempt 1 white man
• ‘20’ slaves is magic number to qualify as ‘planter elite’
• Extremely discriminatory
o Small farmers can least afford to be away
o Caused great class resentment throughout war
o Unpopularity of leadership
 President Lincoln
• Seemingly inept generals
• Has no personal war experience
• Accused of cowardice
• Radicals believe that Lincoln is weak
• Conservatives believe that Lincoln is a ‘tyrant’
o Suspends rights of habeas corpus
 Border states
 In order to prevent border states from
seceding
 Claimed violation in order to preserve union
 President Davis
• Blame falls upon president for military defeats
• Cold and removed personality

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• Extremely uncompromising
• Emancipation Proclamation
o Announced after Battle of Antietam
o Military measure
o Southern states would be freed if Southern states do not cease fighting
 Only Southern states, border states untouched
• In order to keep border states with union
o Hurts Confederacy
 States see hope
 Production slows
 Slaves escape
o African American men can volunteer for military service
 Border state slave enlistment = high
 African American enlistment = 1/8 of all troops
 Extremely critical for war, reconstruction, rights movements
• 1863-1863 Union Gains
o Battle of Gettysburg
o Civil war considered ‘first modern war’
 Large casualty rates due to technological improvements
 Desertion rates increase
• Successful Union generals
o Grant
 Eastern front
o Sherman
 Rips through deep south
 Appropriation of any supplies that could support South
 Reaches Savannah near Christmas, plows on through North
Carolina
• Appomatox
o Lee surrenders
o ‘healing peace’
 No harsh feelings
o Lincoln assassinated 5 days later by John Wilkes Booth
 Ford’s Theatre
 First presidential assassination
 National shock
o 618,000 men dead
• Aftermath
o Mass loss of middle-aged men
o Women in workforce
o Kids must grow fast
o Injured men must continue work/business
o Heavy economic costs

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 20 billion dollars property/monetary loss

o Andrew Johnson unprepared for sudden assumption of office
• Unresolved questions
o Status of slaves
 Reconstruction gives slaves more rights
o Status of South
• After the war
o Lincoln
 Gettysburg address
• Talks about goals, purposes
• ‘ultimate test of republican government’
o Freedmen
 Reunite families
 Own private land
o White south
 Feel a terrible injustice has been had
 Black codes
• Enforce racism
o Outlawed interracial marriage
o Segregation laws

Reconstruction

• Johnson
o Restoration of property rights
o Full pardon
o Amnesty
• Congress
o Civil Rights Act
o Fourteenth Amendment
 Citizenship
 Due process
 Suffrage
 Office holding
 Compensation
• Moderate Republicans & 15th Amendment
o Race
o Politics
o Gender
• Johnson
• Congress
o Civil Rights Act
o Fourteenth Amendment
 Citizenship

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 Due process
 Suffrage
 Officeholding
 Compensation
• Moderate Republicans & 15th Amendment
o Race
o Politics
o Gender
• Southern Economics
o Crop lien system (sharecropping)
 Farmers (both black and white)
 Provides a degree of independence compared to contract laboring
 Farmland rented out
• Share of crop at end of harvest
• Equipment/supplies lent out on credit
o High interest
o Perpetual debt
o Vicious cycle
o Provided cheap labor force for landowning class
o Scapegoat of blacks to prevent a united laboring
class
o Black Self-Help
 African Americans take things into their own hands
• Black public schools
• Black colleges
• Creation of black middle class
o Leads others through transition
• Jim Crow segregation
o Banks, stores, restaurants, etc.
• Black banks
o Created opportunities
o Supported black communities
• Black Insurance
o Because white insurance companies would not
serve blacks
o State Reconstruction
 Carpetbaggers
• Northern republicans (many former Northern soldiers)
• Detested by Southerners
• Looked for business opportunities
 Scalawags
• ‘scoundrels’ that betrayed the South by cooperating with
North

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• Former Southern Whigs (opposed secession)

• Business men who wanted economic growth and reform
• Poor whites looking for change/schools
 Middle class moderate blacks
• Worked for public education
• Advancement of black society
 White Supremacist organizations
• KKK
o Nightriders
• Knights of the White Camellia
o Politically focused
o End of Reconstruction
 1872 Financial Panic
• Depressions were called ‘panics’
 Democrats receive power for first time after Civil War
 Compromise of 1877
• Republicans agree to remove troops from South
• Republicans continue to give economic aid
• Republicans will not enforce 14th and 15th amendments
o No civil rights
o No voting rights
 1965 Voting rights act
• Truly enforces 14th amendment

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