590059307

Introduction
'This is a People's War,' said Ian prophetically, 'and the People won't have poetry and the won't have flowers. Flowers stin . The !pper classes are on the secret list. We want heroes of the people, to or for the people, "y, with and fro# the people.' $velyn Wa!%h, Men At Arms1

The o!t"rea of war created conf!sion a#on% the &eft. Were they to s!pport a pop!lar front or to s!pport appease#ent' (ivisions "etween the &eft were characterised "etween those who were a%ainst all violence and those who wanted class war. )onf!sion was f!rther co#po!nded "y the actions of the *oviet +nion, the e#"odi#ent of &eft val!es had allied itself with ,a-i .er#any. The &a"o!r &eft was e/!ally conf!sed. In the pa%es of Tribune, )ripps and 0evan %reeted the war with an article entitled '1!r (!ty2'. The war #!st "e fo!%ht on two fronts 3 a%ainst ,a-is# and a%ainst 0ritish )apitalis#, aptly represented "y the )ha#"erlain %overn#ent. 4 5nti6#ilitaris# was still prevalent in the &a"o!r ran s, who had for%ed their *ocialis# d!rin% the First World War. 0!t "y the end of 7980 there was a rel!ctant s!pport for the war. The leaders of the &a"o!r Party and the &i"erals had entered in an electoral tr!ce with the )onservatives 3 which was to "e the #ost d!ra"le feat!re of the ever chan%in% conflict. The electoral tr!ce, the war econo#y and #o"ilisation rapidly depleted the 800,000 #e#"ership of the )onstit!ency &a"o!r Parties. There were no local or national elections to contest, and active #e#"ers were li ely to "e called !pon to serve on co##ittees as representatives of the wor in% class. 'The 9"lac o!t:, the transference of la"o!r, the callin% !p of lar%e "odies of #en for the 5r#ed Forces and the vast a#o!nt of overti#e "ein% wor ed in ind!strial re%ions, the widespread evac!ation, the 9 ey: #e#"ers servin% in the 5;P, etc. 3 all these factors have created serio!s

7 4

Wa!%h, $., Men At Arms, <&ondon, 79==>, p. 730 Tribune ? *epte#"er 7939

590059307 pro"le#s'.3 (eclinin% #e#"ership, co!pled with #any local parties sh!ttin% down for the d!ration of the war. 1thers lost pre#ises and #e#"ers when the "o#"in% ca#pai%n "e%an to stri e the centres of the "i% cities in late 7980. 0y 7987 it was widely ar%!ed that the &a"o!r Party was on its final le%s.8 The sa#e factors also effected the )onservative and &i"eral 5ssociations. Politics /!ic ly lost its peaceti#e character. Politicians of all three parties cooperated for the national effort.5 1pposition to the war ca#e fro# the I&P, the Trots yites, the Pacifists and the )o##!nist Party. Three fascists stood in "y6elections in early 7980, "!t in @ay @osley was interned as well as his leadin% followers. In 7939 the I&P were wed%ed "etween &a"o!r and the )o##!nists. The &a"o!r Party had offered !nconditional re6affiliation, "!t the I&P )onference called to disc!ss the offer had convened for *epte#"er 7939, "!t never #et. = The Trots yites were a force of a few h!ndred split "etween two or%anisations of which Aoc Baston's Wor ers International &ea%!e too the lion's share. )onscientio!s o"Cection was s!pported "y a variety of reli%io!s, political and pacifist %ro!ps which for#ed a co##on clearin% ho!se na#ed the )entral 0oard of )onscientio!s 1"Cectors. @any of those who had opposed war in the 7930s now fo!nd it i#possi"le to deny the i#portance of resistance to Bitler. The proportion of those clai#in% the ri%ht of conscience when their a%e %ro!p was re%istered fell fro# a"o!t 4D at the start of the war to aro!nd one in 400 less than a year later. The fall of the )ha#"erlain %overn#ent in @ay 7980, and the &a"o!r leaders' acceptance of )h!rchill's offer to Coin the new coalition left no "ase for *ocialist opposition to the eEec!tion of war, apart fro# the irrelevant I&P, s!spect )o##!nist Party #e#"ers and a tiny #inority of conscientio!s o"Cectors. There was an overwhel#in% #ood of national !nity, a phase of eEtrava%ant
3 8 5 =

0aEter, A. T., '5ro!nd the &ocal Parties', Labour Organiser, Aan!ary 7980 5lli%han, .., 'The F!t!re of the &a"o!r Party', New Statesman, 7 Fe"r!ary 7987 )alder, 5., ')o##on Wealth', +np!"lished Thesis <+niversity of *!sseE, 79=?>p. 4 I"id, p. 3

590059307 effort in the factories stirred !p the e#otions of everyone fro# left6win% socialists to the #ost hardened of patriots. War a%ainst Bitler and rapid social chan%e appeared to "e synony#o!s. 1rwell wrote that 'we are in a stran%e period of history in which a revol!tionary has to "e a patriot and a patriot has to "e a revol!tionary'. 7 0!t the #ood of !nity, created in those heady days of the s!##er of 7980, soon dissipated as Bitler's "o#"s rained down on the cities and eEposed the inade/!acy of %overn#ent preca!tions and the inco#petence of social services. Prices were risin% faster than wa%es and the war econo#y wo!ld not consolidate !ntil #id 7987. The &eft "e%an to Ci"e that &a"o!r #inisters had "een %iven the .overn#ent's dirty wor to do, "eca!se it was 0evin who restricted the wor ers' freedo# of #ove#ent and @orrison who s!ppressed the Daily Worker.? The &eft had previo!sly loo ed to )ripps for direction and leadership in the 7930s, "!t his e#"assy to @oscow c!t hi# off fro# his followers. 0evan /!ic ly filled the void )ripps had left. 0evan owed his position to his #astery as a parlia#entary de"ater, and his strate%ies were always "ased on Parlia#ent. In a sit!ation where all "!t a tiny handf!l of left, pacifist and independent @Ps followed the coalition into the division lo""y, this left hi# as the pariah, a role which he appeared to relish. 0y 7984 the war was %oin% "adly, #orale was low and *ocialis# had not arrived. )ripps had ret!rned fro# ;!ssia and the &eft hoped for a fleetin% #o#ent that )ripps wo!ld "e an opposition to )h!rchill, "!t )ripps soon "eca#e a loyal #e#"er of the )oalition .overn#ent. Fro# then on there was nothin% left to do "!t reiterate, with decreasin% conviction, that the war co!ld not "e won witho!t *ocialis# and "eratin% the %overn#ent for not i#ple#entin% the 0everid%e ;eport in its entirety i##ediately. 5t no point thro!%ho!t the war did or%anised *ocialis# score any points a%ainst the ;i%ht !ntil, that is, )o##on Wealth "e%an to win "y6elections. This dissertation will eEplore the relationship "etween the )o##on Wealth and &a"o!r Parties d!rin% the war and d!rin% 5ttlee's first %overn#ent, 798567950. Thro!%ho!t the war, relations
7 ?

'The Bo#e .!ard and Fo!', Tribune, 40 (ece#"er 7980 )alder, 5., ')o##on Wealth', +np!"lished Thesis <+niversity of *!sseE, 79=?>p. 8

590059307 "etween &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth were al#ost non6eEistent. Bowever, as will "e shown, there was scope for close relations d!e to a co##on political philosophy and policy sets, partic!larly in response to post6war reconstr!ction plans. In re%ards to the war6ti#e "y6elections, )o##on Wealth appeared to "e the recipient of anti6political party senti#ent "!t, in all act!ality, was the s!rro%ate &a"o!r vote. Toward the close of the war, )o##on Wealth approached &a"o!r for affiliation "yt was reCected on the "asis that affiliation wo!ld not "e "eneficial to &a"o!r. )o##on Wealth was advised to dissolve and Coin &a"o!r as individ!als 3 which #any of the# did. 5s individ!als, )o##on Wealth #e#"ers had an infl!ence on the &a"o!r Party in the for# of the Geep &eft .ro!p and the )a#pai%n for ,!clear (isar#a#ent. The relationship "etween &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth d!rin% the war and the i##ediate post6war period was varied and, at ti#es, t!r"!lent and !npredicta"le. This dissertation will detail and doc!#ent the relationship "etween the two parties. First, "y co#parin% and contrastin% &a"o!r's and )o##on Wealth's post6war plans in conC!nction with the wider de"ate on post6war reconstr!ction. *econd, "y eEplorin% )o##on Wealth's achieve#ents at the post6war "y6elections, the #ove#ent away fro# political parties 3 which has "een eEplored in depth "y *tephen Fieldin% 3 and co#parin% the two parties res!lts at the 7985 .eneral $lection. Third, "y co#parin% and contrastin% the str!ct!re of the two parties, and eEplorin% the ne%otiations s!rro!ndin% )o##on Wealth's "id for affiliation. Fo!rth, "y eEplorin% the for#er #e#"ers of )o##on Wealth's infl!ence on the &a"o!r Party, as individ!als and as a collection of individ!als.

590059307

Brave New World

Post-war reconstruction and the planned economy
5nd that after this is acco#plished, and the "rave new world "e%ins. When all #en are paid for eEistin% and no #an #!st pay for his sins... ;!dyard Giplin%

Introduction
The settle#ent after the First World War was rather !nsatisfactory to all concerned, so #!ch so that it had led to the *econd World War. The "elief was that history wo!ld not repeat itself and the post6 war settle#ent wo!ld "e satisfactory and lead to lastin% peace and prosperity. in 7939 every ad!lt re#e#"ered, or was the child of parents who re#e#"ered, 797867?. 95 land fit for heroes to live in: had not #aterialised !nder a Bo!se of )o##ons of 9hard6faced #en who had done well o!t of the war:. This ti#e pro#ises wo!ld not "e eno!%h.9 The de"ate that had en%!lfed a lar%e section of the 0ritish pop!lation was centred on the post6war reconstr!ction 6 what the new 0ritain wo!ld loo li e. For those on the &eft, the new 0ritain co!ld only eEist with the adoption of *ocialis# and th!s the planned econo#y. It was i#perative that *ocialis# "e "ro!%ht to fr!ition in order to s!ccessf!lly defeat Bitler and the ,a-is. It was 1rwell who saidH 'We cannot esta"lish anythin% that a western nation wo!ld re%ard as *ocialis# witho!t defeatin% BitlerI on the other hand we cannot defeat Bitler while we re#ain econo#ically and socially in the nineteenth cent!ry'.70 The two, *ocialis# and the defeat of Bitler, were synony#o!s. 1ne co!ld not eEist witho!t the other. The p!rpose of the war, as espo!sed "y the &eft6win% intelli%entsia, was to defeat ,a-is# and constr!ct a "etter 0ritain and a "etter $!rope. This chapter
9

70

5cland, ;., An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, )hapter 4, p. 4 1rwell, .., T#e Lion and t#e Uni$orn So$ialism and t#e %nglis# &enius, <&ondon, 7970>, pp. 9569=

590059307 will "e foc!sin% on plans for a post6war 0ritain. First, "y loo in% at how the &a"o!r Party's econo#ic and social policy developed in relation to the war, the party's relationship with Geynes and the planned econo#y. *econd, "y eEplorin% )o##on Wealth's ta e on )o##on 1wnership, its own "rand of a planned econo#y, also loo in% at the party's relationship with Geynes and its criticis# of the &a"o!r Party. Third, "y loo in% at the "road criticis# of a planned econo#y and how it is not that #!ch different fro# the philosophy as preached "y Bitler. Fo!rth, "y loo in% at the 0everid%e report and how it infl!enced the vario!s political parties in 0ritain and the overarchin% post6war plan for co#prehensive social sec!rity. What will "e #entioned "riefly is an eEplanation of the two econo#ic types of *ocialis# 3 $fficiency *ocialis# and (istri"!tional *ocialis#, as they will appear thro!%ho!t this dissertation as !nderlyin% the#es. $fficiency *ocialis# is concerned with the increase in efficiency of the econo#ic syste# which involves !tilisin% inflation, to defend a%ainst !ne#ploy#entI physical plannin%I and nationalisation. In order to c!rtail the ill effects of inflation either price control, rationin% and i#port /!otas #!st "e i#posed or an eEact "alance "etween s!pply and de#and at f!ll e#ploy#ent #!st "e reached. Physical plannin% ste#s fro# the desire to c!rtail inflation and fro# the "elief that capitalis# #isallocates reso!rces as %oods are prod!ced for profit not !se. ,ationalisation also ste#s fro# the sa#e tradition as plannin% in that efficiency is i#proved thro!%h %reater centralisation, either thro!%h trade "oards or nationalisation. (istri"!tional *ocialis#, on the other hand, is concerned with the concentration of wealth in a s#all percenta%e of the pop!lation. Ine/!alities lead to poverty d!e to low prod!ctivity, !ne#ploy#ent and '#isfort!ne'. These two strands of *ocialis# has entranced &a"o!r and other left6win% parties, yet they have not always #ana%ed to !nify the two.

Labour's economy
Fro# the adoption of the constit!tion in 797?, the &a"o!r Party has "een a plannin% party. The "asis for this is )la!se IJ of the constit!tion which states that the ai# of the &a"o!r Party isH =

590059307 To sec!re for the wor ers "y hand or "y "rain the f!ll fr!its of their ind!stry and the #ost e/!ita"le distri"!tion thereof that #ay "e possi"le !pon the "asis of the co##on ownership of the #eans of prod!ction, distri"!tion and eEchan%e, and the "est o"taina"le syste# of pop!lar ad#inistration and control of each ind!stry or service.77 To "e a"le to own in co##on the #eans of prod!ction, distri"!tion and eEchan%e, price control is necessary. The First World War, and the te#porary war econo#y which relied !pon a lar%e a#o!nt of plannin%, chan%ed the attit!de of *ocialists towards the *tate. Toye ar%!es that '"efore 7978, no socialist wo!ld have drea#ed of s!%%estin% that price control !nder capitalis# was the way forward' "!t the relative ease in which the controls were eEercised and the relative efficiency of the controls over the econo#y enco!ra%ed *ocialists to adopt a new pro%ra##e which 'de#anded the retention of war controls over prices, profits and processes in capitalist ind!stry, and a syste# of centralised p!rchase of food st!ffs and raw #aterials'.74 The attraction, and s!pposed efficiency, of the war ti#e econo#y #eant the adoption of plannin% "y left win% parties thro!%ho!t $!rope, incl!din% &a"o!r. Bowever the adoption of this "rand of *ocialis# in 797? did not a#o!nt to a co#plete acceptance of plannin%, "!t the #ar ed increased presence of )la!se IJ in the party's constit!tion fro# 7937 'had a #aCor i#pact in the for# ta en "y &a"o!r's plannin% ideolo%y'. 73 5s 1ldfield has ar%!ed, the &a"o!r Party "eca#e a socialist party, and a party of plannin%, 'si#ply "y virt!e of adoptin% socialist collectivis#' in 797?. 78 0!t it was not !ntil the leadership crisis in 7937 and the for#al adoption of plannin%, as a via"le alternative econo#ic #odel, in 7934 that &a"o!r had "eco#e a party of plannin%. 5s We"" ar%!ed, )la!se IJ left 'it open to chose fro# ti#e to ti#e whatever for#s of co##on ownership... KwhichL #ay in partic!lar cases co##end the#selves'. 75
77 74 73 78 75

)la!se IJ of the 797? &a"o!r Party )onstit!tion Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy( 1)*1-1)+1, <*!ffol , 4003>, p. 43 I"id, p. 79 I"id, p. 48 We"", *., /!oted in Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 45

590059307 What )la!se IJ did not #ean, however, was the centralisation of the econo#ic #eans for co##on ownership as 'it wo!ld clearly "e hopeless to atte#pt to cond!ct the ad#inistration of the coal #ines, any #ore that of the har"o!rs and ports, fro# a &ondon office'.7= The inter6war period was characterised "y hi%h !ne#ploy#ent. The !nions accepted !ne#ploy#ent as the price to pay for #aintainin% wa%es and this #ade the# less interested in increasin% !ne#ploy#ent "enefits. The 794967937 &a"o!r %overn#ent was ineffective in the face of !ne#ploy#ent and depression, and in the %rip of orthodoE political econo#y to s!ch an eEtent that the %overn#ent fell over the insistence of @ac(onald and *nowden that !ne#ploy#ent "enefit had to "e c!t, in order to "alance the "!d%et. The crisis of 5!%!st 7937 tri%%ered a #aCor rethin in the &a"o!r Party policy and 'overall political and econo#ic philosophy of socialis#'. 77 This crisis, co#"ined with the apparent stren%th of the *oviet econo#y, p!shed plannin% to the top of the *ocialist a%enda. Toye ar%!es that the t!rnin% point in &a"o!r's econo#ic philosophy reflected the 'intellect!al at#osphere of the co!ntry as a whole'. 7? The &a"o!r Party in the early 7930s was concerned with re6%ro!pin% itself after that @ac(onald fiasco and the trade !nions were /!iet in the face of #assive !ne#ploy#ent. &a"o!r and the trade !nions had adopted a for# of #ana%ed capitalis#, or %rad!alis# 3 a speech "y Ber"ert @orrison in 7949 confir#ed thisH KI want to ass!reL every "!siness#an and "!siness #ana%er Kthat I want toL treat hi# as a #an and a "rother, and to help #a e his co##ercial or ind!strial enterprise #ore s!ccessf!l than it has "een in the past.79 .rad!alis# had sp!n the party into crisis and had "ro!%ht a"o!t the adoption of the planned econo#y into &a"o!r's political philosophy. The policy of #ana%ed capitalis# was associated with the 'traitor' @ac(onald and had to "e reno!nced even '"y those who had "een close to hi# or who
7= 77 7? 79

I"id Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 33 I"id @orrison, B., /!oted in Tho#pson, P., So$ialists( Liberals( and Labour, <&ondon, 79=7>, p. 4=0

590059307 had "enefited fro# his patrona%e'.40 This reCection of @ac(onald had ra#ifications in how &a"o!r dealt with other parties and shall "e eEplored in a later chapter at %reater depth. In a reaction, plannin% "eca#e the policy of the ho!r in a reCection of @ac(onald and %rad!alis#. In 7937 5ttlee reinforced this reCection "y ar%!in% that %rad!alis# and other for#s of &i"eralis# were not re/!ired, '"!t a fran state#ent of the f!ll *ocialist faith in ter#s that will "e !nderstood'. 47 This #anifested itself in a narrowed nationalisation which treated co#petition as wastef!l and chaotic. Poverty co!ld only "e defeated thro!%h a planned econo#y, "!t &a"o!r 'was now "ein% #ore realistic a"o!t what it co!ld achieve in the life6ti#e of one parlia#ent'. 44 Bowever, the co##it#ent to a *ocialist co##onwealth had not chan%ed. Toye ar%!es that 'sche#es to li#it co#petition !nder capitalis# were KstillL viewed with distr!st', s!ch as 'private plannin%, "ased on #onopoly, wo!ld lead to o!tp!t "ein% li#ited in order to raise prices, ca!sin% !ne#ploy#ent'. 43 If capitalis# were to re#ain, then plannin% wo!ld not "e a"le to operate in the way that the architects had desi%ned. Plannin%, !nder capitalis#, wo!ld th!s create what )ripps called 'econo#ic fascis#' where"y the sectional interests of the prod!cer were pro#oted at the eEpense of the cons!#er. In the Bo!se of )o##ons, B!%h (alton laid o!t the prere/!isites for a national plan. First 'the necessaries of life for all o!r people and f!ll provision for the effective defence "oth a%ainst "o#"s and a%ainst poverty'. *econd, 'that there sho!ld "e no ca e for anyone !ntil we all have "read and the nation has a s!fficiency of ar#s'. Third, 'an opport!nity for every willin% wor er'. Fo!rth, 'social C!stice in the carryin% of %reat "!rdens'. Fifth, ' a deli"erate and efficient sche#e to #o"ilise #en, #oney and the #aterials for the co##on %ood and for the sec!rity of all'.48 The ideas that (alton was espo!sin% was not that dissi#ilar fro# those which were p!t forward "y Willia# 0everid%e in the report on So$ial ,nsuran$e and Allied Ser!i$es p!"lished in 7984. *oon after war "ro e o!t, *ocialists "e%an
40 47 44 43 48

Toye, ;., The &a"o!r Party and the Planned $cono#y, p. 85 5ttlee, )., /!oted in Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p., 73 Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 73 I"id, p. 78 B) (e"s, 38=, 7 @ay 7939, col. 7577

590059307 thin in% a"o!t the post6war world and a deter#ination not to repeat the disappoint#ent of the post6 797? period. 5ttlee stated that 'people want to now for what ind of co!ntry they are fi%htin% KasL #any of !s re#e#"er the hopes that we entertained at the end of the last war and what happened after the peace'.45 (!rin% the war Aohn @aynard Geynes "eca#e pree#inent in the financin% of the war. &a"o!r had enco!ntered Geynes "efore, in the 7930s, "!t 'there is little evidence that the &a"o!r Party at lar%e en%a%ed with Geynes' in that period.4= Pi#lott ar%!es that "efore the end of the 7930s 'the &a"o!r Party had /!ietly adopted an eEpansionist approach to econo#ic policy that was at least se#i6 Geynesian'.47 This can "e accredited to the personal relationships that #any leadin% and risin% econo#ic fi%!res in the &a"o!r Party had with Geynes. 0ar"eris ar%!es that Geynes is an i#portant fi%!re '"oth for those who reco%nised in his !tterances so#e !tility to the socialist ca!seI and those for who# he re#ained the pro6capitalist b-te noire'.4? The &a"o!r Party intelli%entsia were de"atin% Geynes' !tility to the party, "!t "y the 7980s the #aCority of the party was on "oard with Geynes' ideas. The party's attit!de shifted towards Geynes fro# wary hostility, to acceptance "!t why and how' +nder the @ac(onald %overn#ent Geynes was a #e#"er of the @ac#illan )o##ittee and the $cono#ic 5dvisory )o!ncil. The @ac#illan )o##ittee was esta"lished in 7949 !nder the chair#anship of &ord @ac#illan to find o!t the relationship "etween finance and ind!stry. The $cono#ic 5dvisory )o##ittee was a for!# that wo!ld allow '&a"o!r, capital and econo#ics to !nite in operatin% an ad#inistrative or%an to sp!r on o!r ind!stries'. 49 In three policy areas of the &a"o!r Party 3 p!"lic wor s, assisted areas, and the idea of "!d%et deficits 3 the party was close to Geynes, in ter#s of ideolo%y, and was closest with the area of p!"lic wor s. 5t the 7933 &a"o!r

45 4=

47 4? 49

B) (e"s, 353, 7= ,ov, 7939, col. ?77 0ar"eris, P., 'The &a"o!r Party and @r. Geynes in the 7930sH 5 Partial Geynesian ;evol!tion Witho!t Geynes', in Labour .istory /e!iew, Jol. 77, ,o. 4, <5!%!st 400=>, p. 750 Pi#lott, 0., .ug# Dalton, <&ondon, 79?5>, p. 448 Aones, T., /!oted in 0ar"eris, P., 'The &a"o!r Party and @r. Geynes in the 7930s', <5!%!st, 400=>, p. 787

70

590059307 Party )onference a #otion was p!t forward statin% the case for %overn#ent intervention to create Co"s. 5 #otion fairly si#ilar to the ideas in Geynes' T#e &eneral T#eory o0 %m"loyment( ,nterest and Money1 In 7938, the party's doc!#ent 2or So$ialism and 'ea$e accepted the #!ltiplier, as 'new eEpendit!re...not only creates e#ploy#ent...in respect of the partic!lar sche#es of wor p!t in hand, "!t creates f!rther e#ploy#ent in an ever widenin% circle' "!t eEplicit #ention of Geynes was lac in%.30 This fail!re to accredit Geynes is, in lar%e, d!e to the relationships #any &a"o!r econo#ists had with hi#. Two &a"o!r econo#ists, .. (. B. )ole and B!%h (alton, were as %ood as conte#poraries to Geynes and #any of their ideas ran parallel to Geynes "!t were lar%ely developed independently. )ole had a few pro"le#s with the Geynesian #!ltiplier, in that the state co!ld not 'witho!t "rin%in% a"o!t an inflationary sit!ation' contin!e to create and "!y 'what it wants what after a condition of f!ll e#ploy#ent has "een reached'. 37 )ole "elieved that the only way to enact the Geynesian #odel for f!ll e#ploy#ent witho!t inflation wo!ld "e for the stateH to direct invest#ent into partic!lar "ranches of prod!ction, to control the location of ind!stry...and to re%!late the co!rse of prices and inco#es in s!ch a way as to ens!re a tolera"le correspondence "etween the flow of cons!#ers' %oods and services and the de#and for the#, and at the sa#e ti#e to eep costs as s!ch a level as to ena"le eEportin% ind!stries to hold a satisfactory place in the world #ar et.34 F!ll e#ploy#ent wo!ld only co#e with the cost of inflation !nless the state controlled and planned every aspect of econo#ic life. The dan%ers of which shall "e disc!ssed later in the chapter. )ole's view of Geynesian ideas was 'a very ela"orate #echanis# for o00setting rather than c!rin% certain %larin% deficiencies in the wor in% of capitalist society'. 33 Geynesianis# was, th!s, a hot drin when
30 37 34 33

The &a"o!r Party, 2or So$ialism and 'ea$e, <&ondon, 7938>, p. 4= )ole, .. (. B., T#e Means to 2ull %m"loyment, <&ondon, 7983>, p. 744 )ole, .. (. B., So$ialist %$onomi$s, <&ondon, 7950>, p. 50 I"id, p. 58

77

590059307 a vaccine was needed. This iss!e with Geynes and Geynesianis# was a rec!rrin% %rievance within the &a"o!r Party. (alton, on the other hand, was a#"i%!o!s towards Geynes. Geynes had ta!%ht (alton at )a#"rid%e and the relationship was !neasy. (alton was far #ore infl!enced "y another of his econo#ics t!tors, $dward )annan, than Geynes. It did not help that Geynes, in 7944, had %iven his s!pport to the &i"eral candidate in a "y6election a%ainst (alton. 38 In (alton's first edition of 'rin$i"les o0 'ubli$ 2inan$e, in 7943, he 'held fast to the conventional wisdo# of "alanced "!d%ets' and asserted that the '&a"o!r Party does not favo!r the financin% of these sche#es "y inflation'. 35 Bowever, "y the third edition in 793=, (alton had chan%ed his t!ne and was citin% Geynes in allowin% !n"alanced "!d%ets in the short6ter# in order to have "alanced "!d%ets in the lon%6ter#. 0eca!se (alton wrote a lar%e part of the econo#ic policy for the &a"o!r Party, his personal ani#osity to Geynes had a lar%e i#pact on the &a"o!r Party's dealin%s with Geynes. The 'Fo!n% T!r s' on the other hand were #ore acceptin% of Geynes' ideas. They were a %ro!p of yo!n%, !pco#in% &a"o!r econo#ists, a#on% the# $van (!r"in and B!%h .aits ell. (!r"in had noted, in 7980, that a new type of capitalis# had e#er%ed 'where"y the virt!es of capitalis# 3 rationalis# and #o"ility 3 can "e co#"ined with de#ocratic needs 3 sec!rity and e/!ality 3 "y the eEtension of the activity of the state !pon an ever widenin% and consistent "asis'. 3= (!r"in's de"t was to Geynes, who was 'too o"vio!s to need any special ac nowled%e#ent'. 37 .aits ell was one of (alton's protM%Ms and was #ore adapta"le to the ideas of Geynes than (alton was. 3? The 'Fo!n% T!r s' were far #ore receptacle to Geynesianis# than their s!periors were "!t thro!%h the#, and the &a"o!r Thin Tan s, Geynesianis# was a"le to "e "ro!%ht into &a"o!r policy. Bowever, it was not !ntil the o!t"rea of war that &a"o!r f!lly en%a%ed with Geynes 3 'na#ely over the latter's ideas a"o!t a

38 35 3= 37

3?

0ar"eris, P., 'The &a"o!r Party and @r. Geynes in the 7930s', <5!%!st, 400=>, p. 758 I"id (!r"in, $. F. @., T#e 'oliti$s o0 Demo$rati$ So$ialism An %ssay in So$ial 'oli$y, <&ondon, 7980>, p. 78? (!r"in, $. F. @., 'ur$#asing 'ower and Trade De"ression A 3riti4ue o0 Under$onsum"tion T#eories, <&ondon, 7933>, p. 74 0ar"eris, P., 'The &a"o!r Party and @r. Geynes in the 7930s', <5!%!st, 400=>, p. 757

74

590059307 warti#e econo#y and, specifically, how to pay for the war'. 39 Geynes' plans .ow To 'ay 2or T#e War was "orn o!t of his concern with the wastef!lness of the eEistin% financin% #ethod. Inflation increased do#estic social tension, and the these tensions were li ely to reach !naccepta"le levels %iven the de#ands for total war. In an !naltered war ti#e econo#y, the increased level of prod!ctivity leads to hi%her wa%es, "!t less %oods for cons!#ption as the prod!ction is foc!sed on the eEec!tion of war, and th!s leads to inflation.80 Geynes' plan was to deposit inco#e s!rpl!ses into interest6earnin% personal acco!nts to "e ret!rned to wor ers after the war, as opposed to an effective confiscation of inco#e witho!t any co#pensation, as was the eEistin% practice. The plan consisted of fo!r #eas!res. First, the creation of a co#p!lsory savin%s f!nd in which a varia"le proportion of each wor er's inco#e wo!ld "e deposited for the d!ration of the war. 87 5cc!#!lated savin%s pl!s interest wo!ld th!s constit!te wor ers' capital. *econd, raise the f!nds to redee# this de"t thro!%h the i#ple#entation of a capital levy.84 Third, esta"lish so#e eEe#ptions, s!ch as those wor ers earnin% !nder a %iven #ini#!#. Fo!rth, indeE the val!e of the co#p!lsory savin%s to inflation so as to preserve its real p!rchasin% power. It was, in essence, a deferred pay#ent plan. &a"o!r had #iEed reception to the p!"lication and the 'New Statesman called on &a"o!r to endorse Geynes' sche#e'.83 In 7987, Geynes' proposals were introd!ced in the "!d%et "!t were severely dil!ted and only yielded N745 #illion a year. 88 @any historians, with the %ift of hindsi%ht, have criticised &a"o!r for not acceptin% Geynes' plan in the f!ll as they 'p!t an o"stacle in the way of the develop#ent of an alternative #odel of war econo#y which did not involve a lar%e n!#"er of physical controls'.85 Bowever, it was not C!st the &a"o!r Party who had pro"le#s with Geynes, it

39 80

87

84 83 88 85

I"id, p. 759 Tyer#an, (., and Geynes, A. @., '*ho!ld *avin% 0e )o#p!lsory'', in T#e Listener, Iss!e 5?3, <@arch 78, 7980>, p. 50? Geynes, A. @., T#e 3olle$ted Writings o0 5o#n Maynard 6eynes 7olume )( %ssays in 'ersuasion, <&ondon, 7974>, p. 379 I"id Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 705 I"id, p. 774 I"id, p. 773

73

590059307 was Geynes who had pro"le#s with the &a"o!r Party too. KThere isL little diver%ence "etween the political i#plications of #y ideas and the policy of the &a"o!r Party... I sho!ld officially Coin that party if it did not see# to "e divided "etween enth!siasts who t!rn a%ainst a thin% if there see#s a chance that it co!ld possi"ly happen, and leaders so conservative that there is #ore hope fro# @r. 0aldwin.8= The a#"i%!o!s relationship "etween Geynes and the &a"o!r Party revolved aro!nd the personal relationships Geynes had with a few "i% na#es in &a"o!r, as well as &a"o!r's own relationship with plannin%. Geynesian ideas are not really co#pati"le with plannin%, and that is the direction to which &a"o!r was headed. 5s war approached, plannin% %rew in attraction and relevance as a sol!tion to 0ritain's pro"le#s. Thro!%ho!t the war &a"o!r developed its plans for a planned econo#y and prod!ced varied doc!#ents, s!ch as T#e Old World and t#e New So$iety and 2ull %m"loyment and 2inan$ial 'oli$y. T#e Old World and t#e New So$iety was the creation of the party's co##ittee on the pro"le#s of post6war reconstr!ction in 7984. The res!lt of the doc!#ent was an analysis of the past and present, and a prescription for the f!t!re 3 in that 'the anarchy of private co#petition #!st %ive way to ordered plannin% !nder national control'.87 The other doc!#ent, 2ull %m"loyment and 2inan$ial 'oli$y, e#phasised the contin!ity of warti#e controls in peace. It ar%!ed that 'econo#ic possi"ilities sho!ld "e li#ited not "y finance, "!t only "y the physical possi"ilities of prod!ction'. 8? The co##it#ent to plannin% was eEplicit. 0!t &a"o!r was not the only political party that was co##itted to a planned econo#y.

8= 87 8?

Geynes, A. @., /!oted in Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 94 The &a"o!r Party, T#e Old World and t#e New So$iety, <&ondon, 7984>, p. 73 Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 789

78

590059307

Common Ownership
The )o##on Wealth Party was co##itted to a c!rio!s type of planned econo#y "eca!se the ac/!isition of ind!stry and property wo!ld "e thro!%h centralised, draconian #eas!res. The #ana%e#ent of which, wo!ld "e thro!%h the individ!al factories and ind!stries, or #ana%erialis#. )o##on Wealth's initial %oal was to adopt *ocialis# in order to win the war. )o##on Wealth was fo!nded on three principlesH first, the co##on ownership of #aCor ind!stry and landI second, reC!venatin% de#ocracy thro!%h proportional representation, devol!tion, and ind!strial

cons!ltationI and third, inCectin% #orality in politics "y openin% it !p the p!"lic and endin% the secret diplo#acy that had pla%!ed the pre6war years. )o##on Wealth's pro%ra##e for post6war reconstr!ction can "e fo!nd in W#at ,t Will Be Like, the first party's first p!"lication after it was for#ed in 7984. The or%anisation of the econo#y is rather stran%e and co#pleE. +lti#ate control wo!ld rest in Parlia#ent who wo!ld %ive %eneral direction to where the econo#y was to %o. The orders wo!ld then "e passed on to the $cono#ic .eneral *taff, a tier of "!rea!cracy a"ove ind!stry si#ilar to trade "oards, who wo!ld then pass it on to the relevant ind!stries. 5t this sta%e there is not #!ch dissi#ilarities "etween this and traditional for#s of a planned econo#y, s!ch as that espo!sed "y &a"o!r, "!t this is where )o##on Wealth's plans depart fro# traditionally reco%nised for#s of a planned econo#y. The $cono#ic .eneral *taff wo!ld pass the orders to the relevant ind!striesH each of which will fall !nder the %eneral direction of a )o!ncil whose #e#"ers will "e drawn in part fro# the ran s of the ind!stry concerned, in part fro# other related ind!stries, in part fro# one or #ore of the "odies descri"ed "elow, and in part will "e chosen "y the %overn#ent.89 The additional "odies 'descri"ed "elow' were to "eH a Financial 5!thority, "endin% the will of the
89

5cland, ;., W#at ,t Will Be Like, <&ondon, 7984>, p. 45

75

590059307 "an s to the will of the co##!nityI a @inistry of @an6Power, allocatin% Co"s as and when re/!iredI a Ind!strial 5dvisory )o##ission, responsi"le for the efficiency of factories in re%ards to technical and ad#inistrative #ethodsI a )o##ission for @aCor (evelop#ents, responsi"le for #aCor p!"lic wor s that are o!tside the scope of individ!al ind!stries "!t re/!ire #ost, if not all, to co#e to%etherI an Innovation 0oard, which wo!ld preside over the ideas and innovations s!"#itted "y citi-ensI a ,ational ;esearch )o!ncil, which wo!ld oversee h!#an advance#ent and develop#ent, not profit #otivationI and a ,ational P!"licity )o!ncil, actin% as an inter#ediary "etween prod!cer and cons!#er !tilisin% advertisin% and #ar et research. 50 The factories wo!ld have relative a!tono#y, in which they will "e told 'w#at it is eEpected to prod!ce', "!t they wo!ld not "e told '#ow to prod!ce it'.57 In this, the )o##on Wealth's planned econo#y wo!ld differ fro# other for#s of *ocialis# in which )ivil *ervants deter#ine everythin%. This principle was the fo!ndation of @ana%erialis#. The "asis of @ana%erialis# is that the r!nnin% of ind!stry is not carried o!t "y the owner, or representatives of the owner, "!t the professionals of the ind!stry, the technicians, the wor ers that now how the specific factory wor s and what its li#itations are, the so called @ana%erial class. The ownership of ind!stry, that )o##on Wealth prescri"ed, was the i##ediate nationalisation of #aCor ind!stries with the %reatest possi"le p!"licity. The ind!stries incl!ded "an s, railways, land, coal, steel, ship"!ildin%, en%ineerin%, che#ical, ce#ent and other #onopolistic ind!stries.54 *#all ind!stry and "!siness, however, wo!ld contin!e to operate as nor#al. This wo!ld "e "eca!se 'a %reater part of the s#all properties are acc!#!lated thro!%h hard wor and !n!s!al cleverness, while a %reater part of the vast properties are acc!#!lated thro!%h "irth, "lind l!c and /!estiona"le activities'.53 )o##on Wealth wo!ld "e ri%htin% the wron%s of inheritance and other social ills, s!ch as %a#"lin% and cri#inal activities.

50 57 54 53

I"id, p. I"id, p. 4= 5cland, ;., T#e 2orward Mar$#, <&ondon, 7987>, p. 780 5cland, ;., W#at ,t Will Be Like, pp. 84683

7=

590059307 The inspiration for )o##on Wealth's econo#ic policy was the 7987 )o##ittee. )o##on Wealth econo#ic policy essentially lifted fro# the )o##ittee, which was shaped and crafted "y Tho#as 0alo%h. 0alo%h wanted stron% national plannin% 3 where so#e )o##on 1wnership was tho!%ht to "e necessary 3 "!t stressed that 'the chief dan%er is that individ!al initiative and enterprise will disappear !nder the wei%ht of %overn#ent control. The tas is to find the correct co#pro#ise "etween plannin% and individ!alis#'.58 In its O"en Letter to t#e New War 3abinet , the 7987 )o##ittee spo e !p for 'so#e of the yo!n%er ind!strialists, #en in the services, technicians, #ana%ers, fore#en, s illed wor ers...They want new #en and new #ethods witho!t any f!rther deference to the party line6!p of the 7935 Parlia#ent'.55 0!rnha# wo!ld have fo!nd, in the )o##ittee's #oralisin% tone as well as its policies, a s!%%estion that it was a #ana%erial or%anisation. In its pa#phlet, 'rodu$tion 'oli$y, it de#anded '#odification of taEation, incl!din% $Ecess Profits TaE, desi%ned to achieve si#!ltaneo!sly an increased incentive to #aEi#!# war effort and a %reat e/!ality of sacrifice'. 5= It is a #ana%erial attit!de which attac s "oth conspic!o!s cons!#ption "y the wealthy and $Ecess Profits TaE. 0alo%h wanted $Ecess Profits TaE red!ced to 75 per cent and favo!red a lowerin% of inco#e taE, to "e co#pensated for "y a taE 'which hits property whether %ainf!lly invested or not'. 57 In On Siege %$onomi$s the )o##ittee declared an interest in sec!rin% a positive f!t!re for the 's#all #an' over the interests of #onopolists and lar%e Trade +nions, which was the esta"lished policy at the ti#e. They ass!#ed that '#any of the s#aller entreprene!rs are showin% a realisation that ordered plannin%, which can safe%!ard the position and f!t!re of the individ!al "y C!st co#pensation, wo!ld "e infinitely prefera"le to the h!rried i#provisations with which they are now afflicted'.5?

58 55 5= 57

5?

'Wor For 5ll', 'i$ture 'ost, 8 Aan!ary 7987 O"en Letter, 47 Fe"r!ary 7984 'rodu$tion 'oli$y, 1cto"er 7987 'Wor For 5ll', 8 Aan!ary 7987 and 'The 7987 )o##ittee (isc!ss the 5tlantic )harter', 'i$ture 'ost, 47 *epte#"er 7987 On Siege %$onomi$s, @ay 7987

77

590059307 The inspiration "ehind )o##on Wealth and its "rand of co##on ownership ste#s fro# the peasants revolt and Winstanley, leader of the (i%%ersH if a forei%n ene#y endeavo!rs to co#e in, we shall all with Coint consent rise !p to%ether to defend o!r Coint inheritance, and shall "e tr!e one to another. Whereas now the poor see that if they fi%ht and sho!ld con/!er the ene#y, yet either they or their children are li e to "e slaves, for the %entry will have all.59 The p!rpose is to create a co##on wealth for the co##on %ood so that the co##!nity wo!ld "enefit. The co##on wealth wo!ld revolve aro!nd a service co##!nity, not that dissi#ilar fro# what Bitler and the ,a-is preached. ',a-is# esta"lishes the *ervice )o##!nity 0or the ;eich in War. In order to defeat it we #!st esta"lish the *ervice )o##!nity 0or B!#anity in 'ea$e'.=0 It wo!ld "e ta in% a principle that was wor in% for the ,a-is and twistin% it so that a "etter world wo!ld "e the o!tco#e. 5 new order wo!ld "e created thro!%h war, so too will a new society "e created in post6war $!rope, fo!nded on new ideals. What 5cland also noted was the difference "etween a war *tate and a peace *tate. The war *tate pro#otes a co#plete s!"C!%ation of the citi-en to the war #achine. The peace *tate, on the other hand, pro#otes the &i"eral "elief in a #ini#alist state, or the ',i%ht Watch#an', in that the *tate 'eEists to serve yo!'.=7 The chief econo#ic inspiration for 5cland, and th!s )o##on Wealth, was Geynes. 5cland was advised "y $llen Wil inson to read Geynes' T#e &eneral T#eory. 1nce he had finished Geynes' se#inal piece he 'realised that the proposed re#edies were pathetically inade/!ate to the dia%nosed disease. If everythin% wor ed as "adly as Geynes said, there see#ed to "e no re#edy short of )o##on 1wnership of all the %reat prod!ctive reso!rces of the co##!nity'. =4 Geynes' T#e %nd o0
59 =0 =7 =4

Winstanley, /!oted in 5cland, ;., W#at ,t Will Be Like, <&ondon, 7984>, p. 40 5cland, ;., T#e 2orward Mar$#, <&ondon, 7987>, p. 80 I"id ;. 5cland, An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>,

7?

590059307 Laisse8-0aire was the %reat infl!encer of )o##on Wealth's econo#ic and social ethos. The "oo was written in 7947 as an analysis of what had %one wron% with )apitalis# 3 na#ely the Individ!alis# as espo!sed "y the do#inant philosophies of the nineteenth cent!ry. It was in the nineteenth cent!ry that Individ!alis# was defined and the definition and idea had not "een properly challen%ed since. 5s Geynes statesH 'the early nineteenth cent!ry perfor#ed the #irac!lo!s !nion. It har#onised the conservative individ!alis# of &oc e, B!#e, Aohnson, and 0!r e with the *ocialis# and de#ocratic e%alitarianis# of ;o!ssea!, Paley, 0entha# and .odwin'. =3 Geynes ar%!es that $cono#ists %ave Individ!alis# a %ood scientific "asis'. =8 The principles of laisse8-0aire, "ein% freedo# fro# state interference, created the har#ony "etween Individ!alis# and *ocialis# so that the 'philosopher co!ld retire in the farrow of the "!siness#an 3 for the latter co!ld attain the philosopher's summum bonum "y C!st p!rs!in% his own profit'.=5 The hi%hest %ood co!ld "e achieved thro!%h free co#petition and, to ta e the ar%!#ent to its lo%ical concl!sion, so to was @an created. The reason why laisse8-0aire was so s!ccessf!l was that the alternatives in the nineteenth cent!ry was either protectionis# or @arEis#. Bowever, the cr!E of Geynes' criti/!e of laisse8-0aire )apitalis# is that at so#e point )apitalis# reaches a sta%e in which it pro#otes conservatis# and enterprise wanes. In this re%ards, )apitalis# has '#any of the fa!lts as well as the advanta%es of *tate *ocialis#'.== Geynes then %oes on to say that "etween )apitalis# and *tate *ocialis#, neither is desira"le "!t the half6way ho!se of 'se#i6a!tono#o!s corporations' are. =7 It is this philosophy, as well as Geynes' other wor s, that )o##on Wealth constr!cted its #oral, political and econo#ic philosophy 3 )apitalis# had failed, *tate *ocialis# was restrictive, and so#ethin% "etter #!st pl!% that %ap or it will "e filled "y fascis#. T#e %nd o0 Laisse8-0aire was not the only idea of Geynes' that )o##on Wealth "orrowed.
=3 =8 =5 == =7

chp 7, p. 70" Geynes, A. @., T#e %nd o0 Laisse8-0aire, <&ondon, 7947>, p. 70 I"id I"id, p. 77 I"id, p. 88 I"id, p. 85

79

590059307 )o##on Wealth's relationship with Geynes was p!rely intellect!ally one6way. Geynes did not interact at all with )o##on Wealth, either in a personal or professional capacity. It is this lac of interaction on Geynes' "ehalf which is stri in%. It is also worth notin% that Geynes' T#e &eneral T#eory infl!enced 5cland to adopt )o##on 1wnership as a re#edy to Geynes' 'dia%nosed disease'.=? Bowever, )o##on Wealth drew !pon Geynes' ideas to create policy which wo!ld s!it the#. 1ne of these ideas was the a"olition of inheritance, or a h!ndred per cent inheritance taE 3 as Geynes proscri"ed it. The ar%!#ent that ran was that inheritance co!ld "e a so!rce of anta%onis# in society "eca!se individ!als wo!ld enCoy %reat wealth witho!t offerin% any co#pensation in ret!rn. Inheritance, d!e to the concentration of wealth, distorts the econo#y and inhi"its the econo#y operatin% at a f!ll capacity and #aintains !ne#ploy#ent levels. $cono#ies are or%anised on the "asis of #onetary contracts, however, the instit!tion of inheritance t!rns #oney into a for# of wealth for acc!#!lation in contrast to reprod!ctive wealth, s!ch as capital %oods. The acc!#!lation of wealth, th!s, creates !ne#ploy#ent.=9 )o##on Wealth's ta e on this reCection of inheritance was not in re%ards to !ne#ploy#ent "!t as a way of li#itin% the fall o!t fro# its nationalisation plans. 1wners of ind!stry were to "e co#pensated in lie! of earnin%s. Bowever, there was a rel!ctance to confer an inheritance "!t reco%nise 'that #any #en have wor ed hard thro!%ho!t a n!#"er of years #ainly with a desire to confer so#e "enefit on their children'. 70 5s a way to address this, owners wo!ld "e %iven a choice over their co#pensation arran%e#entsI either accept and inco#e in f!ll for their life with no inheritance or accept a s#aller inco#e in order to provide for their children as way of inheritance. It is ass!#ed that the inco#e ta en away for their children is shared a#on% the children. )o##on Wealth states, however, that the only inheritance a parent sho!ld leave a child sho!ld "e 'so!nd physical health and a wise and friendly o!tloo !pon life'. 77 +ne#ploy#ent did
=?

=9

70 77

5cland, ;., An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, )hapter 7, p. 70" Geynes, A. @., T#e 3olle$ted Writings o0 5o#n Maynard 6eynes 7olume 9)( T#e &eneral T#eory and A0ter( A Su""lement, <)a#"rid%e, 79?4> 5cland, ;., W#at ,t Will Be Like, p. 88 I"id, p. 87

40

590059307 not feat!re as a concern with the pro"le# of inheritance "eca!se !ne#ploy#ent wo!ld "e a"olished in a planned econo#y. Bowever, there wo!ld "e transitional !ne#ploy#ent as there is !s!ally a sli%ht la% "etween a wor er finishin% one Co" and startin% another, "!t 'what we have called 9per#anent: !ne#ploy#ent is /!ite i#possi"le !nder )o##on 1wnership'. 74 Geynes also ar%!ed that inco#e ine/!ality was a "arrier to !ne#ploy#ent as it led to an eEcessive concentration of wealth. Bowever, a certain de%ree of ine/!ality was, he ar%!ed, socially f!nctional. This is "eca!se the ine/!ality created a differentiation "etween different s ills, eEperience, etc. )o##on Wealth also s!%%ested li#ited inco#e ine/!ality "y li#itin% the inco#e of the top earner to no #ore than ten ti#es that of the "otto# earner. The #otivation "ehind this was redistri"!tion, not efficiency. (espite the lac of a relationship "etween Geynes and the )o##on Wealth Party there was a %reat deal of respect for Geynes in )o##on Wealth. (!e to the !ncertainty s!rro!ndin% the early sta%es of the plan, it co!ld "e econo#ically disastro!s. To re#edy this, the co!ntry wo!ld re/!ire 'a really clever C!%%ler li e @r. A. @. Geynes' who '#i%ht eep all the "alls in the air for so#e ti#e'. 73 ;ichard 5cland, leader of the )o##on Wealth Party had this to say a"o!t GeynesH 'I wo!ld eEpect no one to "e #ore tr!ly the r!ler of the i##ediate post6war world than @r. A. @. Geynes'. 78 5cland co!ld not have "een #ore ri%ht than he was then. )o##on Wealth, as a #ore 'p!rist' *ocialist party, had a lot of criticis# for &a"o!r Party in re%ards to the planned econo#y. )o##on Wealth's policies were li e those of &a"o!r, "!t #ore so. This "elief that they did everythin% that &a"o!r did, "!t "etter, %ave the# a #oral s!periority of which to pass C!d%e#ent. The "asis aro!nd this C!d%e#ent was that &a"o!r wo!ld "rin% a"o!t *ocialis# thro!%h the fra#ewor of )apitalis# "!t )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, wo!ld "rin% a"o!t the *ocialis# "y dis#antlin% )apitalis#. If *ocialis# is "ro!%ht a"o!t thro!%h )apitalis#, then it '#!st lead to those evils Kof ;!ssiaL in this co!ntry'. There was clearly conte#pt for &a"o!r.
74 73 78

I"id, p. =3 I"id, p. 7=4 I"id

47

590059307 Bowever, )o##on Wealth "elieved that &a"o!r wo!ld play a part in "!ildin% the new society as 'it has co##anded, and co##ands, the alle%iance...of the #ost alert and !nselfish of o!r people', the wor in% class.75 0!t &a"o!r's political #achine, it was C!d%ed, wo!ld not "e a"le to cope with the 'new spirit'.

The Road to Serfdom

&a"o!r and )o##on Wealth had their o!tlines for a post6war planned econo#y "!t there was a dan%er that a planned econo#y wo!ld lead to totalitarianis#. This dan%er was raised, #ost vocally, "y F. 5. Baye in 7988 with T#e /oad to Ser0dom. Baye was concerned that, "y ar%!in% for %reater state involve#ent in the r!nnin% of the econo#y, 0ritain wo!ld %o down the sa#e path that the .er#an's had and !nconscio!sly e#"race ,a-is#. This is "eca!se '#any who thin the#selves infinitely s!perior to the a"errations of ,a-is# and sincerely hate all its #anifestations, wor at the sa#e ti#e for ideals whose realisations wo!ld lead strai%ht to the a"horred tyranny'. 7= Baye ar%!ed that it is i#perative that the war #!st "e won so that the "asic pro"le#s, s!ch as !ne#ploy#ent, #ay "e foc!sed !pon whilst 'avertin% the fate which has overta en indred civilisations', na#ely totalitarianis#.77 This is "eca!se of left6win% parties' tendencies to plan. Bowever, the road that 0ritish *ocialists were %oin% down had started lon% "efore the rise of ,a-is#. The West contin!ed to adopt .er#an ideas and were even ind!ced to "elieve that their own for#er convictions had #erely "een rationalisations of selfish interests, that Free Trade was a doctrine invented to f!rther 0ritish

75 7= 77

5cland, ;., W#at ,t Will Be Like, p. 759 Baye , F. 5., T#e /oad to Ser0dom, <&ondon, 4009>, p. 8 I"id, p. 77

44

590059307 interests, and that the political ideals of $n%land had %iven to the world were hopelessly o!t#oded and a thin% to "e asha#ed of.7? 0y adoptin% .er#an interpretations of *ocialis#, 0ritish *ocialists had detracted fro# all that 0ritain had to offer. *ocialis#, Baye ar%!ed, has always "een a!thoritarian, "!t that had "een for%otten when the intelli%entsia adopted *ocialis# 'as the apparent heir of the li"eral tradition'.79 Bowever, it was not C!st Baye who were ca!tio!s of a planned econo#y. &a"o!r thin ers were concerned with the /!estion of freedo# !nder plannin% lon% "efore T#e /oad to Ser0dom was p!"lished. &as i, in 794?, had criticised *haw's ,ntelligent Woman:s &uide to So$ialism, for ne%lectin% individ!al freedo#.?0 $ven 5cland, hypocritically, deno!nced *tate *ocialis# as evil. ?7 This is d!e to the heavy "!rea!cracy which, at the ti#e, pla%!ed the *oviet +nion. 0!t, he also noted, that if *ocialis# is created witho!t the li"eral notions of li"erty, e/!ality, and happiness, then the end prod!ct was ,a-is#.?4 This is an iss!e that "oth &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth failed to ta e notice of, for they were too concerned with reconcilin% the contrastin% ar%!#ents of *tate *ocialis#H $fficiency or ;edistri"!tion. Plannin% eEists in everyday life, "!t state plannin% will inevita"ly lead to totalitarianis# "eca!se it s!"Cects the will of the individ!al to the will of the planner. Bowever, there are sit!ations in which collective action #!st operate over individ!al action "eca!se co#petition cannot eEist, s!ch as welfare. It is in this sort of sit!ation that state plannin% is per#issi"le. It is also what Geynes had in #ind when he stated that the %overn#ent sho!ld not 'do thin%s which individ!als are doin% already

7? 79 ?0 ?7 ?4

I"id, p. 43 I"id, p. 47 Toye, ;., T#e Labour 'arty and t#e 'lanned %$onomy, p. 737 5cland, ;., T#e 2orward Mar$#, p. 49 I"id, p. 30

43

590059307 KOLI "!t to do those thin%s which at present are not done at all'. ?3 Individ!als co!ld not operate a welfare syste# "eca!se co#petition cannot "e #ade to f!nction d!e to the red!ndancy of the price #echanis#. Where KOL it is i#practica"le to #a e the enCoy#ent of certain services dependent on the pay#ent of a price, co#petition will not prod!ce the servicesI and the price syste# "eco#es si#ilarly ineffective when the da#a%e ca!sed to others "y certain !ses of property cannot "e effectively char%ed to the owner of the property.?8 The #ain eEa#ple for when the price #echanis# is #ade red!ndant is welfare. Welfare, therefore, #erits collective action in order to stop the social ills that ste# fro# !nfettered capitalis#, and, "eca!se it cannot hope to s!rvive fro# any co#petition.

The Beveridge Report

In 7984 the warti#e %overn#ent as ed *ir Willia# 0everid%e to for# a co##ittee to create 'a s!rvey of the eEistin% national sche#es of social ins!rance and allied services, incl!din% wor #en's co#pensation, and to #a e reco##endations'.?5 The co##ittee reported in the (ece#"er of that year and the final doc!#ent, So$ial ,nsuran$e and Allied Ser!i$es #ore co##only nown as the 0everid%e ;eport, was the first co#prehensive plan for a post6war 0ritain. The report was to address the concerns of the p!"lic and have so#ethin% to fi%ht for. The report identified five social %iants which pla%!ed 0ritainH */!alor, Idleness, (isease, I%norance, and Want 3 alon% with the sol!tions to these %iants, a co#prehensive welfare state. The report contained three %!idin% principles. First, any f!t!re proposals 'sho!ld not "e restricted "y

?3 ?8 ?5

Geynes, A. @., T#e %nd o0 Laisse8-0aire, pp. 8=687 Baye , F. 5., T#e /oad to Ser0dom, p. 80 0everid%e, W., So$ial ,nsuran$e and Allied Ser!i$es, <&ondon, 7984>, p. 4

48

590059307 consideration of sectional interests esta"lished in the o"tainin% of that eEperience'. ?= In other words, d!e consideration #!st "e %iven over to anyone who co#es forward with an idea to chan%e 0ritain "eca!se 'a revol!tionary #o#ent in the world's history is a ti#e for revol!tions, not for patchin%'. ?7 *econd, the plan #!st "e co#prehensive and sho!ld "e treated as th!s. Third, the plan can only "e "ro!%ht into realisation thro!%h a cooperative effort "etween the *tate and the individ!al. The *tate sho!ld provide a #ini#!# for s!stenance and a"olish the five %iants, "!t it sho!ld also 'leave roo# and enco!ra%e#ent for vol!ntary action "y each individ!al to provide #ore than the #ini#!# for hi#self and his fa#ily'. ?? The central idea, %alvanised "y the report, was !niversality. )ontri"!tors and clai#ants wo!ld "e treated the sa#e re%ardless of inco#e or circ!#stance. ?9 The plan has three parts to itH first, 'a sche#e of all6in social ins!rance for cash "enefits'I second, 'a %eneral sche#e of children's allowances "oth when the responsi"le parent is earnin% and when he is not earnin%'I and third, 'an all6in sche#e of #edical treat#ent of every ind for every"ody'. 90 The plan was a way of redistri"!tin% wealth 'so as to p!t first thin%s first, so as to ens!re the a"olition of want "efore the enCoy#ent of co#fort'.97 The reaction to the '0everid%e ;eport' was lar%ely a%reea"le. A. &. @artin said that there is only one weapon to attac 0everid%e's five %iants 'si#!ltaneo!sly and which will "e necessary in any final victory 3 that is re"!ildin%'.94 This was "eca!se the .er#an "o#"s had destroyed a lar%e part of 0ritain, "!t #any people will still livin% in s/!alor and the layo!t of !r"an centres was !nplanned and spread into the co!ntryside eEacer"atin% the sit!ation. 0!t re"!ildin% and !r"an plannin% co!ld preserve the co!ntryside whilst also i#ple#entin% 0everid%e's vision. It wo!ld "e necessary to plan, "eca!se 'witho!t a %!idin% plan, of co!rse, "!ildin% "eco#es lar%ely replace#ent, and its
?= ?7 ?? ?9 90 97 94

I"id, p. = I"id I"id, p. 7 0everid%e, W., '*ec!rity for 5ll', in T#e Listener, Iss!e 74=, <(ece#"er, 7984>, p. 784 I"id I"id @artin, A. &., ';e"!ildin% 0ritain', in T#e Listener, Iss!e 737, <Fe"r!ary, 7983>, p. 439

45

590059307 la"o!r and #aterial eEpendit!re are !nprod!ctive'. 93 Bere, the idea of plannin% has infiltrated the real#s of !r"an and r!ral develop#ent. P!"licly, the ;eport had "een 'welco#ed with al#ost !niversal approval "y people of all shades of opinion and "y all sections of the co##!nity' and seen as 'the first real atte#pt to p!t into practice the tal a"o!t a new world'. In a sa#ple ta en in the fortni%ht after the ;eport's p!"lication, the 0ritish Instit!te of P!"lic 1pinion fo!nd that ninety6five per cent of the p!"lic had heard of the ;eport and that there was '%reat interest in it' "!t criticis# that old a%e pensions were not hi%h eno!%h. They also fo!nd that 'there was overwhel#in% a%ree#ent that the plan sho!ld "e p!t into effect'.98 When it ca#e to the de"ate in Parlia#ent, the %overn#ent anno!nced that they wo!ld not i#ple#ent the reco##endations of the ;eport i##ediately. 5t the end of the de"ate 97 &a"o!r @Ps, 77 Independent @Ps, 9 &i"erals, 3 Independent &a"o!r Party @Ps and 7 )o##!nist @P voted a%ainst the %overn#ent in favo!r of i##ediate i#ple#entation. Politically, the 0everid%e ;eport was accepted /!ic ly "y the &i"eral, )onservative and )o##on Wealth parties. &a"o!r, on the other hand, was slow to acco##odate it. &a"o!r leaders opposed 0everid%e's idea of a locally ad#inistered ,ational Bealth *ervice r!n thro!%h health centres and re%ional hospitals, preferrin% a state6r!n "ody.95 0everid%e co#plained a"o!t the opposition of &a"o!r leaders, incl!din% that of $rnest 0evinH 'For $rnest 0evin, with his trade6!nion "ac %ro!nd of !ns illed wor ers... social ins!rance was less i#portant than "ar%ainin% a"o!t wa%es'. 0evin derided the 0everid%e ;eport as a '*ocial 5#"!lance *che#e' and followed the %overn#ent's view that it sho!ld not "e i#ple#ented !ntil the end of the war. 9= 0evin was reportedly f!rio!s in Fe"r!ary 7983 when a lar%e n!#"er of &a"o!r "ac "enchers i%nored their leaders and voted a%ainst delayin% the i#ple#entation of the 0everid%e ;eport. )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, had
93 98 95 9=

I"id, p. 487 0arnett, )., T#e Audit o0 War T#e ,llusion and /eality o0 Britain as a &reat Nation, <&ondon, 4007>, p. 49 0everid%e, W., 'Points fro# the $lection 0roadcasts', in T#e Listener, Iss!e ?=0, <A!ly, 7985>, p. 73 0everid%e, W., 'ower and ,n0luen$e, <&ondon, 7955>, p. 483

4=

590059307 e#"raced socialised welfare "efore the 0everid%e ;eport was even released. )o##on Wealth, since its inception, had "een advocatin% fa#ily allowances, incapacity "enefits, pensions, socialised healthcare and state ed!cation. 0!t, then a%ain, the co#position of welfare was headed in the direction of what 0everid%e proposed. *ince the end of the nineteenth cent!ry. What "e%an in 7?97, with the Wor #en's )o#pensation 5ct, had "een "ro!%ht to fr!ition in the 0everid%e ;eport. 5cland ac nowled%es his infl!ences in the for# of the Bealth Ins!rance and +ne#ploy#ent Ins!rance 5cts of 7974 and 7940 respectively. They were, as 5cland states, a 'confession of the co##!nity that it #!st care for those who are sic , and is !nder an o"li%ation in principle to find each #an a Co"'.97 Bowever, 5cland then %oes on to attac the la"ellin% of s!ch services as ins!rance "eca!se wor ers 'had to 9"!y: what the co##!nity was "e%innin% to realise it #!st %ive'.9? These ca#e !nder the %!ise of ,ational Ins!rance 3 Ins!rance shared "y the nation, the co##!nity, "!t sho!ld "e a 'free' o"li%ation re%ardless.

Conclusion
&a"o!r and )o##on Wealth had si#ilar views on the post6war reconstr!ction plans for 0ritain. Bowever, where they did differ was eno!%h to ca!se contention "etween the two parties. In the parties' attit!des towards Geynes they !tilised his theories for different p!rposes. &a"o!r !tilised hi# to %ive credence to their econo#ic policy, which they had arrived at independently. )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, !tilised hi# as the sole contri"!tor to the party's econo#ic policy and, possi"ly, created a p!rer Geynesian econo#ic interpretation "eca!se of it. The differences "etween the two parties, in ter#s of post6war reconstr!ction, were lar%ely s!perficial. &a"o!r was still co##itted, in a fashion, to a %rad!al i#ple#entation of *ocialis#. They were realistic a"o!t what they co!ld achieve in one parlia#ent and th!s narrowed the scope of

97 9?

5cland, ;., T#e 2orward Mar$#, p. 7= I"id

47

590059307 nationalisation. Bowever their co##it#ent to plannin% and *ocialis# had not chan%ed as they still viewed with distr!st '#ana%ed capitalis#' and other #echanis#s to li#it co#petition. )o##on Wealth, in co#parison, wanted co#plete nationalisation. Bowever, instead of state #ana%ed *ocialis#, )o##on Wealth proposed #ana%erialis#, where"y the wor ers wo!ld r!n the "!siness "!t the "!siness were to "e owned in co##on, not all that different fro# the co6operative #ove#ent. &a"o!r wo!ld "rin% a"o!t *ocialis# thro!%h the fra#ewor of )apitalis# "!t )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, wo!ld "rin% a"o!t *ocialis# "y dis#antlin% )apitalis#. The %oal the sa#e, "!t the #ethods different. Bowever, there was a co##on concern that the adoption of plannin% wo!ld lead to totalitarianis# "eca!se the will of the individ!al was s!"Cected to the will of the planner. This was eEpressed, #ost fa#o!sly, "y Baye "!t there were those on the left who shared his concerns, nota"ly &as i. Bowever, there were sit!ations in which collective action was per#issi"le, s!ch as the constr!ction of a welfare syste# "eca!se the nat!re of s!ch a syste# #a es the price #echanis#, which is the "asis of co#petition, red!ndant. The 0everid%e ;eport was the first practical eEa#ple of plannin% policy. It was the collective action which Baye la"elled per#issi"le within a free society. Bowever, the &a"o!r leadership dithered in its acceptance of the i#portance of the 0everid%e ;eport ena"lin% )o##on Wealth to capitalise on the %ap in the #ar et to de#and for the i##ediate i#ple#entation of the 0everid%e ;eport. 5s advances were #ade in the war, s!ch as the victory at $l 5la#ein, the foc!s in 0ritain was less on the adoption of *ocialis# in order to win the war, as advocated "y )o##on Wealth and a few *ocialist a!thors, s!ch as 1rwell and Priestley, "!t #ore on act!ally winnin% the war. )o##on Wealth had "een ro""ed of its initial role as the war was "ein% won witho!t )o##on Wealth's interpretation of *ocialis#.99 )o##on Wealth, d!e to its early adoption and vocal advocacy of the
99

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =37

4?

590059307 0everid%e ;eport, was a"le to refoc!s as the party of the 0everid%e ;eport. 0y ar%!in% for i##ediate i#ple#entation of the 0everid%e ;eport, for #any, )o##on Wealth and the 0everid%e ;eport were al#ost synony#o!s.700

700

I"id

49

590059307

The End of Parties

By-elections and the rise of the Common Wealth Party
5pathy can "e overco#e "y enth!sias#, and enth!sias# can only "e aro!sed "y two thin%sH first, and ideal, which ta es the i#a%ination "y stor#, and second, a definite intelli%ent plan for carryin% that ideal into practice. 5rnold A. Toyn"ee

Introduction
The victories in ,orth 5frica at the end of 7984 was proof eno!%h that the war was "ein% won witho!t the adoption of *ocialis#. Bowever, d!e to the victories, the need to ca#pai%n on and win s!pport on perceived post6war iss!es were i#portant to all the political parties. Thro!%ho!t the d!ration of the war there were 787 "y6elections lar%ely d!e to the death of the inc!#"ent. 0eca!se of the victories in the 5frica )a#pai%n, )o##on Wealth had "een ro""ed of its pri#ary p!rpose 3 i#ple#entin% their "rand of *ocialis#. The co!rse of action then was to contest elections. 0etween 7983 and 7985 there were forty6three "y6elections of which )o##on Wealth contested twelve. ,ine were contested in 7983, two in 7988, and one in 7985. This chapter will eEplore the swin% towards the )o##on Wealth PartyH first, "y loo in% at the disenchant#ent #any of the electorate had with the esta"lished partiesI second, eEplorin% how )o##on Wealth perfor#ed at "y6elections and how well its #essa%e went down with the electorate. Third, "y loo in% at the 7985 .eneral $lection res!lts and eEplorin% how well &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth perfor#ed in a national settin%.

ovement !way "rom #arty101

This #ove#ent away fro# party politics was lar%ely a reaction to the )onservative consens!s
707

Ta en fro# the title of *teven Fieldin%s' article 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#H The *i%nificance of the 9@ove#ent away fro# Party:', .istory, Jol. ?0, ,o. 45?, <Fe"r!ary 7995>, pp. 3?65?

30

590059307 which had eEisted for #ost of the inter6war period. )ha#"erlain's )onservative Party was pla%!ed "y disasters, "e%innin% with @!nich in 793? and the contin!ed policy of appease#ent toward Bitler and the ,a-is. This c!l#inated in the #ilitary defeat in ,orway, 5pril 7980. The ens!in% ,orway de"ate effectively ended )ha#"erlain's political career and installed the !s!rper, )h!rchill, as his s!ccessor as Pri#e @inister. The ,orway de"ate had also ended the )onservative consens!s as, !nder )h!rchill, a warti#e coalition was for#ed "etween the )onservatives, &a"o!r and the &i"erals. )h!rchill invited &a"o!r's leader and dep!ty leader, )le#ent 5ttlee and 5rth!r .reenwood, into his war ca"inet of five. There was not any places for the &i"erals, "!t they held ca"inet positions o!tside the war ca"inet. This coll!sion, alon% with the warti#e pact 3 where"y the three parties 'wo!ld not oppose each other at parlia#entary "y6elections, the idea "ein% that vacancies wo!ld "e filled "y the party already in possession' 3 %alvanised p!"lic opinion a%ainst the esta"lished parties.704 The p!"lic had shown their disre%ard for parties "y s!pportin% *ir *tafford )ripps' ret!rn to the war ca"inet and "y inflictin% a series of "y6election defeats on the coalition parties, first "y s!pportin% independents and then )o##on Wealth. 703 5ddison and )alder identify, respectively, )ripps and )o##on Wealth as vac!!# fillers in the void left "y a lac of political and, perhaps, #oral leadership. For 5ddison, )ripps filled the 'vac!!# in ho#e front leadership'. 708 Whereas for )alder, )o##on Wealth occ!pied the 'no6#an's land "etween the discredited )onservative and ha#str!n% &a"o!r parties'.705 5s noted earlier, the pro%ress of the war for the 5llies and the victory in ,orth 5frica threw o!t the ar%!#ent that the war co!ld only "e won thro!%h the adoption of socialis#. The strate%ic sit!ation, for 0ritain, in 7984 was a lot #ore sec!re than it was in 7980. The +nited *tates and the *oviet +nion had entered the war a%ainst the ,a-is and 0ritain had eased the threat of invasion thro!%h the
704 703

708 705

Thorpe, 5., 'arties At War, <1Eford, 4009>, p. 7 Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#H The *i%nificance of the 9@ove#ent away fro# Party:', .istory, Jol. ?0, ,o. 45?, <Fe"r!ary 7995>, p. 80 5ddison, P., /!oted in Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 87 Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 87

37

590059307 0attle of 0ritain in 5!%!st 7980. Jictory was a s!rety, "!t the /!estion wasH when wo!ld victory arrive' Bowever, victory a%ainst the .er#ans was C!Etaposed a%ainst the losses for 0ritain and her e#pire. 5s re#ar ed "y the New StatesmanH '*in%apore is "esie%edH the 0!r#a road is i#perilledH ;o##el is rapidly recoverin% )yrenaciaH and the ;!ssians contin!e to advance'. 70= This was a "low for #orale on the ho#e front. The ;!ssians were "etter than the 0ritish, they were 'efficient, co##itted, s!ccessf!l and led "y a %overn#ent in t!ne with the pop!lar #ood'. 707 The p!"lic attention, th!s, shifted toward *ir *tafford )ripps 3 the rene%ade who had defied the leadership of the &a"o!r Party "y advocatin% a Pop!lar Front a%ainst the risin% tide of fascis# on the continent and opposin% the policy of appease#ent. In Aan!ary 7984, )ripps had ret!rned fro# @oscow as the for#er 0ritish a#"assador to the *oviet +nion. )ripps' #eteoric rise to "e the second #ost pop!lar politician in the co!ntry, "ehind )h!rchill, was in itself spectac!lar and a reflection of the Peit%eist. Where )ripps entered the p!"lic conscio!sness was thro!%h radio "roadcasts. The #edia were awestr!c "y hi#, denotin% his eEcellent personal /!alities. 70? )ripps' close ties to the *oviet +nion and his inspirational "roadcasts on the 00) ena"led hi# to appeal to the pop!lar senti#ent that 0ritain had to wor harder. Be as ed his a!dience in one "roadcast if there was anythin% #ore that they co!ld do to 'help the co##on ca!se' 5re yo!r hardships and sacrifices co#para"le to those of the *oviet citi-ens who are fi%htin% yo!r "attle C!st as yo! are fi%htin% theirs'' 709 In another "roadcast he had stated that 'Jictory will contin!e to han% in the "alance so lon% as #en and wo#en hesitate their f!ll part'.770 )ripps was "rin%in% the #orale "ac to 0ritain which it had so desperately lac ed in the previo!s years. Bis for#er position as a#"assador to the *oviet +nion had helped f!el r!#o!rs that 'he had personally "ro!%ht ;!ssia into the war'. 777 1ne thin% that the p!"lic ad#ired a"o!t )ripps was that he was not lin ed to any political party. 1ne contri"!tor to @ass
70= 707 70? 709 770 777

New Statesman, 7 Fe". 7984 Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 84 I"id, pp. 88685 )ripps, *., /!oted in Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 85 )ripps, *., '5re We .oin% 95ll 1!t:'', T#e Listener, Iss!e =?3, <Fe"., 74, 7984> Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 8=

34

590059307 1"servation noted that havin% the whip withdrawn proved he had '"ac "one'. 774 Bowever, "y the start of 7983 he had fallen fro# %race, havin% "een sac ed fro# the war ca"inet toward the end of 7984. The challen%e of the independents to the %overnin% parties was another concern. The fo!r independent victories in the )onservative safe6seats of .rantha#, ;!%"y, Wallasey and @aldon were 'defiantly anti6party'.773 In 7984 there were twenty6five vacancies. Thirteen of the# were contested, of which eleven were )onservative. This was not an 'anti6)onservative' #ove#ent as the #aCority of the electorate co#posed a de#o%raphic which was traditionally conservative. (!e to the war, those !nder thirty were !nder6represented as they were were either in the forces or wor in% in factories far fro# hi#. 5s a res!lt the electoral re%ister, which had not "een !pdated since 7939, was over6represented "y #iddle6class, #iddle6a%ed voters. The independent candidates, and later )o##on Wealth candidates, "enefited fro# the electoral tr!ce as they were lar%ely dis#issed as n!isances rather than credi"le threats. The independent .rantha# candidate, W. (. Gendall, deno!nced political parties as i#pedin% the war effort as prod!ction 'was not "ein% p!rs!ed vi%oro!sly eno!%h "eca!se those at the top were inco#petents appointed for party reasons'. 778 5s a factory owner, Gendall had a vested interest in !ppin% the prod!ctivity for the war effort "!t his concern was %en!ine and the electorate shared his concern. Bowever, he was not a sin%le iss!e candidate as 'he s!pported refor# of the social services'. Be attracted "road s!pport fro# the parties' #e#"ers and s!pporters "eca!se he elevated loyalty to the co!ntry a"ove loyalty to a party which #any #e#"ers of the electorate fo!nd ad#ira"le and s!pported.775 The 'nation "efore party' pattern was confir#ed at Wallasey, ;!%"y, and @aldon. The "y6elections reflected the approval ratin% of the %overn#ent and its a"ility to cond!ct the war <Ta"le 7>. The lowest approval ratin% in @arch
774 773 778 775

I"id I"id, p. 8? I"id, p. 89 I"id, p. 50

33

590059307 was an all ti#e low of thirty6five per cent, "!t thro!%ho!t the co!rse of 7984 #ore people disapproved of the %overn#ent and its cond!ct of war than approved. There was a pic 6!p in the polls toward the end of 7984 d!e to the victory at $l65la#ein and the p!"lishin% of the 0everid%e ;eport. Table 1H Pop!lar approval of the %overn#ent in 7984 Aan. Fe". @ar. 5pr. @ay A!n. A!l. 5!%. *ep. 1ct. ,ov. (ec. D approvin% the %overn#ent's cond!ct of the war. 35 50 =3 57 84 85 87 89 75 75

Sour$eH Ta en fro# Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 83

The three political parties s!ffered fro# the war and the inter6war period. T#e %$onomist ran a series of articles s!%%estin% that the #oral and political "ac "one of the co!ntry had "een wea ened "y the inter6war period "eca!se the ,ational .overn#ent lac ed in principle. 0efore 7978, #en of talent and s!"stance had occ!pied the )o##ons, "!t thro!%ho!t the 7930s those #en had "een replaced "y party hac s and professional politicians. They had lon% ceased to represent the interests of the electorate and the sit!ation, th!s, #!st "e sha en6!p. 77= &a"o!r was ha#str!n% "y the warti#e pact. The party was divided on the iss!e. The leadership was co##itted to the coalition and the pact, "!t #any of the %rass roots #e#"ers favo!red %oin% it alone. It was warned "y the New Statesman that if it re#ained in coalition with the )onservatives and )h!rchill, then it wo!ld face annihilation at the neEt election. The leadership and #e#"ership were !nited in their view of the role of independents 3 they were a threat to parlia#entary de#ocracy. Party, th!s, was the only le%iti#ate #ean of political eEpression in a parlia#entary de#ocracy. 777 The 'no6#an's' land which the independents and )o##on Wealth occ!pied was ridic!led "y politicians, s!ch as 5rth!r .reenwood. .reenwood considered the electorate to fall into two ca#ps, those who wanted the statu 4uo and s!pported the )onservatives, and those who were 'forward6loo in%' and s!pported
77= 777

T#e %$onomist, 4 and 48 Aan., 4? Fe"., 7 @ar., and 8, 77 and 45 5pr., 7984 Labour 3on0eren$e Annual /e"ort, <7984>, pp. 7856750

38

590059307 &a"o!r. The independents, on the other hand, appealed to the 'dis%r!ntled' and those with 'no settled political convictions'.77? 0y the end of 7984 anti6party senti#ent and rhetoric was "eco#in% less prevalent "eca!se of the #ilitary victories in ,orth 5frica. Bowever, with the p!"lication of the 0everid%e ;eport in (ece#"er 7984 another anti6party #ove#ent, )o##on Wealth, was a"le to capitalise on the de#and for the ;eport.

Common $ealth's By%election &ictories

)o##on Wealth "enefited h!%ely fro# the pop!lar anti6party senti#ent and the p!"lication of the 0everid%e ;eport. The Party "e%an contestin% "y6elections, first "y s!pportin% independent socialists in two constit!encies and then fi%htin% elections on its own. 0efore )o##on Wealth was for#ally fo!nded in the A!ly it operated as an alliance, "etween Priestley's 7987 )o##ittee and *ir ;ichard 5cland's Forward @arch @ove#ent. They s!pported independent *ocialists in the 7984 "y6elections, one of the# "ein% To# (ri"er%, the independent candidate, and later @e#"er, for @aldon. The s!ccess of the election was "ro!%ht a"o!t "y a ,ine Point Plan which consisted ofH 7> .reater e/!ality of wor , pay#ent, sacrifice and opport!nityI 4>Transfer to )o##on 1wnership of services, ind!stries, and co#panies in which #ana%erial inefficiency or profit #otive is har#in% the war effortI 3> ;efor# of the .overn#ent *!pply 1r%anisationsI 8> $sta"lish#ent of effective Wor s )o!ncilsI 5> $li#ination of ;ed6Tape in the )ivil *erviceI => @aEi#!# freedo# of eEpressionI 7> 0ritish initiative in plannin% an 1ffensive .rand *trate%yI ?> ;ep!diation of any policy of Jen%eanceI 9> Preli#inary Post6War plans for the provision of f!ll and free ed!cation, e#ploy#ent and a civilised standard of livin% for everyone.779

77? 779

Daily .erald, 7? @ay 7984 )alder, 5., 'The )o##on Wealth Party, 798467985', Ph.(. Thesis <*!sseE, 79=7>, pp. 90697

35

590059307 The s!ccess of the "y6elections enco!ra%ed the# to for# a cohesive #ove#ent 3 )o##on Wealth. Tho!%h never for#ally a political party, it did operate as one. In early 7983 )o##on Wealth fo!%ht fo!r "y6elections "y the#selvesH 5shford, @idlothian and Pee"leshire, Ports#o!th ,orth, and Watford. These early "y6elections were a testin% %ro!nd for )o##on Wealth's party #achine. The first "y6election contested "y )o##on Wealth was 5shford on the 70th Fe"r!ary. The 5shford "y6election occ!rred d!e to the inc!#"ent's, )onservative Patric *pens, appoint#ent as )hief A!stice of India. )o##on Wealth's candidate, )atherine Willia#son, polled 30.3 per cent co#in% in second to the )onservative candidate, $dward Percy *#ith. The @idlothian and Pee"leshire "y6election occ!rred on the followin% day d!e to Aohn )olville's appoint#ent as .overnor of 0o#"ay. The @idlothian and Pee"leshire "y6election is si%nificant "eca!se it was the first ti#e )o##on Wealth al#ost won an election. The "y6election was contested "y To# Wintrin%ha#, a fo!nder of the #ove#ent and creator of the Bo#e Front. To# Wintrin%ha# sec!red 8?.7 per cent of the vote, a%ainst the +nionist candidate's, *ir (avid Gin% @!rray, 57.9 per cent. There was a #on!#ental swin% of eleven per cent away fro# the +nionist "!t, of co!rse, a low t!rno!t of 38.= per cent wor ed in )o##on Wealth's favo!r. The Ports#o!th ,orth "y6election was tri%%ered when *ir ;o%er Geyes, the )onservative inc!#"ent, was enno"led. The "y6election too place on the 7=th Fe"r!ary. Tho#as *ar%ant, the )o##on Wealth candidate, polled 80.3 per cent of the vote and ca#e second to Willia# @il"o!rne Aa#es. )o##on Wealth's "y6election ca#pai%ns revolved aro!nd the de#and for i##ediate i#ple#entation of the 0everid%e report, however they were contestin% seats held "y the )onservatives, )onservatives who had a diffic!lty with the 0everid%e ;eport. The )onservative candidate for Watford, Willia# Bel#ore, called the 0everid%e ;eport a 'poet's drea#'. 740 Fort!nately, for Bel#ore, the )onservatives held onto the seat with 59.7 per cent of the vote. (espite not winnin% a seat )o##on Wealth 'polled a

740

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, <&ondon, 7977>, p. =37

3=

590059307 considera"ly hi%her proportion of the vote than &a"o!r had done in 7935'.747 )o##on Wealth's #essa%e of 'the 0everid%e ;eport in f!ll now' reso!nded with the electorate and sec!red )o##on Wealth its first electoral victory at $ddis"!ry on 7 th 5pril 7983.744 $ddis"!ry was a s!rprise victory for )o##on Wealth "eca!se a> there was an !neEpectedly hi%h t!rno!t, and "> it was a &i"eral safe seat. Aohn &overseed, the )o##on Wealth candidate, was a pilot who had fo!%ht in the 0attle of 0ritain with a %allant rep!tation for which he accordin%ly received the 5ir Flyin% )ross. Bis #ilitary service alon% with his hard wor , as a candidate, was aided "y )o##on Wealth #e#"ers shipped in to help. &overseed stood on a platfor# which de#anded 'victory this year "y an 9all6o!t: effort and a second front in $!rope' and 'the 0everid%e ;eport in f!ll now'. 743 Bis #essa%e had a resonance with the electorate, "!t he did not fall into the sa#e trap that other )o##on Wealth candidates had done "efore hi# 3 lose. This achieve#ent was nonetheless #ore #irac!lo!s d!e to !neEpectedly hi%h t!rno!t of 58 per cent 3 'far hi%her than eEpected'. 748 Bowever, &overseed %ained the victory "eca!se the &i"eral vote was split. The split occ!rred a#on% the &i"erals when Tho#as Peacoc was selected as the &i"eral ,ational candidate. This was "eca!seH he was in fact a )onservative and a #e#"er of the )onstit!tional )l!", fro# which he resi%ned d!rin% the election. @r. B. Beathcote Willia#s, li e @r. Peacoc a resident in the division, who had "een one of the three other possi"le candidates who were t!rned down in favo!r of @r. Peacoc , ca#e forward as an Independent &i"eral and devoted #!ch of his ti#e to attac in% @r. Peacoc 's political consistency.745 5t the close of pollin% Warrant 1fficer Aohn &overseed, )o##on Wealth, had sec!red ?, 043 votes

747 744 743 748 745

I"id T#e Times, 9 @ay 7983 I"id I"id I"id

37

590059307 a%ainst @r. Tho#as Peacoc 's, &i"eral ,ational, 7, 537 votes and @r. Beathcote Willia#s', Independent &i"eral, 4, ?03 votes %ivin% &overseed a #aCority of 8?= votes. This victory "!c ed the trend, in that a )o##on Wealth candidate was elected on a hi%h t!rno!t. Bowever, it co!ld "e ass!#ed that had there not "een a split in the &i"eral vote &overseed, li e all the other )o##on Wealth candidates, wo!ld have co#e second. 5fter &overseed's st!nnin% victory )o##on Wealth was str!c "y a dro!%ht of victories and s!pport in the neEt fo!r "y6elections it contested. The followin% "y6election was on the 40 th 5pril in (aventry, a constit!ency not too dissi#ilar fro# $ddis"!ry. It was also another 'three6cornered' contest. Bowever the was no split in the &i"eral vote this ti#e. The candidates wereH @aCor @annin%ha#60!ller, )onservativeI (ennis We"", )o##on WealthI and W. $. (yer, Independent &i"eral. This partic!lar "y6election was concerned with 'post6war prospects and the fate of the 0everid%e plan'.74= We"", chair#an of the local )o##on Wealth "ranch, too the party line with re%ards to the 0everid%e ;eport, de#andin% it in f!ll and now and clai#in% that only ')o##on Wealth stands for the people a%ainst a #aintenance of the Tory re%i#e, which #as/!erades !nder the na#e of ,ational .overn#ent'.747 Bowever, @annin%ha#60!ller was a #!ch #ore reasoned candidate than previo!s )onservative candidates had "een, statin%H I entirely s!pport the .overn#ent on their acceptance of 7= o!t of the 43 proposals of the 0everid%e plan, in their desire f!lly to consider siE of the other proposals and in their deter#ination to introd!ce chan%es when the ti#e is ripe and a s!re fo!ndation has "een laid.74? The res!lt of this "y6election was that )o##on Wealth sec!red 33.8 per cent of the vote and still ca#e second. )o##on Wealth was "e%innin% to sl!#p in the polls as the war contin!ed and the
74= 747 74?

T#e Times, 75 5pril 7983 I"id I"id

3?

590059307 end was drawin% visi"ly closer. The Bartlepools "y6election, 7 st A!ne, was even worse for )o##on Wealth only %ainin% 77.8 per cent of the vote. 0!t that res!lt was not as "ad as )o##on Wealth's worst "y6election poll of 73.0 per cent in the ,ewar "y6election of the ? th A!ne. There was a short rally to 47.= per cent of the vote in the 0ir#in%ha# 5ston "y6election of the 9th A!ne, "!t )o##on Wealth were left deflated at the end of their 7983 ca#pai%n season. The first few #onths of 7983 held pro#ise for )o##on Wealth as they were the only party contestin% )onservative seats when they "eca#e vacant. 0!t towards the #iddle half of 7983 it "eca#e #ore than the two horse race that )o##on Wealth was r!nnin% a%ainst the )onservatives. For eEa#ple, the Bartlepools "y6 election saw fo!r candidates contest the election, a%ain pla%!ed "y a low t!rno!t of 37 per cent, saw a )onservative #aCority of 9, =99. $li-a"eth 0!rton, the )o##on Wealth candidate, saidH 'this contest has "een friendly and fair. I re%ret the split vote, and the fat that the people of the &eft co!ld not Coin to%ether, "!t I con%rat!late the )onservatives on a %ood win'. 749 Bowever, even if the vote had not "een split there wo!ld have still "een a co#forta"le )onservative victory of nearly =, 000 votes. 7988, tho!%h )o##on Wealth fielded far fewer candidates d!e lar%ely to a red!ction of vacancies in )onservative seats, yielded so#e stron% res!lts for )o##on Wealth. 1n the 7 th Aan!ary, in * ipton, )o##on Wealth yielded its second "y6election victory in the first contest of the season. B!%h &awson, the )o##on Wealth candidate, was elected with a #aCority of 447 votes in a three6 cornered contest with an !n!s!ally hi%h t!rno!t of over 70 per cent, accordin% to T#e Times.730 5cland clai#ed that on an !p6to6date re%ister it wo!ld "e possi"le for 'every a%ric!lt!ral constit!ency in $n%land 3 a"o!t 450 in all 3 can "e won fro# the representatives of #onopoly capitalis#'.737 It wo!ld "e possi"le, "!t not for )o##on Wealth who only fielded 43 candidates in the 7985 .eneral $lection. * ipton hi%hli%hts the dissatisfaction that &a"o!rites were havin% with
749 730 737

T#e Times, 3 A!ne 7983 I"id I"id

39

590059307 the electoral tr!ce as the third candidate, 5lder#an Aoe Toole, was a #e#"er of the &a"o!r Party, a for#er @P and a #e#"er of the party's ,ational $Eec!tive. Bis "rea in% of the electoral tr!ce %ot hi# eEpelled on the &a"o!r Party, si%nifyin% &a"o!r's co##it#ent to the warti#e coalition. The &a"o!r leadership did, however, serio!sly consider a"andonin% the tr!ce and contestin% "y6 elections whilst re#ainin% in coalition "!t soon dis#issed it. 0!t "y @arch, Transport Bo!se had iss!ed a circ!lar 'which told local &a"o!r parties to "e%in to "!ild !p their or%anisations for a %eneral election'.734 The neEt, and final, "y6election of the season was on the ?th A!ly in @anchester ;!shol#e. )o##on Wealth' candidate, B. W. 0lo#erley, sec!red 84.7 per cent of the vote on a low t!rno!t, co#in% second to the )onservative candidate Frederic )!ndiff. )o##on Wealth, "y 7988 was r!nnin% o!t of stea# and o!t of cash. 0!t in 5pril 7985 )o##on Wealth presented one last salvo in the "y6election arena. The settin% for this final contest was )hel#sford on the 4= th 5pril. It was the first constit!ency to poll on the new re%ister and incl!ded 'proEy votes on "ehalf of service #en and wo#en overseas and votes "y repatriated prisoners'.733 It was esti#ated, "y T#e Times, that there was a t!rno!t of =9 per cent, another hi%h t!rno!t. $rnest @illin%ton, the )o##on Wealth candidate, s!ccessf!lly overt!rned a 7935 )onservative #aCority of 7=, =48 votes and converted it into a )o##on Wealth #aCority of =, 837. 0oth 5cland and @illin%ton p!t the s!ccess down to the chan%e that co!ntry needed and de#anded. @illin%ton said that 'it shows that the people are tired of the old order and want a new plan'. 5cland was #ore scathin% in his approach, sayin% 'I a# convinced that the slo%an 9Jote for @r. 0lan and s!pport )h!rchill,: has no vote6p!llin% power whatsoever'. 738 @illin%ton's opponent, 0rian )oo , stated that he 'lost on the pop!larity of a "o#"er s/!adron leader and not on his policy'.735
734 733 738 735

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =80 T#e Times, 4? 5pril 7985 I"id I"id

80

590059307 )o##on Wealth's s!ccess lay in a hi%h "y6election t!rno!t. Thro!%h it, it had elected three @Ps. The nine candidates that it had p!t !p in non6s!ccessf!l contests were faced with a low t!rno!t and, in so#e cases, #!ltiple candidates which often split the &eft vote. There was a #ove#ent away fro# the traditional political parties, which had do#inated for the previo!s /!arter cent!ry, and )o##on Wealth harnessed that senti#ent and applied it to its "y6election ca#pai%ns. The ca#pai%ns were 'hi%hly efficient' carried o!t "y a tea# d!""ed '5cland's )irc!s', yet it is also worth notin% that the s!ccessf!l candidates were service#en. )o##on Wealth's "y6election victories do not say #!ch for the attraction of the party, per se, "!t spo e vol!#es a"o!t the attraction of the individ!als who were s!ccessf!l candidates. )alder has stated that in "y6elections )o##on Wealth 'represented the refined essence of 90everid%is#: 6 the revol!tionary -eal, the #illenarian drea#, the !nselfishness' "!t they were !na"le to translate it into a wider appeal.73= They were, essentially, a "y6election party. The analysis that )o##on Wealth p!t forward after "y6elections 3 people wanted a new plan and reCected )onservative politics 3 was correct, "!t it was not )o##on Wealth's plan they wanted either in A!ne 7985. )h!rchill was so!ndly defeated at the "allot "oE in A!ne, it was not a personal disa%ree#ent "eca!se )h!rchill was the savio!r of 0ritain "!t it was an iss!e s!rro!ndin% a vision for post6war 0ritain and the p!"lic reCected "oth the )onservative's plan and )o##on Wealth's plan.

'()* +eneral ,lection

A!ly 7985, a #onth after victory in $!rope had "een declared, the first %eneral election in ten years too place. It was on the new electoral re%ister which had "een !pdated since 7939 and first !sed at the )hel#sford "y6election in the 5pril. The #ain election was held on the 5 th A!ly with so#e polls occ!rrin% on the 74th and 79th A!ly. The res!lt was finally declared on the 4= th A!ly d!e to the ti#e it too to collate and process the votes fro# service#en servin% a"road. 1f the =80 seats &a"o!r
73=

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =34

87

590059307 contested =08 and )o##on Wealth contested 43. With a t!rno!t of 74.3 per cent &a"o!r was elected with 393 seats and a #aCority of 785 seats <Ta"le 4>. It was the first election where &a"o!r had %ained a #aCority of the seats. Table 2H A!ly 7985 .eneral $lection res!lts Party &a"o!r ,ational )onservative737 ,ational &i"eral ,ational &i"eral Independent )o##on Wealth )P.0 Irish ,ationalist ,ational Independent Independent &a"o!r Independent )onservative I&P Independent Pro%ressive Independent &i"eral Total Votes 77,557,?47 9,533,37= ?,77=,477 =?=,=54 730,573 4,777,93? 733,797 770,=38 97,985 94,?79 =5,777 =3,735 57,?43 8=,7=9 35,074 30,850 % 8?.0 39.= 3=.4 4.9 0.5 9.0 0.= 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.7 Change Q70.0 673.7 677.= 60.9 Q0.3 Q4.3 6 6 Q0.7 Q0.3 6 6 6 60.5 6 6 Candidates Unopposed Seats =03 =7? 559 89 70 30= 3? 43 47 3 73 7 = 5 7 3 4 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 393 470 797 77 4 74 ? 7 4 4 4 4 4 3 7 4 =80

48,073,045 700.0 7,=?3 Sour$e ta en fro# httpHRRwww.election.de#on.co.! R%eres!lts.ht#l last accessed 75th A!ne 4077

0y 1cto"er of 7988 &a"o!r and the &i"erals had anno!nced they wo!ld fi%ht the neEt %eneral election independently of all other parties. Parlia#ent, "y6elections and %eneral ca#pai%nin% "eca#e #ore partisan in their cond!ct. Fieldin%, Tho#pson and Tiratsoo have ar%!ed that pop!lar electoral attit!des did not chan%e si%nificantly thro!%ho!t the war. Bowever, there was a desire to rid the co!ntry of the )onservatives. It had a positive i#pact on the &a"o!r vote, as can "e seen in Ta"le 4, "!t only "y defa!lt on acco!nt of not "ein% the )onservatives. 73? Thorpe has ar%!ed that &a"o!r's victory was 'not a positive vote for 9socialis#: "!t a realisation that votin% &a"o!r offered the only prospect of re#ovin% the )onservatives'.739 The electorate was warned, in the lead to the
737 73?

739

5lso incl!des the 9 +lster +nionist @Ps Fieldin%, *., Tho#pson, P., and Tiratsoo, ,., %ngland Arise; T#e Labour 'arty and 'o"ular 'oliti$s in 1)<=s Britain, <@anchester, 7995> Thorpe, 5., 'arties at War, p. 7

84

590059307 %eneal election, that if they wanted the refor# they desired the only way to achieve that wo!ld "e "y votin% &a"o!r. 0efore the war the )onservatives presented the#selves as the ,ational party and carried this line thro!%h the war and into the 7985 %eneral election. &a"o!r, on the other hand, were presented, thro!%h no fa!lt of their own, as sectional and e#"odyin% the senti#ent of the 'party' rather than the 'nation'. In the i##ediate post6war election ca#pai%n the attit!de had chan%ed. &a"o!r were now the 'people's party' whereas the )onservatives e#"odied the sectional interests of a political party. (!rin% the ca#pai%n the )onservatives hid "ehind )h!rchill and the electorate were invited to vote for the #an who won the war rather than the party #arred "y the #ista es of 7980. The p!"lic #ood !p to 7984 was anti6party "!t after it was lar%ely anti6)onservative "eca!se they were seen to "e e#"ody the 'party' spirit #ore than any other and 'they appeared the #ost rel!ctant to win the war as speedily as possi"le and were least enth!siastic a"o!t post6war social refor#s'.780 &a"o!r's s!ccess was %ro!nded in winnin% the s!pport of those who had "een on the 'van%!ard' of anti6party senti#ent 3 the yo!n% and the #iddle6class. Fieldin% is !ndecided whether the independents, and )o##on Wealth, had "een &a"o!r s!rro%ates or &a"o!r 'itself was a s!rro%ate for so#ethin% dee#ed #ore desira"le "!t i#possi"le to achieve'. 787 5ddison ar%!es that the independents and )o##on Wealth were a s!rro%ate for &a"o!r and that there is a reasona"le trend that &a"o!r's s!rro%ates paved the way for &a"o!r's victory in A!ly 7985. 784 For eEa#ple the =.9 per cent swin% to )o##on Wealth in the Ports#o!th ,orth "y6election yielded an 7?.8 per cent swin% for &a"o!r in the %eneral election, or the 0.3 per cent swin% to the Independent &a"o!r Party in the 0ilston "y6election which yielded a 79.4 per cent swin% for &a"o!r in 7985. 783 With so#e respecta"le pollin% fi%!res in the "y6elections, especially in re%ards to positive swin%s, why did )o##on Wealth perfor# so "adly in the %eneral election'
780 787 784

783

Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 57 I"id 5ddison, P., '0y6elections of the *econd World War', )oo , )., ;a#sden, A., <eds>, By-ele$tions in Britis# 'oliti$s, <&ondon, 7997>, p. 784 I"id

83

590059307 In the ,ove#"er of 7988 5cland stated the position of )o##on Wealth with respects to how it wo!ld contest the forthco#in% %eneral electionH In no circ!#stances whatever are we %oin% to contest a constit!ency which, on fi%!res of the past, can o"vio!sly "e won "y a &a"o!r candidate. We are not %oin% to p!t !p wrec in% candidates in those places. We feel that we have a contri"!tion to #a e, and we are #ost anEio!s that it sho!ld "e #ade co6operatively with others.788 This was a reaffir#ation of a state#ent on 5!%!st 7983, that )o##on Wealth wo!ld fi%ht with &a"o!r at the neEt %eneral election.785 Bowever, "y the end of 7988 )o##on Wealth activists were "e%innin% 'to see the f!tility of tryin% to co#pete with the #aCor parties after the war'. 78= *o#e so!%ht affiliation with &a"o!r, others ditched the party and Coined &a"o!r as individ!als #ana%in% to stand as &a"o!r candidates in the %eneral election. &overseed 'had already applied and si%nified his willin%ness to leave )o##on Wealth' and was ad#itted in Aan!ary 7985. 787 @ac ay, the )hair#an of )o##on Wealth, '#oved so fast that he was a"le to stand as the &a"o!r candidate at B!ll ,orth West as the %eneral election'.78? This was lar%ely a res!lt of &a"o!r's reCection of )o##on Wealth's application for affiliation at the "e%innin% of 7985. Followin% the "rea down of ne%otiations for affiliation the )o##on Wealth leadership decided to 'concentrate its %eneral election wor 9on seats the &a"o!r Party is not li ely to win:'. 789 )o##on Wealth contested the %eneral election in seats that &a"o!r were !nli ely to win <Ta"le 3> in all "!t three seats. The three seats that )o##on Wealth contested that &a"o!r co!ld have won, and in cases did win, wereH @idlothian ,orthernI Ply#o!th (ra eI and Wi#"ledon. &a"o!r %ained "oth Ply#o!th (ra e and
788 785 78= 787 78? 789

T#e Times, 4 ,ove#"er 7988 I"id, 79 5!%!st 7983 Fieldin%, *., 'The *econd World War and Pop!lar ;adicalis#', p. 55 Thorpe, 5., 'arties at War, p. 88 I"id T#e Times, ? Aan!ary 7985

88

590059307 Wi#"ledon and co!ld have won @idlothian ,orthern had it not "een for a )o##on Wealth candidate. Table 3H )o##on Wealth's pollin% res!lts in relation to other political parties in contested constit!encies. )onstit!ency 5ldershot 0!ry *t $d#!nds )anter"!ry )hel#sford )helsea $vesha# Fylde .las%ow Polloc Barrow West Gn!tsford @idlothian ,orthern ,ew"!ry ,ewcastle6!pon6Tyne ,orth Petersfield Ply#o!th (ra e P!tney ;ich#ond <*!rrey> ;ich#ond <For shire> *heffield $cclesall *t .eor%es <West#inster> *!tton )oldfield Thirs and @alton Wi#"ledon T!rno!t D =9.7? =7.77 =?.7? 73.53 =4.?0 =3.34 70.=0 =?.37 7?.=7 77.45 70.33 =7.59 73.7? =8.83 77.59 73.5? 7=.70 =?.3? 75.57 57.38 78.8? =5.55 7=.07 )on. D 57.87 8?.77 =7.=7 83.77 =3.74 53.3? =7.3= =3.85 89.?5 5=.47 87.95 54.39 50.=8 5?.3= 83.85 8?.58 54.79 54.?7 58.0? =7.47 5?.7= =0.75 84.39 &a". D &i". D ). W. D Ind. D 6 49.?3 35.?7 6 37.0? 6 35.75 33.=0 33.03 48.54 85.=? 33.78 49.?0 6 50.?7 37.00 38.58 47.79 6 6 37.=3 6 88.87 6 79.04 6 70.77 6 43.89 6 6 74.?3 7?.40 6 74.9= 7=.93 43.7= 6 =.0= 77.04 77.=0 70.77 6 6 6 9.5= 84.59 4.83 4.5? 8=.74 5.47 43.73 4.?9 4.95 8.49 7.07 =.37 0.97 4.=3 7?.8? 5.=7 7.97 7.=5 4.38 35.90 47.49 8.47 39.?5 3.=8 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 0.83 6 6 6 5.89 6 6 6

Sour$e Ta en fro# +G .eneral $lection res!lts A!ly 7985

httpHRRwww.politicsreso!rces.netRareaR! R%e85R%e85indeE.ht# last accessed 40th A!ne 4077 When )o##on Wealth stood in a constit!ency that &a"o!r was also contestin% they were l!c y to %et #ore than 8 per cent. In the fifteen seats that "oth )o##on Wealth and &a"o!r contested )o##on Wealth polled an avera%e of 3.55 per cent with only fo!r constit!encies pollin% a"ove the 8 per cent #ar H )helseaI @idlothian ,orthernI Ply#o!th (ra eI and P!tney. In co#parison, in the seats that )o##on Wealth contested "!t &a"o!r did not they polled 33.84 per cent effectively "eco#in% the &a"o!r s!rro%ate vote. 1f the )o##on Wealth @Ps only @illin%ton, in )hel#sford, retained his seat. 5cland, as early as A!ly 7983, had r!led o!t contestin% his 0arnstaple seat in 85

590059307 favo!r of another so as not to split the ,orth (evon &i"eral 5ssociation. Be decided, instead, to contest P!tney co#in% third with 7.97 per cent of the vote. 1f for#er )o##on Wealth #e#"ers, &overseed contested his $ddis"!ry seat !nder &a"o!r co#in% second, to the ,ational &i"eral candidate, with only 47.90 per cent. Jernon 0artlett contested his 0rid%water seat as an independent and was s!"se/!ently re6elected with 85.79 per cent. @ac ay was elected as the &a"o!r @P for B!ll ,orth West with 8?.77 per cent. Priestley contested )a#"rid%e +niversity as an independent, finally co#in% second on the fo!rth ro!nd of the *in%le Transfera"le Jote election with 8=.70 per cent.750

Conclusion
The #ove#ent away fro# a political party syste# was short lived, as soon as victories were #ade in the war confidence %rew a#on% party activists as the war drew to concl!sion. Fro# what was represented in 7984 as anti6party senti#ents, the pop!lar attit!de shifted to "e #ore anti6 )onservative in rhetoric and senti#ent. )o##on Wealth represented this anti6)onservative #ood as well as "eco#in% a s!rro%ate for the &a"o!r vote whilst &a"o!r was in coalition with the )onservatives. )o##on Wealth had initially "een a"le to capitalise on the release of the 0everid%e ;eport and anti6party senti#ent, later anti6)onservative senti#ent. $arly s!ccessf!l pollin% res!lts lay in low t!rno!ts "!t victories were only %ained with hi%h t!rno!ts. )o##on Wealth had effectively overco#e apathy "y offerin% an ideal, in the for# of the 0everid%e ;eport, and "y !sin% the 0everid%e ;eport as the plan to i#ple#ent said idea. 5s )alder ar%!es, )o##on Wealth 'represented the refined essence of 90everid%is#:'.757 5s the war drew to concl!sion it was apparent that there was a ret!rn to the traditional party syste#. )o##on Wealth !ns!ccessf!lly applied for affiliation with the &a"o!r Party "!t still played the role of the s!rro%ate for the &a"o!r vote in seats that did not have a &a"o!r candidate.
750 757

httpHRRwww.politicsreso!rces.netRareaR! R%e85R%e85indeE.ht# last accessed 40th A!ne 4077 )alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =34

8=

590059307

Rejected
Party Structures and Affiliation Negotiations
We sho!ld see "y all #eans in o!r power to avoid KconflictL, "y analysin% possi"le ca!ses, "y tryin% to re#ove the#, "y disc!ssion in a spirit of colla"oration and %ood will. I cannot "elieve that s!ch a pro%ra##e wo!ld "e reCected "y the people of this co!ntry. ,eville )ha#"erlain

Introduction
The political period precedin% the war, in re%ards to *ocialis#, is s!##ed !p s!ccinctly "y 1rwellH 5fter twenty years of sta%nation and !ne#ploy#ent, the entire $n%lish *ocialist #ove#ent was !na"le to prod!ce a version of *ocialis# which the #ass of the people co!ld even find desira"le. The &a"o!r Party stood for a ti#id refor#is#, the @arEists were loo in% at the #odern world thro!%h nineteenth cent!ry spectacles.754 It was into this political at#osphere that )o##on Wealth was "orn. 5 political at#osphere where the 0ritish &eft was in a wea ened and fee"le state. This chapter will eEplore the party str!ct!res of )o##on Wealth and &a"o!r "y loo in% at the fo!ndin% and the #e#"ership of the two parties. It will then co#pare and contrast the leadership of the two parties "efore eEplorin% the proposed #otion, introd!ced "y &a"o!r, to "an )o##on Wealth and, finally, the ne%otiations for affiliation "etween &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth.

#arty Structures
)o##on Wealth was for#ally esta"lished on 45th A!ly 7984 thro!%h a #er%er of A. 0. Priestley's

754

1rwell, .., T#e Lion and t#e Uni$orn, p. 99

87

590059307 7987 )o##ittee and ;ichard 5cland's Forward @arch #ove#ent. 5s 5cland points o!t, 'there was a lot of overlap "etween infl!ential #e#"ers of the 7987 )o##ittee and Forward @arch' and it was th!s practical to #er%e '"!t a decisive difference was that the 7987 )o##ittee was infl!ential #e#"ers and nothin% else'.753 Its i##ediate ai# was to esta"lish *ocialis# in 0ritain in order to win the war. Jernon 0artlett @P, a fo!ndin% #e#"er, saidH We are now in s!ch a desperate dan%er of losin% the war that anythin% else which does not affect the war does not #atter. In a very few days we #ay find the ;!ssians p!shed so far "ac that they will not "e a"le to carry o!t a co!nter6offensive. +nless we are a"le very shortly to do so#ethin% very apprecia"le to distract the attention of the .er#ans fro# the eastern front, the feelin% of fr!stration will "eco#e very dan%ero!s indeed.758 )o##on Wealth "elieved the#selves to "e sol!tion to the pro"le#s which faced warti#e 0ritain. Bowever, not "efore lon%, )o##on Wealth was hit "y a spate of resi%nations. 5t the end of *epte#"er Priestley, 0artlett and ;ay#ond .a!ntlet, the political secretary, had resi%ned. 0artlett stated that 'there is no difference in view as to !lti#ate ai#s, "!t Priestley and #yself are so "!sy on other thin%s we have not the ti#e to follow the day6to6day develop#ents within the #ove#ent'.755 Priestley's resi%nation inspired 5cland and the #ove#ent to carry on, they new

what they wanted to "eH 'an e#er%ent political Party with a clear #essa%e which we intended to p!t to the people'. They set a"o!t prod!cin% a set of policy pa#phlets with the ai# to answer every i#portant social /!estion, "!t "eca#e "est nown, accordin% to 5cland, for their advocacy of )o##on 1wnership. 5s has "een identified in an earlier chapter, )o##on Wealth had "eco#e synony#o!s with the 0everid%e ;eport and not so #!ch )o##on 1wnership. )o##on Wealth

753 758 755

5cland, ;., 'ersonal 'oliti$al Memoirs, <+np!"lished, 7978>, p. 9 T#e Times, 4= A!ly 7984 I"id, 30 *epte#"er 7984

8?

590059307 "e%an to contest "y6elections #a in% it clear 'that whenever a )onservative @P died or resi%ned, we wo!ld fi%ht the seat either with a candidate of o!r own or "y "ac in% and Independent whose policy we approved'. 0!t, "efore the #on!#ental victory at )hel#sford, the fate of )o##on

Wealth had "een sealed "y the reCection of )o##on Wealth "y &a"o!r for affiliation. &a"o!r, on the other hand, "e%an life in 7900 as the &a"o!r ;epresentation )o##ittee <&;)>. +nder the secretaryship of ;a#say @ac(onald the &;) won 49 seats in the 790= %eneral election and was rena#ed the &a"o!r Party, indicatin% its new fo!nd stat!s as a !nified political "ody. The &;), and s!"se/!ent &a"o!r Party, was an a#al%a#ation of the Trade +nion )on%ress' Parlia#entary )o##ittee, co6operative and socialist parties, s!ch as the Fa"ian *ociety and the Independent &a"o!r Party. 0efore 7944, the party's de 0a$to leader was chair#an of the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party <P&P>. The str!ct!re chan%ed followin% &a"o!r's s!r%e to second party stat!s "etween 7978 and 7944. In 7978 &a"o!r's f!t!re was !ncertain with C!st over thirty @Ps and widely considered the fo!rth party in Parlia#ent. 0y 7944, capitalisin% on the fallo!t of political capital followin% the post6First World War settle#ent, &a"o!r was the '#ain opposition party, with 784 @Ps, a new constit!tion and a #!ch6i#proved or%anisation'.75= The res!lt of the 7943 election prod!ced a h!n% parlia#ent in which &a"o!r event!ally for#ed its first, al"eit #inority, %overn#ent in Aan!ary 7948. The %overn#ent lasted ten #onths and &a"o!r were o!sted fro# power in the 1cto"er 7948 election. The 7949 election saw &a"o!r "eco#e the lar%est party in the Bo!se of )o##ons, "!t still shy of a #aCority and reliant !pon &i"eral s!pport, and the for#ation of a second #inority &a"o!r %overn#ent. Bowever, @ac(onald's and *nowden's co##it#ent to econo#ic orthodoEy split the party and toppled the ad#inistration in 7937. 1!t of power and in opposition for nine years, &a"o!r restr!ct!red and redefined what the party stood for, s!ch as a planned econo#y.

75=

Thorpe, 5., A .istory o0 t#e Britis# Labour 'arty, <0asin%sto e, 400?>, p. 3=

89

590059307 &a"o!r was fo!nded on Trade +nion s!pport, as a platfor# of representation for Trade +nions, it also contained a lot of involved and active socialists. )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, did not have any Trade +nion s!pport, and with it the s!pport of the wor in% classes, "!t it did contain active socialists as well as a few for#er &i"erals, which &a"o!r also contained. The lac of Trade +nion s!pport for )o##on Wealth #eant that the #ove#ent co!ld not pro%ress #!ch f!rther than the #iddle6class professionals which it attracted d!rin% the war. 5 typical )o##on Wealth #e#"er, accordin% to )alder, was a 'schoolteacher livin% in one of the pleasanter s!"!r"s of &iverpool, who had never "een involved in politics "efore, and /!ite li ely wo!ld never "e active in the# a%ain'.757 )o##on Wealth had aro!nd 300 "ranches which were spread !nevenly thro!%ho!t the co!ntry with a lar%e concentration in &ondon and @erseyside. The "ranches co!ld "e fo!nd in wealthy s!"!r"s rather than wor in% class areas. Its core "ase of s!pport were the professions, s!ch as solicitors, doctors, teachers and Co!rnalists. 5t any point in its f!nction as a political party did its #e#"ership total #ore than 75,000 3 twenty per cent of who# were in the 5r#ed Forces.75? The n!#"ers involved in )o##on Wealth were nowhere near s!fficient to challen%e &a"o!r as the core #e#"ership of &a"o!r had re#ained lar%ely intact thro!%ho!t the war. 0y 7983, %rowin% #iddle class s!pport for and #e#"ership of )o##on Wealth pro#pted &a"o!r to ta e fir#er action. The res!lt of this action was a series of five articles p!"lished in the second half of 7983 in Labour Organiser entitled 'Who# (o We Want in the Party''.The articles e#phasised the i#portance of recr!itin% people fro# the #iddle classes and, th!s, encroached on )o##on Wealth's "ase of s!pport. Bowever, what attracted the #iddle classes to )o##on Wealth was not what )o##on Wealth wanted as a whole. It was not 'set !p a p!rely #iddle class

757 75?

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, < >, p. =38 I"id, p. =33

50

590059307 #ove#ent'.759 It did, on the other hand, see to appeal to a wide section of societyH incl!din% #any of the wor ers who at present feel no enth!sias# for any political party, and who, in the a"sence of a positive "elief in vital de#ocracy and co##on ownership, #i%ht drift into fascist or%anisations, as did #any in .er#any.7=0 5s early as 7984 )o##on Wealth was ai#in% to "e an eEtension of the &a"o!r Party. In the pa#phlet 3ommon Wealt# and t#e 'oliti$al 'arties it is ar%!ed that &a"o!r #e#"ers sho!ld retain their #e#"ership and 'those who are not #e#"ers of the &a"o!r Party to Coin it'. 7=7 It was a convincin% ar%!#ent to Coin the &a"o!r Party, "!t it was not a convincin% ar%!#ent to Coin )o##on Wealth. This ina"ility to operate li e a political party si%nified the early tollin% of the death nell for )o##on Wealth.

Leadership
)o##on Wealth's leadership was s!pplied "y fo!r individ!alsH 5lan .ood, To# Wintrin%ha#, ;. W. .. @ac ay, and *ir ;ichard 5cland. .ood was a wealthy "!siness#an who "elieved 5cland's ideas and @ana%erialis# were %ood for la"o!r relations. Be "eca#e the treas!rer of )o##on Wealth in 7983 and was one of the lar%est contri"!tors to )o##on Wealth's coffers, %ivin% over N30, 000. .ood also prod!ced the propa%anda which was 'lavishly prod!ced, "ri%htly written, and copio!sly distri"!ted'.7=4 Wintrin%ha#, a Co!rnalist "y profession, had "een "orn in 7?9? as the second son of a &incolnshire solicitor. Be served in the ;oyal Flyin% )orps and, s!"se/!ent, ;5F in France fro# 797=6797?. 1n ret!nin%, he went to 1Eford. Be Coined the )o##!nist Party soon after its fo!ndation and was one of twelve leadin% co##!nists prosec!ted for sedition in 7945. 5s a captain in the International
759 7=0 7=7 7=4

3ommon Wealt# and t#e 'oliti$al 'arties, <&ondon, 7984>, p. 5 I"id I"id, p. = )alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =38

57

590059307 0ri%ade, he was severely wo!nded, and was n!rsed "ac to health "y a yo!n% 5#erican Ao!rnalist who was wor in% for the Man$#ester &uardian. *he was s!spect to the )o##!nist Party and, faced with a choice, he decided to leave the Party and #arry her. 1n ret!rnin% to 0ritain he "e%an to wor for the refor# of the 0ritish ar#y in accordance with the lessons he had learnt in *pain. With the o!t"rea of war, the .overn#ent called for '&ocal (efence Jol!nteers' in case of invasion. Wintrin%ha#, with wealthy "ac in%, set !p a Bo#e .!ard Trainin% *chool as 1sterley Par , @iddleseE, which, "etween A!ly to *epte#"er 7980, trained 5,000 officers and #en in #ethods which Wintrin%ha# and his collea%!es, other veterans of the International 0ri%ade, had learnt in *pain. 1rwell shared a lot in co##on with Wintrin%ha#. 0oth saw that Bo#e .!ard as a force which co!ld "e !sed a%ainst fascis# if the ,a-is ever invaded, or a%ainst 0ritish capitalis# if it ever showed si%ns of defeatis#. In 1cto"er 7980, 1sterley Par was ta en over "y the War 1ffice. Wintrin%ha# resi%ned fro# 1sterley Par in early 7987, "!t contin!ed to help the war effort "y assistin% in the develop#ent of the 5r#y's new 0attle (rill. Bis 'v!l%arisation' of the art of war earned hi# an national rep!tation. The 5!stralian ;. W. .. @ac ay was )o##on Wealth's .eneral *ecretary fro# the sprin% of 7983 !ntil early 7985. Be was a sta!nch &a"o!rite who viewed )o##on Wealth as a stand6in for &a"o!r whilst &a"o!r was in coalition with the )onservatives. This f!rther co#po!nds the ar%!#ent that )o##on Wealth was a s!rro%ate for &a"o!r s!pport d!rin% the war. 5s .eneral *ecretary, he fo!nd that the office staff were lar%ely inco#petent. Be /!ic ly developed a re6or%anisation plan to strea#line the internal str!ct!re and transfor# the party fro# an idealistic #ove#ent into an efficient electoral #achine. Be wanted a ti%htly r!n or%anisation that wo!ld co6ordinate the vario!s "ranches of the party to ens!re that it co!ld #aEi#ise its challen%e in "y6elections when they arose.

54

590059307 @ac ay advocated a coherent syste# of thoro!%h door6to6door canvassin% and the develop#ent of detailed records.7=3 This syste# provided the fo!ndation for what wo!ld later "e called the S;eadin% syste#T, which @ac ay developed with Ian @i ardo when they were nei%h"o!rin% @Ps for ;eadin% in the early 7950s. In essence, @ac ay was lar%ely responsi"le for )o##on Wealth's electoral victories. $ven tho!%h the dedicated tea# of canvassers were nic na#ed '5cland's )irc!s' it wo!ld "e #ore acc!rate to la"el the# '@ac ay's Trained *eals'. *ir ;ichard 5cland, the erstwhile and er!dite leader of )o##on Wealth ca#e fro# a &i"eral fa#ily and was the &i"eral @P for 0arnstaple fro# 7935 !ntil his a"andon#ent of li"eralis# and the for#ation of )o##on Wealth in 7984. Bis conversion to *ocialis# and )hristianity and, as a prolific writer, a!thored "oo s, s!ch as Unser 6am"0 and 2orward Mar$#, spawned political #ove#ents fro# their very pa%es. 5cland was very #!ch the drivin% force "ehind )o##on Wealth, politically and financially. 5s an orator, 5cland was considered a#on% the "est, "eca!se of the '"!rnin% sincerity of his enth!sias#, his o"vio!s Coy, a#o!ntin% to so#ethin% li e eEaltation, in his 9discovery: of socialis#, his ac!te insi%ht into the 9#iddle6class: approach to #oral and political pro"le#s'.7=8 Bowever, he was viewed with s!spicion "y &a"o!r and the Trade +nions with the #e#ory or @osley and @ac(onald relatively fresh in the collective #e#ory. 7=5 Be viewed )o##on Wealth as a cond!it for *ocialis# and that it was a distinct political party, in lar%e contrast to the views of Wintrin%ha# and @ac ay. )o##on Wealth was, lar%ely, !sed "y the party leadership as a way to entertain ideas and the#selves d!rin% the war. &a"o!r was led "y )le#ent 5ttlee, $rnest 0evin, $llen Wil inson, and @or%an Phillips. 5ttlee, @e#"er of Parlia#ent for &i#eho!se since 7944 "eca#e &eader of the &a"o!r Party in 7935. (!rin% the war he served as (ep!ty Pri#e @inister !nder )h!rchill and was a ey ally for

7=3 7=8 7=5

)o##on Wealth Papers 78R8670, +niversity of *!sseE. )alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =34 I"id

53

590059307 )h!rchill. 5 #an of conviction, he converted to *ocialis# "etween 790= and 7909 when wor in% for Bailey"!ry Bo!se. *hoc ed "y the deprivation he saw while wor in% with the sl!# children Bailey"!ry Bo!se represented, he ca#e to the view that private charity wo!ld never "e s!fficient to alleviate poverty, and only #assive action and inco#e redistri"!tion "y the state wo!ld have any serio!s effect.7== 5ttlee's conversion to *ocialis# was co#plete, however his co##it#ent to redistri"!tive *ocialis# soon %ave way to the Fa"ian tradition of efficiency *ocialis#. 5ttlee's style of leadership was that of a chair#an, very #!ch different to the lar%er than life, leadin% fro# the front style of leadership of ;ichard 5cland. $rnest 0evin was a Trade +nion #an thro!%h and thro!%h. 5 fo!ndin% #e#"er of the Transport and .eneral Wor ers +nion and its %eneral secretary. 5 close ally of 5ttlee, 0evin served as @inister of &a"o!r and ,ational *ervice d!rin% the war despite not "ein% a @e#"er of Parlia#ent at the ti#e. The sit!ation was /!ic ly resolved and he "eca#e a &a"o!r @P for Wandsworth )entral in a 7980 "y6election. The $#er%ency Powers <(efence> 5ct %ave 0evin co#plete control over the la"o!r force and the allocation of #anpower, and he was deter#ined to !se this !nprecedented a!thority not C!st to help win the war "!t also to stren%then the "ar%ainin% position of trade !nions in the postwar f!t!re. 0evin, in office, showed the sa#e pra%#atic st!""ornness that had characterised his years as a trade !nion leader, and as one of the inte%ral or%anisers of the &a"o!r Party.7=7 $llen Wil inson was the )hair#an of the &a"o!r Party. 5 Trade +nionist, Fa"ian and fo!ndin% #e#"er of the )o##!nist Party, Wil inson was elected in 7935 to represent Aarrow. Wil inson was associated with the left of the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party, helpin% to fo!nd Tri"!ne #a%a-ine and s!pportin% the International 0ri%ades fi%htin% fascis# in the *panish )ivil War. *he travelled to *pain with )le#ent 5ttlee where they doc!#ented the .er#an "o#"in% of Jalencia and @adrid.
7== 7=7

0ec ett, F., 3lem Attlee A Biogra"#y, <&ondon, 4007> *teer, ;., 'Fro# the Bed%erows of (evon to the Forei%n 1ffice', De!on Li0e Maga8ine, A!ly 4004

58

590059307 5s *ecretary of the &a"o!r Party, @or%an Phillips, appointed in 7988, revol!tionised the or%anisation of the Party and ai#ed to appeal to a wider set of people and professions, a professional "asis for the election victory in 7985, that saw fewer trade !nionists and #ore professionals elected to Parlia#ent. Be called for reco%nition of #iddle class aspiration for wealth, ho#e ownership and leis!re opport!nities, and warned a%ainst eEcessive e#phasis on nationalisation. 5ttlee, 0evin, Wil inson and Phillips led the &a"o!r Party and #ade it #ore attractive "eyond the wor in% classes and to the professional classes in partic!lar. The /!iet, chair#an style leadership of 5ttlee %ave "earin% to the &a"o!r &eadership which )o##on Wealth lac ed.

#roscription
0efore )o##on Wealth was for#ally esta"lished, 5cland and the leadership of the ,ine Point .ro!p, as the loose federation of the 7987 )o##ittee and the Forward @arch #ove#ent, #et with &a"o!r. 5cland clai#ed that the ,ine Point .ro!p co!ld win 50 seats where &a"o!r co!ld never s!cceed, while in others it wo!ld s!pport &a"o!r. 7=? *trachey conceded that Forward @arch was servin% a '#ost !sef!l p!rpose' in the c!rrent sit!ation "y s!pportin% 'rep!ta"le' independents in "y6 elections. 0!t a%ain he insisted that it wo!ld never oppose &a"o!r. The de"ate eEposed "oth the #assive self6confidence of 5cland's s!pporters, and the political naivety of so#e of the#, e#er%in% in the i#plication that a new or%anisation co!ld "ar%ain over constit!encies with Transport Bo!se. It also showed how the fear of fascis# colo!red reactions to 5cland and his strate%y. The word '#iddle6class' often conC!red !p a pict!re of craven cler s and s#all shop eepers clin%in% to ,a-is# as their last hope.7=9 &as i and *trachey had as ed the /!estion whether )o##on Wealth was in co#petition with

7=? 7=9

)alder, 5., ')o##on Wealth' p. =9 I"id

55

590059307 &a"o!r. The New Statesman co##ented that it was 'a %ro!p which had a%reed on a co#prehensive ,ine Point pro%ra##e, which ai#s at "!ildin% !p an or%anisation in the constit!encies, and which already contests "y6elections, is what #ost of !s wo!ld calla party'. It warned that, short of proportional representation, )o##on Wealth's f!t!re depended on an a%ree#ent with the &a"o!r Party.770 )o##on Wealth was also concerned fro# the o!tset with definin% its position vis6a6vis &a"o!r.777 Priestley %ave a press conference after the #er%in% #eetin% in which it was eEplicitly confir#ed that )o##on Wealth was 'in no way opposed to' the &a"o!r Party and had 'no intention of fi%htin% &a"o!r seats. We fell, indeed, that we are doin% the &a"o!r Party's wor '. 774 *hortly "efore the #er%er, Forward @arch #e#"ers were as ed to Coin the &a"o!r Party and any appropriate Trade +nion and 'to avoid indiscri#inate attac s on 9TB$ &a"o!r leaders: or 9TB$: Trade +nion leaders'.773 In 5!%!st 7984 it was p!t that '700,000 #e#"ers "y )hrist#as is o!r i##ediate o"Cective', and it was anno!nced that 'there is no reason to do!"t o!r a"ility, if we "end o!r "est endeavo!rs to the tas , to f!lfil last wee 's prophecy in ;eynolds ,ews that )o##on Wealth will "e noc in% at the door of 70 (ownin% *treet in siE #onths' ti#e'. 778 In the #iddle of the sa#e #onth saw )o##on Wealth's first victory. Its life as a #ove#ent was s!##arily ended and its "irth as a political party was "e%!n. 5cland had heard as early as the "e%innin% of 5pril 7983 that the &a"o!r ,$) wo!ld propose the proscription of )o##on Wealth in their report to the &a"o!r )onference. 775 )o##on Wealth accordin%ly printed a leaflet for the "enefit of conference dele%ates. This ar%!ed that )o##on Wealth was not at odds with &a"o!rI it stood for )la!se IJ and the lo%ic of &a"o!r's own policy, which the &a"o!r leaders were shac led fro# pressin% on the .overn#ent. In its view, the &a"o!r

770 777 774 773 778 775

'Parties 3 5%ein% and .rowin%', New Statesman, 7 5!%!st 7984 )alder, 5., )o##on Wealth, p. 74 The 0irth of )o##on Wealth, Daily .erald, 47 A!ly 7984 Forward @arch &rou" Letter No1 +, 40 A!ne 7984 <5cland Papers> 'ubli$ation No1 +, 5!%!st 7984 and T#e 2orward Mar$#, 47 5!%!st 7984 <&awson Papers> (airy 7 5pril 7983

5=

590059307 leaders sho!ld insist on *ocialist le%islation and %ive notice of withdrawal fro# the .overn#ent if they #et with ref!sal. It /!estioned whether the &a"o!r leaders really wanted *ocialis# or a half6 way ho!se. If the ,$) proscri"ed )o##on Wealth, then it was o"vio!s that it wanted the latterI if not, there was no clash "etween the two or%anisations. 77= The New Statesman had called on the &a"o!r Party, repeatedly, to co#e to a%ree#ent with )o##on Wealth. 777 Tribune, !nder the direction of 0evan, wanted &a"o!r to "eco#e a loose Federation of trade !nions and *ocialist Parties, in which )o##on Wealth co!ld "e incl!ded. 77? This advocacy wo!ld, essentially, ta e the &a"o!r Party "ac fo!r decades to its fo!ndin% as the &;). The ,$) report readH (!rin% the year the ,ational $Eec!tive )o##ittee has dee#ed 9)o##on Wealth: to "e an or%anisation ineli%i"le for affiliation to the &a"o!r Party. The effect of this decision is to #a e #e#"ership of, or association with, 9)o##on Wealth: inco#pati"le with #e#"ership of the &a"o!r Party. 9)o##on Wealth: is an electoral or%anisation, the interests of which will clash with these of the &a"o!r Party in the )onstit!encies. @oreover, co#plaints are #ade to the )o##ittee of interference "y 9)o##on Wealth: with the "!siness of the )onstit!ency &a"o!r Parties in Parlia#entary (ivisions where "y6elections have recently ta en place.779 ;eference "ac to this para%raph was #ade "y $#il (avies, the Fa"ian *ociety dele%ate, who had "een i#pressed "y the or%anisation of )o##on Wealth "ranches on @erseyside, and "elieved it was attractin% new voters who# &a"o!r were #issin%. The ,$) pointed o!t that it wo!ld "e inconsistent to have anythin% to do with a tr!ce6"rea in% or%anisation li e )o##on Wealth when )onference had C!st reaffir#ed s!pport for the electoral tr!ce. )o##on Wealth was deno!nced for
77= 777 77? 779

O"en Letter to t#e Labour 'arty, 7 A!ne 7983 New Statesman 3 5pril 7983, 77 5pril 7983 and 7 @ay 7983 0evan, 5., ')oalition of the &eft', Tribune, 7? A!ne 7983 Annual 3on0eren$e /e"ort, 5pril 7983

57

590059307 creatin% a conflict of loyalties for &a"o!r #e#"ers when it stood in "y6electionsI it tried 'to cash in on o!r own pro%ra##e, there"y see in% to "rea the !nity and solidarity of the Party and its loyalty to the decisions of the 5nn!al )onference'.7?0 The "an was not 'in practice at all ri%idly enforced', yet it re#ained a stron% sanction a%ainst any !ninhi"ited association with )o##on Wealth "y local &a"o!r Parties. 7?7 The ran and file were placated "y ass!rances that &a"o!r wo!ld not consent to the contin!ation of the tr!ce after the war.

Re-ection of !ffiliation
Towards the end of 7988 there was action, perhaps positive, "etween &a"o!r and )o##on Wealth to disc!ss an electoral position at the forthco#in% %eneral election. This ca#e a"o!t after 5cland's declaration that )o##on Wealth wo!ld not contest a constit!ency which co!ld "e won "y a &a"o!r candidate. 5cland '!nderstood that the &a"o!r Party $Eec!tive wo!ld "e /!ite pleased to #eet the# and tal a"o!t the position'.7?4 Bowever, "rea down in ne%otiations were declared at the "e%innin% of Aan!ary 7985. P!"lished in the Aan!ary edition of the 3ommon Wealt# /e!iew was a report fro# the co##ittee overseein% the ne%otiations statin% that the decision on any for# of co6operation was ta en "y the &a"o!r Party's ann!al conference in (ece#"er 7988, where"y election policy was ta en r!lin% o!t any co6operation with any political party. The 3ommon Wealt# /e!iew accepted that the decision #!st "e ta en as the end to ne%otiations on any approach towards either affiliation or an electoral a%ree#ent.7?3 )o##on Wealth had previo!sly so!%ht to cooperate with other or%ans of the &eft. It had %one f!rthest with the Fa"ian *ociety, with which @ac ay had "een pro#inently connected, "!t official disc!ssions had "ro en off in ,ove#"er 7983. (espite invitations fro# @ac ay, the )o##!nist Party ref!sed to enter into any disc!ssion. Bowever, with the I&P a relationship developed. The
7?0 7?7 7?4 7?3

I"id )ole, .. (. B., .istory o0 t#e Labour 'arty 0rom 1)1<, <&ondon, 798?>, p. 780 T#e Times, 4 ,ove#"er 7988 3ommon Wealt# /e!iew, Aan!ary 7985

5?

590059307 relationship was for#ed thro!%h convenience rather than "y enth!sias#. Fenner 0roc way had earlier eEpressed his opinion that )o##on Wealth was 'petty "o!r%eois'. 7?8 )o##on Wealth and the I&P had cooperated, to an eEtent, at Peter"oro!%h, "!t )o##on Wealth had done nothin% to s!pport Walter Padley, the I&P candidate, at 5cton. With re%ards to the Woolwich "y6election, )o##on Wealth's Wor in% )o##ittee had condoned the action of the local "ranch in s!pportin% the I&P candidate as a *ocialist after it had decided to do nothin% to assist hi#.7?5 The I&P, li e #ost s#all *ocialist %ro!ps, tal ed a lot a"o!t '!nity', its ideas were different to )o##on Wealth's. The I&P advocated '*ocialist +nity'I "!t it wo!ld not co!ntenance any co#pro#ise for the sa e of "rin%in% &i"erals into a co##on front, and "eyond that it was rel!ctant to deal with the )o##!nist Party. In ,ove#"er 7983, the I&P anno!nced that it wo!ld p!t !p =0 candidates at the neEt %eneral election on the !nderstandin% that the &a"o!r Party wo!ld not leave the tr!ce. 5t this sta%e, )o##on Wealth was approached and an !nderstandin% was reached to prevent any clashes at the %eneral election.

In Aan!ary 7988, @ac ay arran%ed and infor#al #eetin% "etween hi#self, 5cland, Wintrin%ha#, Priestley, W. A. 0rown, (ri"er% and three &a"o!r @Ps 3 0owles, )ove and *ilver#an. They a%reed on the need to approach .reenwood, now actin% &eader of the &a"o!r Party, to see an a%ree#ent over constit!encies.7?= Priestley appeared to have stirred the %atherin% into action with a speech in which he ar%!ed for a spirit!al appeal fro# the &eft. This led to the *ocialist +nity conference, which @ac ay called for ?th @arch in a 0loo#s"!ry Botel. The list of those invited incl!ded several &a"o!r @Ps, pro#inent #e#"ers of the I&P, the independent @Ps "!t, si%nificantly, no

7?8 7?5 7?=

')o##on Wealth and the @iddle )lass', Le0t, 1cto"er 7984 W3 Minute, no. 379 = @ay 7983 5cland, (iary, 40 Aan!ary 7988

59

590059307 #e#"er of the )o##!nist Party. The invitations were sent "y letter and there was no press covera%e. 5s a res!lt, no &a"o!r @P t!rned !p and the #eetin% was only attended "y 5 )o##on Wealth representatives, = I&P representatives and a few others. The #eetin%, however, appeared to have %one no f!rther than the act!al #eetin%.7?7 0roc way and 5cland prepared a Coint declaration and the or%anisation of a co##on front. The )o##on Wealth Wor in% )o##ittee a%reed that )o##on Wealth sho!ld endorse it. 7?? 5t the I&P 5nn!al )onference in 5pril, 0roc way !r%ed that )o##on Wealth represented the 'professional, technical and s!pervisory wor ers' who co!ld "e !sef!l allies for the *ocialist #ove#ent. 0roc way also ass!red dele%ates that )o##on Wealth was now 'definitely *ocialist in p!rpose'. 5 ,ational )o!ncil resol!tion proposed an alliance for '*ocialist +nity' with &eft .ro!ps in the localities #eetin% to ta e co##on action on specific iss!es. It was defeated "y =3 votes to 87 votes. 5 resol!tion was later passed on )o##on Wealth itself, "y 55 votes to 83 votes. The resol!tion declared that 'the )o##on Wealth Party 3 which eEpresses the incapacity of the #iddle class to co#pletely "rea with the ideolo%y of the r!lin% class and line !p with the revol!tionary wor ers 3 can only "e won for the wor ers' str!%%le when we can show the# that their s!pport for the war and their opposition to the class str!%%le are dia#etrically opposed to the *ocialist chan%es they desire'. )o##on Wealth, as was the view of the conference, li e the #iddle6class #ove#ents in pre6war $!rope which had ali%ned the#selves with Fascis#. 7?9 The ,ational )o!ncil of the I&P was cens!red for concl!din% an electoral a%ree#ent with )o##on Wealth. The #otion, introd!ced at the I&P conference and passed witho!t disc!ssion "y 55 votes to 83 votes, eEpressed 'its profo!nd dissatisfaction with, and opposition to, the policy of the national ad#inistrative co!ncil in concl!din% an electoral a%ree#ent with the 9petit "o!r%eois: pro6war )o##on Wealth party'.790
7?7 7?? 7?9 790

5cland (iary 70 @arch 7988 W3 Minute, no. =48 7 5pril 7988 New Leader, 75 5pril 7988 T#e Times, 77 5pril 7988

=0

590059307 &eft +nity was viewed "y the )o##on Wealth leadership as the only way for )o##on Wealth in order to pro%ress as a party and as a #ove#ent. 5cland told dele%ates to the 7988 )o##on Wealth )onference that 'no )o##on Wealth speech is co#plete witho!t a section in it advocatin% &eft +nity'. &eft +nity #i%ht co#e a"o!t in one of two ways. &a"o!r #i%ht #ostly re#ain in the )oalition, and '#any %ro!ps and individ!als arise to fi%ht the )oalition on a *ocialist pro%ra##e'. 1r &a"o!r #i%ht leave it and invite other "odies to for# a +nited Front. 797 In the end neither event!ality occ!rred and )o##on Wealth was left to contest the 7985 .eneral $lection "y itself. &a"o!r @e#"ers either viewed )o##on Wealth as insi%nificant, a n!isance or they co!ld not see what the f!ss was a"o!t. )alder has ar%!ed that in #ost areas, )o##on Wealth's #e#"ership was so insi%nificant that local &a"o!r activists pro"a"ly i%nored it. Where it did i#pin%e on conscio!sness, however, the reaction was #!ch #ore li e *hepherdTs, the &a"o!r ,ational 5%ent. In a letter to a )o##on Wealth "ranch secretary he statesH ')o##on Wealth professes to "e *ocialist in principle and yet co##its the !nsocialist act of esta"lishin% an electoral or%anisation distinct fro# the wor in% )lass &a"o!r Party. This is not s!rprisin% when one considers the past history of one of its leaders. Their willin%ness to wor in a tea# has never "een a pro#inent feat!re of their activities'.794 5nother &a"o!r #e#"er wrote to another "ranch secretary in response to so#e )o##on Wealth pa#phlets he had "een sent. Be noticed the 'o!tstandin% o#ission' of any disc!ssion of the trade !nions fro# the literat!re. Be then stated his worry a"o!t the )o##on Wealth Party's eEpos!re of Fascists within )o##on Wealth. Finally, he notedH I a%ree that there is a lot to rectify in the &a"o!r Party "!t I feel that the "est way is "y doin% it fro# the inside and not "y "rea in% it !p, that only o"tains dis!nity, the play%ro!nd of reaction... I a# told the )o##on Wealth Party provide for the #iddle6class. To #e there is no #iddle6classI either
797 794

/e"ort o0 t#e Se$ond 3on0eren$e, 7988 W3 Minute, no. 803, 8 A!ly 7983

=7

590059307 yo! sell yo!r la"o!r to live or yo! "!y others' la"o!r to live... I find the sa#e ideas as the &a"o!r Party covered with s!%ar, perhaps, to #a e the# #ore palata"le to the #iddle6classes. I feel very disappointed. The principles are so!nd, C!st as so!nd as the &a"o!r Party's, so why have a separate party'793 In A!ne 7988, 5cland offered an a#end#ent to the .overn#ent's e#ploy#ent policy that 'f!ll and sta"le e#ploy#ent' co!ld only "e achieved thro!%h co##on ownership of the '#aCor reso!rces'. The spea er ref!sed to ta e the a#end#ent. .reenwood anno!nced that he wo!ld have s!pported it, pointin% o!t that 5cland 'has /!ite recently discovered a set of principles in which I have "elieved for #any years... When I first discovered the# I felt as reli%io!sly enth!siastic a"o!t the# as he does today'.798 What was new a"o!t )o##on Wealth' ,othin%, apart fro# its #iddle6class co#position and the appeal of 5cland. For )o##on Wealth #e#"ers, they really "elieved that their or%anisation had so#ethin% new to offer. $ven its official policy of cooperation to the &a"o!r Party ran and file "ordered on the patronisin%. 5n eEa#ple of this is when )o##on Wealth proposed to s!pport a &a"o!r candidate in *o!th (orset and invited hi# to attend a #eetin% 5cland was addressin%. The candidate reCected the offer with, what 5cland too to "e, scorn. Be eEc!sed hi#self "y eEplainin% that he felt hi#self "o!nd "y the &a"o!r Party's proscription. 5cland !ttered a veiled threat that )o##on Wealth wo!ld p!t !p its own candidate. The &a"o!r candidate responded withH 'a %reat wo!ld6"e ,ational &eader has co#e down and threatened a #an who had stood ready to fi%ht the constit!ency for *ocialis# "efore the war started'.795 0y *epte#"er 7988, )o##on Wealth was in a critical condition. It was heavily overspendin% and it
793 798 795

)arter, ). G. to 5!sten, 0. )., 40 5pril 7983 <Par er Papers> .3 Deb <=1, 44 A!ne 7988 Dorset Daily %$#o, 44 and 4= Aan!ary 7985

=4

590059307 was clear that self6assess#ent had failed as a f!ndin% #ethod. 5tte#pts to achieve &eft +nity had failed and its preparations for a %eneral election were inade/!ate. 5ccordin% to 5cland, when the ,ational )o##ittee #et in *epte#"er they 'eEpected the war to end in 1cto"er and the election in early (ece#"er and we foresaw a"sol!te eEtinction'.79= 5t this point, only @ac ay was fo!nd to "e f!lly en%a%ed in )o##on Wealth. 5cland's "rea down ept hi# away for seven consec!tive $Eec!tive )o##ittee #eetin%s fro# 9th 5!%!st to 4nd 1cto"er. Wintrin%ha# had #oved o!t of &ondon, tho!%h he still attended #ost of the #eetin%, he tended to a%ree with @ac ay. 5t the ,ational )o!ncil @eetin% on the 4nd *epte#"er 7988, it was decided to see affiliation with &a"o!r. The decision arose "eca!se of )o##on Wealth's co##it#ent to &eft +nity and also "eca!se of the wea ness of its own position. 5 plan was drawn !p for the .eneral $lection and 'arisin% fro# the disc!ssion it was a%reed that as the /!estion of affiliation to the &a"o!r Party #!st arise, the views of the @ove#ent as a whole sho!ld "e o"tained. It was therefore decided that a *pecial ,ational )onference "e called for *!nday, ?th 1cto"er, 7988'.797 @ac ay told the ,ational )o!ncil that &a"o!r wo!ld al#ost certainly accept a re/!est for affiliation. Word of this develop#ent /!ic ly spread to the re%ions and "ranches. The de"ate that ens!ed revealed a severe difference of opinion. What was fo!nd o!t was that #any #e#"ers had deep opposition to &a"o!r. Those that reCected affiliation ar%!ed that affiliation with &a"o!r wo!ld "e to "etray *ocialis#. It was ar%!ed that the forces wanted a party which was not 'tainted'I that )o##on Wealth's special appeal to the #iddle6classes wo!ld help to prevent these s!scepti"le people for '%oin% Fascist'I that )o##on Wealth #!st provide an 'alternative' for *ocialists dis%!sted with &a"o!r. 79? The eEponents of these ar%!#ents were also those who wanted )o##on Wealth to field candidates re%ardless of whether &a"o!r was p!ttin% !p a candidate or not. Their ar%!#ents appealed to the politically
79= 797 79?

(iary, = 1cto"er 7988 N3 Minute, ,o. 30? 4 and 3 *epte#"er 7988 Woodho!se to 5llsop, 7? ,ove#"er 7988 <5llsop Papers> and Forster to 5cland, 79 *epte#"er 7988 <5cland Papers>

=3

590059307 ineEperienced #e#"ers who had Coined )o##on Wealth, li ed it and wanted to eep it %oin%. Those in favo!r of affiliation also wanted to eep )o##on Wealth %oin%, that is why they proposed the #eas!re. +nless so#e acco##odation co!ld "e fo!nd with &a"o!r, )o##on Wealth was finished. 1n the other hand, they had not conte#plated that &a"o!r wo!ld s!%%est that )o##on Wealth dissolve and its #e#"ers enter &a"o!r separately. @ac ay, however, was the eEception. Tho!%h what wo!ld one eEpect fro# a sta!nch &a"o!r #an. Be told one anti6affiliator that, in his opinion, (alton, @orrison and others were 'all "etter *ocialists and #ore capa"le leaders than #ost of the people in )o##on Wealth'. 799 0!t he still h!n% to the hope that &a"o!r wo!ld see the val!e of )o##on Wealth, C!st li e they had in the past, which he had "!ilt !p in the previo!s ei%hteen #onths. The de"ate finally favo!red the pro6affiliationists. This was d!e to several factors. First, it was o"vio!s that &a"o!r wo!ld fi%ht the neEt .eneral $lection independent of any coalition. *econd, the e#er%ence of Jictory for *ocialis# helped to pers!ade so#e do!"ters that the &eft in &a"o!r were wa in% !p. Third, the "!l of the ,ational )o!ncil and all the re%ional a%ents were in favo!r of affiliation. The conditions for affiliation, that )o##on Wealth wo!ld propose, were a%reed !pon in #id *epte#"er. &a"o!r #!st fi%ht the neEt election independentlyI &a"o!r ca"inet #inisters wo!ld resi%n "efore the electionI &a"o!r wo!ld pled%e itself a%ainst enterin% a coalition afterwardsI &a"o!r #!st s!pport a pro%ra##e which wo!ld "e 'clearly decisive in transferrin% the #aCor reso!rces of the )o!ntry to )o##on 1wnership'. 400 The first two conditions were #ade red!ndant "y &a"o!r's declaration in 1cto"er that it wo!ld fi%ht the neEt election independently. 0y 75= votes to 37, the ,ational )o!ncil was a!thorised to "e%in ne%otiations with &a"o!r. @ac ay arran%ed with $llen Wil inson that )o##on Wealth's ne%otiatin% co##ittee sho!ld #eet the 1r%anisation *!"6)o##ittee of the &a"o!r Party on the 75th ,ove#"er. )o##on Wealth's ne%otiatin% tea#
799 400

@ac ay to Forster, 40 *epte#"er 7988 <5cland Papers> %3 Minute, ,o. 479, 7? *epte#"er 7988

=8

590059307 incl!ded three who were fir#ly pro6affiliation 3 @ac ay, .ood and Wintrin%ha# 3 to%ether with 5cland and ). 5. *#ith, who were "oth ill at ease with the idea. &a"o!r's tea# was chaired "y &as i, in Wil inson's a"sence, *hinwell, and a n!#"er of trade !nionists. The )o##on Wealth tea# eEplained their position and p!t forward the conditions, as #entioned a"ove. They #ade it clear that they wanted either affiliation or an electoral a%ree#entI that they were not prepared to dissolve and enco!ra%e )o##on Wealth #e#"ers to Coin &a"o!r as individ!alsI and that they co!ld only apply for affiliation if the #e#"ership a%reed. The &a"o!r representatives #ade it clear that they wanted )o##on Wealth to dissolve into &a"o!r. 407 The )o##on Wealth representatives, on "alance, tho!%ht affiliation i#pro"a"le, tho!%h an electoral a%ree#ent was still possi"le. @ac ay, on the other hand, was /!ite convinced that one or the other wo!ld "e conceded. 1n 9th (ece#"er, 5cland heard fro# @ac ay that &a"o!r wo!ld not accept affiliation. 5cland's reaction wasH '.ood. If their party throws over the leaders andRor dra%s the# o!t of the .overn#ent #ay"e we can even %o in. If they don't, the co!rse is clear. We fi%ht the#. In either event we have a clear p!rpose'.404 *till no official word fro# &a"o!r, Aa#es Wal er of the ,$) provided )o##on Wealth with their answer at &a"o!rTs postponed 5nn!al )onference. Be declared )o##on Wealth had "een set !pH "y a rich #an who decided he wo!ld fo!nd a Party in order to "eco#e a leader 3 that is the easiest and cheapest way to "eco#e a leader. The )o##!nists clai# that their pro%ra##e is "ased on the econo#ics of @arE and $n%els, "!t when I loo at the )o##on Wealth Party I "e%in to thin that their policy is "ased on the econo#ics of @ar s and *pencer. They are o!t loo in% for cheap seats and they have nothin% at all to offer the &a"o!r

407

404

A. $vans to &awson, 77 ,ove#"er 7988 <&awson Papers> and @ac ay to 5llsop, 47 ,ove#"er 7988 <5llsop Papers> (iary, 9 (ece#"er 7988

=5

590059307 Party.403 Wil inson has ass!red @ac ay that she had personally seen 0evin 'and so %ot all three War )a"inet #e#"ers a%reea"le to conversations'.408 Ber own sy#pathies lay with )o##on Wealth, "!t she referred to what see#s to have "een the #aCor st!#"lin% "loc 3 any s!ch affiliation wo!ld for# a precedent for the )o##!nist Party's ad#ission. It wo!ld have "een i#possi"le to affiliate to )o##on Wealth as a !nit and ref!se affiliation to the I&P, )P0., and the )o6operative Party.

Conclusion
When 1rwell wrote T#e Lion and t#e Uni$orn in 7987 he was searchin% for a *ocialist party and soon after )o##on Wealth is esta"lished. The #essa%e that 5cland and )o##on Wealth was espo!sin% was initially a threat to &a"o!r, "!t the threat that )o##on Wealth posed to &a"o!r was down%raded to a n!isance !ntil the threat, in its entirety, was disco!nted. )o##on Wealth was all style and no s!"stance and was !sed "y the party leadership as a way to entertain ideas and the#selves d!rin% the war. The leadership of )o##on Wealth, especially 5cland, ca#e !nder the s!spicion of &a"o!r for "ein% a dan%ero!s "ody to affiliate to. &as i aired this "etter than #ostH I have seen first @osley, then W. A. 0rown, now )ripps, say 9I have the cl!eI yo! are too slow, too reactionary, too i%norant: and then "eco#e, conscio!sly li e @osley, !nconscio!sly li e 0rown and )ripps, the instr!#ents of those who are ene#ies of wor in% class pro%ress. I feel that yo!r #ove#ent will not "!ild the "rid%e "etween the #iddle6class and the or%anised wor ers. It will eep the first fro# any faith in the political

403 408

1)<< 3on0eren$e /e"ort Wil inson to @ac ay, (ece#"er 7988 <@ac ay Papers>

==

590059307 eEpression of the second at that critical period when their !nity is overwhel#in%ly !r%ent. The res!lt will "e to ato#ise the pro%ressive forces and ena"le the opponents of chan%e to profit "y the division.405 Followin% the reCection of affiliation and the disastro!s election res!lts, the )o##on Wealth leadership a"andoned ship, even tho!%h it was resolved, "y 77? votes to ?9 votes at a special conference, to contin!e )o##on Wealth as a political party. 5cland statedH 'I a# resi%nin% now. I feel that the thin%s we have "een wor in% for can, with the new sit!ation created, only "e realised in ti#e thro!%h an initiative within the &a"o!r Party and not o!tside'. 40= The initiative within the &a"o!r Party soon "eca#e the Geep &eft .ro!p.

405 40=

&as i to 5cland, 45 A!ly, 7984 <5cland Papers> T#e Times, 77 *epte#"er 7985

=7

590059307

Keep Left
Common Wealth's Influence on La our
$ven d!rin% the econo#ic pro"le#s of the 7985 %overn#ent, we #ana%ed to carry o!t other aspects of o!r policy and other ideals. 0ar"ara )astle

Introduction
0y 798= )o##on Wealth, as a political party, was wo!nd down with #any of its for#er #e#"ers Coinin% &a"o!r. *oon after the res!lts of the .eneral $lection were released, Wintrin%ha# #et with 5clandH 'Be said, at once, 9;ichard, I thin we sho!ld set co!rse to wind !p )o##on Wealth and Coin the &a"o!r Party as individ!als:'.407 *o it was that )o##on Wealth was wo!nd !p and #any of its for#er #e#"ers had Coined &a"o!r as individ!als 3 ta in% the advice of )ripps when he had #et with )o##on Wealth leaders in 7988 6 )ripps reco##ended that )o##on Wealth #e#"ers sho!ld Coin &a"o!r as individ!als if they failed to sec!re either affiliation or an electoral a%ree#ent.40? This chapter will eEplore )o##on Wealth's infl!ence on the 798567950 &a"o!r .overn#ent. First, "y eEplorin% the Geep &eft parlia#entary %ro!p 3 what the %ro!p was, what it prescri"ed and loo in% at the #e#"ership as well to discover how infl!ential for#er )o##on Wealth #e#"ers were on this %ro!p. *econdly, reviewin% the infl!ence of )o##on Wealth on &a"o!r "y loo in% at the final policy &a"o!r i#ple#ented and whether any for#er )o##on Wealth #e#"ers played a role in shapin% it, and whether it was si#ilar to policy previo!sly prescri"ed "y )o##on Wealth.

.eep Left
The Geep &eft .ro!p was esta"lished in Aan!ary 7987 as a way of prod!cin% 'a #ore drastic
407 40?

5cland, ;., 'ersonal 'oliti$al Memoirs, <+np!"lished, 7978>, p. 75 <5cland Papers> @ac ay to 5llsop 47 (ece#"er 7988 <5llsop Papers>

=?

590059307 *ocialist policy if we were not to drift into disaster'. 409 5 pa#phlet was prod!ced in the 5pril as a sort of #anifesto for &a"o!r in ti#e for the @ar%ate )onference in the @ay. The #e#"ers of the %ro!p were .eoffrey 0in%, (onald 0r!ce, ;ichard )ross#an, Barold (avies, @ichael Foot, &eslie Bale, Fred &ee, 0enn &evy, ;. W. .. @ac ay, Aoseph @allalie!, Ian @i ardo, $rnest @illin%ton, *tephen *win%ler, .eor%e Wi%%, and Woodrow Wyatt. In the pa#phlet the %ro!p detail the c!rrent sit!ation "efore #a in% reco##endations 3 policy ideas. The %ro!p #ade ten do#estic policy reco##endations and ten forei%n policy reco##endations. For ill!strative p!rposes this chapter will foc!s on the do#estic policy. The points are as followsH 7> '1verall $cono#ic Plannin%' which re/!ired a f!ll6scale @inistry of $cono#ic 5ffairs led "y a dedicated #inister free fro# other parlia#entary co##it#entsI 4> 'Tell the People' which was a"o!t endin% the secrecy of Parlia#ent and actively p!"licisin% de"ates and decisionsI 3> ';eal $cono#ic Independence' which was concerned with endin% the dependence on +* loans and eEpandin% trade with the co##onwealth and $!ropeI 8> '(o Witho!t the Frills' which advocated a c!t in the i#port of l!E!ries and rationin% to"accoI 5> '@ore @anpower' which wo!ld allow i##i%ration only when i##i%rants have the 's ills which we really need', and "rin%in% wo#en "ac into ind!stry thro!%h fleEi"le wor in% and #ore n!rseriesI => '.et the @en to the ;i%ht Ao"s' which was in three parts a> ' eEtend and ti%hten the control of raw #aterials in favo!r of essential ind!stries', "> ' c!t the inessential trades "y withholdin% fro# the# replace#ents to #a e !p for la"o!r wasta%es', c> #a in% essential ind!stries #ore attractive "y offerin% rewards s!ch as lowerin% taEes on wa%es and profitsI 7> ';ationalisation and *tandardisation' which advocated the c!ttin% of waste in ind!stry "y #a in% ind!stry 'rationalise prod!ction and standardise prod!cts'I ?> '$fficient @ana%e#ent' which reco%nised deficiencies of "oth wor ers and #ana%ers and advocated the esta"lish#ent of a 'sin%le effective or%anisation with powers to correct the#'I 9> 'Ind!strial (e#ocracy' which wo!ld #a e Coint prod!ction co##ittees co#p!lsory and lin the# to re%ional
409

)ross#an, ;. B. *., Foot, @., @i ardo, I., 6ee" Le0t, <&ondon, 7987>

=9

590059307 and national trade "oardsI 70> '(e#o"ilisation' which called for a rapid red!ction in the 5r#ed Forces of =80,000 instead of 380,000 "y @arch 798?.470 Points two, siE, ei%ht and nine are "roadly si#ilar to the )o##on Wealth principles of )o##on 1wnership, Jital (e#ocracy, @orality in Politics and the idea of @ana%erialis#. $fficiency in ind!stry, co!pled with %reater de#ocratic involve#ent in all aspects of life, openness in Parlia#ent and f!rther involve#ent and reco%nition of the #ana%erial class. $ven tho!%h the pa#phlet itself was written "y )ross#an, Foot and @i ardo it was a res!lt of the disc!ssion and cons!ltation that preceded the co6a!thorin% fro# the %ro!p. 1ver the neEt three years, however, activity of the Geep &eft .ro!p %rew /!iet !ntil their neEt p!"lication in 7950. 5ccordin% to 5cland 'it "eca#e clear Kin 7989R50L that &a"o!r was r!nnin% o!t of stea#.' Bowever, 'there were still &a"o!r @e#"ers of Parlia#ent who !nderstood *ocialis# in the old wayI and in @ay 7989 I had pers!aded (ic )ross#an and Ian @i ardo to reconstit!te the Geep &eft .ro!p.' 477 This neEt pa#phlet appears to "e very #!ch inspired "y the #e#"ership of 5cland, since "eco#in% a &a"o!r @P in 7987, and is a #ore radical and left win% pa#phlet than their first one. 0y 7950 half of the %ro!p had left, "!t had also "een reinforced "y when five other &a"o!r @Ps Coined 3 incl!din% 5cland and 0ar"ara )astle. The 6ee"ing Le0t pa#phlet was the platfor# for which the Geep &eft .ro!p "eca#e the 0evanites followin% 0evan's resi%nation fro# the ca"inet in 7957. Bowever, this second pa#phlet passed '!nnoticedI and there was a %rowin% feelin% that &a"o!r had "eco#e a split waitin% for the iss!e on which to happen'.474 This second pa#phlet prescri"edH 7> 'Ao"s for 5ll' which advocated f!ll e#ploy#ent, increased prod!ctivity and an eEtension of social sec!rity in order to sec!re livin% standardsI 4> '$cono#ic Power for 5ll' which ar%!ed for the eEtension of nationalisation over #onopolistic ind!stries,
470 477

474

I"id, pp. 8568= 5cland, ;., An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, )hapter 8, pp. 73 I"id

70

590059307 #onopolies and for when there wo!ld "e a conflict of interests "etween private enterprise and the co##!nityI 3> '*ocialisin% the ,ationalised Ind!stries' which was concerned with creatin% %reater parlia#entary control over nationalised ind!stries, f!ll participation of wor ers in a levels of #ana%e#ent and %ivin% #ore responsi"ility to cons!#er "odies. 8> 'Increased Prod!ction in the Private *ector' which advocated the sti#!lation of ind!strial rationalisation, standardisation and specialisation thro!%h seven partsH i> develop#ent co!ncilsI ii> cons!ltative co##ittees who had access to records and statistics of #e#"er ind!striesI iii> %overn#ent sponsored invest#ent and the leasehold of "!ildin%s and #achineryI iv> co#petitive p!"lic enterpriseI v> ti%hter price controls, red!cin% #ar%ins and enco!ra%in% #aEi#!# efficiency in prod!ction and distri"!tionI vi> "!l p!rchasin% "y %overn#ent depart#ents and p!"lic "odiesI vii> ri%oro!s !se of the @onopolies )o##ission. 5> '(efence 5%ainst Inflation' which was concerned with creatin% a "alance "etween s!pply and de#and co!pled with an increase in capital taEation and direct control over invest#ent "y taEin% dividendsI => 'Ind!strial )ontrols' which was the #aintenance of physical controls over prod!ction and cons!#ptionI 7> 'The ,ational @ini#!#' which advocated a ,ational @ini#!# Wa%e to sec!re an ade/!ate #ini#!# standard of lifeI ?> 'The 5ttac on $cono#ic Privile%e' which advocated the !se of taEation to red!ce inco#e ine/!ality "y raisin% estate d!ties, taE on capital transfers and a capital levy. 9> '5 *ocialised Wa%es Policy' where"y wa%e increases wo!ld "e set centrally in cons!ltation with the .eneral )o!ncil of the T+)I 70> '*taff Wor in Plannin%' which wo!ld provide acc!rate statistics on social and econo#ic facts in order to #a e plannin% applica"le and efficientI 77> 'The )o6operative @ove#ent' which enco!ra%ed the @ove#ent to play a #ore a%%ressive role in the for#!lation of policyI 74> 'The Fr!its of the &and' which ar%!ed for invest#ent in a%ric!lt!re in order to increase o!tp!tI 73> 'Fair *hares in the *chools' where"y entry to all types of schools were C!d%ed on a"ility not capacity to payI 78> '5 @ore Jital (e#ocracy' which ar%!ed that the 'infl!ence of p!"lic opinion on policy sho!ld "e stren%thened' as well as

77

590059307 overha!lin% local %overn#ent and parlia#entary proced!re.473 The writin% style can "e attri"!ted to 5cland and points one, two, three, fo!r, ei%ht, nine, eleven, and fo!rteen are "roadly si#ilar to )o##on Wealth's policies. 57 per cent of )o##on Wealth policy had "een adopted "y the Geep &eft %ro!p in 7950, a #ar ed increase fro# 80 per cent in 7987. This second pa#phlet was a "etter atte#pt at !nifyin% the two strands of *ocialis#H $fficient and (istri"!tive, than #any which had preceded it. Bowever, as 5cland stated, the pa#phlet passed !nnoticed and when 0evan Coined the %ro!p in 7957 they had 'won a %reat deal of p!"licity, #ostly hostile'.478 The recently rena#ed '0evanites' were essentially the ca!se of the split, and s!"se/!ent downfall, in 5ttlee's 7957 .overn#ent. The infl!ence of the Geep &eft .ro!p on &a"o!r policy was #ini#al. Aonathan *chneer's clai# that Geep &eft possessed a distinctive do#estic pro%ra##e is #isleadin% "eca!se their alternative econo#ic plan differed fro# the party leadership #ore in pace than in #eans or ends.475 Geep &eft, tho!%h radical and vocal, was not in a position of wide s!pport a#on% &a"o!r #e#"ers and the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party.

Common $ealth and the '()* +overnment

The co#position of the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party in 7985 was re#ar a"ly different than the previo!s Parlia#entary session. 779 #e#"ers were sponsored "y Trade +nion'sI 48 were sponsored "y the )o6operative PartyI and 449 were Fa"ians. 47= 'Why', said Aohn Par er's wife on "ein% introd!ced to the new Parlia#entary Party, 'it loo s li e an enor#o!s Fa"ian *chool2'. 477 5 /!arter of the total had attended p!"lic schools, and nearly half had had selective secondary ed!cation. 5 third had "een to +niversity. *iE o!t of ten were e#ployers, #ana%ers or professional wor ers as co#pared with the inter6war avera%e of three o!t of ten. In fact, nearly half were professional
473 478

475 47= 477

6ee"ing Le0t, <&ondon, 7950>, pp. 8=68? 5cland, ;., An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, )hapter 8, pp. 73678 *chneer, A., Labour:s 3ons$ien$e T#e Labour Le0t( 1)<+-+1, <0oston, 79??>, pp. 70, 796703 )alder, 5., ')o##on Wealth', p. 47= )ole, T#e Story o0 2abian So$ialism, p. 307

74

590059307 people. Teachers and lect!rers o!tn!#"ered #iners in the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party. 47? This transfor#ation wo!ld #a e it easier for #any )o##on Wealth #e#"ers to i#a%ine that they #i%ht "e at ho#e in the &a"o!r Party. 5fter 7987 there was a si%nificant shift in &a"o!r's econo#ic policy. It a"andoned socialist econo#ic plannin% in favo!r of Geynesianis# and "eca#e reliant on de#and #ana%e#ent techni/!es. The criti/!e of this shift first ca#e in 795= with the p!"lication of Tony )rosland's 2uture o0 So$ialism. )rosland ar%!ed that the We""s had converted a %eneration to their version of *ocialis# "ased on efficiency. Bowever, ethical, redistri"!tive *ocialis# was still prevalent 'a#on% "oth the party's yo!n%er intellect!als and its senior policy6#a ers'. 479 0!t it was not C!st the We""s which was leadin% &a"o!r astray. Bowell has ar%!ed that '&a"o!r's econo#ic strate%y after 7987 #ar ed in practice an a"andon#ent of any clai#s to "e constr!ctin% a new econo#ic order'. Its acceptance of Geynesianis# i#plied that there wo!ld "e 'no f!nda#ental chan%e in the str!ct!re of econo#ic penalties and rewards'.440 In 7989, .. (. B. )ole warned that Geynesianis# #as/!eraded as *ocialis#, which intended to #anip!late )apitalis# rather than replace it. 447 The #ove away fro# plannin% and towards de#and #ana%e#ent ca#e fro# the criticis# that Baye had led d!rin% the war in which plannin% wo!ld lead to serfdo#. )ripps' preface to the 7987 %$onomi$ Sur!ey addressed this criticis#. )ripps laid o!t a detailed difference "etween totalitarian and de#ocratic plannin%. (e#ocratic plannin%, the plannin% that &a"o!r was advocatin%, was plannin% "y a%ree#ent and cons!ltation. Bowever, 0roo e has ar%!ed that &a"o!r was forced to #ove away fro# physical plannin% to de#and #ana%e#ent "eca!se physical plannin% co!ld only operate with the adoption of a wa%es policy to ens!re the rational allocation of #anpower 3 which attracted hostility fro# the Trade +nions.444 There was a plea to i#ple#ent the wa%es policy fro# the Geep
47? 479 440 447 444

;oss, A. F. *., %le$tions and %le$tors, <&ondon, 7955>, pp. 375, 877, 848, 83?, 880 Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour( 1)<+-+1, p. 3= Bowell, (., Britis# So$ial Demo$ra$y, <&ondon, 797=>, pp. 7596=0 Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour( 1)<+-+1, p. 3? 0roo e, *., 'Pro"le#s of 9*ocialist Plannin%:H $van (!r"in and the &a"o!r .overn#ent of 7985', .istori$al

73

590059307 &eft .ro!p, "!t the presence of 0evin in the ca"inet 'ens!red that the free #ar et in wa%es re#ained sacrosanct'.443 @ichael Fo!n% clai#ed that 'practical #en of the Fa"ian school' had 'co#e to do#inate' the &a"o!r Party.448 The &a"o!r Party was entranced "y efficiency *ocialis# as preached "y the We""s and the Fa"ians. Bowever, "oth ;. B. Tawney and .. (. B. )ole have ar%!ed that *ocialis# was not a"o!t efficiency "!t 'sec!rin% a transfor#ation in h!#an relationships, the creation of a new way of livin%'.445 0y 7950, Fo!n% and )ross#an had %rowin% respect for Aa#es 0!rnha#'s Managerial /e!olution as it ai#ed to h!#anise instit!tions and "rid%e the %ap "etween citi-en and state. Managerial /e!olution, the very sa#e "oo which had infl!enced 5cland and )o##on Wealth ei%ht years previo!sly. Bowever, it is not so #!ch an indication of the infl!ence of )o##on Wealth, "!t as a lastin% infl!ence of the Managerial /e!olution, tho!%h it co!ld "e concl!ded, d!e to )ross#an's and 5cland's parlia#entary relationship, that 5cland had infl!ence with and over )ross#an. Bowever, #ana%erialis# was not incorporated into the nationalisation pro%ra##e "eca!se it #ade incorporation of nationalised ind!stries into the overall econo#ic plan diffic!lt. In its 7985 #anifesto, &a"o!r planned for the nationalisation of the 0an of $n%land, coal, %as, electricity ind!stries, inland transport, iron and steel, with a pro#ise to wor towards land

nationalisation. This was C!stified to the electorate on the "asis of efficiency 3 th!s creatin% a prospero!s econo#y with f!ll e#ploy#ent. Bowever, it was not a !niversally pop!lar ro!te once the plan had "een f!lly realised. The iron and steel ind!stries were profita"le and opposition co!ld not C!st "e fo!nd a#on% the )onservatives "!t also a#on% &a"o!r #inisters, s!ch as @orrison. Pl!s, there was not any Trade +nion de#and for p!"lic ownership of these ind!stries. 0y 798?69, nationalisation was provin% to "e !npop!lar, even a#on% &a"o!r s!pporters. This is
443 448 445

5ournal, Jol. 38, ,o. 3, <7997>, pp. ==96704 Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour( 1)<+-+1, p. 83 Fo!n%, @., /!oted in Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour( 1)<+-+1, p. 54 Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour( 1)<+-+1, p. 54

78

590059307 lar%ely to do with the for# that the nationalisation too . In 7989, @i ardo, in a speech to a Fa"ian )onference, stated that the wea ness of nationalisation is 'a pro"le# not inherent in nationalisation itself "!t in the defects of the str!ct!re we've chosen for nationalised ind!stries'. 44= Instead of the state r!nnin% the nationalised ind!stries, as was the case with the Post 1ffice, they were r!n "y se#i6a!tono#o!s p!"lic corporations, s!ch as the ,ational )oal 0oard, where there was no for# of wor er representation. The "oards were chaired and r!n "y for#er ind!stry owners and, in effect, represented an al#ost tr!e for# of state #onopoly. The trade "oards were independent of "oth parlia#entary scr!tinisation and internal control "y the wor ers. .. (. B. )ole and &as i accepted the reCection of stat!tory representation of wor ers on the "oards "eca!se they lac ed the necessary #ana%erial eEperience. 6ee"ing Le0t stated that &a"o!r 'cannot dis%!ise the fact that the p!"lic corporations have not, so far, provided everythin% which socialists eEpected fro# nationalised ind!stries'. 447 The Geep &eft .ro!p as ed if the %overn#ent were 'payin% too hi%h a price' for the a!tono#y of the p!"lic "oards, since 'it #ade it diffic!lt to inte%rate the price6policies of different nationalised ind!stries into a national econo#ic plan'.44? @ore nationalisation was called for fro# the &a"o!r sidelines "!t the de#ands fell on deaf ears. This was a cate%oric error for the &a"o!r Party as prod!ctivity rose in nationalised ind!stries and were prod!cin% very healthy profits despite a s!ppression of prices. This provided "enefit to the cons!#er and econo#y as a whole "!t &a"o!r did not capitalise on it d!e to poor p!"lic relations. +lti#ately, &a"o!r reCected the idea of f!rther nationalisation and parlia#entary control of the nationalised ind!stries "eca!se civil servants 'lac ed the technical eEpertise' to r!n and eEpand the ind!stries and pro%ra##e of nationalisation.449 The Geep &eft .ro!p co##ented that 'the inhi"itin%
44= 447 44? 449

,!ffield )olle%e, 1Eford, .. (. B. )ole Papers, '0!scot )onference on 9Pro"le#s 5head:, 75677 A!ly 7989, p. 4 5cland, ;., et al, 6ee"ing Le0t, p. 30 Francis, @., ,deas and "oli$ies under Labour, p. 79 I"id

75

590059307 effects of parlia#entary control can "e %reatly eEa%%erated', "!t chose not to endorse placin% nationalised ind!stries !nder the control of %overn#ent depart#ents. 430 0evan, on the other hand, was a lon% "eliever in parlia#entary control, which forced a re#ar fro# .aits ell, recordin% in his diary datin% A!ne 798?, that 0evan, a '%l!tton for power', had eEpressed ani#osity to 'the present policy of settin% !p the se#i6a!tono#o!s "oards. Be wants to control and answer for the#, in fact to have the# !nder hi# li e depart#ents'.437 &a"o!r's social achieve#ents owed #!ch to the 0everid%e ;eport, in fact the #ost i#portant piece of social le%islation, the 798= ,ational Ins!rance 5ct, was derived directly fro# the 0everid%e ;eport. Pearce has ar%!ed that 0evan, as @inister of Bealth, 'drew !p plans for a co#prehensive health service virt!ally fro# scratch'.434 This ar%!#ent, however, is #isleadin% as 0evan centralised 0everid%e's localised ,ational Bealth *ervice. It was also financed "y taEation rather than the newly created ,ational Ins!rance F!nd. It was a shift fro# 0everid%e's vision, "!t it was not a service created 'virt!ally fro# scratch'. &a"o!r was still very #!ch infl!enced "y the Fa"ian tradition of efficiency over redistri"!tion, "!t )o##on Wealth, #ore specifically 5cland, fo!nd favo!r with #ana%erialis# a#on% a few "ac "enchers. (espite this s#all pro%ress it was not eno!%h to win overwhel#in% s!pport and all what re#ained of )o##on Wealth wo!ld "e insi%nificant and forever on the sidelines. $ven )o##on Wealth's synony#o!s relationship with the 0everid%e ;eport was /!ic ly replaced "y the idea of 0evan's ,ational Bealth *ervice.

Common $ealth and the Campaign for /uclear 0isarmament

)o##on Wealth #e#"ers' lastin% infl!ence and i#pression, tho!%h not eEcl!sive to )o##on Wealth, was the for#ation of the )a#pai%n for ,!clear (isar#a#ent. $arly in 7955, at one of the wee ly #eetin%s of the Parlia#entary &a"o!r Party, it was proposed that &a"o!r sho!ld accept
430 437 434

5cland, ;., et al, 6ee"ing Le0t, p. 30 Willia#s, P. @., <ed.>, T#e Diary o0 .ug# &aitskell( 1)<+-+>, <&ondon, 79?3>, p. 74 Pearce, ;., Attlee:s Labour go!ernments( 1)<+-+1, <&ondon, 7998>, p. 8?

7=

590059307 )h!rchill's recently p!"lished decision to #a e 0ritish B60o#"s. 5 s#all #inority ar%!ed that to accept the prod!ction of B60o#"s was wron%I "!t on a vote they were defeated "y the whole #eetin% to aro!nd a do-en.433 1n the 70th @arch 7955, the 5ir $sti#ates de"ate allowed 5cland to voice his disapproval and resi%n fro# the &a"o!r Party and the Bo!se of )o##ons in protest. 5cland ended !p losin% his seat and al#ost losin% his deposit in the .eneral $lection of that year. 1n 4 ,ove#"er 7957, the ,ew *tates#an #a%a-ine p!"lished an article "y A. 0. Priestley on U0ritain and the ,!clear 0o#"sU, which was critical of 5ne!rin 0evan for chan%in% his #ind a"o!t n!clear weapons and ceasin% to advocate !nilateral n!clear disar#a#ent "y 0ritain. The Co!rnal received #any letters of s!pport, reflectin% the %rowth in opposition to n!clear weapons followin% 0ritain's recent B6"o#" tests. 5t the end of ,ove#"er, a #eetin% was held in the roo#s of )anon Aohn )ollins, chaired "y the editor of the ,ew *tates#an, Gin%sley @artin, to la!nch the )a#pai%n for ,!clear (isar#a#ent. )ollins was chosen as its )hair#an, 0ertrand ;!ssell as its President and Pe%%y (!ff as its or%anisin% secretary. The other #e#"ers of its eEec!tive co##ittee were ;itchie )alder, Co!rnalist Aa#es )a#eron, Boward (avies, @ichael Foot, 5rth!r .oss, Gin%sley @artin, A. 0. Priestley and Aoseph ;ot"lat. ),( held an ina!%!ral p!"lic #eetin% at )entral Ball, West#inster, on 77 Fe"r!ary 795?, attended "y five tho!sand people. 5fter the #eetin% a few h!ndred left to de#onstrate at (ownin% *treet. The new or%anisation attracted considera"le p!"lic interest and draw s!pport fro# a ran%e of interests, incl!din% scientists, reli%io!s leaders, acade#ics, Co!rnalists, writers, actors and #!sicians.438 ),('s declared policies were the !nconditional ren!nciation of the !se, prod!ction of or dependence !pon n!clear weapons "y 0ritain and the "rin%in% a"o!t of a %eneral disar#a#ent convention. In the #eanti#e, 0ritain sho!ld halt the fli%ht of planes ar#ed with n!clear weapons,

433

438

5cland, ;., An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, chapter 5, p. 78a @innion, A., 0olsover, P., <eds.>, T#e 3ND Story, <&ondon, 79?3>, p. 48

77

590059307 end n!clear testin%, not proceed with #issile "ases and not provide n!clear weapons to any other co!ntry.435 ),( s!pporters were %enerally left of centre in politics. 5"o!t three6/!arters of ),( s!pporters were &a"o!r voters and #any of the early eEec!tive co##ittee were &a"o!r Party #e#"ers.43= Its fo!nders envisa%ed ),( as a ca#pai%n "y e#inent individ!als who wo!ld wor thro!%h the &a"o!r Party and lo""y %overn#ent for a chan%e in defence policy. The &a"o!r Party voted at its 79=0 )onference for !nilateral n!clear disar#a#ent, representin% ),('s %reatest infl!ence on national politics and coincidin% with the hi%hest level of p!"lic s!pport for its policy of !nilateralis#.437 B!%h .aits ell, the &a"o!r Party leader, received the vote with a pro#ise to Ufi%ht, fi%ht, and fi%ht a%ainU a%ainst the decision and it was overt!rned at the 79=7 )onference. 43? &a"o!r's fail!re to win the .eneral election of 7959 and its reCection of !nilateralis# in 79=7 !pset the plans of the ),( leadership and, altho!%h ),( retained the s!pport of a si%nificant #inority of the pop!lation, fro# this point onwards its prospects of s!ccess "e%an to fade.

Conclusion
The infl!ence on the &a"o!r Party was the Fa"ian *ociety, not )o##on Wealth. )o##on Wealth, in the for# of 5cland et al, had s#all infl!ence with a s#all n!#"er of &a"o!r "ac "encher @Ps. The Geep &eft .ro!p, with its /!asi6)o##on Wealth a%enda, and steeped in the rhetoric of 5cland, was soon s!"Cected to the power h!n%ry 0evan. The newly nic na#ed '0evanites' attracted a lot of hostile attention d!e to 0evan's ill6ti#ed and ill6conceived resi%nation fro# %overn#ent. )o##on Wealth #e#"ers' lastin% infl!ence and i#pression, tho!%h not eEcl!sive to )o##on Wealth, was the for#ation of the )a#pai%n for ,!clear (isar#a#ent. Bowever, ),( soon went the way of )o##on Wealth and declined in s!pport and in prospects of s!ccess. )o##on Wealth
435 43=

437 43?

(river, )., T#e Disarmers A Study in 'rotest, <&ondon, 79=8>, p. 35 Par in, F., Middle 3lass /adi$alism T#e So$ial Bases o0 t#e 3am"aign 0or Nu$lear Disarmament, <@anchester, 79=?>, p. 39I and (river, )., T#e Disarmers A Study in 'rotest, <&ondon, 79=8>, p. 35 )arter, 5., Dire$t A$tion and Liberal Demo$ra$y, <&ondon, 7973>, p. =8 5cland;., ;. 5cland, An Un-named Book An Argumentati!e Autobiogra"#y, <!np!"lished, written "etween 7977 and 79?=>, )hapter 5, p. 7?

7?

590059307 had little lastin% infl!ence, in the #any %!ises it too , on the &a"o!r Party.

79

590059307

onclusion
I wish to %ive #y hearty than s to #en of all Parties, to everyone in every part of the Bo!se where they sit, for the way in which the liveliness of Parlia#entary instit!tions has "een #aintained !nder the fire of the ene#y, and for the way in which we have "een a"le to persevere, and we co!ld have persevered #!ch lon%er if need had "een, till all the o"Cectives which we set "efore !s for the proc!rin% of the !nli#ited and !nconditional s!rrender of the ene#y had "een achieved. Winston )h!rchill

&a"o!r and )o##on Wealth had si#ilar views on the post6war reconstr!ction plans for 0ritain. Bowever, where they did differ was eno!%h to ca!se contention "etween the two parties. In the parties' attit!des towards Geynes, they !tilised his theories for different p!rposes. &a"o!r !tilised hi# to %ive credence to their econo#ic policy, which they had arrived at independently. )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, !tilised hi# as the sole contri"!tor to the party's econo#ic policy and, possi"ly, created a p!rer Geynesian econo#ic interpretation "eca!se of it. The differences "etween the two parties, in ter#s of post6war reconstr!ction, were lar%ely s!perficial. &a"o!r was still co##itted, in a fashion, to a %rad!al i#ple#entation of *ocialis#. They were realistic a"o!t what they co!ld achieve in one parlia#ent and th!s narrowed the scope of nationalisation. Bowever their co##it#ent to plannin% and *ocialis# had not chan%ed as they still viewed with distr!st '#ana%ed capitalis#' and other #echanis#s to li#it co#petition. )o##on Wealth, in co#parison, wanted co#plete nationalisation. Bowever, instead of state #ana%ed *ocialis#, )o##on Wealth proposed #ana%erialis#, where"y the wor ers wo!ld r!n the "!siness "!t the "!siness were to "e owned in co##on, not all that different fro# the co6operative #ove#ent. &a"o!r wo!ld "rin% a"o!t *ocialis# thro!%h the fra#ewor of )apitalis# "!t )o##on Wealth, on the other hand, wo!ld "rin% a"o!t *ocialis# "y dis#antlin% )apitalis#. The %oal the sa#e, "!t the #ethods different. The 0everid%e ;eport was the first practical eEa#ple of plannin% policy. It was the collective action

?0

590059307 which Baye la"elled per#issi"le within a free society. Bowever, the &a"o!r leadership dithered in its acceptance of the i#portance of the 0everid%e ;eport ena"lin% )o##on Wealth to capitalise on the %ap in the #ar et to de#and for the i##ediate i#ple#entation of the 0everid%e ;eport. 5s war pro%ressed, there was an apparent #ove#ent away fro# political parties. Bowever, the #ove#ent away fro# a political party syste# was short lived, as soon as victories were #ade in the war confidence %rew a#on% party activists as the war drew to concl!sion. Fro# what was represented in 7984 as anti6party senti#ents, the pop!lar attit!de shifted to "e #ore anti6 )onservative in rhetoric and senti#ent. )o##on Wealth represented this anti6)onservative #ood as well as "eco#in% a s!rro%ate for the &a"o!r vote whilst &a"o!r was in coalition with the )onservatives. )o##on Wealth had initially "een a"le to capitalise on the release of the 0everid%e ;eport and anti6party senti#ent, later anti6)onservative senti#ent. $arly s!ccessf!l pollin% res!lts lay in low t!rno!ts "!t victories were only %ained with hi%h t!rno!ts. )o##on Wealth had effectively overco#e apathy "y offerin% an ideal, in the for# of the 0everid%e ;eport, and "y !sin% the 0everid%e ;eport as the plan to i#ple#ent said idea. 5s )alder ar%!es, )o##on Wealth 'represented the refined essence of 90everid%is#:'.439 5s the war drew to concl!sion it was apparent that there was a ret!rn to the traditional party syste#. )o##on Wealth !ns!ccessf!lly applied for affiliation with the &a"o!r Party "!t still played the role of the s!rro%ate for the &a"o!r vote in seats that did not have a &a"o!r candidate. When 1rwell wrote T#e Lion and t#e Uni$orn in 7987 he was searchin% for a *ocialist party and soon after )o##on Wealth is esta"lished. The #essa%e that 5cland and )o##on Wealth was espo!sin% was initially a threat to &a"o!r, "!t the threat that )o##on Wealth posed to &a"o!r was down%raded to a n!isance !ntil the threat, in its entirety, was disco!nted. )o##on Wealth was all

439

)alder, 5., T#e 'eo"le:s War, p. =34

?7

590059307 style and no s!"stance and was !sed "y the party leadership as a way to entertain ideas and the#selves d!rin% the war. The leadership of )o##on Wealth, especially 5cland, ca#e !nder the s!spicion of &a"o!r for "ein% a dan%ero!s "ody to affiliate to. &as i aired this "etter than #ostH I have seen first @osley, then W. A. 0rown, now )ripps, say 9I have the cl!eI yo! are too slow, too reactionary, too i%norant: and then "eco#e, conscio!sly li e @osley, !nconscio!sly li e 0rown and )ripps, the instr!#ents of those who are ene#ies of wor in% class pro%ress. I feel that yo!r #ove#ent will not "!ild the "rid%e "etween the #iddle6class and the or%anised wor ers. It will eep the first fro# any faith in the political eEpression of the second at that critical period when their !nity is overwhel#in%ly !r%ent. The res!lt will "e to ato#ise the pro%ressive forces and ena"le the opponents of chan%e to profit "y the division.480 Followin% the reCection of affiliation and the disastro!s election res!lts, the )o##on Wealth leadership a"andoned ship, even tho!%h it was resolved, "y 77? votes to ?9 votes at a special conference, to contin!e )o##on Wealth as a political party. 5cland statedH 'I a# resi%nin% now. I feel that the thin%s we have "een wor in% for can, with the new sit!ation created, only "e realised in ti#e thro!%h an initiative within the &a"o!r Party and not o!tside'. 487 The initiative within the &a"o!r Party soon "eca#e the Geep &eft .ro!p. The infl!ence on the &a"o!r Party was the Fa"ian *ociety, not )o##on Wealth. )o##on Wealth, in the for# of 5cland et al, had s#all infl!ence with a s#all n!#"er of &a"o!r "ac "encher @Ps. The Geep &eft .ro!p, with its /!asi6)o##on Wealth a%enda, and steeped in the rhetoric of 5cland, was soon s!"Cected to the power h!n%ry 0evan. The newly nic na#ed '0evanites' attracted a lot of hostile attention d!e to 0evan's ill6ti#ed and ill6conceived resi%nation fro# %overn#ent. )o##on
480 487

&as i to 5cland, 45 A!ly, 7984 <5cland Papers> T#e Times, 77 *epte#"er 7985

?4

590059307 Wealth #e#"ers' lastin% infl!ence and i#pression, tho!%h not eEcl!sive to )o##on Wealth, was the for#ation of the )a#pai%n for ,!clear (isar#a#ent. Bowever, ),( soon went the way of )o##on Wealth and declined in s!pport and in prospects of s!ccess. )o##on Wealth had little lastin% infl!ence, in the #any %!ises it too , on the &a"o!r Party. )o##on Wealth's relationship with &a"o!r, as has "een eEhi"ited, was strained. (!rin% the war, )o##on Wealth was a s!rro%ate for &a"o!r s!pport whilst &a"o!r was in the warti#e )oalition. Toward the end of the war it "eca#e apparent that )o##on Wealth was not a "ody worth affiliatin% to. The "etrayal of @ac(onald and @osley was still fresh in the collective #e#ory of the &a"o!r Party, To so#e, )o##on Wealth and 5cland were viewed as Fascists. )o##on Wealth's "ri%ht f!t!re t!rned o!t to "e a false halo. Within the &a"o!r Party, )o##on Wealth #e#"ers played a role on the sidelines where the #aCor contri"!tion was, perhaps, ),( followed "y the 0evanites. Treated with s!spicion fro# the start, #any wo!ld re#ain o!tsiders within &a"o!r.

?3