Review of Related Literature

CONTRIBUTION OF CONCRETE-POLYMER COMPOSITES TO SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND SYSTEMS By: Van Gemert, Beeldens, Knapen, at Reyntjens Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, K.U.Leuven, Belgium

In the sixties and seventies of last century the use of polymers was considered to be a sign of progress and modern attitude in construction. Polymers were widely used for concrete crack injection, as repair mortar for concrete and stone, for consolidation of masonry, to replace degraded parts of timber structures, Lack of knowledge and experience and the extended use of pure polymers led to inherent chemical and physical incompatibility, mechanical malfunctioning and durability problems. In the early seventies the oil crises learned that mineral oil as a cheap basis for polymer production was no longer available. It is clear that all fossil resources are finite. If consumption of fossil fuels is diminished, exhaustion is only delayed. The only way, in which fossils are not being used up, is a reduction of the consumption to zero. The natural resources are than saved for next generations, who will wrestle with the same ethical problem and could also decide to save these gifts of nature for the future. But what is the use of these gifts, if consumption is never allowed? Earlier generations, who did not know about the existence of these resources, could not enjoy their benefits. Due to the lack of energy resources, their standard of living stayed almost the same for several ages.

Nowadays, having discovered fossil fuels and having the technological means to use them advantageously, it can be stated that it would be rather unjustified to do nothing with them and to save them for next generations. Actually, fossil resources cannot be squandered and have to be used well considered. Four imperative conditions for the finishing up of these geological treasures can be stated. Fossil resources can only be consumed to enhance our standard of living, prosperity and common well-being. Secondly, while using fossil fuels, the duty of present generations is to search for alternative energy resources, so next generations do not need fossil fuels anymore. The third condition is that the industrialized world should make use of sophisticated techniques and scale back consumption of easy energy resources, whereas developing countries can still support their growth with these resources. Finally, a sufficient amount of mineral oil should be for petrochemical purposes.

Recycled Polymer Materials as Aggregates for Concrete and Blocks By: Md Mostafizur Rahman, Md Akhtarul Islam, Mainuddin Ahmed, Md Abdus Salam The potential of recycled waste polymeric materials as a substitute for aggregates in concrete has been investigated in the study. Two different types of waste polymer, namely polyurethane formaldehyde (PUF) based packaging waste and high density polyethylene (HDPE) were recycled and used in the experiment. Concrete and masonry poly block specimens were prepared using recycled polymer materials, and test specimens were characterized. The effects of waste polymer materials on the

mechanical, physical and morphological properties of concrete and poly blocks have been investigated. The result shows that the inclusion of waste polymer materials decreases density, porosity and water absorption of concrete and poly blocks significantly. Polyurethane formaldehyde (PUF) based block exhibited lower density than that of HDPE-based concrete. Due to exceptionally low density, recycled polymer modified blocks and concrete can be used in non-load bearing structures, floating structures and where lightweight materials recommended. Conjugated polymer aggregates in solution: Control of interchain interactions By: Thuc-Quyen Nguyen, Vinh Doan, and Benjamin J. Schwartz Journal, 22 February, 1999 We present evidence that the degree of interchain interactions and morphology in conjugated polymer lms can be controlled by altering the chain conformation in the solution from which the lm is cast. Photolumine scence and wavelength-dependent excitation indicate that MEH-PPV forms aggregate species with an absorption and luminescence spectra that are distinctly red-shifted from the intrachain exciton. The degree of aggregation is both concentration and solvent dependent; for solutions with concentrations typical of those used in spin casting, aggregates comprise a signicant fraction of the total number of excited state species. The overall photoluminescence quantum yield is found to depend both on how restricted the polymer conformation is due to the choice of solvent and on aggregation due to polymer concentration. The excited state aggregates have a longer lifetime than their intrachain exciton counterparts, as evidenced by a near-infrared transient absorption in femtosecond pump-probe and anisotropy measurements. Memory of the chain conformation and the

extent of aggregation of MEH-PPV in solution is carried into cast lms. Thus, many conicting results presented on the degree of interchain interactions can be e xplained by noting that the lm samples different studies were cast from precursor solutions with different solvents and concentrations. Overall, a careful choice of the solution ~both solvent and concentration, can be used to produce MEH-PPV lms with desired interchain interactions for particular device applications.

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE USING POLYMER-FILLED AGGREGATE FOR OCEAN APPLICATIONS - AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION By: Harvey H. Haynes and Wulf V. Eckroth, December 1979 Regular lightweight aggregate was impregnated with polymetric materials to make Polymer-Filled (PFA). Brookhaven National Laboratory performed the impregnation. This organization has conducted similar work on impregnating poor quality hard rock aggregate. The Impregnation process used monomer (liquid) to impregnate the voids in the aggregate and then, by using heat, to polymerize the liquid into solid. The monomer system was, by weight, 83% methylcrylate (MMA), 5% trimethylopropane

trimethacrylate (TMPTMA), and 125 polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The aggregate was oven dried at 150 degree celcius for 24 hours to remove free moisture from the pores. The aggregate was then placed in a chamber and evacuated for 18 hours; at that point monomer was introduced into the chamber

Size distribution for aggregates of associating polymers. II. Linear packing By: ZhenGang Wang and S. A. Safran We study the micellization of associating polymers (hydrocarbon chains with dipolar head groups in hydrophobicsolvents) for the case where the polar heads form a linear array. The head interaction is assumed to be short ranged and the chain conformation (free) energy is assumed to follow spherical scaling in the small aggregation number limit and to have cylindrical scaling in the large aggregation number limit. In the small aggregation number limit, the aggregation number is only weakly dependent on the chain length. Numerical solutions as well as analytical studies show that the size distribution displays features of both the spherical and cylindrical aggregates: namely the absence of a sharp CMC transition and a rather sharp distribution function with a width that increases slowly with the mean aggregation number. In the large aggregation limit, the aggregation number can be a strong function of the chain molecular weight. We discuss the importance of the end cap effect in determining the mean size as a function of the chain lengths. Philippine tile firm joins Vietnam fair By: Philippine Daily Inquirer 12/09/2009

SHOWCASING BALDOZAS Y Azulejos de Cemento, or handcrafted decorative cement tiles, Composite Construction Products Corporation takes part in the 3rd ConBuild Vietnam to be staged in Ho Chi Minh City. Vietnams ConBuild is an international trade fair held this month at the Saigon Exhibition and Convention Center, featuring construction and building materials, machinery, vehicles, technology and services. With

contemporary designs and trendy colors, Composite Construction breathes new life into the art that traces its roots from the Middle East and its bordering European neighbors. It was introduced to the Philippines by the Spanish colonists in the 18th century, and flourished until the 1930s. It was company owner Edwin Espiritu, a chemical engineer by profession, who noted a very wide gap in the quality and availability of trendier designs in the local cement tile market, which, in addition to the flood of cheap alternative imports, was draining the industry dry. His observations prompted him to apply the training he received in Germany on the use of concrete additives and polymer concrete to large scale flooring applications in the Philippines. Composite Construction was born soon after in 1996. We are the change that happened to the local tile making industry which was already dead when we arrived at the scene said Frances Maranon, VP for marketing. More than the precise skill that comes into their designs, their tiles are also environment- friendly. The carbon footprint of a cement tile is only 1/20th of a similarly-sized ceramic tile product and they can be readily recycled, Maranon explained. Composites export markets now include Europe, North America, and China, where a boutique distributes their tiles in Shanghai. Apart from Composite Construction are two other Philippine companies to join ConBuild: Kemwerke, Inc. (alkyd and polyol resins) and Total Power Box Solution, Inc. (electrical switch gears and panels). Influence of Polymer Fiber on Strength of Concrete By: Tomas U. Ganiron Jr , Graduate School of Engineering, De la Salle University, Manila International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology Vol. 55, June, 2013

An admixture, according to the ASTM C-125-97a standards, is a material other than water, aggregates or hydraulic cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar, and is added to the batch immediately before or during mixing. A material such as a grinding aid added to cement during its manufacture is termed an additive. Super plasticizer is a type of water reducers; however, the difference between super plasticizer and water reducer is that super plasticizer will significantly reduce the water required for concrete mixing. Al-Mayah, A., Soudki, K., and Plumtree, A. (2006). Effect of Sleeve Material on Interfacial Contact Behavior of CFRP-Metal Couples.J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 18(6), 825830. A study was carried out on the contact pressure and shear stress at the interface of a carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) rod in contact with aluminum alloy or copper sleeves of different hardness. The main objective was to investigate the effect of the sleeve material on the interfacial sliding behavior under high contact pressures required for the design of wedge anchor systems to grip CFRP rods in prestressed concrete applications. The shear stress increased with the contact pressure; aluminum alloy sleeves generated higher shear stresses than copper sleeves. For both sleeve materials, higher shear stresses resulted from softening sleeves, an effect attributed to the lower yield stress facilitating metal flow, which resulted in a larger contact area between the sleeve and the CFRP rod. Evernden, M. and Mottram, J. (2006). Characterization of Unistrut Connection Method with Pultruded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Channels. J. Mater. Civ.

Eng. 18, SPECIAL ISSUE: Innovative Materials and Technologies for Construction and Restoration, 700709. This paper presents work to characterize the Unistrut steel connection method for M10 blind fixings using pultruded fiber- reinforced polymer (PFRP) profiles of channel section. Both the standard nut and a smooth nut (standard without the serrations), have been used in the series of tests to determine the degree of shear connection via loadslip behavior, under various applied bolt torques, and pure shear loading. It is shown that the standard nut provides adequate connection shear strength and stiffness, but with severe PFRP material damage that might be detrimental to the connections structural performance over 30years or more. The smooth connection is shown to significantly reduce PFRP damage. However, this advantage is linked to a 35% reduction in the connections shear resistance, making it less suitable for the development of an economic connection. Preliminary hot/wet aging and creep tests are used to estimate the reduction in strength and stiffness with time. The test results are used to establish four Unistrut connection design parameters that are required for the development of lightweight modular systems of PFRP.

Niu, H. and Wu, Z. (2006). Effects of FRP-Concrete Interface Bond Properties on the Performance of RC Beams Strengthened in Flexure with Externally Bonded FRP Sheets. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 18, SPECIAL ISSUE: Innovative Materials and Technologies for Construction and Restoration, 723731. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets have been increasingly used as externally bonded reinforcements in the rehabilitation of concrete structures. The efficacy of the

FRP bonding technology highly depends on the bond integrity between the FRP sheets and the concrete. The bond performance may directly influence the cracking of the concrete, whereas the presence of concrete cracks would impair the bond between the FRP sheets and the concrete. This paper aims to clarify the effect of interface bond properties on the performance of FRP-strengthened reinforced concrete (RC) beams in terms of concrete cracking, interface stress transfer, and failure mechanisms using nonlinear fracture mechanics based finite element analyses. To represent the typical crack patterns and capture the local interaction between FRP debonding and concrete cracking, a specially designed structural model with uniformly distributed cracking is used within the frame of the discrete crack approach. A detailed parametric study is performed to investigate the effects of interface bond properties in terms of stiffness, strength, fracture energy (or toughness), and bond curve shape. It is concluded that bond fracture energy (or toughness) is the main parameter influencing the structural strength and ductility. This study may serve as a valuable reference for optimization of the FRP-concrete bond interface in practical applications. Airey, G., Singleton, T., and Collop, A. (2002). Properties of Polymer Modified Bitumen after Rubber-Bitumen Interaction. J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 14(4), 344354. This paper describes results from a laboratory investigation into the effects of the interaction between a styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) modified bitumen and recycled crumb rubber on the mechanical performance of impact absorbing asphalt (IAA), an asphaltic material that has applications as a sports and safety surface. Curing tests at high temperatures have been undertaken using different rubber-bitumen ratios to assess the amount of bitumen absorbed by the rubber. The changes in bitumen

constitution through this interaction have been monitored and related to changes in the rheological characteristics of the residual bitumen. The results show that significant absorption takes place and that the residual bitumen undergoes alterations in terms of its stiffness and viscoelastic balance, together with a reduction in cohesion. A significant finding has been the loss of the polymeric nature of the residual SBS polymer modified bitumen. This has been due to the precipitation of the SBS polymer as the compatibility between the base bitumen and polymer has decreased following the absorption of the lighter, solvating fractions of the binder. To assess the effect of the rubber-bitumen interaction on the mechanical durability of IAA, an abrasive wear test has been developed to simulate the contact between a twisting foot and the surface. This test has been used to compare the mechanical durability of laboratory prepared specimens that have been artificially aged at high temperatures (to simulate the mixing and transportation period before the material is laid and compacted). Results show that there is a detrimental effect on the mechanical durability of the aged material due to the interaction between the rubber and the bitumen.

Schleser, M., Walk-Lauffer, B., Raupach, M., and Dilthey, U. (2006). Application of Polymers to Textile-Reinforced Concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 18, SPECIAL ISSUE: Innovative Materials and Technologies for Construction and Restoration, 670 676.

In order to improve the load bearing behavior of concrete structures which are subject to bending and tensile stresses, a steel reinforcement is, in general, applied. For reasons

of corrosion protection, the steel reinforcement requires a concrete cover with a thickness of several centimeters. The demand for corrosion-resistant thin-walled parts is a motivation for the application of alternative reinforcement materials. Within the scope of the Collaborative Research Centre SFB 532 the application of textiles made of polymer, carbon, and alkali-resistant (AR) glass filaments in a fine concrete matrix are examined. The long term aim is to reach the filament strength of the immersed textiles as thoroughly as possible. As a consequence of textile manufacturing processes and of bad bond properties, the utilization of AR glass textiles is approximately 30% compared to the material strength. In this paper the possibility of improving the load bearing behavior of textile-reinforced concrete structures through the saturation of textiles and the modification of concrete with liquid polymers is discussed. The increase of the internal bond between the filaments doubled the maximum component load-carrying capacity.

Zhang,

B. and Benmokrane,

B. (2002). Pullout

Bond

Properties

of

Fiber-

Reinforced Polymer Tendons to Grout. J. Mater. Civ. Eng.,14(5), 399408. This paper presents the results of pullout bond tests on fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) tendons embedded in cement mortar filled steel tubes. The pullout test program involved four types of FRP bars, three types of grouts, and two types of bond lengths. The experimental results have shown that the pullout behavior of grouted FRP tendons are influenced by the material properties and surface conditioning of the tendon. The bond length, surface geometry and manufacturing of the tendon, grout properties, and anchorage radial stiffness have an effect on the bond strength of the tendon to the

grout. An analytical model of bond stressslip relationships for grouted FRP tendons has been proposed, and its effectiveness to represent the entire bond-slip curve has been demonstrated. Yang, X., Nanni, A., Haug, S., and Sun, C. (2002). Strength and Modulus Degradation of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates from Fiber

Misalignment. J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 14(4), 320326. Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates are being used as external reinforcement for strengthening concrete members. The performance of unidirectional FRP laminates is highly dependent on fiber orientation with respect to applied load direction. In the case of fabrication by manual layup, it is possible to have fiber plies installed with improper orientation. In this project, the degradation of strength and modulus of carbon FRP laminates from fiber misalignment was investigated experimentally using tensile coupons. The specimens consisted of one and two plies of unidirectional carbon FRP impregnated with a two-component epoxy. The misalignment angles varied from 0 to 40 for the one-ply samples, and from 0 to 90 for one ply of the two-ply samples. The size effect on the strength and modulus was investigated for one-ply specimens with misalignments of 5 and 10. For these specimens, the ply width was maintained constant and the length was varied so that the aspect ratio ranged between 2 and 8. It was concluded that misalignment affects strength more than elastic modulus. However, provided that mechanical parameters are related to the cross-sectional area of laminate with fibers continuous from end to end of the coupon, the degradation of strength can be accounted with a knock-down factor that is independent of misalignment angle.