Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SELF-APPRAISAL:
performance and then discusses this with his manager. The method can be used
that it provides the employee with the opportunity to reflect on his own
performance and reasons behind it. It can be a good preparation for the appraisal
by the manager of the employee and can help to increase the size of the future-oriented
part of it.
Self-appraisal includes the following objects such as skills audit, evaluating self-
Learning Objective:
individual or group”
Meaning:
Getting the right mix of skills, experiences and qualities is a key ingredient in
building an effective board of trustees. A skills audit is a tool to help your board
identify why they have become a trustee and what skills, knowledge or
deliver to its Mission Statement and strategy is to know what skills and
knowledge the organisation requires and what skills and knowledge the
may never have been identified or called upon by the organisation. Prospective
new trustees can be recruited on the basis of what they can bring to the board,
complementing and enhancing what is already there and increasing the diversity
The ideal trustee would have every desirable skill and quality, but in the real
ourselves, and what qualities others possess, we can pool our talents.
Benefits:
more focused.
• Acquisition and use of information that can be used for purposes such as
There are numerous techniques to conduct a skills audit based on the context and
strategy of the organisation. It is vital that the first step in implementing a skills
objectives of the skills audit. The context of the organisation may be identified
based on time available, logistical issues, primary reasons for the skills audit and
the prevalent socio-political environment. The organizational strategy provides
the basis for alignment of skills to current and future organizational needs. This
planning.
current and future skills requirements per job. The end result is a skills matrix
The actual skills audit process is outlined below and involves an individual self-
audit and skills audit. Results are collated into reporting documents that may
Once skills audit information has been collected, an analysis of the results may
be used for planning purposes relating to training and development and other
Fairness
Transparency/ Openness
Constructive feedback
Evaluation of evidence
Skills
Negotiation Skills
Skills Audit rate your overall skills development. The Continued Professional
Development helps you to plan for skills development during your career.
Handling information
- assess your ability to use relevant literature and to produce and interpret
data;
Communication skills
skills development;
basis;
- assess your ability to work as part of a team and to network with others.
a) Panel approach
b) Consultant approach
c) One-on-one approach
Individual
self-audit
Matter Experts and HR and managers, and may except that an individual
experts. The skills audit review performance and is rated against a pre-
employee to agree on
GOAL STEPS
Agreement on the objectives of the Discussion and agreement on project outcomes
outcomes
Investigation to identify key Review business goals
members
Competence profiling Prepare a profile for each job
Individual audits (by self, consultant Plan a meeting with each employee to gather
profile
Application Prepare a skills gap analysis
Feedback Present the skills gap analysis to management and
steps
Skills Plan
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
Components of self-management :
staying on task; and the person is taught to monitor when this behavior(s)
occurs. One strategy is to teach the person to monitor his/her own behavior at
short time intervals. At first a teacher or supervisor may remind the student
observe whether the target behavior occurred. An eventual goal may be to teach
the person to monitor his/her behavior without a prompt. For example, after
what he/she is doing. Such awareness may then prompt the person to stop the
target behavior in relation to the goals that have been set. For example, if the goal
is to refrain from self-injury for 10 minutes, the person and those helping him/her
can reflect over the 10-minute time period to determine if this goal was met. If it
was, the person will proceed to the next stage, self-reinforcement. If not, goals
may need to be revised and self-monitoring will need to take place again. In
attainable; and they should be made more challenging as the person experiences
consistent success.
reaching the goals which were set. For example, if the goal is to refrain from
the person has met the goal, then he/she would reward him-/herself. Researchers
claim that allowing a person to choose from a variety of rewards is more effective
than simply making only one reward available. Initially, these rewards may be
given to the person immediately, such as eating a food snack; but similar to the
real world, it would be best to establish a token economy in which the person
receives tokens (e.g., coins, stars) for appropriate behavior, and then exchanges
them for a reward at a later time. Although tangible, external rewards are often
continuous reinforcement works well when new behaviors are being established
Initially, the individual will likely need close supervision but, over time, such
program, otherwise the person's skills may deteriorate over time. Such 'booster'
maintaining appropriate behaviors. Once the person can monitor, evaluate, and
• To increase motivation
Self-management Strategies
• self-monitoring
• self-relaxation routines
• self-delivered rewards
• (self-delivered corrections)
Self-management Behaviors
– Time management
– arrive on time
– With necessary materials
• be prepared to work
– do work as assigned
– Time management
• leave on time
or self appraise at any time during the year, including around the actual
something the manager does to the employee. This greases the wheels of
the year. That's exceedingly valuable, because what most managers want
is employees who can do their jobs, monitor their own progress, and self-
correct all year long. When that happens managers can spend far less time
and works by self-managing, and I’ll bet it’s a business destined for greatness.
1. Live by your values, whatever they are. You confuse people when
2. Speak up! No one can “hear” what you’re thinking without you be
do.
3. Honor your own good word, and keep the promises you make. If
not, people eventually stop believing most of what you say, and your
it’s usually an all or nothing kind of thing, and so you’ve got to treat it
that way.
fulfilled expectations.
for you; bad habits sap your energies and drain you.
what it takes.
share everything you know. No one owes you their attention; you have
still count for an awful lot in life, and thank goodness they do.
10. Be self-disciplined. That’s what adults are supposed to “grow up”
to be.
shy from it: Choose and choose without regret. Look forward and be
enthusiastic.
12. Keep healthy and take care of yourself. Exercise your mind, body
and spirit so you can be someone people count on, and so you can live
expansively and with abundance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is self-management?
Learning Objective:
Laissez-Faire.
LEADERSHIP:
Many people believe that leadership is simply being the first, biggest or most
There are also numerous theories about leadership, or about carrying out the role
group-man theory, great-man theory, traits theory, visionary leader, total leader,
Leadership theories
Over time, a number of theories of leadership have been proposed. Here are
• Trait Theory
• Behavioral Theories
o Role Theory
• Participative Leadership
• Situational Leadership
• Contingency Theories
• Transactional Leadership
• Transformational Leadership
Trait theory:
Assumptions
People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination
of traits.
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day,
which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus
put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the
underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits,
McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four
covering up.
Leadership Styles
Leaders carry out their roles in a wide variety of styles, e.g., autocratic,
democratic, participatory, laissez-faire (hands off), etc. Often, the leadership style
depends on the situation, including the life cycle of the organization. The
from the leader in order to get things done. Generally, an authoritarian approach
There are, however, some instances where an autocratic style of leadership may
not be inappropriate. Some situations may call for urgent action, and in these
cases an autocratic style of leadership may be best. In addition, most people are
familiar with autocratic leadership and therefore have less trouble adopting that
autocratic style.
The Laissez-Faire manager exercises little control over his group, leaving them to
sort out their roles and tackle their work, without participating in this process
himself. In general, this approach leaves the team floundering with little
direction or motivation.
Again, there are situations where the Laissez-Faire approach can be effective. The
highly motivated and skilled people, who have produced excellent work in the
past. Once a leader has established that his team is confident, capable and
motivated, it is often best to step back and let them get on with the task, since
interfering can generate resentment and detract from their effectiveness. By
handing over ownership, a leader can empower his group to achieve their goals.
3. The Democrat
The democratic leader makes decisions by consulting his team, whilst still
maintaining control of the group. The democratic leader allows his team to
decide how the task will be tackled and who will perform which task.
never loses sight of the fact that he bears the crucial responsibility of leadership.
He values group discussion and input from his team and can be seen as drawing
from a pool of his team members' strong points in order to obtain the best
The following links to sections describe the eleven leadership skills as they are
taught within White Stag Leadership Development by those who learned from
• Counseling
• Setting the Example
• Problem-Solving
• Evaluation
• Sharing Leadership
• Manager of Learning
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
other people or professionals within the workplace will enable one to reduce
such as, "Excuse me, are you busy? I have an urgent matter to discuss with you if
you have the time at the moment." This allows the receiving professional to make
their own judgment regarding the importance of their current task versus
interpersonal skills can generally control the feelings that emerge in difficult
Leadership
Networking
The ability to actively seek, identify and create effective contacts with others, and
Teamwork
Involves working with others in a group towards a common goal. This requires
Background Skills
Mentoring is:
• any activity which has been specifically designed so that students work in
group work); or
• When students come together naturally to help each other with their work
a choice (for example, gathering and assessing information to find the best
Delegation is:
• Taking responsibility for determining when to ask someone else to make a
decision or carry out a task (for example, figuring out what is a fair
with others).
else the discretion to make decisions that you have the authority to make
(for example, as the chosen leader of a lab experiment team, you could
Collaboration is:
• Working cooperatively and productively with other team members to
contribute to the outcomes of the team's work (for example, dividing the
workload and sharing the results of your own work with others in the
contacts for specific purposes (for example, seeking out people established
you).
solutions and maintaining a positive attitude even when things are not
going well (for example, when something goes wrong, asking "What can
suggestions for a group project, and giving each person's ideas fair
discussion).
Smile. Few people want to be around someone who is always down in the
Be appreciative. Find one positive thing about everyone you work with and let
them hear it. Say thank you when someone helps you.
Pay attention to others. Observe what’s going on in other people’s lives.
Acknowledge their happy milestones, and express concern and sympathy for
hear and understand another’s point of view. It means restating, in your own
together. Treat everyone equally, and don't play favorites. Avoid talking about
Resolve conflicts. Take a step beyond simply bringing people together, and
become someone who resolves conflicts when they arise. Learn how to be an
effective mediator.
Communicate clearly. Pay close attention to both what you say and how you say
Humor them. Most people are drawn to a person that can make them laugh. Use
your sense of humor as an effective tool to lower barriers and gain people’s
affection.
See it from their side. Empathy means being able to put yourself in someone
else’s shoes and understand how they feel. Try to view situations and responses
you simply have to vent about something, save it for your diary.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objective:
After reading this section you can able to know,
Development plan.
pride, anger and doubt. Personal development is a conscious effort to reduce and
Controlling Our Thoughts - Control of our thoughts is essential for our own
cannot hope to minimize our negative qualities and bring our good qualities to
imposed limitations. This means we aspire to reach new goals and not to be
our inner pilot. The messages of our inner voice can only be heard with a silent
mind. This inner inspiration comes not from our ego, but our Soul.
Minimize Desires - When we live in the world of desires there is no end to our
To Live in the Heart - If we can live in the heart many of our problems will be
solved. When we live in the heart, we can spontaneously feel our oneness with
others.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT:
economic, and chance factors that combine to influence the nature and
shaping one’s career over the life span. As such, career development involves the
person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life
• a time-consuming process
Assess - "Who am I?" If you’ve been thinking about your career path and know
you want a career change you may wonder: “Where do I start?” Typically, this
process starts with self-assessment. Understanding who you really are is critical
because you’re good at something doesn’t necessarily mean you like doing
it.
DEVELOPMENT PLAN:
Remember that your development plan is not only about developing yourself for
university and the workplace, it’s also about developing yourself for you.
Future needs which can be set out in a framework of aims, objectives and
targets
Review dates: in setting out the plan it is important to set out dates at
which progress will be reviewed,. For example at the end of each term/
targets.
CURRENT PERFORMANCE:
Set out:
Activity:
Now list three areas of weakness that you need to work on.
You should also make a list of your personal achievements, that is, the success
areas of your life. There are all sorts of areas of personal achievement that we
tend to overlook. Think carefully about your achievements and list them
carefully for your folder. Examples could be looking after an elderly person,
There are all sorts of ways of recording information for providing evidence for
Testimonies, references
Certificates
Awards
Portfolios of work
Photographs
Trophies
Aims and objectives are the ends that you are trying to achieve. An aim is a
major end that you are trying to achieve, which can typically be broken down
into a number of objectives. For example, your aims and objectives might be
Set out a statement of your main aims for the next two years, and break
Now establish some targets for the next three months. At the end of each
three-month period you will need to establish new targets. In the course of
3. Achievable
4. Realistic
5. Time-related
Targets are shorter-term challenges that help you to achieve your aims and
objectives. For example, short-term targets may relate to gaining scores of at least
course tutor.
Means End
ACHIEVEMENT DATES:
Achievement dates are the dates at which you successfully achieve your targets.
Setting out achievement dates helps you to build confidence in your portfolio
building, because each achievement of a target will provide you with more
The learning programme or activities are the means by which you achieve your
targets.
Some parts of the learning program or activities will be designed for our, for
example training activities at work and the structure of your Business Higher or
Foundation award. Other activities you may have to design yourself in order to
develop the capabilities that you are working towards. Do not expect to receive
all the required experiences provided for you ‘on a plate’. For example, if part of
research assignment involves collecting primary information, then you will need
development process.
ACTION PLANS:
There are a number of important reasons why you should plan, including:
To make sure that the important things are not left until last
To save time
To reduce stress
A problem for many students is that while they have some idea about the
goal or target they are working towards they are not skilled at planning the
specified criteria:
you will complete this assignment, and how each step is related o the
performance criteria.
Organize the timing of events. When will each step in the assignment
be completed?
Keep a check on progress. How will you check that you are keeping to
deadlines? Will you review your progress with another student, for
example?
T
A
R
G
E
T
ACTION STEPS
STARTING POINT
The importance of action plans is that they help you organize yourself. You
should be able to put your plan together quickly with the minimum of
paperwork. If an action plan involves a lot of paper and time, then throw it in the
bin and start again. Your action plan should be simple and easy to follow.
ii.
iii.
iv.
4. Review of progress (when reviews will occur and who will be involved).
5. Evaluation of plan (when and how it will take place, how it can be improved).
Area for development - What do you want to plan? Set out your targets.
This will be you, or a small group of students. The responsibility lies with you,
Action steps - What steps will you need to take to seethe plan through? Be
specific about the steps that need to be taken. Set out the time when these steps
Review of progress
When and how will the progress of action steps and the plan be checked. In
writing out your plan you need to set dates for reviewing successful you have
been in carrying out the plan. For example, if you have eight weeks to complete
an assignment, you could review your progress after two weeks, four weeks and
six weeks. You will need to carry out this review with someone else. Two
It is helfpful to evaluate the success of your plan in order to help you to action
plan in the future. Make sure that your action steps are a clear and practical
rather than sketchy and vague. For example, ‘reading four journal articles about
appraisal processes, and making detailed notes about salient points is a specific
‘Improving my ICT’ is not. You can see that the action plan we have outlined
does not involve a lot of paperwork. However, it enables you to map out clear
Too often in the past students have found themselves with three or four
assignments to do at the same time and have left essential work to the last
minute. Action planning helps you to spread out your work over a period of
time.
Action planning is used widely in the work place. If you learn to construct
simple action plans now, you will have developed a useful life skill. Finally, never
plan.
7) Define action plans and also development an action plan by your own.
Learning Objective:
After reading this section you will be able to know,
Meaning of Portfolio:
A portfolio is a place where you store things related to your training, work
document all your work-related talents and accomplishments so that you have a
abilities, skills - the things you like to do, and do best. There are wide variations
in professional portfolios and in where and how they can be used. Here's a
starter list of artifacts to consider. Begin you collection with whatever is relevant
to you.
Personal portfolio:
prospective employer.
Personal career portfolio Design : The Personal Portfolio is designed to: (1)
provide an information repository that can be used throughout your career; and
(2) help you better market yourself and set yourself apart from the mass of other
Task description
Teachers may introduce Year 7 students to the idea of portfolios. Each year
students can review and update their portfolio to include their skills
Dual Purpose
Marketing Tool/Visual Aide for Interviews
♦ Jobs
♦ Scholarships
♦ College
Organizational Tool
Eye Pleasing
Professional
Be Concise
♦ Pertinent information
Work In Progress
♦ Designed for use beyond high school
Education
• Assessments, test results (e.g. GRE scores), appraisals (e.g. 180° or 360°
• Writing samples
yourself)
Activities
• Volunteer activities
• Awards
Work-Related Activities
• Resume
achievements)
decrease in claims
thinking about what you like to do and exploring different career areas. The time
you spend now doing career exploration and assessment will help you decide
which businesses/colleges to apply to in the future. There are many tools and
activities that you can use to gather some information about yourself—your
Letter of introduction
It should be both personal and informative and spotlight your best work.
The skills and abilities that would make you successful in a particular
Career-Pursuit Information
Resume
If you already have a resume, transfer the information it contains into the format
Presented here.
Letters of Recommendation
performance.
(2) Character-related: A letter from a person who has known you for more than
one year and can testify to your personal and/or academic attributes. It is
Samples of work:
etc.)
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
You are probably familiar with a resume, but may or may not have heard the
qualifications. It can vary in length from one to several pages, depending upon
the variety and number of your experiences. (A resume, in contrast, is a 1-2 page
of applications (i.e. < 20) for each position. In other fields, an employer may
receive hundreds of applications for one position and so will desire brevity.
Although they are actually different, the terms CV and resume are used
* Your Achievements
* Your Skills
promote yourself. Imagine the CV as being a brochure that will list the benefits of
a particular service.
Organizing CV:
comprehensive structure and format will help you to get success. There are many
centered, and may be set in larger and/or boldface type to attract attention.
Remember to:
• ·Place your complete name, address and telephone number at the top of
the page. You may also want to include an e-mail address. Make sure that
contacted.
• If you don’t want your current employer to know you’re looking for
another job, then do not put your current job phone number down as the
contact number.
After the contact information, you should strongly consider the following
headings:
Education
• For each degree you have obtained, spell out the full name of the
Pharmacy”) and the full name of the university. Then note the year
word “candidate” after the name of the degree, spell out the full
Specialized Training/Certification
• Use the full certification name and note the year the certification was
earned. You can include a short description of the certification if you feel it
is not self-explanatory.
particular skill and that you have shown you can perform that skill at a
Experience
chronological order).
Information to include:
Time interval employed (list start and stop month/year; use year only if
Position title
Name and location of employer
transferable skills (i.e. skills you gained at other nonpharmacy jobs that
Rotations are good to list when you don’t have much else to place on the
CV. If you’re more than a couple of years out from school, drop the
may play a direct role in the job you are applying for. Include the same
medicine”). Spell out names and do not use abbreviations (for example,
out terms like Medicine Service, and University Hospital and Medical
Center).
If you have experience teaching courses that you want to highlight, you
Presentations
Include the presentation title, name of group presented to, and year. The
whatever works.
Don’t list contact names for the presentation, but have a copy of all
Publications
If you have more than four, divide them into peer-reviewed and non-peer-
reviewed.
Cite the published material using the official citation method noted in the
Biomedical Journals,” except list all authors (not just the first three).
• For awards, list title and year granted. You may describe the award briefly
Professional Affiliations
• List all professional associations of which you are currently a member.
Spell out the full name of the associations—do not use abbreviations.
• Licensure
CV Presentation:
The quality and presentation of your CV is vital when selling yourself. The
person that may be working in their environment. There is no exact format for
compiling a CV, but the following guideline is a sure fire way to avoid yours
being rejected.
Omit items that have nothing to do with your profession. Besides the fact that the
gain enough information about you to commit fraud in your name. Second,
potential employers typically don’t WANT to know anything that could put them
state that some of the items listed below could provide a basis for discrimination,
so employers would not want to see this type of information. Include only
information that is pertinent to the professional nature of the position for which
• Marital status
• Description of health
• Citizenship
• Age
memberships
• Personal references
• Travel history
• Components of your name which you really never use (i.e. middle names)
sided format
• 12 point font size will be the easiest to read; do not use smaller than 10
point font
• Use bullets to aid organization, but be careful not to overuse them. Too
Grammer:
promote consistency.
• For the most part, use short, simple phrases that begin with action verbs.
inappropriate use of
put it down for a week, and then proofread it again to catch any hidden
mistakes.
Closing thoughts:
• Sell yourself. Create a good first impression by highlighting skills and
• Don't sell yourself short. This is by far the biggest mistake of all CVs. Your
experiences are worthy for review by hiring managers. Treat your resume
If you've got a valuable asset that doesn't seem to fit into any existing
cover letter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
5. What are the things to be considered for standard formatting and layout
in CV presentation?
UNIT 2
2. EVALUATE PROGRESS
Learning objectives:
Setting Goals
Responding to feedback
Evaluating progress includes formal review of both use data and the activities
carried out as part of the action plan as compared to your performance goals.
Evaluation results and information gathered during the formal review process is
used by many organizations to create new action plans, identify best practices,
o environmental performance
o financial savings.
You cannot 'do' a goal or a vision. Instead you must do the things that enable it -
A goal without a plan remains just a goal - many people have visions, intentions,
ideas, dreams which never happen, because they are not planned.
Objectives .
A desire or an intention becomes a goal if and only if\one activates an action for
achieving it.It is roughly similar to purpose or aim, the anticipated result which
performance.
This review should look at the effectiveness of your action plan. Where activities
and projects were successful, document best practices to share throughout the
organization. Where goals were not met, many organizations determine the
• Get feedback — Solicit feedback and ideas on the plan from the team,
awareness of issues.
or missing targets.
• Why is it working?
If you get sidetracked from your goal, ask yourself the following questions:
• How can I make the plan more enticing for me to follow without
Targets:
A Target is any entity whose existence is the object of goal accomplishment by another
entity's intended action results.
Targets are shorter-term challenges that help you to achieve your aims and objectives. For
example, short-term targets may relate to gaining scores of at least 60 percent on your
next three pieces of work.
Some feedback is easy to take. Someone makes an awesome suggestion that makes a ton
of sense or simply loves what you are doing and wants to tell you so. Some feedback isn’t
as easy - someone doesn’t like something you’ve done and wants to let you know about
it.
Responding to Feedback on the Job From time to time, your employer will want to
give you feedback on your progress and performance at work. Generally, you'll get a
"Great job!" But occasionally, your supervisor will let you know something didn't go
well. You may instinctively become defensive, feeling like you're being blamed. Stop!
Negative feedback can be a valuable opportunity to learn how to do things better next
time. Here's how to respond and benefit from it.
1. Listen to your employer's feedback. Pay attention to the content, not the tone. What's
the problem? What part did you play in it? Summarize what you hear your supervisor
saying to show that you understand what's being said, even if you don't agree with it. For
example: "You wanted me to contact John by the end of the day yesterday to make sure
he could come to tomorrow's meeting, and since I didn't contact him until this morning,
he no longer had room in his schedule and won't be able to make the meeting."
2. Acknowledge whatever part of the situation you're responsible for. This doesn't
mean taking on all the blame! But if an important phone call wasn't made, and it was
your job to make it, take responsibility for letting it slip through the cracks. For example,
you could say, "You're absolutely right, I should have let you know that I wasn't going to
be able to call John until this morning."
4. Ask what else you might do to improve your performance. Listen and summarize
what your supervisor says to show that you understand. Take notes if you need help
remembering the conversation.
One of the biggest mistakes goal setters make is not to re-set goals after a goal has been
achieved. Re-setting is absolutely necessary if motivation and momentum are to me
maintained. If re-setting doesn't take place, you run the risk of losing interest, direction,
and feelings of progress.
Begin with a clear goal, and an outline of what will make your goal happen.
Whatever the aim, all good plans tend to include:
1. A clearly defined aim.
2. Linked steps or stages or elements - resources, actions, knowledge, etc - the
factors of cause and effect.
3. Relevant and achievable proportions and timings (for steps, stages, elements)
Note that the overall aim or vision does not have to be limited or constrained.
Where aims and visions are concerned virtually anything is possible - for an individual
person or an organization - provided the above goal planning criteria are used.
Here is a simple outline goal planning template and process, which can be used as the full
planning method for certain personal aims, or as an initial outline planning tool for the
most complex organizational vision.
Well-stated goals guide daily decision-making and are the basis for tracking and
measuring progress.
Finally, you should assess how effectively you are fulfilling all of your commitments at
all stages. Once you have developed an initial overview of your activities and tasks you
will need to reassess these as priorities and commitments change.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
UNIT 3
results. The term "interpersonal skills" is used often in business contexts to refer
to the measure of a person's ability to operate within business organizations
Assertiveness Training
socializing with charm and wit. Learn how to be more at ease in the networking
arena and build the kind of relationships that will develop your company and
The single most important skill you have to have in business is to be able to
communicators.
Many people manage conflict by avoiding it. Whether its workplace disputes,
otherwise, what's the point? Here we help people get to the heart of the problem
Having some solid interview techniques and skills can make all the difference
between you getting what you want or you being disappointed because once
others. Here you get to look at what makes an impact and how you can make the
Stress makes it difficult to see the wood for the trees. If you're under pressure or
you manage people who are, this program helps you create a balanced, effective
life style.
Two for the Price of one. Striking the right balance between Work and Home.
Transferable skills
Generic (or general) transferable skills are those skills, abilities and personal
attributes which you can use in a wide range of activities, both in and out of
employment, and that are not specific to the subject you studied.
There exist many transferable skills, but most can be summarized under four
main headings:
empathizing);
skills such as integrity, honesty and ethical behavior); and Intellectual and
creative skills (such as problem solving and 'thinking beyond the square').
Skills that you have developed in a specific subject area at university (e.g.
Knowing about these skills will help teens and adults prepare to be successful in
the workplace. Transferable skills are a product of our talents, traits and
knowledge. These skills determine how you respond to new activities, work
situations or jobs.
Transferable skills are non-job specific skills that you have acquired during any
Transferable skills fall into three (3) groups: Working with people, working with
things, and working with data/information. These terms are defined below:
Working with people skills happen when people sell, train, advice, and negotiate.
Working with things skills occur when people repair, operate machinery, sketch,
survey, or troubleshoot.
Learning Objective:
Meaning of Problem.
The concept of Problem solving.
Best Solution.
Key areas – Five Whys, Cause and Effect Analysis, CATWOE, Drill Down
Meaning of Problem:
A problem is the difference between the actual state and desired state.
“Most people rush to find solution before knowing the real problem.”
“Most people spend more time and energy going around problems than in trying
Problem solving:
Problem solving is a tool, a skill and a process. It is a tool because it can help you
have learnt it you can use it repeatedly, like the ability to ride a bicycle, add
It’s good to know that there are many powerful problem-solving tools that can
lend a hand – helping you determine the nature of the issue you’re dealing with,
generate good options, analyze risks and impacts, and, finally, select the best
solution.
This guide to problem solving is designed with exactly that in mind. It helps you
learn the key steps of problem solving, and it assists you in choosing some of the
best tools and approaches. Read on to discover more about some of the most
popular tools for problem solving, how to apply them with flexibility, and how
the problem significant and strategic? Will solving it add value to you, your
If you decide to go ahead, then it’s often worth investing some time and effort in
fully understanding the problem. This is particularly the case when you’re
dealing with problems that will take several months to solve. In this situation, it’s
worthwhile to determine before you start that you’re solving the true problem –
To do this, consider using the Five Whys technique, Cause and Effect Analysis, or
CATWOE. Of these three tools, Five Whys is the simplest and is ideal for smaller
problems. It can, however, lead you down a single path where you ignore other
options. Cause and Effect Analysis and CATWOE help you avoid this problem,
Five Whys
This simple but effective tool prompts you to ask “why” the problem exists. After
that, you keep on asking “why?” to those answers until you uncover the real root
brainstorm the possible underlying causes of your problem. This pushes you to
consider many more of the possible causes of your problem than you might
naturally consider.
CATWOE
The CATWOE tool helps you look at the situation from a number of different
that you can make sure that you’re solving the right problem, and not just a
Drill Down
This helps you break down a large and complex problem into its component
parts. By doing so, you can develop plans that deal with each of these parts. It
also shows you where you need to conduct more detailed research.
Once you’ve identified the root cause of your problem, the next step is to
understand what’s important for success. In other words, which areas of activity
a success?
you help ensure that your business or project is well focused – and you can avoid
Sometimes people take this environmental analysis step intuitively. For smaller
understand your current situation. If, however, you want to make significant
changes or if you need to have a strong grasp of the big picture before moving
Perhaps the most useful tool for doing this is a SWOT Analysis. Used on a
personal, organizational, or competitive basis, this tool helps you identify the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats that are related to the problem
at hand. By using this technique, you can think about these questions:
• What strengths and opportunities can you build upon to come up with a
solution?
• What weaknesses and threats do you need to keep in mind when you evaluate
SWOT Analysis
Strengths and Weaknesses, as well as the Opportunities and Threats that you face
in your specific situation. This helps you focus on your strengths, minimize
threats, and take the greatest possible advantage of the opportunities that are
available to you.
This simple but powerful tool allows you to see where power lies in a business
situation. This is often fundamental to understanding what you can expect from
supplier power, customer power, threat of substitution, ease of new entry, and
PEST Analysis
PEST Analysis is a simple but important – and widely used – tool that helps you
leaders worldwide to build their vision of the future. It can help you understand
some of the fundamental forces that could lie behind the problem you’re
experiencing.
This helps you think about where you add value for your customers within your
business process. This way, you can understand whether there are issues at any
of these points. It can also help you spot situations where you’re failing to deliver
Flow charts are easy-to-understand diagrams that show how steps in a process
fit together. They help you recognize and clarify the details of how things
currently work. This allows people to understand and discuss processes, and
These diagrams take flow charts a step further by allowing you to map
groups of people. You can easily identify these possible points of failure with
After you’ve understood the context of the problem, it’s time to actually start
generating potential solutions. Too often, however, this is the stage of the
problem-solving process at which people first jump in (in fact, often people just
pick the first solution they can think of.) They’ve identified the problem, and
they just want to get answers. But if you bypass earlier steps of analysis, you risk
developing solutions that only disguise the problem – or you may create an even
greater problem down the road. This can be a key failure if the problem is a
major one, or if developing the initial, failed solution takes a long time.
When you are ready to come up with solutions, there are several tools you can
organizing these – many ideas are likely to be different versions of the same basic
concept.
problem. Use it when you have a team of people who want to look at a problem
with fresh eyes and open minds. An extension of this approach is Reverse
Brainstorming.
Use an Affinity Diagram to help you group the ideas you developed and show
you how to create relationships between ideas. By doing this, you may also gain
further insight into the problem, and you may discover hidden linkages. This can
lead to some great new alternatives that you would not have otherwise seen.
So, you now have a set of potential solutions to your well-defined problem.
Before you take the final step and choose one, you need to test the ideas to make
sure that they’re sound. This involves understanding the risks involved in each
alternative, checking that the assumptions behind them are sound, and
projecting the likely outcomes of the change to make sure that there are no
serious negative consequences. The most important tool you need to use here is
Risk Analysis. The basis of risk analysis is that risk = probability of event x cost
of event. With this tool, you first identify the potential risks of your solution.
Another useful tool is Failure Mode and Effects Analysis, or FMEA, which
helps you look at the possible points of failure in your solution. This helps you
systematically identify all the points at which a solution could fail. By looking at
a solution from this negative perspective, you can develop a solution that is
whether your assumptions are correct and (2) ensuring that you’ve based your
Finally, Impact Analysis helps you uncover the unexpected effects that changes
might have on your organization and the people involved. This helps you avoid
that dreadful, career-limiting situation in which the changes you champion make
This is where all of your preparatory work sees a payoff. At this point, you’re
confident that the solutions you’re evaluating are appropriate, that they’ll solve
the real problem, and that they’re consistent with the strategic direction of the
company.
For small or medium-sized decisions, use Cash Flow Forecasting to assess the
viability of the project, and then carry out a Cost/Benefit Analysis or Decision
Tree Analysis to help you decide which solution provides the best financial
return. (For more complex or larger decisions, you may want to get the help of
The amount of time you invest in this will depend on how important the decision
is. For high-impact decisions, you may also want to use Six Thinking Hats to
Typically, there are a number of factors that need to be taken into account when
you’re choosing between several alternatives: cost, impact, timing, and so on.
Grid Analysis is a powerful tool for assessing the relative importance of each
With all of those preliminary concerns addressed, it’s now a much simpler matter
of evaluating the merits of each solution and choosing the best one. However,
gives you a useful (if slightly theoretical) guide for deciding whether you should
If you need the input of many other people, then techniques like Multi-Voting
and Nominal Group Technique can help you make sure that everyone feels
in its own way and when applied to a particular type of situation – so it’s well
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
What is meant by Problem?
Define the following concepts - Five Whys, Cause and Effect Analysis,
Grid Analysis.
3.2 BRAINSTORMING:
Learning Objective:
After reading this section you will be able to know,
solutions.
Brainstorming – An overview:
Brainstorming is a useful and popular tool that you can use to develop highly
out of stale, established patterns of thinking, so that you can develop new ways
of looking at things. This can be when you need to develop new opportunities,
where you want to improve the service that you offer, or when existing
Used with your team, it helps you bring the experience of all team members into
play during problem solving. This increases the richness of solutions explored
(meaning that you can find better solutions to the problems you face, and make
better decisions.) It can also help you get buy in from team members for the
solution chosen - after all, they have helped create that solution.
ideas and thoughts that seem at first to be a bit shocking or crazy. You can then
change and improve them into ideas that are useful, and often stunningly
original.
You are trying to open up possibilities and break down wrong assumptions
about the limits of the problem. Judgments and analysis at this stage will stunt
idea generation.
Ideas should only be evaluated at the end of the brainstorming session - you can
If your ideas begin to dry up, you can 'seed' the session with, for example, a
Individual Brainstorming
When you brainstorm on your own you will tend to produce a wider range of
ideas than with group brainstorming - you do not have to worry about other
people's egos or opinions, and can therefore be more freely creative. You may
not, however, develop ideas as effectively as you do not have the experience of a
When Brainstorming on your own, it can be helpful to use Mind Maps to arrange
Group Brainstorming
Group brainstorming can be very effective as it uses the experience and creativity
of all members of the group. When individual members reach their limit on an
idea, another member's creativity and experience can take the idea to the next
stage. Therefore, group brainstorming tends to develop ideas in more depth than
individual brainstorming.
suggestions may appear stupid at first sight. Because of this, you need to chair
sessions tightly so that uncreative people do not crush these ideas and leave
Define the problem you want solved clearly, and lay out any criteria to be
met.
Ensure that no one criticizes or evaluates ideas during the session. Criticism
an idea. This stifles creativity and cripples the free running nature of a
Try to get everyone to contribute and develop ideas, including the quietest
Appoint one person to note down ideas that come out of the session. A good
way of doing this is to use a flip chart. This should be studied and
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Define Brainstorming.
A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks or other items
linked to and arranged radically around a central key word or idea. It is used to
organization, problem solving, decision making, and writing. Mind maps have
been used for centuries, for learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking,
general.
Mind maps were developed in the late 60s by Tony Buzan, a British psychologist
and a business creativity guru, as a way of helping students make notes that
used only key words and images. They are much quicker to make, and because
of their visual quality much easier to remember and review. He made the
Summarizing information.
subject.
They are very quick to review as you can often refresh information in your mind
just by glancing at one. In the same way, they can be effective mnemonics.
Remembering the shape and structure of a Mind Map can give you the cues you
need to remember the information within it. As such, they engage much more of
your brain in the process of assimilating and connecting facts, compared with
conventional notes.
Tony Buzan suggests using the following foundation structures for Mind
Mapping:
Start in the center with an image of the topic, using at least 3 colors.
Use images, symbols, codes, and dimensions throughout your Mind Map.
Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters.
The lines must be connected, starting from the central image. The central
lines are thicker, organic and flowing, becoming thinner as they radiate
Overview: help to see the big picture and relationship between issues
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Generating solutions process is all about finding various ways to remove the
causes of the problem, thus, effectively solving it. The earlier processes of
for the stage of generating solutions to the original problem. It is at this process
where the intuition is the most crucial. We might have creative leap in seeing
of both, it is very useful in finding where the solutions would come from.
known problems and apply its solutions to our problem directly. The
generation of solutions for this type would concentrate on finding existing
original solution which might very well run the risk of reinvent the wheel.
to creatively solve the problem in an original way. The focus would shift to
creative leap in solving problem. It is crucial that one must not kill the
possible solutions from birth, i.e. in throwing ideas to the table on how to
solve the problem; one must delay the evaluation of particular idea until
part of the problem is routine/standard and which is not. Those that are
routine can be solved using a boxes technique and those that are unique
Once you identify the problem type, you can now use various outputs from your
framing and diagnosis process to assist you in arriving at the solution. If some
case, especially when the problem is not complex or your intuition perform
miracle, you can solve it right away once you know the real causes to the
problem.
If you answer yes to the top-down question. That would mean you intuitively
grasp the solution to the problem as a whole. Most of the time, it’s because you
could see the pattern that the problem is a generic one that can apply other
known generic solutions to it. You might also find proper analogy that
transforms solution from one area to your target problem’s area. You could easily
On a rare occasion, your intuition work out magic. You might very well develop
approach.
overall problem right away. The advantage of painful problem structuring and
issue pyramid is that they provide a very clear pyramid structure to the problem.
solve smaller problems and slowly aggregate them into the original problem. We use the
same technique in solving smaller problems, i.e. see which is routine and which
effectively solve the original problem as many times it doesn’t quite sum up or
develop them in such a way that they become clearer both in term of concept and
the process.
Each solution should contain a clear process or steps in solving the problem, the
as other unique aspects of the solutions such as the degree of acceptability by the
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
To make the right choices by selecting the proper solution to solve the
problem.
which will be most effective in solving the problem. It's a process of. Decision
This involves
has to meet
situations, before this can take place, you need to gain acceptance of the solution
by other people, or get their authority to implement it. This may involve various
strategies of persuasion.
Learning how to make the right choices is all about selecting the proper solution
to solve the problem. It consists of finding the best-fitting solution for solving the
problem. In doing so, we must compare each solution against the other. Then, we
can select the one that yields the best combination of benefits and risks. Former
CIA analyst, Morgan D. Jones has developed a choice-making technique that has
been proven to be very useful in making the best choices between various
unnecessary & biased negativity in human reasoning. The PCF process consists
• Compare the Pros and unalterable Cons against all options; pick one option at
a time.
First, we try to list the Pros of a particular solution in as many varied dimensions
We then list all the Cons in as many varied dimensions as possible, especially in
We try to rethink about the Cons; try to group and consolidate them, find their
Frequently, the reason many Cons arise is because the solutions remain simply
too new and have never really been thought -through before. Therefore, spotting
the Cons in each solution can actually help modify and improve that particular
can be done or what measure can be taken, to either convert each Con into a Pro
Choose an Alternative:
Individuals need to give their opinions and not be intimidated by personnel they
perceive to have more power. They should not be afraid that they may be
ridiculed if a decision turns out not to be the correct one. If this process is not
followed, decisions can go wrong even though they may have been viable
solutions.
Evaluating information using analysis. Analysis is putting the facts in order and
the same facts and trying to see a pattern. An analytical approach is better in a
makers. In situations where speed and uncertainty are key factors, the intuitive
approach requires the decision maker to have the option to choose a workable
solution, and then continually refine the solution as new information becomes
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
How to make the right choices by selecting the proper solution to solve the
problem?
Learning Objective:
Creativity is a mental and social process involving the generation of new ideas or
Much of the thinking done in formal education emphasizes the skills of analysis--
teaching students how to understand claims, follow or create a logical argument,
figure out the answer, eliminate the incorrect paths and focus on the correct one.
However, there is another kind of thinking, one that focuses on exploring ideas,
generating possibilities, looking for many right answers rather than just one.
Both of these kinds of thinking are vital to a successful working life, yet the latter
Overview of Creativity:
something new. As we will see below, creativity is not the ability to create out of
nothing (only God can do that), but the ability to generate new ideas by
astonishing and brilliant, while others are just simple, good, practical ideas that
creative children are. In adults, creativity has too often been suppressed through
education, but it is still there and can be reawakened. Often all that's needed to
be creative is to make a commitment to creativity and to take the time for it.
outlook, the habit of enjoying the good, while looking for ways to improve it. We
are socialized into accepting only a small number of permitted or normal things,
that there are other possibilities, like peanut butter and banana sandwiches, or
chocolate-covered prunes.
A Process. Creative people work hard and continually to improve ideas and
of rapid activity. Much closer to the real truth are the stories of companies who
had to take the invention away from the inventor in order to market it because
the inventor would have kept on tweaking it and fiddling with it, always trying
The creative person knows that there is always room for improvement.
• Most people are not very creative, but they can be!
• Open your mind to new ideas and new ways of thinking.
Creative Thinking
diffuse divergent
subjective lateral
an answer possibility
In an activity like problem solving, both kinds of thinking are important to us.
“First, we must analyze the problem; then we must generate possible solutions;
next we must choose and implement the best solution; and finally, we must
evaluate the effectiveness of the solution”. As you can see, this process reveals an
alternation between the two kinds of thinking, critical and creative. In practice,
both kinds of thinking operate together much of the time and are not really
divergent thinking. Some techniques require groups of two or more people while
techniques can be used to develop new materials for artistic purposes or to solve
problems.
Most creativity techniques use associations between the goal (or the problem),
the current state (which may be an imperfect solution to the problem), and some
curious
seeks problems
enjoys challenge
optimistic
challenges assumptions
Creative Methods
Several methods have been identified for producing creative results. Here are the
from other ideas, new solutions from previous ones, the new ones slightly
improved over the old ones. Many of the very sophisticated things we enjoy
something a little better here, a little better there gradually makes it something a
technological progress. With each new model, improvements are made. Each new
model builds upon the collective creativity of previous models, so that over
time, improvements in economy, comfort, and durability take place. Here the
Every problem that has been solved can be solved again in a better way. Creative
thinkers do not subscribe to the idea that once a problem has been solved, it can
be forgotten, or to the notion that "if it ain't broke, don't fix it." A creative
improvement."
Synthesis. With this method, two or more existing ideas are combined into a
third, new idea. Combining the ideas of a magazine and an audio tape gives the
idea of a magazine you can listen to, one useful for blind people or freeway
commuters.
For example, someone noticed that a lot of people on dates went first to dinner
and then to the theater. Why not combine these two events into one? Thus, the
dinner theater, where people go first to eat and then to see a play or other
entertainment.
philosophy might cause a professor to ask, "How can I make my lectures better
and better?" a revolutionary idea might be, "Why not stop lecturing and have the
houses has been to develop safer and faster pesticides and gasses to kill them. A
of liquid nitrogen, which freezes them to death or microwaves, which bake them.
A truly revolutionary creative idea would be to ask, "How can we prevent them
from eating houses in the first place?" A new termite bait that is placed in the
can be reapplied. One creative person might go to the junkyard and see art in an
old model T transmission. He paints it up and puts it in his living room. Another
creative person might see in the same transmission the necessary gears for a
multi-speed hot walker for his horse. He hooks it to some poles and a motor and
dishwashing detergents can be used to remove the DNA from bacteria in a lab;
shifted from one angle of a problem to another. This is sometimes called creative
insight.
A classic example is that of the highway department trying to keep kids from
up a fence to keep the kids out; the kids went around it. The department then put
up a longer fence; the kids cut a hole in it. The department then put up a stronger
fence; it, too, was cut. The department then put a threatening sign on the fence; it
was ignored.
This example reveals a critical truth in problem solving: the goal is to solve the
problem, not to implement a particular solution. When one solution path is not
particular goal. Path fixation can sometimes be a problem for those who do not
understand this; they become overcommitted to a path that does not work and
associations between the word and the problem. A random image, sound, or
article can be used instead of a random word as a kind of creativity goad or
provocation.
The creative thinking skills can be divided into several key elements:
uncommon ideas
thinking.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
reason being that you are dealing with a variety of people through out the day.
Now take for example the way you converse with a family member or friend
around your same age, you interact with them with a lot of confidence, there is
without doubt that verbal communication is expressed with much ease, and
perhaps you may speak differently from the way you speak with a person related
to business.
Imagine if you expressed yourself the same way with a customer who has
different culture, is much older than you and have many years of experience in
his field. Most likely your thoughts will be difficult to express. Thus it is
necessary to have proper skill when using verbal communication while dealing
First of all you need to be aware of the fact that you must be flexible with people
depending on the circumstances. Let us say you are presenting a speech in front
vocabulary. Now what if your audience where to be unfamiliar with the terms
you are using, it is without question you will notice the audience lose focused
attention to what you are saying , so then you must be flexible and change the
way you are expressing your thoughts by using words that are more
communication. When you are attending the class you will then be forced to
communicate more organized. Try to use the opportunity to overcome the fear of
Besides attending a class that teaches business communication, you may also
such job can be a form of practice to gain confidence in yourself and help reduce
Another form of practice can be talking to older relatives and friends, about a
topic that involves expressing emotions and strong opinions or a discussion that
When practicing with your relatives or friends it is important for you to back up
your opinions or statements with facts. In order to have references about your
subject it is suggested to read and study about it. Like for example, if you where
to discuss the issue that we are all facing today such as the world's economy for
instance, and then you may obtain the facts from the news paper, the news,
Mastering linguistic skill is not reserved for the selected few. It is a skill that each
and every one should develop for personal growth and to improve relationships
and interactions. Everyone's brain is forever having thoughts and they are
primarily with words. Words spoken, listened to or written affect your life as
well as others. They have the power to create emotions and move people to take
You create your reality with your senses, the eyes, ears and feelings and words
and symbols are used to create the meanings. This is why you are encouraged to
read and watch informative materials, listen to motivational audio programs and
attend classes or seminars that relate to your line of work or objectives. Positive
Verbal communication includes phrasing your words clearly and positively. Your
words and the explanations you give affect thoughts and determine emotions.
According to Michael Hall, a belief is a thought to which you have said "yes", and
you have affirmed by saying, "I believe this". It takes questions worded
suggestions and opinions indicate that you were able to influence and change
One of the ways to let others understand your message is by telling a story,
power to induce the person to relate to what you are saying or suggesting. A joke
Questioning yourself or others with precise words allow for answers. It will
make a difference if you were to ask a "why" or a "how" question. The former
gives you a lot of reasons, understandings and explanations while the later set
By asking questions and wording them specifically, you will invite a positive
debate and interaction that will benefit all involved. You become a better listener
and entice others to do the same. Unnecessary arguments are reduced when you
are able to express yourself with great command of your language skills.
Whether you are going to speak in public, talk to your boss, spouse or children,
you have to think before you utter those words. Verbal abuse happens when you
express yourself without thinking and instead allow your emotions to take over.
Thinking, preparing and imagining the most desirable outcome in your mind
Have you ever listened to how you speak and render your conversations? If you
haven't and are unaware, request for someone to do so. How many times did you
stop your sentences and added an "ah", "um" or "well"? You can also record your
Use your phrases with care. Talk and write in ways that allow for accurate
and guess what you are trying to say. Speak with specificity by avoiding words
of view, you put up yours - and we try to knock each other out’. This is an
facts and opinions and perhaps even alter my position as a result. In terms of our
Polite discussion is really a veiled version of debate. It’s ‘polite’ only insofar as
conflict, controversy and ‘hard-to-handle’ issues are kept concealed under the
surface. Polite discussion is actually anything but. It’s riddled with hidden
People talk together to find meanings and develop new ideas and concepts -
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
Listening helps one obtain adequate data to solve problems. Listening motivates
Listening improves or lifts up the image of the listener, especially the manager.
Now what we have to master is the listening, since there are a lot of good things
Elements of listening
• Attentiveness to speaker
• Eye contact
• Paying attention
• Listening to yourself
• Feedback
• Body language
• Change in pattern
Prof.Asha Kaul (2004, pp.45-46) has identified three essentials for good listening.
sequence. (Positive attitude towards the speaker or the situation keeps the
listener's mind open and thus the message gets imbibed. Secondly, careful
listening with concentration and evaluating of the speaker's point of view helps
one get the best of the listening. Thirdly, interaction with the speaker by posing
1. Listener should stop talking. Talking distracts both speaker and more so the
listener.
3. Show the speaker that you are interested in listening to him. Then only, the
6. Be patient and let the speaker take his own time to make his point without
hurrying.
Positive Attitude
The listener should look for positive things and ignore negative things. A person
who sets about for positive things would definitely encounter positive points and
the converse is true of negative attitude. Negative attitude closes the mind and
misses the best points. Positive attitude is springboard for subsequent successes
give thought to the topic and being busy with something else is a self-created
tolerates the distractions or encourages them. For example, if the listener does
not close his mobile phone, it would distract him, which he himself permitted.
Attentive Posture
The listener's forward bends posture, his encouraging small questions, agreeing
with the speaker on key points, clapping frequently for good points etc
encourage the speaker to give his best. Listener should not interrupt the speaker
for no good reason. The listener should not question just for the sake of
questioning. Besides this, frequent questioning disrupts the process of both the
drives monotony away. Yawing which often results out of monotony discourages
There may be missing links between the presentation and what the listener has to
listener has to pose those queries and get them answered, but in that process he
should not interrupt the presentation with dishonest questions or too frequent
trivial questions.
Right questioning not only helps the speaker establish the logic but also helps the
listener avoid boredom and understand the message. In the interaction, if the
listener briefly paraphrases or restates what the speaker said, the listening goes
Active involvement
The listener should be actively involved in the message. All the above strategies
which lies buried somewhere beyond words. Meaning may be deep beneath the
words, or in eyes, or in intonation and other non-verbal cues. Meaning gets born
concentration. For this, the listener has to stop talking both within and without.
The listener has to sincerely desire to understand the speaker and think from his
well.
Taking Notes
The best method to being on the track of the presentation is taking notes on key
ideas, supporting facts and major sub-topics. Note taking keeps one within the
structure of the presentation. Besides this, the listener who is taking notes is an
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
Meaning of respect:
esteem. Respect is to make room for others who express their opinions without
‘Respect’ is an important value in every culture. We are all taught to respect other
people; whether they are older or younger than us. We are also taught to respect
properties and belongings that are not ours. However, many working employees
their workplace. Many have complained that they have experienced different
kinds of uncivil behaviors, verbal and nonverbal abuse as well as bullying and
humiliation from their superiors. These uncivil behaviors can include silent
When you start experiencing uncivil behaviors from people around you, you will
feel uncomfortable. So, start to reflect on your own actions first. Have you shown
any disrespect to your staff or colleagues? There may be many incidents which
you may not recall well. You may have done so consistently or unintentionally.
You may even have done so because you have seen your peers doing so.
After you have examined yourself, gather the courage within you to own up to
your ignorance. Do this as soon as possible. You may apologize openly or behind
closed doors. Owning up to your ignorance takes a lot of courage. You will be
appreciated for your effort. Apologizing can prevent ugly litigations and staff
You do not have to wait for your superiors to realize that ‘respect’ in the
workplace is an important value. You can start doing so – this is lead by example.
Make it clear that you do not tolerate ‘disrespect’ at the workplace. Reprimand
anyone showing disrespect to others immediately. When others see you showing
respect to your colleagues, they will do the same too. The workplace
There are arrogant people in any organization who look down upon others. They
feel that their positions allow them to behave aggressively toward their
subordinates. If you should meet such people, you can document what they say.
Carry with you a voice recorder. When you are verbally abused, record what is
Produce the evidence when you are asked to. When the case involve
discrimination against beliefs, racial and sexual, get legal counsels immediately.
Aggressive behaviors are usually the cause of internal conflicts among staff.
value. Make sure everybody attends the training and have some follow up
observations done after the training. You can suggest to the HR to include a
Handbook. Everyone in the organization will be more careful with what they say
again.
one another
This is for you if you are a boss of an organization. Organize some activities
where everyone in your organization can participate. Let them help each other.
Give them a chance to thank and praise each other. Let them know your
organization appreciates them too. If you are not in any superior positions, you
Respect their actions and thoughts. In return, you will be respect too.
own individuality too. You also demand respect from others, especially your
colleagues and staff. So, you have to be committed to this principle all the time!
Take a firm stand against uncivil behaviors all the time. Do not let anyone in your
organization get away with it. It is contagious! Many employees, for fear of
losing their work and future, choose to keep quiet and silently endure the stress
reputation.
Only people who respect others and insist on doing so will find themselves being
labeled as ‘effective individuals’. Keep your job and sanity. Show others the
Be tolerant of differences
Disagreements
and respect.
work well with others, you will accomplish more when you all work together.
We have to be respectful of others and keep their confidences. We may not like
our co- workers or fellow students, but you must work with them.
to respect each others feelings, religion, and cultures. Let others know that we
Being respected by others is very important to each of us. A survey done by the
Gallup organization found that the most prominent living Americans rated the
respect of others as the most important measure of success in life. They worked
very hard to earn the respect of their parents, the respect of their spouses and
children, the respect of their peers and colleagues, and the respect of mankind at
large.
It seems that we truly respect ourselves only when we feel that we are respected
by others, and we will go to great lengths to earn and keep that respect. When we
feel that someone respects us for who we are and what we have accomplished,
different. Expertise is the ability to do, the ability to perform well in your chosen
field. Men and women with expertise are those who practice over and over in
whatever they do until they become known far and wide as the very best in their
field.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
3. What is disrespect?
Learning Objective:
Introduction – Interview
Gathering Information
Evaluation of candidates
Introduction
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's
the interviewer
such a manner
Good interviews flow smoothly when both the interviewer and the candidate
Types of Interviews
ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each
respondents are free to choose how to answer the question, i.e., they don't
compared.
3. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be
5. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
education, etc.
Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.
important.
candidates:
Nervous candidate
Uncommunicative candidate
Talkative candidate
Start with specific , fact-based questions that are easy for the candidate to
strengths and weaknesses, tell them that you will give them some time to
Candidates who talk too much , often about things unrelated to the job or
Tell the candidate that you will be following a structure, and stress on the
Telephone Interviews
screening interview. This helps the interviewer and the candidate get a general
sense if they are mutually interested in pursuing discussion beyond the first
interview. This type of interviewing also saves time and money. They may be
tape recorded for the review of other interviewers. The goal, for the candidate
Computer Interviews
questions for a potential job interview or simply for the submission of a resume.
Some of these interviews are done through the telephone or by accessing a web
site. One type is done with pushing the appropriate buttons on the telephone for
the answer you are submitting. Wal-Mart uses this method for screening cashiers,
using a computer keyboard and a mouse. Lowes Home Improvement uses this
type of screening. Some of the questions on both of these types of interviews are
related to ethics. As an example,” If you see a fellow co-worker take a candy bar
and eat it, do you a. Confront co-worker, b. Tell the supervisor, c. Do nothing."
Video Interviews
and video between remote sites. More than half of the largest U.S. companies
world can perform videoconferencing with the use of a microphone, camera and
drop in cost is making it a popular resource for businesses as well as for home
use.
Peer interviewing - Where coworkers interview potential new hires - offers you
the chance to create a great team. In peer interviewing, members of a work group
screen candidates. But, nowadays, supervisors, peers and even subordinates may
take part in the interview process. Peer interviewing can be a valuable interview
Opening an Interview
While opening an interview, your purpose is to put both you and candidate at
There are 3 steps you should complete when opening the interview:
Build rapport
Gathering Information
There are 3 steps you should complete when gathering information from the
interviewee:
Closing an Interview
The close of the interview is used to indicate to the candidate that the
wind down.
Take the following 4 steps when closing an interview:
Evaluation of candidates
lacks written communication skills because of last two people hired from the
Active Listening (Follow 70/30 rule: Listen 70 percent of the time Talk 30
Summary
Analyze candidate’s resume before the interview and frame the lead
questions.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
What is an Interview?
Learning Objective:
Necessity of negotiation.
Handling difficult negotiators.
Negotiating is the process of communicating back and forth, for the purpose of
It is a process of interaction by which two or more parties who consider that they
objectives, seek by the use of argument and persuasion to resolve their difference
result for the other party. To achieve a situation where both sides win something
for themselves, you need to be well prepared, alert and flexible. There are seven
• There are minimum two parties involved in the negotiation process. There
contact.
Though the parties have the same degree of interest, they initially start with
the other party to modify their original position, as initially parties feel
that they shall maintain their opening position and persuade the other to
change.
During the process, the ideal outcome proves unattainable but parties retain
• Each party has some influence or power – real or assumed – over the
Negotiation Techniques:
and you've already lost. Start with yourself. Make sure you are clear on
what you really want out of the arrangement. Research the other side to
must know what to ask for. But be sensitive to when you ask for it. There
are times to press ahead, and times to wait. When you are looking your
best is the time to press for what you want. But beware of pushing too
3. Leave behind your ego. The best negotiators either don't care or don't
show they care about who gets credit for a successful deal. Their talent is in
making the other side feel like the final agreement was all their idea.
4. Ramp up your listening skills. The best negotiators are often quiet
listeners who patiently let others have the floor while they make their
case. They never interrupt. Encourage the other side to talk first. That
numbers first, loses. While that's not always true, it's generally better to sit
tight and let the other side go first. Even if they don't mention numbers, it
5. If you don't ask, you don't get. Another tenet of negotiating is "Go high,
price. As long as you can argue convincingly, don't be afraid to aim high.
place.
what they might be. Of course, the other side is thinking the same, so
never take their first offer. Even if it's better than you'd hoped for, practice
your best look of disappointment and politely decline. You never know
7. Offer and expect commitment. The glue that keeps deals from unraveling
level to others. Likewise, avoid deals where the other side does not
demonstrate commitment.
8. Don't absorb their problems. In most negotiations, you will hear all of the
other side's problems and reasons they can't give you what you want.
They want their problems to become yours, but don't let them. Instead,
deal with each as they come up and try to solve them. If their "budget" is
too low, for example, maybe there are other places that money could come
from.
likely have a set of guiding principles — values that you just won't
10. Close with confirmation. At the close of any meeting — even if no final
deal is struck — recaps the points covered and any areas of agreement.
conducted differs. The skill of negotiations depends and differs widely from one
situation to the other. Basically the types can be divided into three broad
categories.
Involved
1. Different levels of 1. Negotiation for pay,
3. Increasing
productivity.
Management 1. Striking a contract
goods to be
Customers
purchased.
Trade unions
3. Negotiations with
financial institutions
Legal advisors
as regarding the
Public availability of
capital.
1. Government Adhereing to the laws
Such types of negotiations are done within the organization and are related to
interact with the members at different levels in the organization structure. For
conducting the day-to-day business, internally, the superior needs to allot job
many more activities for smooth functioning. All this requires entering into
2. Commercial Negotiations
Such types of negotiations are conducted with external parties. The driving
forces behind such negotiations are usually financial gains. They are based on a
3. Legal Negotiations
These negotiations are usually formal and legally binding. Disputes over
precedents can become as significant as the main issue. They are also contractual
Necessity of negotiation:
Negotiation, at times can be a lengthy and cumbersome process. By asking
pointing out that the party making the request has no standing in the matter. If a
manager has the undoubted authority to act, making a decision rather than
Alternatively, there are cases in which the best response to a request or a claim is
to concede it without argument. Why waste time negotiating if the other party
other party’s claim, will lose all the advantage that might be gained with a quick
unexpected yes.
On the most formal basis, this might imply a decision to take a dispute to court:
informally, two managers who quickly realize that they cannot reach agreement
about a working problem may jointly agree to stop wasting time in argument
Every person that the manager negotiates with may not necessarily be easy to
-> If they interrupt, pause for a few seconds after they finish.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
Persuasive technology.
Persuasion Tactics.
The role of negotiation in persuasive technique.
Principles of persuasion.
Persuasion:
Persuasive technology:
influence, but not through coercion (Fogg 2002). Such technologies are regularly
used in sales, diplomacy, politics, religion, military training, public health, and
et al. 2008), but this incorporates and builds on the results and methods of
person setting, the opportunity to better understand the point of view of the
other party exists. You can nitpick and delve into every single detail, as opposed
In this kind of setting, it is possible for you and the other person to reach a
compromise that would bring the best probable value for both of you. You may
even want to change your stance while you're at it. In short, person-to-person
conversations are so open and flexible that it allows not just you to change
For most people, one of the most effective ways of getting what you want is
communication. Many people are using this method in the marketing and sales
communication has been around for many years. It is has also evolved over the
past centuries and has become more effective for careers and relationships as
well.
Using verbal communication is one of the best ways to get your point across no
matter what it is. You want to make sure that you are using the right methods to
get people aware of what you are after and how you can get it. Making it clear
your relationship. You will want to talk it over well so that you can get the
proposal out on the table for both people to understand.
A negotiation is a process that can be made into three very important steps.
These steps are very crucial in many of the marketing and sales careers in the
Not only are they important in the world of love relationships it is also a very
good method for friendships and family relations as well. You have to plan and
prepare for this method of persuasive technique. You need to make sure that you
are completely prepared so that you are giving the full method of negotiation.
You need to learn about the other person's negotiation style and you need to be
ready to take your position. You need to ensure that you have a smooth
negotiation. You need to be prepared with your proposals when you are
After the negotiation - You will want to make sure that you are recapping the
conversation that you are using for the negotiation with your partner or special
person in your life. You want to make sure that you do this so that you may get a
better outcome from the persuasive technique. You will want to take the time to
review each of the elements and maybe the next time you can make some
Method of Influence - The method of influence is another way to get what you
are looking for out of a business or personal relationship. The definition of
influence is the act of getting compliance without using force. You do not have to
force your opinion on someone to get what you are looking for. In fact, the power
of influence is so effective that you may not have to use much of this technique at
all.
The persuasive techniques are used in more and more relationships today and in
some cases, they work easier than others. It is important to remember no matter
what you are trying to do, you need to be truthful to the person or people that
anything. With these powerful methods of science, you can get what you want
Principles
"weapons of influence".
just after the 1985 earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling
famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia had been reciprocating for the
removed. For example, in car sales, suddenly raising the price at the last
moment works because the buyer has already decided to buy. See
cognitive dissonance.
• Social Proof - People will do things that they see other people are doing.
into the sky; bystanders would then look up into the sky to see what they
were looking up that they stopped traffic. See conformity, and the Asch
conformity experiments.
• Authority - People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are
• Liking - People are easily persuaded by other people whom they like.
viral marketing. People were more likely to buy if they liked the person
attractiveness stereotype.
Learning Objective:
Presentation program.
Communication is one of the most important, yet basic, tools a human being
content.
Presentation program:
major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method
for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to
2. Prepare for the speaking situation (outline, writing the entire presentation,
4. Have your outline (or overheads, slides or note cards) with you to refer to
as you make the presentation and to trigger your thoughts as you speak.
5. In the early stages of your preparation, ask someone you trust to listen to
Ask them what works well and what needs improvement. The more
important the results of your presentation are to you, the more important
6. Take classes where you are able to develop presentations and have them
Toastmasters).
7. Tape your presentation (videotape is best) and ask others to critique your
presentation. Watch yourself and learn to look for subtle body language
8. Talk to people you respect about how they learned to speak well. Ask
them to coach you (if that is appropriate) or try to find someone you
9. When you are confident, relaxed and enthusiastic about your topic, that
10. Ask for feedback from your audience about your presentation and pay
11. In workshops, ask the participants to introduce themselves, state why they
are there and what they hope to gain from the presentation. (This is most
Based on the participants' needs and expectations, you may adjust your
13. If you have an executive coach (or someone who can play that role), have
them sit in on your presentations and help you pick up clues from the
group. (We did this very effectively with one of our clients who had been
promoted to department manager. We used hand signals and other cues to
let her know when she was going too fast, too slow or missing the body
First impression
o Tone
o Important things
o A lot of other trivial = Important things
Exceeding expectations
o Value add
• Summarizing
• Close it right
• Continuous improvement
there is a lot that can be quickly gained or quickly lost from a presentation. A
little bit of guidance goes a long way toward making a highly effective
presentation.
Note that meeting management skills are often helpful in designing an effective
presentation. Also note that the following guidelines are intended for general
Preparation – Structure
Use the 4 Ps
Position Possibilities
Problem Proposals
Using jargon
Not questioning
Effective Delivery
Be natural
Be direct – don’t just talk in front of the audience talk to them
Basic Guidelines for Designing Your Presentation:
1. List and prioritize the top three goals that you want to accomplish with your
audience. It's not enough just to talk at them. You may think you know what you
want to accomplish in your presentation, but if you're not clear with yourself and
others, it is very easy - too easy - for your audience to completely miss the point
of your presentation. For example, your goals may be for them to appreciate the
2. Be really clear about who your audience is and about why is it important for
them to be in the meeting. Members of your audience will want to know right
away why they were the ones chosen to be in your presentation. Be sure that
your presentation makes this clear to them right away. This will help you clarify
3. List the major points of information that you want to convey to your audience.
When you're done making that list, then ask yourself, "If everyone in the
audience understands all of those points, then will I have achieved the goal that I
4. Be clear about the tone that you want to set for your presentation, for example,
tone to yourself can help you cultivate that mood to your audience.
5. Design a brief opening (about 5-10% of your total time presentation time) that
a. Presents your goals for the presentation.
7. Design a brief closing (about 5-10% of your presentation time) that summarizes
the key points from your presentation.
8. Design time for questions and answers (about 10% of the time of your
presentation).
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning Objective:
Assertiveness – Introduction:
Definition:
An assertive style of behavior is to interact with people while standing up for
your rights. Being assertive is to one's benefit most of the time but it does not
mean that one always gets what he/she wants. The result of being assertive is that
2. Other people know how to deal with you and there is nothing vague
Techniques
broken record technique. This consists of simply repeating your requests every
time you are met with illegitimate resistance. The term comes from vinyl records,
the surface of which when scratched would lead the needle of a record player to
loop over the same few seconds of the recording indefinitely. However, a
disadvantage with this technique is that when resistance continues, your requests
lose power every time you have to repeat them. If the requests are repeated too
often it can backfire on the authority of your words. In these cases it is necessary
finding some limited truth to agree with in what an antagonist is saying. More
up demand.
Example:
Gandhi's struggle for India's independence, along with the communication
strategy and actions he used for this, are a good example of assertiveness. He
used a people movement which he called "Satyagraha" which used non violent
Indians' right to rule themselves to the British, irrespective of what the British
thought about Indians. Gandhi was sent to jail several times and in many cases
was asked to pay a fine for opposing British rule. He never agreed to pay the
fine, saying that he had the right to say what he thought was correct. After
your rights is important. You are your first and biggest supporter, so it's
(being assertive) and forcing your ideas on others and intimidating them
(being aggressive).
1. Be as specific and clear as possible about what you want, think, and feel.
o “I want to…”
It can be helpful to explain exactly what you mean and exactly what you don’t
mean, such as “I don’t want to break up over this, but I’d like to talk it through
Be direct. Deliver your message to the person for whom it is intended. If you
want to tell Jane something, tell Jane; do not tell everyone except Jane; do not tell
2. “Own” your message. Acknowledge that your message comes from your
frame of reference, your conception of good vs. bad or right vs. wrong,
(”I”) statements such as “I don’t agree with you” (as compared to “You’re
wrong”) or “I’d like you to mow the lawn” (as compared to “You really
should mow the lawn, you know”). Suggesting that someone is wrong or
bad and should change for his or her own benefit when, in fact, it would
please you will only foster resentment and resistance rather than
3. Ask for feedback. “Am I being clear? How do you see this situation?
What do you want to do?” Asking for feedback can encourage others to
correct any misperceptions you may have as well as help others realize
feedback to you.
Assertive behavior includes:
• Questioning rules or traditions that don't make sense or don't seem fair
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Key areas
Overview:
Time management refers to a range of skills, tools, and techniques used to
manage time when accomplishing specific tasks, projects and goals. This set
systems that work together to help you get more value out of your time with the
– Managing Yourself
– Your Time
– Getting Results
– The first 4 all interconnect and interact to generate the fifth - results
Some authors (such as Stephen R. Covey) offered a categorization scheme for the
task is to be done.
• Fourth generation: being efficient and proactive using any of the above
tools places goals and roles as the controlling element of the system and
out that the term "time management" is misleading and that the concept should
actually imply that it is "the management of our own activities, to make sure that
supervision. Therefore, the goal of time management should not be to find more
time. The goal is set a reasonable amount of time to spend on these roles and
3. Find some way to realistically and practically analyze your time. Logging your
time for a week in 15-minute intervals is not that hard and does not take up that
4. Do a "to do" list for your day. Do it at the end of the previous day. Mark items
as "A" and "B" in priority. Set aside two hours right away each day to do the
important "A" items and then do the "B" items in the afternoon. Let your
5. At the end of your day, spend five minutes cleaning up your space. Use this
time, too, to organize your space, including your desktop. That'll give you a clean
6. Learn the difference between "Where can I help?" and "Where am I really
needed?" Experienced leaders learn that the last question is much more
7. Learn the difference between "Do I need to do this now?" and "Do I need to do
this at all?" Experienced leaders learn how to quickly answer this question when
it is one of the most important skills for a leader to have. Effective delegation will
9. If you are CEO in a corporation, then ask your Board for help. They are
responsible to supervise you, as a CEO. Although the Board should not be micro-
managing you, that is, involved in the day-to-day activities of the corporation,
they still might have some ideas to help you with your time management.
Remember, too, that good time management comes from good planning, and the
10. Use a "Do Not Disturb" sign! During the early part of the day, when you're
attending to your important items (your "A" list), hang this sign on the doorknob
later". You'll quickly get a knack for sorting through your mail. You'll also notice
that much of what you think you need to read later wasn't really all that
important anyway.
That way, you'll likely get to your mail on a regular basis and won't become
distracted into any certain piece of mail that ends up taking too much of your
time.
13. Have a place for everything and put everything in its place.
That way, you'll know where to find it when you need it. Another important
outcome is that your people will see that you are somewhat organized, rather
That time can be used to just sit and clear your mind. You'll end up thinking
more clearly, resulting in more time in your day. The best outcome of this
practice is that it reminds you that you're not a slave to a clock - and that if you
take 10 minutes out of your day, you and your organization won't fall apart.
15. Learn good meeting management skills. Meetings can become a terrible
waste of time.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Write a short note on Time management.
Learning objectives:
Prioritizing
When you are faced with many different demands on your time it is essential
that you are able to prioritize your workload. There are many different factors
Oncoming deadlines
Sometimes we have to reprioritize things that are under our direct control, which
makers.
want/they want’, but in terms of what is best for the business. By doing this you
This is a useful structure for sorting things out. Write a list of all your
activities. Rank the activities against this chart, and tackle those in the upper left
quartile first. Leave those in the bottom right to last, if you bother with them at
Urgent Non-Urgent
Important Important/Urgent Important/Non- Urgent
Non-
Non-Important/Urgent Non-Important/Non-Urgent
Important
Important = value/result
Urgent = time/deadlines
Alternatives to Prioritizing:
was put forward by British author Mark Forster in his book "Do It Tomorrow and
Other Secrets of Time Management". This is based on the idea of operating
"closed" to-do lists, instead of the traditional "open" to-do list. He argues that the
traditional never-ending to-do lists virtually guarantees that some of your work
will be left undone. This approach advocates getting all your work done, every
day, and if you are unable to achieve it helps you diagnose where you are going
wrong and what needs to change. Recently, Forster developed the "Auto focus
ABC analysis
A technique that has been used in business management for a long time is the
categorization of large data into groups. These groups are often marked A, B,
and C—hence the name. Activities are ranked upon these general criteria:
individuals choose to then force-rank all "B" items as either "A" or "C". ABC
analysis can incorporate more than three groups. ABC analysis is frequently
Pareto analysis
This is the idea that 80% of tasks can be completed in 20% of the disposable time.
The remaining 20% of tasks will take up 80% of the time. This principle is used to
sort tasks into two parts. According to this form of Pareto analysis it is
recommended that tasks that fall into the first category be assigned a higher
priority.
prioritized higher.
Fit
investment, time, etc.) with the available resources at the time. Often people are
complete a task that would require 15 minutes, than to complete a task that can
be done in 5 minutes, or to start a task that would take 4 weeks. This concept also
applies to time of the day: free time at 7am is probably less usefully applied to
the goal of learning the drums, and more productively a time to read a book.
Lastly, fit can be applied to location: free time at home would be used differently
POSEC method
POSEC is an acronym for Prioritize by Organizing, Streamlining, Economizing
3. STREAMLINING-Things you may not like to do, but must do. (Work and
Chores)
All tasks are evaluated using the criteria important/unimportant and urgent/not
end date and are done personally. This method is said to have been used by US
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and is outlined in a quote attributed to him:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objective:
outcome that a staff member is expected to achieve during the MPS cycle.
It is not a list of all the activities (often action items)/ responsibilities of the staff
member's role.
It is a direct link between the work the employee performs and the
Setting SMART work objectives allows you to understand exactly where your
role fits within the University and what your responsibilities are. You gain a
better understanding of the value and contributions you bring to the University.
SMART work objectives focus on outcomes rather than activities and allow you
With clear work objectives in mind, you are in a better position to review and
revise these objectives as work demands change during the MPS cycle. SMART
work objectives also enable your supervisor to focus your MPS discussion on
What is SMART?
• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable
• Realistic
• Timely
Staff is strongly encouraged to be familiar with and utilise the SMART principles
when setting their work objectives, indicators and targets. As a guide, consider
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Realistic
Timely
Conditions - Sets the situation and/or environment in which the staff member is
deemed acceptable in terms of Quality (i.e. how effectively the work should be
performed), Quantity (i.e. how much is produced) and/or Timeliness (i.e. how
market/consumer wants.
to other products perhaps due to the likes of quality, design, reliability and
novelty.
regard as priorities.
6. Identify the right time for each activity, for you and others?
7. Leave time free for the unexpected! You can always use it! This may be as
– Have they been agreed with the manager and linked to the
– Do you know what it will look like when you have achieved the
goal (visualization)?
– What will the reward be once the goals have been achieved?
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
3) What is SMART?
Learning objectives:
Importance of time.
'MISER' concept’.
limited, finite number of hours in a year in which to achieve our goals. He gives
us these hours in sequence, they are neither repeatable nor refundable, and He is
not partial to either the rich or to the poor, to the young or to the old.
All of us 24 hours a day and we should plan these 24 hours. Planning our time
allows us to spread our work, avoid a "Traffic jam" of work and cope with the
work stress.
Many deadlines for work occur at the same time and unless we plan ahead, we
spread our workload over the allotted time. Work out what needs to be done and
Time Wasters
• Incomplete information
• Interruption
2. Avoid red activities (time spent which is not helpful in meeting your
objectives). Analyze the root cause for each of these and avoid, eliminate
5. Effective Meetings
6. Be decisive.
Evaluate, assess the risks and decide the next course of action.
9. Learn to say 'No'. Direct people to owner of a problem or explain why you
10. Avoid perfectionism. Seek a quality solution (fit for purpose) which is cost
effective.
11. Avoid clutter. Act - Bin - Refer - File. Only file if you need the information
12. Consolidate your time. Large size bites are excellent, hourly chunks are
ideal.
13. Control interruptions/ distractions. Find somewhere where you can think
and plan.
14. Orange time (marginal time) should be used wisely. Remember relaxation
and breaks are essential but this time could also be used for thinking and
15. Don't spend endless time reordering 'to do lists'. When a task is complete
16. Look at your aims/ responsibilities and identify your key goals (10 max.).
o Quality - right - error free services & goods - fit for purpose.
o Cost - value
People.
Materials.
o Delivery
When.
delivery time.
effectiveness. The time is gone without a return. We save time when we perform
tasks in less time or with less effort than previously. We use shortcuts and
processes that streamline activities. We invest time when we take time now to
time spent in the movie is an investment since it will help hone our writing skills.
If we invest time to learn screenwriting software, we will save time in the future
when we compose our scripts. However, this is still relative to the point that we
are able to turn better writing skills and faster script development into profit - if
we are able to sell it. In capitalism our investment, might very well be someone
else's profit.
someone to perform tasks we usually perform. While the training process takes
time now, the investment pays off later since we free our time to perform higher-
payoff activities. The goal is to look for ways a person can save and invest time.
Task list
A task list (also to-do list) is a list of tasks to be completed, such as chores or steps
or supplement to memory.
project management, and software development. It may involve more than one
list.
When you accomplish one of the items on a task list, you check it off or cross it off.
The traditional method is to write these on a piece of paper with a pen or pencil,
most PDAs. There are also several web-based task list applications, many of
(As mentioned by Mr. Promod Batra in his book 'Be a Winner Every time')can be
used to manage the time effectively. It is a way to reduce the time taken to
M => Stands for 'Merge'. Can I merge it with some other activity? Meaning there
by doing more than one task at a time reduces the time taken to complete the
tasks separately.
I => Stands for 'Improving'. Can I improve it? And most of the time we can, if we
E => Stands for 'Eliminating'. Many things we do. We do not need to do them in
R => Stands for 'Reducing' the activity. This is where your experience, exposure
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
effectively.
Learning objectives:
The next stage of Personal Time Management is to start taking control of your
time. The first problem is appointments. Start with a simple appointments diary.
In this book you will have (or at least should have) a complete list of all your
known appointments for the foreseeable future. If you have omitted your regular
Your appointments constitute your interaction with other people; they are the
agreed interface between your activities and those of others; they are determined
by external obligation. They often fill the diary. Now, be ruthless and eliminate
the unnecessary. There may be committees where you can not productively
may be long lunches which could be better run as short conference calls. There
may be interviews which last three times as long as necessary because they are
The next stage is to add to your diary lists of other, personal activity which will
enhance your use of the available time. Consider: what is the most important
type of activity to add to your diary? No: - stop reading for a moment and really,
consider.
The single most important type of activity is those which will save you time:
allocate time to save time, a stitch in time saves days. And most importantly of
all, always allocate time to time management: at least five minutes each and
every day.
For each appointment left in the diary, consider what actions you might take to
ensure that no time is wasted: plan to avoid work by being prepared. Thus, if you
are going to a meeting where you will be asked to comment on some report,
allocate time to read it so avoiding delays in the meeting and increasing your
chances of making the right decision the first time. Consider what actions need to
holidays.
2. The urgent or desperate tasks but ensure you delegate these where
appropriate and look for the route cause. Rearrange committed activities if
required.
3. Achievable tasks.
Adjust the plan each day, in the light of reality, always remembering your key
goals.
Daily lists
If you don’t have some idea of what needs to be done ‘today’, ‘next week’, ‘ in the
As most people feel stressed by time pressures on a day-to-day basis, the first
logical step is to make daily “To Do” lists (which can be augmented by weekly
and monthly ‘To Do’ lists). Write tomorrow’s list before you leave work! Give
yourself 10/15 minutes at the end of the day for this task.
Four quadrants
Then assign priorities to each task on your “To Do” list using the Four Quadrant
approach:
Quadrants 1, 3 and 4 are where a lot of people spend their worrying lives!
Quadrants 2 are where you plan and is a place from where you can reduce
management suggestions. The reader might pick which suggestions best fits the
particular culture of their own organization. Keep in mind that meetings are very
expensive activities when one considers the cost of labor for the meeting and
how much can or cannot get done in them. So take meeting management very
seriously.
The process used in a meeting depends on the kind of meeting you plan to have,
e.g., staff meeting, planning meeting, problem solving meeting, etc. However,
there are certain basics that are common to various types of meetings. These
Selecting Participants
· The decision about who is to attend depends on what you want to accomplish
in the meeting. This may seem too obvious to state, but it's surprising how many
·Don't depend on your own judgment about who should come. Ask several other
·If possible, call each person to tell them about the meeting, it's overall purpose
·Follow-up your call with a meeting notice, including the purpose of the meeting,
where it will be held and when, the list of participants and whom to contact if
· Developing Agendas
·Develop the agenda together with key participants in the meeting. Think of
what overall outcome you want from the meeting and what activities need to
occur to reach that outcome. The agenda should be organized so that these
·Design the agenda so that participants get involved early by having something
· Next to each major topic, include the type of action needed, the type of output
expected (decision, vote, action assigned to someone), and time estimates for
· Opening Meetings
· Always start on time; this respects those who showed up on time and reminds
chance to understand all proposed major topics, change them and accept them.
· Note that a meeting recorder if used will take minutes and provide them back
You don't need to develop new ground rules each time you have a meeting,
surely. However, it pays to have a few basic ground rules that can be used for
most of your meetings. These ground rules cultivate the basic ingredients needed
·If you have new attendees who are not used to your meetings, you might review
· It's amazing how often people will complain about a meeting being a complete
waste of time -- but they only say so after the meeting. Get their feedback during
the meeting when you can improve the meeting process right away. Evaluating a
meeting only at the end of the meeting is usually too late to do anything about
participants' feedback.
· Leave 5-10 minutes at the end of the meeting to evaluate the meeting; don't skip
Prioritising your time involves juggling each of these, relating individual tasks to
each other and putting these in the wider context of all your commitments and
• What is urgent?
• What is routine?
It may help to gauge your activities and tasks on a table such as the
urgency/important grid in the next column. Where does each task fit? Is it urgent
and important? Or is it important but not urgent? Now apply this to your
planning sheets, tackling urgent and important things first and allocating time
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Explain about making appointments.
Appointments:
Learning objective:
A time-log concept.
Managing interruptions.
energetic bursts. These bursts can be panic-driven. A sudden burst usually means
that you are behind schedule and may rush key elements of your work. On a
degree-level course it is essential that you allocate sufficient time for learning and
for reflecting on learning processes. It does not have to be done at a desk, but it
has to be done.
Organize your coursework and handouts as you go along. Don’t let big
piles of paperwork accumulate.
Set aside regular study sessions every week so you can work steadily
Use task analysis to help you break down large tasks into smaller,
manageable steps
Use action planning to help you complete work. Attach deadlines to each
If you’re finding it hard to get going, try hard to focus, set yourself one.
Manageable task, and DO IT. Don’t get hung up on things being perfect.
Key strategies:
• time planning
• managing information
• meeting deadlines
Time planning
Many people find it difficult to work steadily. It’s all too easy to leave things to
the last minute, but it’s much better to work at a steady rate – you’re less stressed,
you learn more effectively, and you’ll get better marks. It helps to use your diary
or calendar to write up a weekly timetable. Include your unit and your personal
activities, and set aside regular study times each week. You could also keep a ‘To
do’ list. Remember it’s not enough to set a regular schedule, you need to stick to
it!
Managing information
It’s important to think about how best to organize your information. Gather
assessments. Digital information should also be organized into folders and files
clearly named so they’re easy to retrieve. It should also be backed up! Try to file
information as soon as you get it. Don’t wait until you have a big pile of books
and papers - it’s easy to forget what that scribbled note means, or where that
helps to use task analysis to break down projects into smaller, manageable
chunks. First, work out what needs to be done to complete your project, then
write it down in a series of steps. Decide what order they need to be done in. It’s
useful to set a deadline for each step, to tick off as you complete it. Once you see
Meeting deadlines
Note all your deadlines in your diary and work out how much time you need to
complete each assignment. To help plan, work back from the deadline. Block out
time in your diary for each assignment. Make sure you allow time for
preparation such as research and editing. Then build in extra time so you don’t
need to rush if something else comes up. In general, try to deal with the largest
Time Logs
Quality Time
Managing Documents
Managing
Interruptions
Managing Workspace
• A time-log is
• A time-log is an effective way to see where your time actually goes to
during the working day Record the information for about 2 weeks to get a
• By logging activities and the time taken to complete them, the time-log
• Level of interruption
• Quality time is where you can plan to do the most important high priority
tasks
• Document handling can steal a vast quantity of time from our working
day
• Have a good system for handling your documents that allows you to:
Managing interruptions
techniques:
• Tell people that you are busy, explain why and arrange to
Managing workspace
your team
– Terminate calls once the business has been done
having an awareness of what your goals are will assist you in prioritizing
your activities.
works for you, not for others. This personal attention gives you the
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
Follow the daily planner sheet steps for at least one week, reward
yourself at the end of the week for practicing the day planner skills, and
Personal time management skills are essential skills for effective people. People
who use these techniques routinely are the highest achievers in all walks of life,
Daily planner:
This sheet will highlight strategies for using a day planner effectively, planning
successes and cheering you on to the next step, and not a person who will
"to-do" lists, and space to write telephone numbers, addresses, and other basic
Franklin Planner, Day Timer, or Planner Pad brands. It can be a fancy electronic
They are compact; they provide audible reminders that can serve as memory
management aides; they can sort, organize, and store more information more
efficiently than paper and pencil planners; and they can easily exchange
Your day planner should be the only planning calendar for everything you do
(i.e., work, home, personal). Using separate calendars at home and at the office
may become confusing and overwhelming; you will inevitably forget to transfer
entries from one calendar to the other and miss appointments or important
commitments.
After selecting a planner, the next step is to start keeping it in a single, accessible
location at home and at work, so you will always know where to find it. The
near the front door, or on the desk at the office. If the day planner has a strap, it
might be hung on a hook next to the front door, above the telephone, or together
with the car keys. Carry it to and from work, and practice keeping it in the
Gather the most common names, addresses, and phone numbers you use. Enter
them into the planner in the alphabetical name/address section. Consider what
Now that there is some information in your planner, you should carry it with you
at all times. Many people claim that they have carried their planner with them at
all times, but then they "forget" the great idea they thought of while shopping.
"At all times" means whenever you leave the car to go into a store or whenever
Many adults with AD/HD write things in their planners but rarely look at what
you can use the planner for a calendar or "to do" lists, you need to develop the
times per day -- once in the morning to plan/review the day's upcoming events,
once in the middle of the day to make any mid-course corrections and refresh
your memory about the remaining day's events, and once in the evening, to
There are several ways to remember to check your planner. First, alarm wrist
intervals when you wish to check your planner. Second, you could associate
checking your planner with habitual activities that are done at approximately the
same time each day, e.g,. eating meals, getting dressed in the morning or ready
for bed at night, or entering or exiting the office. Third, leaving reminder notes in
strategic locations (on the desk in the office, on the mirror in the bathroom, on
the dashboard or door handle of the car) can be helpful in reminding you to look
at the planner.
You are now ready to use your planner as a calendar. On scrap paper, make a list
of all appointments scheduled at any time in the future. Then, write these
appointments in the appropriate time slots on the pages of the planner for the
particular days and months. Review the scheduled appointments for that day
each time you check the planner. During the day, write in any additional
Using different color pens for writing different types of things on your calendar
(e.g., red for appointments, blue for work activities, and green for family events)
permits you to recognize different types of events as your eye scans the page. For
a very busy family, use different colors for each family member's activities.
They often become frustrated because they cannot remember these ideas when
they need them. Using the day planner as a "brain dump" avoids this dilemma.
With your planner with you at all times, practice writing down any ideas you
want to capture as they occur to you. Write these down either on blank, lined
planner pages or in the section of the planner for that day's "to do" list. If you
find that many of your important ideas come at times when it is impossible to
write them down (e.g., in the shower, while driving), consider carrying a small,
digital recorder. Dictate your ideas into the recorder and transcribe them to your
planner later that day. Some hand-held computers and pocket PCs may have
Only after you experience success using your planner as a calendar should you
start making a daily "to do" list. Most planners have a place adjoining the
calendar for each day for "to do" lists. During the first review of your planner in
the morning, make a list of everything that needs to get done that day. Use your
"brain dump" notes to help you make the list. Keep the list relatively short, e.g.,
5-8 items, so that you can experience success completing all of the items. Be
realistic about what can be accomplished in one day, and remember to schedule
some "me time," by listing a personal activity or time as one item. List specific
actions, rather than vague concepts. For example, "buy my wife flowers" would
Examine the list and assign the items to particular dates and times in the day
planner. Try to complete them as scheduled, referring to the list often. Check off
of the items on the list. Do not berate yourself if you did not complete all of the
items. If there were only a few unfinished items, move them forward to the next
day's list. However, if you have many unfinished items, consider whether you
have unrealistic expectations for how much can be done. Analyze the
uncompleted items and what got in the way of completing everything on your
list (phone calls, other interruptions, not enough time, not having everything you
need to accomplish the task, unexpected crises). Thinking in these terms will
help you become more realistic about what can be accomplished in a day. Either
9. Prioritize your "to-do" list and act in accordance with your priorities.
There are many ways to prioritize a "to do" list. One way is to number all of the
items on the list in order of decreasing priority. Another way is to classify items
into one of three categories: "Essential," "Important," and "Do only if I have extra
time." Pick the method that best fits your style, and begin prioritizing your daily
As you go through the day, perform the items on the "to do" list in order of
decreasing priority. Adults with AD/HD are often tempted to ignore the
priorities and may need strategies to keep themselves on track. Set the alarms on
beeper to go off at regular intervals as a signal to check whether you are on task
following your priorities. Use self-talks to help avoid distractions. Train yourself
to repeat reminders such as "I have to keep from getting distracted," "I have to
stick with my priorities," and "Don't switch now, I am almost done." Also, make
sure that you are taking an effective dose of medication that lasts throughout the
day. See the What We Know sheet on medication for more information about
By the time you have completed the first eight steps, you will be conducting "ad
hoc" daily planning sessions where you construct and prioritize your daily "to
do" list. It is time to formalize this process as "the daily planning session."
Consider the time for constructing and prioritizing lists as a daily planning
session. The goal of this session is to plan the upcoming day's activities and
develop a plan of attack to carry them out. In addition to listing priorities and
reviewing schedules, the planning session is the time to consider exactly how
these questions will facilitate the process of prioritizing the items on your "to do"
list. The planning session will provide a mental map that guides you in carrying
When you have reached this point in the program, congratulate yourself! You
have mastered the basic steps of using a day planner to manage time! Continue
to follow these steps. As they become habitual, consider trying the last step,
which bridges the gap between short-term and long-term planning, but
sessions.
First, generate a list of all long-term goals. These are broad goals to be
accomplished over many months and years. Then, take one goal at a time and
monthly basis. Assign one sub-goal to each month of the year. At the beginning
of the month, conduct a monthly planning session where you decide how to
accomplish the sub-goal over the course of the month. Assign various tasks to
each week of the month. At the beginning of each week, conduct a weekly
planning session where you decide how to assign aspects of that week's sub-goal
to the daily task lists for the entire week. During each daily planning session,
plan the details of the assigned task that will be performed that day.
Discovery learning:
Pestalozzi and Dewey. "There is an intimate and necessary relation between the
processes of actual experience and education" wrote Dewey. It also enjoys the
support of learning theorists and psychologists Piaget, Bruner, and Papert. It has
the learner draws on his own experience and prior knowledge to discover the
and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
PARTITIONABLE TASKS)
Learning objectives:
Importance of estimation.
Tools used for time estimation – Gann chart, Critical path method and
PERT.
The importance is to estimate the time that will be taken for certain tasks in order
to plan projects and the overall use of your time. “Some activities can be broken
segments.
Fred Brooks, in his book The Mythical Man-month, talks about the concept of
more resources are put on it as long as the work does not require any
single painter can paint all four walls and the ceiling in 20 hours if he averages
four hours per surface. However, if we put five painters in the room, each
painting the surface, then we can finish the job in four hours.
The opposite type of task is a task that is non-partitionable. This task will take
the same amount of time no matter how many people are working on it. For
example, think of testing a software string. The test does not go any faster if we
• Estimating
• Types of Estimates
mathematical relationships
breakdown structure
Importance of Estimation:
• Estimates are needed to determine how long the project should take and
its cost.
project baseline.
Sub-dividing Goals into Manageable Pieces
Once you have a set of goals, it is useful to decompose the goals into manageable
steps or sub-goals. Decomposing your goals makes it possible to tackle them one
small step at a time and to reduce procrastination. Consider for instance the goal
of obtaining your degree. This goal can be broken down into four sub-goals. Each
sub-goal is the successful completion of one year of your program. These sub-
goals can be further broken down into individual courses within each year. The
courses can be broken down into tests, exams, term papers and such within the
course, or into the 13 weeks of classes in each term. Each week can be further
subdivided into days, and each day can be thought of in terms of the hours and
minutes you'll spend in your classes and doing homework for today.
While it may seem challenging to take in the whole scope of that convergent
goal, thinking of your goals in this way helps to reinforce the idea that there is a
connected path linking what actions you take today and the successful
completion of your goals. Seeing these connections can help you monitor your
own progress and detect whether you are on track or not. Take some time now to
think through the goals you've set and to break them down into their smaller
constituent parts.
Time estimates are important as inputs into other techniques used to organize
and structure all projects. Using good time estimation techniques may reduce
1. Time estimates drive the setting of deadlines for delivery of projects, and
profitability.
projects. This is true particularly when they are not familiar with the task to be
carried out. They forget to take into account unexpected events or unscheduled
high priority work. People also often simply fail to allow for the full complexity
This section discusses how to estimate time on small projects. Time estimates are
important inputs into the other techniques used to organize and structure
medium and large sized projects (Gantt charts and Critical Path Analysis). Both
of these techniques reduce large projects down into a set of small projects.
Gantt Charts
Gantt Charts (Gant Charts) are useful tools for analyzing and planning more
• Give you a basis for scheduling when these tasks will be carried out
• Allow you to plan the allocation of resources needed to complete the
project, and
• Help you to work out the critical path for a project where you must
When a project is under way, Gantt Charts help you to monitor whether the
Gantt charts are useful tools for planning and scheduling projects. They allow
you to assess how long a project should take, determine the resources needed,
and lay out the order in which tasks need to be carried out. They are useful in
When a project is under way, Gantt charts are useful for monitoring its progress.
You can immediately see what should have been achieved at a point in time, and
can therefore take remedial action to bring the project back on course. This can be
An effective Critical Path Analysis can make the difference between success and
failure on complex projects. It can be very useful for assessing the importance of
CPM Diagram:
PERT is a variation on Critical Path Analysis that takes a slightly more skeptical
view of time estimates made for each project stage. To use it, estimate the
shortest possible time each activity will take, the most likely length of time, and
the longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected.
Use the formula below to calculate the time to use for each project stage:
Use the formula below to calculate the time to use for each project stage:
PERT is a variant of Critical Path Analysis that takes a more skeptical view of the
time needed to complete each project stage. This helps to bias time estimates
The first stage in estimating time accurately is to fully understand what you need
to achieve. This involves reviewing the task in detail so that there are no
The best way to review the job is to list all tasks in full detail. Simple techniques
such as Drill-Down are useful for this. Once you have a detailed list of all the
tasks that you must achieve, make your best guess at how long each task will
take to complete.
Ensure that within your estimate you also allow time for project management,
• Other high urgency tasks to be carried out which will have priority over
this one
• Internal meetings
• Holidays and sickness in essential staff
• Breakdowns in equipment
• Interruptions
These factors may double (or more than double) the length of time needed to
complete a project. If the accuracy of time estimates is critical, you may find it
Key points:
You can lose a great deal of credibility by underestimating the length of time
needed to implement a project. If you underestimate time, not only do you miss
deadlines, you also put other project workers under unnecessary stress. Projects
The first step towards making good time estimates is to fully understand the
problem to be solved. You can then prepare a detailed list of tasks that must be
achieved. This list should include all the administrative tasks and meetings you
need to carry out as well as the work itself. Finally, allow time for all the expected
and unexpected disruptions and delays to work that will inevitably happen.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1) What is the time estimation?
UNIT 4
4.1 SELF-MANAGED LEARNING:
Learning objective:
Preferences in learning.
are able to learn for themselves they can achieve far more, are able to produce
original work, enjoy their work, have pride in achieving results through their
move forward to the point at which they come self-managed learners, this is a
look for on a reference for a potential employee is that they can manage their
own time effectively are effective self-managed learners can manage projects
TARGETS:
themselves the aims and requirements of the learning that they are undertaking.
Grade level learning targets are what students should know, understand or be
able to do at the end of the grade level. They are the basic foundation for the
next grade level and contribute to the achievement of the district learning goals.
Students should be able t o establish the ends that they are trying at achieve and
the requirements that the Piece of work will need to fulfill in order to achieve the
stated aims. For example, if you have decided that you want to use a work-
related spreadsheet application, then you will need to be able to establish an aim,
that is, what level of competence in the use of the package will be appropriate if
successful learning is to take place? You will then need to set out what is
required to learner how to use the package, that is, how you will access the
training opportunities, resources, and how you will priorities the use of time in
order to be successful. What will you use the package forbearing in mind that
Wanting
Doing
Feedback
Digesting
To learn independently it is important to start from wanting, that is, the desire to
maintain interest and motivation. The next step is to develop a fairly clear picture
Dates can be established for the achievement of the learning so as to put the
Person’s set of beliefs that reflect the reasons why they approach and engage in
preoccupation with the perception of others, a desire for public recognition for
where it is posited that “all actions are given meaning, direction, and purpose by
the goals that individuals seek out, and that the quality and intensity of behavior
will change as these goals change” (Covington, 2000, p. 174). Achievement goal
differentially reinforcing some goals (and not others), teachers can influence
(change) the reasons why students learn—that is, change their motivation
(Covington, 2000).
(Snow et al., 1996). The resultant achievement goal theory has received considerable
attention during the past decade (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Linnenbrink &
Pintrich, 2002b). Goal theory focuses on the role that “purpose” plays in
motivation attitudes and behavior (Anderman & Maehr, 1994; Eccles &Wigfield,
2002; Maehr, 1999; Snow et al., 1996; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). Goal orientation
focuses on the student’s reasons for taking a course or wanting a specific grade
as an individual’s set of beliefs that reflect the reasons why they approach and
engage in academic tasks (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich,
Although the specific terminology may differ amongst researchers, goal theory
& Pintrich, 2002a). Nicholls and colleagues (e.g., Nicholls, Cobb, Yackel, &
Wood, 1990) classify goals as either ego- or task- involved (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002). Dweck and colleagues (see Dweck, 1999) distinguish between performance
perform others?” which reflect a concern for personal ability, a normative social
comparison with others, preoccupation with the perception of others, a desire for
goal orientation would more likely ask the questions “How can I do this task?”
and “What will I learn?” The learning goal orientation reflects a focus on task
new skills, and an appreciation for what one learns (Covington, 2000; Eccles &
Wigfield, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002b; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2002).
our lives. The wish to improve our lives in some way is something that we all
share. We have the desire but we are not always sure what steps to take to lead
Often in life personal achievements can feel virtually impossible to attain and
this can be due to a lack of goal setting for each individual. Goals can provide a
person with a target to aim for when trying to achieve anything and they can
help a person to realise that they are one step closer to a personal achievement.
Using goals for personal achievement can have many different benefits such as:
• A person has a clear and defined direction that they would like to go in and can
difficult to do if a person is not 100% aware of why they are doing something.
• Having a goal to aim for can help people who find it hard to stay on task to see
• Goals can be set for any aspect of life, if you want to think more positive about
• When you have achieved a goal you can feel a sense of achievement and might
want to reward yourself accordingly - and believe that you actually deserve your
These are just a few of the many different benefits that a person will find when
they begin setting goals for their own personal achievement. Isn't it time you
Learning needs:
Section 5: How can we identify and prioritize community problems and needs?
Section 6: How can we benefit from finding out about learning needs?
Learning will be most effective when people have an opportunity to learn things
that relate to their lives and their needs. People want to improve their lives and
the lives of their families. So their interests will be dominated by their own and
Sometimes people do not always see the linkage between learning and their
needs. Our role is to help learners make this connection. This will be easier if we
learning needs helps us to facilitate purposeful and useful learning. It also helps
us to identify the level of our learner’s literacy and numeracy skills, thus
Activity:
your course or to work. For example, you may want to learn some standard
problem-solving techniques, how to search the World Wide Web or how to build
a website.
3. The goals that you will need to achieve to succeed in your learning project.
4. An outline of what needs to be learned.
The best learning from experience needs strong preferences for all four styles
(Learning styles: activist, pragmatist, theorist, reflector) and uses style flexing
When you have achieved a goal, take the time to enjoy the satisfaction of having
done so. Absorb the implications of the goal achievement, and observe the
progress you have made towards other goals. If the goal was a significant one,
reward yourself appropriately. All of this helps you build the self-confidence you
deserve!
With the experience of having achieved this goal, review the rest of your goal
plans:
• If you achieved the goal too easily, make your next goals harder.
• If the goal took a dispiriting length of time to achieve, make the next goals
a little easier.
• If you learned something that would lead you to change other goals, do
so.
• If you noticed a deficit in your skills despite achieving the goal, decide
lessons learned back into your goal setting program. Remember too that your
goals will change as time goes on. Adjust them regularly to reflect growth in
your knowledge and experience, and if goals do not hold any attraction any
We know that all children and students, given the appropriate time and support,
of individual circumstance, they all receive the support they require to achieve
pathways
markets
disadvantage later in their lives. Therefore, every young person needs to finish
proficiency.
they can become at risk of not completing their schooling. Therefore all students
redesign, and pathways that link to their strengths and needs, aligning this to
Education Strategy
The department will also implement the strategy in order to provide a co-
completion rates.
Internationalization of education
forming networks for trade and investment, and developing employment skills
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
Learning styles are simply put, various approaches or ways of learning. They
allow that individual to learn best. It is commonly believed that most people
favor some particular method of interacting with, taking in, and processing
"learning styles" originated in the 1970s, and has gained popularity in recent
years. It has been proposed that teachers should assess the learning styles of their
students and adapt their classroom methods to best fit each student's learning
style. The alleged basis for these proposals has been extensively criticized.
theory can take effect in the classroom. Two such scholars are Dr. Rita Dunn and
Dr. Kenneth Dunn. In their book, teaching Students through Their Individual
Dunn and Dunn write that “learners are affected by their: (1) immediate
sociological needs (self, pair, peers, team, adult, or varied); and (4) physical
They analyze other research and make the claim that not only can students
identify their preferred learning styles, but that students also score higher on
tests, have better attitudes, and are more efficient if they are taught in ways to
which they can more easily relate. Therefore, it is to the educator’s advantage to
Although learning styles will inevitably differ among students in the classroom,
Dunn and Dunn say that teachers should try to make changes in their classroom
that will be beneficial to every learning style. Some of these changes include
locating dividers that can be used to arrange the room creatively (such as having
different learning stations and instructional areas), clearing the floor area, and
incorporating student thoughts and ideas into the design of the classroom.
educational plans that facilitate learning by using the following elements: 1) clear
statement of what the students needs to learn; 2) multisensory resources
Another scholar who believes that learning styles should have an effect on the
1) Teachers can be learners, and learners can be teachers. We are all both. 2)
Everyone can learn under the right circumstances. 3) Learning is fun! Make it
appealing. She details various ways in which teachers can teach so that students
Methods for visual learners include ensuring that students can see words written
down, using pictures when describing things, drawing time lines for events in
Methods for auditory learners include repeating difficult words and concepts
movement, using visual aids and objects in the lesson, using role play, and
having field trips. By using a variety of teaching methods from each of these
Linguistic Learner
Logical/Mathematical Learner
• likes to: do experiments, figure things out, work with numbers, ask
patterns/relationships.
Spatial Learner
• likes to: draw, build, design and create things, daydream, look at
maps, charts.
• learns best by: visualizing, dreaming, using the mind's eye and working
with colors/pictures.
Musical Learner
• likes to: sing, hum tunes, listen to music, play an instrument and respond
to music.
Bodily/Kinesthetic Learner
• likes to: move around, touch and talk and use body language.
• learns best by: touching, moving, interacting with space and processing
Naturalistic Learner
Interpersonal Learner
• likes to: have lots of friends, talk to people and join groups.
Intrapersonal Learner
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1) What is learning?
4.3 ACTIVIST:
Learning objectives:
Types of activism
Transformational activism
This action is in support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial
argument.
The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but
activism can stem from any number of political orientations and take a wide
preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches, strikes, both work
change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which
politically.
Types of activism
• Civil disobedience
• Community building
o Activism industry
o Conflict transformation
o Cooperative movement
o Craftivism
o Voluntary simplicity
• Economic activism
o Boycott
• Media activism
o Culture jamming
o Hacktivism
o Internet activism
campaigning
• Propaganda
o Guerrilla communication
• Protest
o Demonstration
o Direct action
o Protest songs
• Strike action
• Youth activism
o Student activism
o Youth-led media
Transformational activism
Transformational activism is the idea that people need to transform on the inside
as well on the outside in order to create any meaningful change in the world.
the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict creating
peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms,
support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development.
light blue helmets) can include soldiers, civilian police officers, and other civilian
personnel.
broader view of life that ultimately can benefit social relations. Another example
you can change the way resources flow in a society by doing inner work. People
examine their emotional reactions to what their needs are. This may allow them
to see that things they felt they needed are not really needed. This then alters the
connection of everyone with each other and of being able to tap that place. In this
case power is not power over someone, but rather power to unleash collective
and then working from there so that both parties are able to get what they want.
In the process one or both parties may find their inner landscape and paradigms
changing. Transformational open-sourced activism is the idea that you can tap
into the power of mass collaboration and collective creativity in a way that
transforms the people involved into more loving, peaceful, compassionate states.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
2) Overview of Activism.
3) Types of activism
4) Transformational activism
4.4 PRAGMATIST:
Learning objectives:
and fallibilism
who believes that universals are real and exist independently of anyone thinking
of them.
concerned primarily with the success or failure of her actions - realist - a person
Sanders Peirce, who first stated the pragmatic maxim. It came to fruition in the
Aspects of Pragmatism:
asserts that experience includes both particulars and relations between those
that.
James in The Meaning of Truth. The postulate is that "the only things that shall be
experience". The fact is that our experience contains disconnected entities as well
Instrumentalism is the view that concepts and theories are useful instruments
whose worth is measured not by whether the concepts and theories are true or
false (or correctly depict reality), but by how effective they are in explaining and
in the work of John Dewey and his student Addison Webster Moore. This
objective realism.
transcendent statements about a type of entity are either true or false. This latter
minds, the past, the future, universals, mathematical entities (such as natural
numbers), moral categories, the material world, or even thought. The two
construal are clearly distinct and often confused. For example, an "anti-realist"
who denies that other minds exist (i. e., a solipsist) is quite different from an
"anti-realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not
by A.J. Ayer in Language, Truth and Logic (1936), a principle and criterion for
empirically verifiable. The term can also, more rarely, refer to a person believing
in practice or merely in principle, for example, a claim that the world came into
existence a short time ago exactly as it is today (with misleading apparent traces
Strong verification refers to statements which are directly verifiable, that is, a
Weak verification refers to statements which are not directly verifiable, for
and realism that says universals exist only within the mind and have no external
or substantial reality.
the early modern thinkers like René Descartes, John Locke or Gottfried Leibniz --
theories. Sometimes the term is applied even to the radically different philosophy
of Kant, who holds that universals have no connection with external things
because they are exclusively produced by our a priori mental structures and
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
4.5 THEORIST:
I. Behavioralist
II. Constructivist
III. Post-modern
The school of adult learning theory that adopted these principles has become
understood; thus, behaviorists are concerned with actions (behavior) as the sites
of knowing, teaching, and learning” (p. 380). One of the keys to effective teaching
no consequence at all – for example if you knock at the door and no one answers,
pretty soon you simply stop knocking (Zemke, 2002). This theory has latterly
procedures, for example, are divided into two parts. The first, the time sensitive
taught and reinforced with rote drills and successfully passing the tests is the
reference material and depends on what may be viewed as higher level learning
Behavioral theory and training is a key component of animal training and skill
clapping and hugging your child for their first steps or bike ride. Slot machines
learning:
1. Positive reinforcement of the desired behavior will most likely prompt the
same behavior.
“desired” behavior. The learner is rewarded often for exhibiting the desired
behavior when they accomplish a learning block. This method is heavily used in
the federal government to quickly train employees on the latest policies and
harassment).
II. Constructivism:
people make sense of their experience” (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999, p. 260).
understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult
style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the
View Point
individual’s previous and current knowledge structure” (p. 261) and as a result
Caffaerall, 1999).
that we need to consider the cultural environment in which this learning takes
that adult learning, while self-directed, must have input from outside influences.
That may take the form of investigation, social interaction, or more formal
learning environments.
constructivism.
III.Post Modern:
discuss the movement without also discussing the underlying philosophy and
ways. The first is that rationality and logic are not important to attaining
postmodern approach to learning is founded upon the assertion that there is not
one kind of learner, not one particular goal for learning, not one way in which
learning takes place, nor one particular environment where learning occurs
(Kilgore, 2001).
knowledge:
rational.
knower.
discovered.
Hence, knowledge can shift as quickly as the context shifts, the perspective of the
change and experience. Adult learning theories in and of themselves have very
amount of theories that are even possible, as well as labeling those theories into
groups like Hilgard and Bower’s (1966) stimulus-response and cognitive theories
Overall it seems that the theory of adult learning is broken down into two
elements; 1)a process that creates change within the individual, and 2)a process
Andragogy
Andragogy, (andr - 'man'), contrasted with pedagogy, means "the art and science
directness.
These five assumptions dovetail with the thoughts and theories of others.
I.6 REFLECTOR:
Learning objective:
Reflectors are those who like learning by obseving others and think before
taking actions.
perspectives. They like to collect data and think about it carefully before
coming to any conclusions. They enjoy observing others and will listen to
Reflectors like to stand back to ponder experiences and observe them from
many different perspectives. They collect data, both first hand and from
The thorough collection and analysis of data about experiences and events is
people who like to consider all possible angles and implications before
making a move. They prefer to take a back seat in meetings and discussions.
They enjoy observing other people in action. They listen to others and get the
drift of the discussion before making their own points. They tend to adopt a
low profile and have a slightly distant, tolerant unruffled air about them.
When they act it is part of a wide picture which includes the past as well as
observation. If you think that this is your style, the strategies that you might
like include:
Strategies:
Advance Organization Doing a preview of what you are going to learn. For
example, if you want to improve your pronunciation, you can read the
introduction to different pronunciation books, and find out that you need to
and organizing them. For example, if you like music, learning in a place with
music. You will also need materials like books and maybe a computer. CILL
learning a topic because your English is good enough to do the things you
need.
Transfer: This means using ideas that you already have to make learning
easier. For example, if you know that a paragraph (like a hamburger) usually
know that you only have to read the introduction and conclusion of both the
Inferencing: You can also use the strategy of reading a newspaper story in
your own language first for prediction. You can predict the contents of the
easier than reading with no background information. Click here for more
• are helped to exchange views with other people without danger, by prior
• they have the opportunity to review what has happened and think about
Reflectors learn least from, and may react against, activities where:
• acting as leader or role-playing in front of others
• they are asked for an instant reaction, or ‘off the cuff’ thoughts
superficial job.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1) Define reflector.
Learning objective:
Accommodating.
Kolb believed that learning was composed of four discrete experiential methods:
way, being able to consider that experience and reflect on it from a number of
different angles, then work out rational theories based on the observations and
finally put the ideas into practice to make decisions and take actions.
Process:
Kolb saw the learning process as consisting of people moving between the modes
effectiveness of learning relied on the ability to balance these modes, which Kolb
Thus learners tended to fall into one of four groups depending on which ends of
the spectra the individual fell. Someone who tended to use the AE and AC
modes was said to be using a convergent style, which emphasizes the practical
application of ideas and solving problems. If you tended more towards the
opposite (CE and RO) you were described as having a divergent style of learning,
which meant you were more innovative and imaginative in your approach to
dominant, which used the inductive style of reasoning where people pulled a
number of different observations and thoughts into an integrated whole. Finally
people who were 'doers' and used trial and error rather than thought and
accommodative style. Thus Kolb saw learning as the way people tended to view
personality traits.
Development stages:
Kolb explains that different people naturally prefer a certain single different
learning style. Various factors influence a person's preferred style: notably in his
experiential learning theory model (ELT) Kolb defined three stages of a person's
integrate the four different learning styles improves as we mature through our
'cognitive structures'
Whatever influences the choice of style, the learning style preference itself is
actually the product of two pairs of variables, or two separate 'choices' that we
make, which Kolb presented as lines of axis, each with 'conflicting' modes at
either end:
(thinking)
(watching)
determine one of four learning styles of how people prefer to learn. Kolb believes
that learning styles are not fixed personality traits, but relatively stable patterns
of behavior that is based on their background and experiences. Thus, they can be
inductively and create models and theories. Likes to design projects and
experiments.
interpersonal issues.
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
have an element of control over the learning experience, the learning outcomes
become more potent. Peer-to-peer learning is also very powerful. This is also
widely accepted. Combining a focus on individual needs with support from co-
learners can lead to mutually beneficial, lasting benefits. Action learning helps
individuals to identify their own challenges draws on the ideas and experience of
If you aren't doing well in school, or are struggling, then don't dismiss yourself
as dumb, or the teachers as useless - it may be a variety of subtle things that are
drawing potential away from your learning. Students who don't ace tests are
often labeled as lazy or inattentive. Make things more interesting for you and you
will start learning more effectively. Simple things, like learning to listen, taking
notes and being more organized can maximize your learning potential more than
We are constantly learning and sometimes it’s easy, like discovering that there’s a
what you have learned to your job, home life, or activities at which you
participate.
Step 3 Tell other people about your study goals. Telling others will increase
the odds that you will succeed to look good in front of your peers, while at the
Step 4 Understand and prepare for the difficulties of studying. Your job or
family may make you fell like you don't have time to participate in training. Talk
to your family members to explain to them your goal and desire to learn. There is
Step 5 Use all the learning tools available to you. Check to see if your
Step 6 Create a schedule. Plan in advance when and where you will study and
stick to the schedule. This is particularly useful for web based training or when
Step 7 Make learning a priority. After setting your goals and creating your
Step 8 Learn from others. Network with students or friends who share your
Learning objectives:
characteristics influence our experience of others and affect the quality of our
personality.
Certainly, we informally evaluate others’ personality all the time, but the clinical
"Be not afraid of greatness. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and
some have greatness thrust upon them." William Shakespeare, Twelfth Night.
concerning the mundane matter of whether you should start or buy your own
business. But while the bard was talking about a rather more idealistic concept of
success, his three routes to greatness apply equally well to the potential
entrepreneur.
Many people never really aspire to being their own boss, and are really quite
happy in employment – until a certain event makes them consider the possibility
could be about to have greatness forced upon them. Preparation for them is even
more important.
change of manager. On the other hand, it could simply be boredom and the
However, when you first applied for your current job, you were screened and
interviewed by a manager. Now, on your own, you are the one who has to decide
your own suitability for the task ahead. You need to be completely honest about
This is not an easy process for most people, so here’s a list of questions you
1. Are you persistent and determined? Can you set your objectives and
follow your chosen business plan until they are achieved, come hell or
high water?
2. Can you remain positive in periods of adversity? Can you remain sociable
and business-like with clients and suppliers when the business is not
3. Can you cope with the hours required? On average new business owners
work 60 hours a week. Some, of course, work even more than this – that’s
having to deal with the priorities of the business at any time, however
5. Will your loved ones understand that your business, at least sometimes,
6. Can you work on your own for long periods, away from the sociable
7. Away from hierarchy and rigid work arrangements, can you be self-
disciplined? Are you self-reliant, and can you inspire and enthuse
yourself?
8. You probably feel confident in your abilities in your existing role. But can
possible?
9. You may be thinking that running your own business will lead to
freedom. But you will be in the grip of your creditors – the bank, usually –
until you have repaid any loan. Can you deal with this?
10. You may be used to receiving a weekly or monthly pay cheque of a fixed
11. All of the above, together, mean only one thing: stress. Well, hopefully two
things – stress and money. The money, though, will come later. The stress
will have to be dealt with now. Do you thrive or suffer under pressure?
You are either inhuman or lying if you have answered yes to all of the above
without any qualms whatsoever. Everyone will have their doubts if they read
identify whether you have the strength within you to live with or mitigate them.
course, they will vary from job to job. A first-time freelance journalist or
accountant will, by the nature of their work, be far less prone to some of these
Nevertheless, if you read through the list and see it as a challenge, you’re
On the other hand, some people have aimed at that sort of achievement from an
early age. For one in five British schoolchildren, running their own business is
already a dream. Many will go into a career, or pursue a university degree, with
the sole aim of one day being in charge of their own affairs. They will probably,
from day one, be acquiring the skills and knowledge, whether they’re in the field
of motor mechanics or accountancy, so that the dream can one day become
reality.
Given the myriad reasons that a client might be seen for personality assessment,
it should not be surprising that there are a number of diff erent forms of tests
field to replace these terms with the more accurate labels, performance- based and
these tests were defined by the projective hypothesis articulated by Frank (1939):
giving him a field . . . . with relatively little structure and cultural patterning so
that the personality can project upon that plastic field his way of seeing life, his
agree on the projective nature of their tests, all seem to agree that the less
accurate; although test authors diff er on the extent to which projection occurs
during testing, all seem to agree that this form of test requires the client to
Personal skills:
Employers are looking for workers who have that special something: the skills,
Carefulness: Do you have a tendency to think and plan carefully before acting?
This helps with reducing the chance for costly errors, as well as keeping a steady
workflow going.
Discipline: This includes the ability to keep on task and complete projects
Drive: Businesses want employees who have high aspiration levels and work
Influence: Groups need strong leaders to guide the way. Influence includes a
tendency to positively impact social situations by speaking your mind and
Order: "Where did I put that?" A tendency to be well organized helps employees
Safe work behaviors: Employers want people who avoid work-related accidents
Savvy: This isn't just about job knowledge, but knowledge of coworkers and the
observed behavior and use this information to guide one's thinking and action.
Sociability: How much you enjoy interacting with coworkers affects how well
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
Phases in Learning.
Planning:
Effective learning often requires more than just making multiple connections
of new ideas to old ones; it sometimes requires that people restructure their
thinking radically. That is, to incorporate some new idea, learners must
change the connections among the things they already know, or even discard
some long-held beliefs about the world. The alternatives to the necessary
restructuring are to distort the new information to fit their old ideas or to
Students come to school with their own ideas, some correct and some not,
about almost every topic they are likely to encounter. If their intuition and
misconceptions are ignored or dismissed out of hand, their original beliefs are
likely to win out in the long run, even though they may give the test answers
encouraged to develop new views by seeing how such views help them make
Learning is:
of whether approaches and strategies are proving effective for the particular
goals and context. How can you help learners become more effective at
Phases in Learning:
When planning teaching for learning, our task as teachers, is to focus on the
experience for learners, rather than on what we are going to say and do.
phases on each of the aspects which evidence has shown to promote effective
learning.
ty learning
Do Tasks are Tasks in small Learners Learners
texts, learning as
in tasks
Review Learners stop Learners bring Learners Learners
(goals,
strategies,
feelings,
outcome,
context)
Learn New insights Explanations of Factors Richer
devised inquiry is
encouraged
Apply Future action Future Plans are Learners
understanding approaches
to other to learning
situations is
examined
Name.....................................................................................................................................
Subject...................................................................................................................................
Aims
This plan is to help me learn the following:
Deadline
I will complete this work by:
Organisation of work
I will be working (tick):
On my own
With a partner
In a group
In a combination of these ways
Resources
I will be using:
Work
I have to produce:
Assessment
I will be assessed by:
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
Characteristics.
Aspects of continuous learning.
Kinds of Evaluations.
Uses of Evaluations.
There are many benefits to improving learning capacity and knowledge sharing
The organizations that will truly excel in the future will be the organizations
that discover how to tap people’s commitment and capacity to learn at all
“The need for learning organizations is due to the world becoming more
Learning organization:
organizations”
information
information sharing
capacity to learn”
inter-relationships
3. Taking the time to inquire and reflect about your life and experiences
feedback
company and will have developed information systems that measure the
receptive to learning..
tend to have espoused theories, which they intend to follow, and theories-in-
provide focus and energy for learning. The most successful visions build on
the individual visions of the employees at all levels of the organization and
sharing individual learning is that employees grow more quickly and the
that facilitate team learning with features such as boundary crossing and
openness.
EVALUATION:
Kinds of Evaluations
Purpose of evaluation:
Ethical
Managerial
Decisional
Make policies, programs, and projects accountable for how they use
public funds
Clarify theory of change (logic model) for projects, programs, and policy
indicators.
program
• Evaluation
Independent evaluation:
• Organizational independence
• Behavioral independence
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Learning objectives:
Introduction to newsgroup.
Types of newsgroup.
Working of newsgroups.
Online research methods (ORMs) are ways in which researchers can collect data
via the internet. They are also referred to as Internet research. Many of these
online research methods are related to existing research methodologies but re-
invent and re-imagine them in the light of new technologies associated with the
internet.
• Online ethnography
• Online interviews
• Online questionnaires
• Web-based experiments
Internet research is the practice of using the Internet, especially the World Wide
Web, for research. To the extent that the Internet is widely and readily accessible
Web)". It includes any activity where a topic is identified, and an effort is made to
students doing research for academic projects and papers, and journalists and
research - research following a defined and rigorous process - carried out on the
has to be identified, then actually obtained. On the Net, the Web can be searched,
and typically hundreds or thousands of pages can be found with some relation to
the topic, within seconds. In addition, email (including mailing lists), online
messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc) can provide direct access to experts and other
Further difficulties in internet research center around search tool bias and
whether the searcher has sufficient skill to draw meaningful results from the
abundance of material typically available. The first resources retrieved may not
It should be noted that thousands of books and other print publications have
been made available online that would be extremely difficult to locate otherwise,
including out-of-print books, and classic literature and textbooks that would be
adapt ethnography to the study of the communities and cultures created through
adaptable method. These methods tend to leave most of the specifics of the
An online focus group is one type of focus group, and is a sub-set of online
arranged time and to take part in an online focus group. Some researchers will
questions and unscripted probes. In the best discussions, as with face to face
groups, respondents interact with each other as well as the moderator in real
time to generate deeper insights about the topic. Online focus groups are
appropriate for consumer research, business to business research and political
research. Interacting over the web avoids a significant amount of travel expense.
It allows respondents from all over the world to gather, electronically for a more
representative sample. Often respondents open up more online than they would
in person, which is valuable for sensitive subjects. Like in-person focus groups,
online groups are usually limited to 8-10 participants. 'Whiteboard' exercises and
the ability to mark up concepts or other visual stimuli simulate many of the
focus groups often can be accomplished faster than traditional groups because
respondents are recruited from online panel members who are often qualified to
transfers these online with some key differences. It principally focuses on the
online focus groups. There are different forms of online interviews: synchronous
online interviews (for example via chat technology) and asynchronous online
of an online questionnaire often has an affect how the quality of data gathered.
research methods.
Psychology and Linguistics are probably the disciplines that have used these
because researchers can cheaply collect large amounts of data from a wide range
method.
Clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and efficacy data to be collected for
new drugs or devices. These trials can only take place once satisfactory
information has been gathered on the quality of the product and its non-clinical
country where the trial is taking place. Depending on the type of product and the
into small pilot studies initially, followed by larger scale studies in patients that
often compare the new product with the currently prescribed treatment. As
positive safety and efficacy data are gathered, the number of patients is typically
increased. Clinical trials can vary in size from a single center in one country to
E-mail
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way
analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even
systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be stored unencrypted on many other
networks and machines out of both the sender's and the recipient's control.
During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even tampered
intranet mail systems, where the information never leaves the corporate or
there will be IT and other personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and
occasionally accessing, the e-mail of other employees not addressed to them. The
The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked documents, images and other
resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the
web servers and other machines that store originals, and cached copies of, these
Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order
Software products that can access the resources of the Web are correctly termed
user agents. In normal use, web browsers, such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and
Apple Safari, access web pages and allow users to navigate from one to another
like Yahoo! and Google, millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to
a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to encyclopedias
and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme
Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale
Remote access
information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do
locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world.
Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but
the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in
practice.
Collaboration
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills
has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply
communicate and share ideas, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such
groups to easily form in the first place. An example of this is the free software
File sharing
others. It can be put into a "shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by
colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of
These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the
file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software
products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts.
This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that
Streaming media
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet "feeds" of their
live audio and video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-
shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again
"broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-
access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with
underlies all Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with
many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal
telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be
free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long
distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as
cable or ADSL.
Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call
VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal
computer.
Internet by region
coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and 3G technology cell
phones. Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes,
where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet
access points in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops, in
some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as
"public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web payphone". Many
hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based. These
terminals are widely accessed for various usage like ticket booking, bank deposit,
online payment etc. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and
therefore can do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include
Wi-Fi cafes, where would-be users need to bring their own wireless-enabled
devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to
location.
Political organization and censorship
tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States
became famous for its ability to generate donations via the Internet. Many
political groups use the Internet to achieve a whole new method of organizing, in
Some governments, such as those of Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's
Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia, restrict what people in their countries can
accomplished through software that filters domains and content so that they may
Leisure activities
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web,
with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted
main traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and
funny videos; short cartoons in the form of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6
for the sharing of ideas. The pornography and gambling industries have both
taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant
have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has
People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends
worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social
networking websites like My space, Face book and many others like them also
bulletin board display. Basically, the bulletin board is a vertical surface to which
Improve effectiveness and enjoyment of lessons with these bulletin board ideas
and examples. They'll make your classroom visually appealing and stimulating
to your students. Below, you'll find bulletin boards for a wide range of topics,
from cookies and ecology to measurement and diversity! Whether you teach
science, reading, art, or social studies, you're sure to find the perfect bulletin
Techniques:
Several important techniques for production and use of displays, handouts, and
library.
magazines.
• Clip cartoons, drawings, and other visuals. ideas
individual study.
Designing displays for teaching or for your students to interact with involves: a)
• Consider using directional device such as lines, arrows, call outs, and/or
• Use shape, texture, and form, to create unity and emphasis in the display.
(Unity)
• Mount materials at eye level; consider the types of students who will use
the display.
• Use big and neatly look captions (including heads and sub-heads)
• To establish correct size and layout, design the board on paper in the same
Preparing Materials:
surface.
• Use simple letters, nothing fancy (You are required to design your own
letters).
• Laminate and mount the items used in displays for longer life and
durability.
Often the bulletin board that is designed and used to assist the presenter and
then remains up as a reference for the students as they work through a unit of
study.
The followings are for teachers who need to plan and use the bulletin board for
headline that asks a question, and the other elements continue with the
• The bulletin board that is intended for independent study must have
• The bulletin board that is designed for drill and practice can be a large
electric board. This type of display will allow your students to master
After all, the main function of the bulletin board is the transmission of
system, or "BBS" (for short). A BBS is a computer that uses a special program
which allows other computers to call it up by using regular phone lines. A BBS is
like a storage facility that permits people to send and receive messages through
board. You can use them to post jokes, notices, news flashes, and so on... You can
also use them much the same way that you would use a CB. People can hold a
"conversation" over the computer by sending messages back and forth just by
typing the sentences into the computer, and posting them on a BBS. BBSes can
also be used to send and receive private messages. You can use a BBS to gather
information about a certain topic, as well as ask other people to help you with
something. A lot of people exchange files and programs, and play games with
people through the computer. You can also use BBSes to buy and sell things.
Businesses use BBSes for a variety of reasons. Auto Repair Shops, Mail-Order
Organizations are among the different types of businesses that frequently use
BBSes to do business.
NEWSGROUPS:
Although most of the hype and attention that the Internet gets today is about e-
commerce and business, there are two main reasons that most of us use it:
instant messages, and search through the World Wide Web to find information
messages posted from many users in different locations. The term may be
technically distinct from, but functionally similar to, discussion forums on the
Types of newsgroups
more strictly to their particular subject, frowning on off-topic postings. The news
admin (the administrator of a news server) decides how long articles are kept on
his server before being expired (deleted). Different servers will have different
retention times for the same newsgroup; some may keep articles for as little as
one or two weeks, others may hold them for many months. Some admins keep
newsgroups.
technical difference between the two, but the naming differentiation allows users
and servers with limited facilities the ability to minimize network bandwidth
usage. Generally, Usenet conventions and rules are enacted with the primary
intention of minimizing the overall amount of network traffic and resource
usage.
Newsgroups are much like the public message boards on old bulletin board
systems. For those readers not familiar with this concept, envision an electronic
Newsgroups frequently become cliquish and are subject to sporadic flame wars
and trolling, but they can also be a valuable source of information, support and
friendship, bringing people who are interested in specific subjects together from
Internet service providers host their own news servers, or rent access to one, for
their subscribers. There are also a number of companies who sell access to
Every host of a news server maintains agreements with other news servers to
regularly synchronize. In this way news servers form a network. When a user
posts to one news server, the message is stored locally. That server then shares
the message with the servers that are connected to it if both carry the newsgroup,
and from those servers to servers that they are connected to, and so on. For
newsgroups that are not widely carried, sometimes a carrier group is used for
cross posting to aid distribution. This is typically only useful for groups that
have been removed or newer alt.* groups. Cross posts between hierarchies,
Learning objectives:
Assessment of learning
(summative)
The breadth and diversity of experience among delegates is reflected in the wide
exams, (2) changing continuous assessment formats and (3) their own individual
action plans resulting from their thinking and experience during the conference.
Planning:
• Set learning and performance goals for set periods such as terms,
efficiency.
• Use a weekly and yearly planner to show when assignments are due.
First, the analogue of 'assessment being the engine that drives learning' was
pictured as follows.
or both)
uncertainties)
• less training (less time and energy - and funding - for educational
development)
preparation)
students)
students:
both the teacher and learner regarding the learner’s progress towards achieving
skills during and after a workshop, providing follow-up outreach support, and
practice market concepts to the profession, links are maintained with learners
after training, and reminders and feedback are used to encourage behavior
-based practice, particularly lack of skills and knowledge, use their skills more
frequently at work, and that these changes would be maintained over time.
was used to objectively measures skills and knowledge. Example: The original
Behavior change was measured using a concurrent activity diary, and provided
based practice.
subsequently analyzed: date and nature of activity; what prompted the activity;
start and finish times; whether the activity was conducted alone or not; if and
Written assignment
(writing a focused question, searching for evidence, and critically appraising the
for the workplace. Enables them to build on existing knowledge, record evidence
Physical Activity
Engaging in activities involving unique physical movements, timing, and
coordination encourages dendrite growth in the brain. The more dendrites, the
more connections your brain can make. The more connections, the more flexible
and efficient your thinking and learning will be. So while hard work and
disciplined study is a virtue, balancing it with activities such as the following can
results from positions individuals have held or activities in which they have
engaged. For example, life achievement learning could have resulted from work
experience, volunteer work or some life event that resulted in college level
learning.
The learning you acquired from experiences related to your caring role may
enable you to receive credit for life achievement. Credit for life achievement has
We know that all children and students, given the appropriate time and support,
of individual circumstance, they all receive the support they require to achieve
pathways
markets
subjects. It was proposed by John B. Biggs and K. Collis and has since gained
popularity.
The model
really understood the point and uses too simple a way of going about it.
Disappointment:
Dealing with It
Here are some steps we all can take to deal with disappointment more
Get over yourself. The biggest obstacle you may need to get past is yourself. In
my case the tractor didn’t care about my big day. Things happen. The sooner we
get the focus off of ourselves – ending our mental pity party – and onto the
quality or any sort of undesirable result likely means you need a new plan to
move forward or to prevent your disappointment from occurring again. Use the
Get all you can. Chances are your disappointment isn’t the complete picture.
Don’t throw away the good in the situation by focusing only on the bad. In my
case I still was able to share my tractor, talk about American Agriculture, enjoy a
great day and participate in the parade. If I let my disappointment over-run me, I
wouldn’t have recognized all of the value that was there. The same will be true
for you.
Get past it. At some point (probably sooner than later) you need to let it go. Stop
thinking and worrying about it. Let it go and move on. Making light of the
situation may help too. I told people on the parade route and afterwards that we
Get focused on learning. Disappointments will come; and once they have
arrived, it is too late to prevent them. The previous suggestions are all about
getting proactive for the next time. Ask yourself questions like: What could I
have done differently? What would have prevented this situation? Why was I so
learning questions.
My tractor still sits proudly at the Fairgrounds the next day. I’ll replace the
battery and check some other things, and hopefully it will be ready to go in one
more parade before we take it for further electrical repair. Each time I drive this
Indianapolis and across the Fairground. But I’ll remember the lessons more than
the disappointment – because I used the suggestions I’ve shared with you.
These five suggestions will help you deal with your next disappointment –
productively.
world. Here are some things you can do to keep disappointment from getting
you down.
• Stop. Calm Down. Give yourself some time. Things might not seem nearly so
bad tomorrow.
• Get your feelings out in a way that doesn't hurt you or anybody else.
• Think about what you can learn from the experience and how you can do
• Don't judge yourself. Failing at something does not mean that you are a
failure.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: