Final Black Book (Path Tracer)

Electronics & Telecom.
Path Tracer
Muchhala Polytechnic
EDP’s Final Project
PATH TRACER
Project In charge
Prof. K.B. Katkar
Group Guide
H.O.D
Prof. Aishwarya Diwane
Prof. Rashmi Bhatia
Group Members
Bhavesh V. Patel (Group Leader)

Karan V. Shah
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Electronics & Telecom. Path Tracer
Kunal H. Kava
Varun K. Trivedi
Syed Aqhsa
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DEDICATED
TO
OUR
PARENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly obliged to take this opportunity to express our
sincere and deepest gratitude and indebtedness to all those who have
contributed their valuable time are assistance in the successful completion
of our project. Among the wide panorama of people we are grateful in
presenting to you the rare shades of technology by documenting or project
“Path Tracer”. To begin with it has to be our respected parents. They have
been with us all through our thicks and thins, given us all sort of support
whether it is financial support or a moral support. No doubt our basic
foundation is laid by our parents but it will be a big mistake if we ignore the
fact that although foundation sets the base but a building cannot stand
erect without pillars and our pillar is our respected teacher and fortunately
our group guide Mrs. AIshwarya
We also deeply acknowledge our H.O.D Mrs. Rashmi
Bhatia for their never ending encouragement, moral support & patience
during the preparation of our project. We are also very thankful to Mini
miss, Katkar sir & Madhuri miss giving solution for obstacles arising in
our project.
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INDEX
1) General Information
2) Introduction
3) Basic Principle
4) Block Diagram
5) Circuit Diagram
6) Program & Flow Chart
7) PCB Layout
8) Components
9) Fault Finding
10) Advantages & Disadvantages
11) Application
12) Future Enhancement
13) Bibliography
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GENERAL
INFORMATION
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UNDERSTAND THE WORD
‘PROJECT’
P – Planning before carrying work
R – Raw material required for work
O – Organization of the work
J – Joint efforts put together
E – Estimation of the material
C – Cost of the work
T – Technique used in programming the work
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WHY PROJECT BECOMES
NECESSARY?
During the past decade the skill of project management have
become increasingly recognized as highly desirable for managers at all
levels in an organization, most people today can benefit from the
application of these skills to some part of their daily operation. The rapid
growth of global market and the introduction of total quality management,
continuous improvement programs and more recently the drive to redesign
business processes all require these skills to some degree. All are aimed
at improving organizational effectiveness and performance in a highly
competitive world marketplace. The world market place is continually
changing and every organization, irrespective of their service or product,
must accept that internal change is a normal process to meet the demands
of external changes.
The successful and effective implementation of change
employs specific skills that have been traditionally owned by a select
group of technical professionals. This is no longer true and the skills of
managing change are essential for everyone in an organization at all
levels. Change always requires a cultural shift for every one.
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 Introducing new processes
 Finding new and better procedures and working practices
 Throwing off the old habits to create a more dynamic and
flexible organization
 Ability to react effectively to market forces
 Ways to maintain competitiveness
 Ways to seek new horizons
To carry out such changes require some special skills.
Project management provides a structured and organized way to achieve
success every time.
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PLANNING
Success of any project depends on careful and proper
planning and efficient execution of such plan.
1. Project capacity:-
The first and the foremost step we saw were all factors
affecting the capacity of the project. We decided that the work has to be
done by all the members equally. We checked the feasibility which is most
important thing to be done before starting any project, as it is obvious that
any project is successful has to be practicable.
2. Distribution of work:-
All the partners were given equal work. It is task of each
individual member to study each operation.
3. Design and drawing:-
Once the project was decided by us, the circuit diagram was
drawn and checked by us as much details as possible. This made the
execution much easier and more goals oriented. After this, P.C.B. was to
be designed.
4. Material required:-
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Once the drawing of all components was prepared, it was
easy to decide which of them are required for purchase. It depends on,
 Details specified of each.
 Quantity of each.
 Price of each.
 Market availability of each.
5. Operation Planning:-
The planning we did helped to find the best manufacturing
processes so as avoid all kind of wastages. For this purpose this method
study is necessary.
6. Time study:-
The exact time evaluation is essential for assuming the
completion of project. Hence we conclude that it is necessary to work out
the time required.
For different processes such as:
 Cost calculation
 Budgeting
 Procurement of capital
 Design of capital
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 Soldering of all components stage by stage
 Packaging and beatification of final circuitry
@ Pessimistic time:-
This is the assumption that everything will go badly rather
than expected. Thus, it is maximum time taken for completion of project.
@ Optimistic time:-
In this, it is assume that everything will go well and minimum
time is only required for each activity to complete under ideal condition
better than normal is assumed.
@ Most likely time:-
This is value, which will probably the actual time. In this, it is
assume that thing will in normal with few set back. This estimate of time
lies between optimistic times.
7. Method study:-
We conducted to eliminate the wastage of all kind in material
labor and time. First the work was divided into suitable stages and then
each stage and their inter relationship are studied separately.
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8. Equipment required:-
After examination of the study, it became possible to decide
the exact number of equipments and tools required. Drawing also helped
us in deciding the requirement and accessories.
9. Budgeting:-
It can be defined as recast of program operation. It is based
on definite period of time and can be prepared by studying statistical data.
This is following types of budgeting.
 Master budget
 Sales budget
 Production budget
 Financial budget
 Material budget
 Labor budget
Financial budget:-
It is summary of capital to be received and the amount to be
spending over a given period. Financial budget is most important type of
project because economy is deciding factor in success or failure of any
project.
10. Procurement of capital:-
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Working capital is to be collected by the leader from the
partners. Total cost is equally divided in number of partners. For large
projects, a proper financer from industry is desirable.
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INTRODUCTIO
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Introduction:-
The word “ROBOT” originates from the Czech word for
forced labor, or self. It was introduced by playwright karel capek, whose
frictional robotics inventions were much like Dr. Frankenstein’s monster
creatures created by chemical and biological, rather than mechanical,
robots of popular culture are not much different from these frictional
biological creations.
Our Path Trace is an electro-mechanical device. It is as
wheeled platform, arm, or other construction, capable of interacting with its
environment.
Sensors are connected at bottom or around the device that is
able to sense the environment and give useful feedback to the device.
Cars in large factory halls find their way with aid of sensors
and track in or on the floor. The track may consist of black or dark line
printed on right floor or another reflective substance such tracks can be
detected with optical sensor. Other variants of track types include metal
strips, which can be followed with the help of metal detector or a slot in the
floor, which can be followed by probe or another mechanical device.
To avoid collagens with personal and object, most robot cars
have additional sensors for instance infrared detectors cameras or a kind
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of radar based on ultrasonic waves, laser light or radio waves. To enable
them to be stopped in the (unlikely) event of collision or malfunction these
robot vehicles usually have a number of easily accessible switches.
Robotics is a design and manufacture of intelligent machines
that are programmed to perform specific tasks. Robots are generally
designed to be a helping hand. They help us in difficult, unsafe or boring
tasks. Simplify put robots are machines that can perform variety of jobs
and they can range from simple machines to highly complex computer
controlled intelligent system. The majority of robots today are used in
factories, labs and houses. In future they might show up in the schools,
homes or even in our bodies. The possibilities are end less.
Industrial automation gives robotics a considerable
momentum to explore newer avenues of applications. Robotics is being
used for industrial automation to extent that the terms robotics and
industrial automation have become synonyms in the industrial word. The
advance made in the field of mechatronics has virtually made sign of
robotics system much easier, the need is only to identify right product for
application.
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BASIC
PRINCIPLE
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Basic Principle:-
Path Tracer works on the following principle. It uses optical
sensor techniques for detecting black or dark color line. The presence and
absence of black line will detect by IR sensor and proportional output will
fetch by microcontroller. Thus microcontroller decides further action of
robot. This output is helpful to motor driver IC for driving the motor in
required direction.
At time any one sensor will detect the particular black line.
The respective LED, which is glowing, indicates that a particular sensor
had detected black line and there depending on black line, the output of
respective sensor will changes and then microcontroller will take the
decision that in one direction motor has to drive the car.
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BLOCK
DIAGRAM
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Block Diagram:-
The adjoining sketch represents the block diagram of our
Path Tracer. It basically consists of four parts.
1. Sensors [LED, LDR, Comparator IC LM324]
2. Microcontroller [AT 89C2051]
3. Motor driver IC[L293D]
4. Motors [D.C. Motor]
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Block Diagram Description: -
Sensors: -
The four sensors are the primary part of our project. Out of
these four sensors any one of the sensors will active and the activating of
sensor is depending on root of black line. When ever particular sensor
detects black line, it passes output to comparator.
Comparator: -
Sensor will detect black or dark path, and send signal to
comparator block. Depending on the signal send by sensors comparator
will give according output to microcontroller
Microcontroller: -
The microcontroller is already programmed; when ever input
arises it executes program and then respective output will pass to motor
driver IC.
Motor driver IC: -
Motor driver IC is used to provide sufficient voltage and
current to motor. It takes input from the microcontroller and drives the
motor in required direction.
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Power supply: -
Power supply block is used to supply power to different
blocks of our circuit.
IR Receiver: -
Receiver will receive signal transmitted from IR Transmitter.
And the received signal will be send to microcontroller.
IR Transmitter: -
Work of IR transmitter is to transmit signal. The transmitted
signal will be send to IR Receiver.
Basic Sensor Part: -
The sensors are primary part of our project. It is used to
detect the black line. It is also called as black line sensor. Here we are
using LDR &LED as a black line sensor. LDR & LED pair consists of
transmitter & receiver. The transmitter is LED & receiver is LDR.
We have to arrange transmitter & receiver as shown. The
distance between the surface & the sensor i.e. height of the sensor from
the surface is 15mm. Here the TX is transmitter and Rx is receiver. The
distance between TX and Rx is 2.5mm.
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The combination of LED and LDR make one sensor. So this
type of four sensors is being used here.
As shown here, we have connected the sensors in four
universal directions i.e. right, left, front and rare. The sensors are
connected at the distance of 2cm from the middle point in all this four
direction. The position of each sensor is,
 Sensor 1 - Right
 Sensor 2 - Back
 Sensor 3 - Front
 Sensor 4 - Left
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CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM
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Circuit Diagram: -
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Circuit Diagram Description: -
The circuit uses 4 sensors, 1 LM324 IC and 1 resistor of
value 270 ohms, 10 k ohms and 470 ohms. The whole circuit is working on
+5v supply. IC LM324 is comparator IC which consists of four
comparators. At the non inverting terminal of all comparator we had set
one voltage with the help of potentiometer. The inverting terminals of all
the comparators are connected to collector of respective phototransistor
i.e. receiver. The collector of all phototransistors connected to +5v supply
through 10kohms resistor and emitter is grounded. Also the anode of all IR
LED is connected to +5v supply through 270 ohms resistors and cathode
is grounded. The LED is connected at the o/p of each comparator to +5v
through 470 ohms for indicating that particular sensor is working.
Working of Circuit: -
The working of circuit can be understood by dividing it in
two parts.
1) When LED emits Green light on black line and if there is presence
of black line, it absorbs Green light and it remains off. The voltage
divided network create voltage drop across resistance and given to
inverting terminal of comparator so the o/p of respective comparator
goes low and the particular LED will glow.
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2) Now when there is absence of black line, the green light which is
transmitted by LED will receive by LDR. The low voltage at the
collector of phototransistor will pass to inverting terminal of
particular sensor will go high. So the respective LED will not glow.
So in short, at a time any one sensor will active and glowing
of LED indicates that the particular sensor has detects black line.
Main Circuit: -
As we seen that the primary part of our project is sensor
circuit and now we will see the secondary part of our circuit to which the
o/p of sensor is given.
Construction: -
The outputs of these four sensors are given to port 5 of
microcontroller. Port 5 of microcontroller is used as input port. Output of
microcontroller is given to motor driver IC L293D. Port1 is used as an
output port. Start switch is provided to restart the microcontroller by
resetting the microcontroller we can start the robot. The output from out 1
and out 2 pin of L293D is given to right motor and output from out 3 and
out 4 is given to left motor. Vcc to AT89C2051 and L293D is +5v and Vm
to L293D is +10v.
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Working: -
When supply is ON sensor will detect black line and
respective output will pass to microcontroller. When start switch is
pressed. Microcontroller will read data of port 3. Microcontroller is already
programmed after reading the data of port 3; microcontroller will execute
the program and it will generate respective output which is then passed to
L293D. Depending on output of microcontroller AT89C2051, Motor driver
IC L293D will rotate the motor in respective direction and hence robot will
go in the direction of black line and follows it.
Power Supply: -
To provide power supply to circuit we are using three
Ni-Cadmium batteries. One cell provides 3.6v so such three cells provide
total 11V and 800mA current. The battery is connected to IC 7805 which is
regulator IC to achieve constant +5V supply. Thus we will get +11v & +5v
supply. This +5v is used to provide Vcc supply to all the IC'S & 12v of
supply of battery is applied to Vm pin of L293D which is reference for
motor.
Transmitter: -
Here transmitter used is a IR Tx, it is use to ON / OFF path
tracer. IC 555 is used as a transmitter in astable mode which generate
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frequency of 38k Hz and o/p is taken from pin no. 3 which is given to IR
LED to transmit a signal.
Receiver: -
The transmitted signal is received by IC Tsop1738 it receive
IR signal end give o/p at pin no. 3. That o/p is given to pin no.2 of IC 555
which is working in mono stable mode. This will increase the time period of
received signal and o/p is taken from pin no. 3 of IC 555 end given to clock
input of IC 4027. Which have two JK Flip-Flop which work as a T-Flip Flop
and output of first flip-flop is given to pin number 18 of microcontroller and
output of another flip flop is given to 1 of microcontroller
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PROGRAM
&
FLOW CHART
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Flow chart: -
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Program: -
*#cpu 8051 Tiny
* DDS MICRO-C 8031/51 Startup Code & Runtime library for TINY model
* Copyright 1991-1999 Dave Dunfield
* All rights reserved.
ORG $0000 $0800 CODE Starts here (Normally in ROM)
LJMP START
ORG $0003
LJMP SERVICE_EX0
ORG $000B
LJMP SERVICE_TIMER0_INTERRUPT
* Fixed memory locations for alternate access to the R0-R7 register bank.
* If you are NOT useing BANK 0, these equates must be adjusted.
?R0 EQU 0 Used for "POP" from stack
?R1 EQU ?R0+1 Used to load index indirectly
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?R2 EQU ?R0+2 "" "" "" ""
?R3 EQU ?R0+3 Used by some runtime lib functions
?R4 EQU ?R0+4
?R5 EQU ?R0+5
?R6 EQU ?R0+6
?R7 EQU ?R0+7
* Startup code entry point
* If you are NOT using interrupts, you can reclaim 50 bytes
* of code space by removing the following TWO lines.
* AJMP *+$0032 Skip interrupt vectors
* DS $0032-2 Reserve space for interrupt vectors
START EQU *
MOV SP,#?stk-1 Set up initial stack
ORL TMOD,#%00000001 set timer 0 to be counter 16 bit
SETB IE.7 $AF EA
SETB IE.1 $A9 ET0 Enable timer 0 interrupt
SETB TCON.4 start timer 0
LCALL main Execute program
SJMP * JUMP HERE
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* EXIT to MON51 by calling the 'timer1' interrupt vector ($001B).
* This causes MON51 to think that a single-step operation has just
* completed, and therefore it saves the user registers, and performs
* a context switch back to the monitor.
* When using 2K addressing (CC51: -Z option, ASM51: -A option) this
LCALL
* may fail "Out of range" because it gets translated to ACALL, and $001B
* may not be in the same 2K block as your program. Since 2K devices
cannot
* support a debugger, change the ORG to $0000, and ...<continue
below>...
* If you are NOT using MON51 (or MONICA which works the same), you
will
* need to change this to whatever action you desire when main() returns.
* Suggestions: 1:freeze (SJMP *) 2:Restart (SJMP *&$FF00)
exit LCALL $001B Call Timer-1 interrupt
SJMP exit Incase he go's again
**************************** My code *********************************
SERVICE_TIMER0_INTERRUPT EQU *
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PUSH ACC
PUSH PSW
MOV TH0,#$FF reload timer 0 for ms
MOV TL0,#$00
INC tick
MOV A,tick
CJNE A,#100,RIGHT
MOV tick,#0
RIGHT
CLR C
SUBB A,speedright
JC ON_RIGHT
CLR P1.0
SJMP LEFT
ON_RIGHT
SETB P1.0
LEFT
MOV A,tick
CLR C
SUBB A,speedleft
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JC ON_LEFT
CLR P1.1
SJMP EXIT_I
ON_LEFT
SETB P1.1
EXIT_I
POP PSW
POP ACC
RETI
SERVICE_EX0 EQU *
INC cputick
RETI
$SE:1
*#map1 Segment 1, initialized variables
$SE:2
*#map2 Segment 2, internal "register" variables
ORG $0008 Internal ram ALWAYS starts here
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tick DS 1
speedright DS 1
speedleft DS 1
cputick DS 1
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PCB
LAYOUT
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P.C.B.: -
A printed circuit board can be defined as an insulating base
material to which permanently attached a flat metallic network of
conducting paths whose dimension depends upon the current that can be
handled by them. The P.C.B used for this project is single sided one.
The basic material used may be resin coated papers, fiber
glass, ceramic and the flat board configuration, however, is most widely
used and it may be of the nature of single "mother board" into which
smaller boards are plugged by the especially designed connectors which
ensures adequate and permanent low resistance coupling.
Board Design: -
P.C.B designing is the most important and requires great
care during work. In this case great are must be taken while tracing the
circuit or the layout on the board because once PCB is designed, it is
virtually impossible to alter it. While designing a circuit designer should
take care to avoid crossing of conducting paths (tracks) as possible.
Crossovers are unavoidable then only of the jumper can be used. Circuit
board carrying copper on both the sides can also help to solve this
problem when circuit is complicated.
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Main Circuit: -
 Track Side layout of P.C.B: -
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 Components Side Layout Of P.C.B: -
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Transmitter Circuit: -
 Track Side layout of P.C.B: -
 Components Side Layout Of P.C.B: -
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The Master Diagram-
The next stage lies in proportion to designing i.e. to prepare
“master diagram” which is commonly made twice as the finished circuit,
since this makes the working on that much easier, especially when the
circuit is complicated photography eventually reduces the size of the
diagram to that circuit, before proceeding we must know some rules
regarding the designing.
 The space between the conductors must be strictly controlled to
avoid the possibility of electrical discharge or unwanted
capacitance. The amount by which the master diagram is to
reduce in size is thus a critical design feature.
 The conductor must be wider in those parts of circuits that are
going to handle large currents must be handled without undue
temperature of conductors.
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 The minimum width of copper should not generally be less than
about 1.5mm. This is related to mechanical strength rather
electrical properties and it also ensures that strips remains
securely bounded to the base material.
 The points where the component holes for component lead wire
occurs must be sited to suit the dimensions of the component and
dimensions between lead-out wires, so that, the components can
be situated correctly on finished board. The conductor is also
main large at the point of holes.
P.C.B Making: -
When the master probable twice the size of real PCB has
been involved, the text major step consists of etching or dissolving the
unwanted meal from copper cladded board to create the circuit as
depicted by master diagram. It must be stressed that very accurate
checking of master is essential at this stage. Then, the master point is
mounted on a special fame on easy facing of a larger camera and with the
aid of the very powerful illumination a master diagram is clearly
photographed on a glass sensitive plate. This is developed to give
photographic negative. Next so called “step and repeat camera” is brought
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into operation. This comprises the camera body mounted so that side
ways after each exposure. In this way number of copies of the original
master diagram is setout exactly to cover standard sheet of copper clad
lamination laboratory method of making PCB.
In case of simple and need of number of less PCB, economic
and advisable to use the following lab method of PCB making.
 Planning The Circuit: -
Although this is not particularly difficult, there are several
important factors that need not be taken into account. If the finished device
is to work properly we must consider gain factor and ensure that the input
and output parts are sufficiently well isolated to avoid the possibility. We
must also that conductors and components carrying high frequency
current are well separated from these parts of the circuits. We are also to
make sure that all components need to return to earth are properly
connected and that possibility of common impedance arising in earth
returned. Circuit is totally eliminated by making all earth as substantial as
consistent with nature of design. Other factors that have to successfully
study include availability of adequate return points on board and it’s
mounting from accessibility of switch connections made for mechanical
fixing ventilation effect of vibration.
 Cleaning The Board:-
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The copper side of the board must be thoroughly cleaned
before circuit plan is transferred to it.
This is very important because even slightest trance of graze
(from figure of instance) will impure the etching process and when the
circuit plan has been neatly transferred to copper in this manner the board
is held under running tap and allowed to dry before resist is applied.
 Transforming The Plan:-
Now, once cleaning is done plan has to transfer on copper
surface of PCB material. A convenient way to do this is simply put a
carbon paper between a copper surface of the board and working plan and
carefully trace the lines of original plan with a ball pen.
 Resist:-
Resist is northing more than a substance that is unaffected
by presence etching chemicals. It is usually colored so that, it can be
easily seen the copper that are to be left in fact as the copper conductors
must be covered when resists the leaguer type of paints posses good
resists properties but disadvantages of relatively long time taken for
drying. It is essential to resist.
Through hardening before etching is started. Nail polished
are better as they quickly and are less difficult to remove.
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To overcome this drying effect and to achieve the sharp
edges of the trace on the PCB, now-a-days, etching taps along with IC
pads are commonly used. The etching taps and pads are available in
different sizes.
 Correcting Errors:-
When a result has been thoroughly hardened any errors that
have been made can usually be corrected by gently scratching away with
knife. To ensure clear out lines round edges of copper conductor’s board
he resist must be applied with steady band.
 Etching: -
Next comes etching of unwanted copper and whether a small
single is all that is required as quantity of board to be produced certain
precautions must be taken before operation is commenced the most used
etch anti ferric chloride and to this is added small quantity of HCL to
Accelerate, but not critical as lab construction is concerned.
Mixing 10 grams of ferric chloride and 25 grams of HCL with 15 grams of
water can produce a good etch ant.
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 Agitation: -
Small plastic bath is idle for storing the etch ant process. The
depth of liquid must be sufficient to completely cover laminate; the
laminated board carrying the resist pattern circuit is then dropped into etch
ant bath and the gentle agitation takes 5 to 20 minutes to complete
depending on the strength of the etch ant temperature and thickness of
copper foil.
 Finishing Off: -
When all unwanted copper is dissolved from areas between
conductors, beard should be taken from an etch ant and washed in water.
The .resist must be polished with any kind of cleaner. It should be seen
that there is no slight incomplete etching between the conducing paths of
the PCB. The PCBs are coated coating material for protection in lab
Coating itself is a solder. This process is called tinning. This
process of coating involves tracks with solder. Advantage of tinning the
effect of environment of conductors, then PCB is drilled i.e. holes for filling
and mounting the components on PCB are drilled with suitable drill bit.
 Assembling Of PCB:-
After the holes are drilled, the components have to be
assembled on PCB. Before assembling the components it is necessary to
clean soldering iron in order to get easy and accurate soldering. Removing
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impurity particles that are gathered on iron bit due to repetitive use cleans
soldering iron.
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COMPONENTS
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Component List: -
1) The Sensor Circuit:
ITEMS SPECIFICATION
IC1 LM324
R1 270 ohms
R2 270 ohms
R3 270 ohms
R4 270 ohms
R5 10 k ohms
R6 10 k ohms
R7 10 k ohms
R8 10 k ohms
R9 470 ohms
R10 470 ohms
R11 470 ohms
R12 470 ohms
D5 LED1
D6 LED2
D7 LED3
D8 LED4
Q1 LDR
Q2 LDR
Q3 LDR
Q4 LDR
2) Main Circuit:
ITEMS SPECIFICATION
IC1 AT89C2051
IC2 L293D
R1 8.2 K ohms
R2 220 ohms
C1 10 mf
C2 30 Pf
C3 30 Pf
D1 IV4007
X 11.0592 MHZ
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IC3 CD4027
IC4 LM555
IC5 TSOP1738
MI 30 RPM gear motor
M2 30 RPM gear motor
3) Power Supply Circuit:
ITEMS SPECIFICATION
IC1 7805
CI 1000MF,50V
C2 1MF,50V
C3 0.1MF
D1 1N4007
Battery NI-CD 3.6*3=11
4) Miscellaneous:
 START SWITCH
 WIRES
_________________________________________________________________
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 Microcontroller IC 89C2051: -
Features: -
 Compatible with MCS®-51Products
 2K Bytes of Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles
 2.7V to 6V Operating Range
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
 Two-level Program Memory Lock
 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM
 15 Programmable I/O Lines
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Six Interrupt Sources
 Programmable Serial UART Channel
 Direct LED Drive Outputs
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 On-chip Analog Comparator
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
 Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option
Internal Block Diagram:-
_________________________________________________________________
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Description: -
The AT89C2051 is a low-voltage, high-performance CMOS
8-bit microcomputer with 2K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable
read-only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the
industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set. By combining a versatile 8-bit
CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C2051 is a powerful
microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution
to many embedded control applications.
The AT89C2051 provides the following standard features: 2K
bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 15 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a
five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, a
precision analog comparator, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In
addition, the AT89C2051 is designed with static logic for operation down
to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving
modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.
The power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator
disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
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Pin Description: -
1) VCC
Supply voltage.
2) GND
Ground.
3) Port 1
The Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port. Port pins P1.2 to
P1.7 provide internal pull-ups. P1.0 and P1.1 require external pull-ups.
P1.0 and P1.1 also serve as the positive input (AIN0) and the negative
input (AIN1), respectively, of the on-chip precision analog comparator. The
Port 1 output buffers can sink 20 mA and can drive LED displays directly.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they can be used as inputs. When pins
P1.2 to P1.7 are used as inputs and are externally pulled low, they will
source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 1 also receives
code data during Flash programming and verification.
4) Port 3
Port 3 pins P3.0 to P3.5, P3.7 are seven bi-directional I/O
pins with internal pull-ups. P3.6 is hard-wired as an input to the output of
the on-chip comparator and is not accessible as a general- purpose I/O
pin. The Port 3 output buffers can sink 20 mA. When 1s are written to Port
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3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as
inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will
source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the
functions of various special features of the AT89C2051 as listed below:
Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and
verification.
5) RST
Reset input. All I/O pins are reset to 1s as soon as RST goes
high. Holding the RST pin high for two machine cycles while the oscillator
is running resets the device. Each machine cycle takes 12 oscillator or
clock cycles.
6) XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.
Port Pin Alternate Functions
P3.0 RXD (serial input port)
P3.1 TXD (serial output port)
P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)
P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)
P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)
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P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)
7) XTAL2
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics: -
The XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output,
respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as
an on-chip oscillator; either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be
used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be
left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the
duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal
clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and
maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.
Special Function Registers: -
A map of the on-chip memory area called the Special
Function Register (SFR) space is shown in the table below. Note that not
all of the addresses are occupied, and unoccupied addresses may not be
implemented on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses will in
general return random data, and write accesses will have an indeterminate
effect. User software should not write 1s to these unlisted locations, since
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they may be used in future products to invoke new features. In that case,
the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be.
_________________________________________________________________
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 Comparator IC LM324: -
Specifications: -
 True Differential Input Stage
 Single Supply Operation: 3.0 V to 32 V (LM224, LM324, LM324A)
 Low Input Bias Currents: 100 nA Maximum (LM324A)
 Four Amplifiers Per Package
 Internally Compensated
 Common Mode Range Extends to Negative Supply
 Industry Standard Pin outs
_________________________________________________________________
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 ESD Clamps on the Inputs Increase Ruggedness without Affecting
 Device Operation
Description: -
The LM324 series are low–cost, quad operational amplifiers
with true differential inputs. They have several distinct advantages over
standard operational amplifier types in single supply applications. The
quad amplifier can operate at supply voltages as low as 3.0 V or as high
as 32 V with quiescent currents about one–fifth of those associated with
the MC1741 (on a per amplifier basis). The common mode input range
includes the negative supply, thereby eliminating the necessity for external
biasing components in many applications. The output voltage range also
includes the negative power supply voltage.
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
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 IC L293D: -
Specification: -
 600ma output current capability
 Per channel
 1.2a peak output current (non repetitive)
 Per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical”0” input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes
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Description: -
The device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, High
current four channel driver designed to Accept standard DTL or TTL logic
levels and drive Inductive loads (such as relays solenoids, dc And
stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two
bridges each pair of channels Is equipped with an enable input. A separate
Supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage
and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in
switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293d is assembled
in a 16 lead plastic Package which has 4 center pins connected together
and used for heat sink. The L293dd is assembled in a 20 lead surface
Mount which has 8 center pins connected together and used for heat sink.
_________________________________________________________________
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 IC 555: -
Features: -
 High Current Drive Capability (200mA)
 Adjustable Duty Cycle
 Temperature Stability of 0.005%/C
 Timing From Sec to Hour
 Turn off Time Less Than 2
_________________________________________________________________
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Description: -
The LM555 is a highly stable controller capable of producing
accurate timing pulses. With a monostable operation, the time delay is
controlled by one external resistor and one capacitor. With an astable
operation, the frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled by two
external resistors and one capacitor.
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 IC 4027: -
Description: -
The HEF4027B is a dual JK flip-flop which is edge-triggered
and features independent set direct (SD), clear direct (CD), clock (CP)
inputs and outputs (O,O). Data is accepted when CP is LOW, and
transferred to the output on the positive-going edge of the clock. The
active HIGH asynchronous clear-direct (CD) and set-direct (SD) are
independent and override the J, K, and CP inputs. The outputs are
buffered for best system performance. Schmitt-trigger action in the clock
input makes the circuit highly tolerant to slower clock rise and fall times.
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
6
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 IC TSOP1738: -
The TSOP17 – series are miniaturized receivers for infrared
remote control systems. PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on
lead frame; the epoxy package is designed as IR filter The demodulated
output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. TSOP17 is the
standard IR remote control receiver series, supporting all major
transmission codes.
Features: -
 Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
 Internal filter for PCM frequency
 Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance
 TTL and CMOS compatibility
 Output active low
 Low power consumption
 High immunity against ambient light
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 Continuous data transmission possible (up to 2400 bps)
 Suitable burst length 10 cycles/burst
_________________________________________________________________
7
_ 1
 IC 7805: -
Features: -
 Output Current In Excess Of 1a;
 No External Components Required;
 Internal Short Circuit Current Limiting;
 Internal Thermal Overload Protection;
 Output Transistor Safe-Area Compensation;
 Output Voltage Offered In 4% Tolerance.
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
7
_ 3
Resistors: -
Capacitor: -
_________________________________________________________________
7
_ 4
FAULT
FINDING
_________________________________________________________________
7
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Fault Finding: -
Fault finding is the process of finding out fault in the circuit.
Its plays a vital role in or project because it helps us to detect our mistake
and thus guide to the path of success.
In this process each and every component section of the
circuit and a complete circuit as a whole is checked to rectify the faults
present if any. While doing so if any fault is detected, firstly its root cause
is found out and appropriate correction is done. After making corrections
the same process is repeated to assure accurate result.
So, we must not forget to note a point that in any project the
process of trouble shooting should be included to make your project
successful one.
Its rarely happens that any project work is accomplished
without any problem. During the project we also had to face many
problems.
_________________________________________________________________
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Difficulty Occurred During Project: -
 Micro controller IC 89C2051 was not readily available in the
market so we had to travel again and again to the IC stockiest,
while collecting the components.
SOLUTION:
We requested the stockiest to arrange the IC as soon as
possible.
 While soldering the components on the PCB, proper soldering
was not done as we were not trained.
SOLUTION:
We had taken help from lab assistant; he assisted in the
work of soldering.
 While mounting micro controller IC 89C2051 on PCB the IC was
getting short circuited.
SOLUTION:
There was some fault in soldering process. Some where in
circuit soldering was not done proper so there was wrong connection.
_________________________________________________________________
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 The car was operating in opposite condition i.e. when
car has to move in right direction, the car will take left
turn. And when the car has to move in left direction the
car will take right turn. So car deflected from the path
and it comes in toggle condition and stops over there
only.
SOLUTION:
We have connected motors of the car in wrong way. We
have connected left motor to the signal coming of right motor and left
motor to the signal coming of right motor. We interchanged the connection
of motor.
_________________________________________________________________
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ADVANTAGES
&
DISADVANTAG
ES
_________________________________________________________________
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Advantages: -
 It does not require a driver or a person to look after it. Once the
path is laid and the project is implemented, then it works on its
own.
 It can be easily operated through a remote from long distance.
 It simplifies the modification in routing
 If any change in route has to be incorporated, it is easy to repaint
the mat with the new route or lay the mat according to new route.
 It eliminates expensive rail tracks and conveyors which needs
maintenance.
 It is more economical then conveyor belts and railway tracks.
 It requires less maintenance then conveyor belts and railway
tracks.
_________________________________________________________________
8
_ 0
 It operates on very low power.
 It works on 12 volts battery or directly through external power
supply.
Disadvantages: -
 It needs a path with a dark line to act as a guide.
 It is not programmed such a way that it can take its own decisions.
 It is not as intelligent as human.
_________________________________________________________________
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APPLICATIONS
_________________________________________________________________
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Applications: -
 Its can be used in Gold mines or diamond mines where it is not
possible for humans to go or trustworthy
 In chemical and cement industries where raw materials are
required to be frequently transferred from one place to another.
 It can be used in automated car parking systems
 It is applicable where goods are to be transported in small
sections.
 It can be used in shopping in malls for helping customers in
carrying goods.
 Can be used in factories, airports, etc.
 It can be used in toys.
 It can be used to transport goods in remote places where the
temperature is high and humans can’t reach.
_________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________
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FUTURE
ENHANCEMEN
_________________________________________________________________
8
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Future Enhancement: -
 The line it follows can be totally eliminated by introducing G.P.S.
(Global Positioning System) in the project.
 The black line path or dark path can be replaced by metal strip
and just modifying in our project from path tracer to metal
detector.
 It can be made interfaced to computer via serial port or
HyperTerminal by just adding an IC.
 By making certain changes in circuit, car can be made run on
white path and surface would be of dark color.
 By adding Proxy Detector, it will stop automatically if there is
some blockage on path.
 Features like overweight indications, check-in time, check-out
time speed indications, etc. can be added or set according to
requirement.
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 With using latest SMD technologies, it can be reduced in a size.
BIBLIOGRAPH
_________________________________________________________________
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_ 7
Bibliography: -
Web-sites: -
 Our basic idea of Path Tracer is extracted from website
www.roobotroom.com
 Other ideas and more information we got searching from
www.google.co.in
 We also got through the website www.x-robotics.com.
 We got through www.alldatasheet.com for our paper work.
Reference books: -
 We referred book on microcontroller for information on our
microcontroller 89C2051
 Digital principles and application by Malvino Leach
 Programming customizing 8051 microcontroller by Predko
_________________________________________________________________
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Software Used: -
 Atmel data manual for instructions of 89C2051.
 Atmel programmer kit.
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_ 9

Final Black Book (Path Tracer)

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Final Black Book (Path Tracer)

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Electronics & Telecom.

Bhavesh V. Patel (Group Leader)

We are highly obliged to take this opportunity to express our

contributed their valuable time are assistance in the successful completion

of our project. Among the wide panorama of people we are grateful in

presenting to you the rare shades of technology by documenting or project

whether it is financial support or a moral support. No doubt our basic

our group guide Mrs. AIshwarya

We also deeply acknowledge our H.O.D Mrs. Rashmi

6) Program & Flow Chart

10) Advantages & Disadvantages

12) Future Enhancement

UNDERSTAND THE WORD

P – Planning before carrying work

R – Raw material required for work

O – Organization of the work

J – Joint efforts put together

E – Estimation of the material

C – Cost of the work

T – Technique used in programming the work

WHY PROJECT BECOMES

During the past decade the skill of project management have

become increasingly recognized as highly desirable for managers at all

levels in an organization, most people today can benefit from the

growth of global market and the introduction of total quality management,

continuous improvement programs and more recently the drive to redesign

at improving organizational effectiveness and performance in a highly

competitive world marketplace. The world market place is continually

changing and every organization, irrespective of their service or product,

The successful and effective implementation of change

employs specific skills that have been traditionally owned by a select

group of technical professionals. This is no longer true and the skills of

managing change are essential for everyone in an organization at all

levels. Change always requires a cultural shift for every one.

 Finding new and better procedures and working practices

 Throwing off the old habits to create a more dynamic and

 Ability to react effectively to market forces

 Ways to maintain competitiveness

 Ways to seek new horizons

To carry out such changes require some special skills.

Project management provides a structured and organized way to achieve

success every time.

planning and efficient execution of such plan.

important thing to be done before starting any project, as it is obvious that

any project is successful has to be practicable.

All the partners were given equal work. It is task of each

individual member to study each operation.

3. Design and drawing:-

drawn and checked by us as much details as possible. This made the

Once the drawing of all components was prepared, it was

 Details specified of each.

 Market availability of each.

The planning we did helped to find the best manufacturing

The exact time evaluation is essential for assuming the

completion of project. Hence we conclude that it is necessary to work out

the time required.

For different processes such as:

 Packaging and beatification of final circuitry

This is the assumption that everything will go badly rather

than expected. Thus, it is maximum time taken for completion of project.

In this, it is assume that everything will go well and minimum

better than normal is assumed.

@ Most likely time:-