Light Rail Transit Vehicles

Figure 2.3.2 Typical LRV dynamic envelope

2-21

Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

2.3.3.1 Vehicle Components Related to Vehicle Dynamic Envelope The vehicle dynamic envelope is influenced by both the as-fabricated characteristics of the vehicle, particularly its suspension system, and possible wear and/or failure of vehicle subassemblies. These factors include Primary/secondary suspension systems Maximum roll/lean/sway Maximum lean due to total failure of all truck components Wheel tread and flange wear

Air springs (also known as air bags) are a common element in the secondary suspension system. They serve multiple functions, including keeping the floor both reasonably level and matched to the station platform height regardless of the number of passengers on board. The air springs on each truck are interconnected by lines which include balancing valves. The balancing valves detect changes in pressure in one air bag versus the other and automatically make adjustments. In the case of a sudden loss of pressure in one bag, the balancing valve will automatically deflate the other. This prevents a sudden change in the LRVs center of gravity that might otherwise result from one side of the carbody abruptly rising to the mechanical limitsan event that could unload one or more wheels and lead to a derailment or cant the vehicle excessively and conflict with tunnel wall appurtenances. 2.3.3.2 Track Components Related to Vehicle Dynamic Envelope Various issues related to the track will affect the magnitude of the dynamic excursions of the LRV. These include the following: Track superelevation/crosslevel Wheel gauge-to-track gauge lateral clearance/freeplay Construction tolerances and maintenance tolerances for track surface, crosslevel, and alignment Maintenance tolerances for rail head wear and gauge face wear Typically, the only factor in the list above that is included in the vehicle dynamic envelope would be the design value of freeplay between the track gauge and the wheel gauge. The other factors are not under the control of the vehicle supplier and therefore should instead be addressed by the track designer. Sometimes the vehicle supplier will include track-related factors in its calculated VDE, but those numbers can include unrealistically stringent assumptions as to the track maintenance tolerances that can be achieved. So as to avoid double-counting such issues, the track designer should back out any track-related tolerances that may be in the vehicle suppliers VDE and substitute values that are consistent with the transit agencys maintenance track maintenance standards. 2.3.3.3 Vehicle Clearance to Wayside Obstructions and Other Tracks It is not unusual to have clearance restrictions on an LRT line that cannot be either simply or economically altered. In such cases, the track designer should coordinate with the vehicle and structural designers to ensure that the vehicle dynamic envelope considers these limitations so that adequate clearances result. Vehicle dynamics are governed by the cars suspension system(s) and, therefore, indirectly by numerous factors of track and vehicle interaction. For multiple-track situations, multiple clearance envelopes must be considered. Overlapping of the

2-22

Light Rail Transit Vehicles

vehicle dynamic envelopes from adjacent tracks obviously must be avoided. The resulting requirements will dictate minimum track centers and running clearances for tangent and curved track, including construction and maintenance tolerances as input to the track alignment calculations. In general, the absolute minimum tangent track centers for vehicles of normal width (e.g., 2650 mm / 8.7 feet) for rigid trackforms (direct fixation or embedded) are 13 feet 6 inches [about 4.15 m] with a catenary pole between the tracks. If the poles are outboard of the tracks, 11 feet [about 3.35 m] is the typical minimum spacing. Tangent track center spacing for ballasted track is typically 6 inches [15 cm] greater than those for rigid trackform track due to greater allowances for construction tolerances and shifting of the tracks over time. Track curvature and superelevation increase these dimensions. These issues are discussed further in Chapter 3, Article 3.8. 2.3.3.4 Platform Clearances One clearance requirement that can be difficult for vehicle manufacturers is keeping the dynamic envelope at platform height from intersecting the edge of the platform. Since ADAAG requires the horizontal gap between the static vehicle and the platform to be 3.0 inches [76 mm] or less, the fully dynamic vehicle might actually strike the platform. In the case of high-floor LRVs adjacent to a high level platform, interference between the platform edge and the vehicle dynamic envelope is virtually inevitable. This is largely because the vehicle roll center is typically about 2 feet [approximately 0.6 meter] below the platform surface. However, LRVs virtually never actually strike a high platform edge because it is extremely unlikely that the vehicle and track factors that might lead to full excursions to the limits of the dynamic envelope will ever occur simultaneously. The use of a rigid trackform (e.g., either embedded or direct fixation track) and/or scrupulous maintenance of ballasted track surface and crosslevel and horizontal alignment can minimize the track contribution to vehicle dynamics. On the vehicle side, thresholds that project beyond the face of the vehicle and are designed to be sacrificial can minimize damage to both the vehicle and the platform edge. Low-floor LRVs have very little chance of striking a low platform edge because the platform surface is typically a few inches [centimeters] below the carbody roll center as shown in Figure 2.3.2. Hence, while the platform clearance might still be reduced by carbody lateral translation, roll will not increase the encroachment. See Article 2.9 in this chapter and Chapter 3, Article 3.8.3 for additional discussion concerning the interface between LRVs and station platforms. 2.3.3.5 Pantograph Height Positions When discussing the height of a light rail vehicle, two conditions must be considered: RoofThe roof of an LRV is typically curved, with the highest dimension at the car centerline. However, the LRV pantograph, when deployed, obviously establishes the maximum car height. In the case of high-floor LRVs, the pantograph is the highest point on the car even when in the lock-down position. Low-floor LRVs, which have much more equipment on the roof (since there is little room under the floor), sometimes have some equipment sitting higher than the pantograph. However, the overall height of the

2-23

Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

car with the pantograph locked down is typically only of concern in the design of maintenance shop infrastructure, such as the entrance door to a paint booth, where the LRV would usually be pushed or towed by other equipment. Lock-down clearances would only be a consideration along revenue service track if the LRV has off-wire operating capability. Pantograph OperationLight rail facility designers are typically interested in the absolute minimum clearance between the top of the rail and an overhead obstruction, such as a highway bridge. This dimension must accommodate not only the pantograph when operating at some working height above lock-down, but also the depth of the overhead contact wire system. The minimum pantograph working height above lock-down includes an allowance for pantograph bounce so that lock-down does not occur accidentally.

Maximum pantograph height is typically the concern of only the vehicle and overhead catenary system (OCS) designers, unless the light rail guideway must also accommodate railroad freight traffic and attendant overhead clearances. If railroad equipment must be accommodated, the clearance envelope will be dictated by AREMA-recommended practices, state regulations, and the standards of the freight railroad involved. The minimum height of the trolley wire above a freight track will be much higher than the minimum height above an LRT-only track. See Articles 3.8.4 and 11.5.3 for additional discussion of this topic. 2.4 VEHICLE-TRACK GEOMETRY The most demanding light rail transit alignments are those running through established urban areas. Horizontal curves must be designed to suit existing conditions, which can result in curves below a 25-meter (82-foot) radius. Vertical curves are required to conform to the existing roadway pavement profiles, which may result in exceptionally sharp crest and sag conditions. LRVs are specifically designed to accommodate severe geometry by utilizing flexible trucks, couplings, and mid-vehicle articulation. Articulation joints, truck maximum pivot positions, coupler-to-truck alignments, vehicle lengths, wheel set (axle) spacing, truck spacing, and suspension elements all contribute to vehicle flexibility. The requirements for the truck to accommodate, within reasonable limits, free movement in three planes are defined in the vehicle procurement specification. Guidelines for these factors are included in the APTA Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices for Rail Passenger Equipment, RP-M-009-98 Recommended Practice for New Truck Design. [12] The torque the truck exerts against free turning is critical for resistance against derailment. Light rail carbody/truck connections that use either a ball bearing slewing ring or a king pin, without side pads, generally have good horizontal free movements. Air spring suspensions generally provide satisfactory free roll and yaw movements. Truck-related submittals from the vehicle supplier may include proof of compliance with the Truck Swivel Index (TSI), a factor calculated in accordance with Koffmans Formula, a guideline developed by British Rail in the 1970s. The track designer must take into account the vehicle characteristics defined in the articles below when developing alignments. The values associated with these characteristics are developed and furnished by the vehicle manufacturers. The manufacturer of vehicles supplied to existing systems must meet the existing minimum geometrical requirements of the system. 2-24

Light Rail Transit Vehicles

2.4.1 Horizontal CurvatureMinimum Turning Radius of Vehicle The minimum turning radius is the smallest horizontal radius that the LRV can negotiate. In some cases, the value may be different for a single LRV versus two or more coupled into a train or for a fully loaded LRV versus an empty one. However, the inclusion of curves in a track layout that can only be negotiated by a single vehicle is absolutely not recommended since operating personnel may not remember the restriction, particularly during an emergency situation such as when an inoperable LRV must be pushed off the revenue line by its follower. The vehicle procurement specifications will therefore typically stipulate only the minimum radius that multiple-car trains of LRVs must be able to negotiate. The LRV supplier will typically be required to provide submittals that demonstrate that the proposed vehicle can negotiate the tightest curve under full design load without any binding in the trucks, articulation joints, or couplers. A specification for one LRV procurement stipulated: The coupler and draft gear shall allow under emergency conditions, a three vehicle train with an AW3 passenger load, operating at degraded dynamic performances, to push or tow an inoperable similar train consist loaded to AW3 without damage to the coupler, over all grades and curves of [the system].[9] Often, the minimum operable multi-vehicle train length requirement will be much longer than the consists actually required for revenue service. This is so as to accommodate shop and yard movements and other exigencies. Such long consists will occasionally have some impact on track alignment. One vehicle specification stipulated: The vehicle shall be capable of multiple unit operation in consists up to six vehicles. A normal operation is up to three vehicles.[9] 2.4.2 Vertical CurvatureMinimum Sag and Crest Curves The minimum vertical curvature is the smallest vertical curve radius that the LRV can negotiate. The maximum sag and crest values are typically different, with the sag value being more restrictive. Vehicle builders describe vertical curvature in terms of either the radius of curvature or as the maximum angle in degrees through which the articulation joint can bend. The trackway designer must relate those values to the parabolic vertical curves typically used in alignment design. When new vehicles are procured for an existing system, they must be able to negotiate the most restrictive current track condition. Conversely, when existing vehicles will be used on a new extension of an existing system, the new track must accommodate the existing vehicles capabilities. The vehicle procurement specification will include requirements related to specific track conditions, be they existing or proposed. 2.4.3 Combination Conditions of Horizontal and Vertical Curvature The car builder may or may not have a graph that displays this limitation. If a route design results in significant levels of both parameters occurring simultaneously, the design should be reviewed

2-25

Track Design Handbook for Light Rail Transit, Second Edition

with potential LRV suppliers to establish mutually agreeable limits. The following is a typical example from one vehicle specification: Reverse vertical curve: A two-vehicle consist shall be capable of negotiating a reverse vertical curve section involving: first, a crest of 250 m [820 feet] and a sag of 350 m [1150 feet], separated by a tangent section of 13 m [43 feet]; and second, a crest and sag curve of 500 m [1640 feet] separated by no tangent track.[9] Compound curves: A two-vehicle consist shall be capable of negotiating a compound [horizontal and vertical] curve involving: first, a 25 m [82 feet] radius horizontal curve and a 500 m [1640 feet] radius vertical curve, either crest or sag; second, a 27 m [89 feet] radius horizontal curve and a 350 m [1150 feet] radius sag curve; and third, a 29 m [95 feet] radius horizontal curve and a 250 m [820 feet] radius crest curve.[9] Alternatively, a set of plan and profile drawings can be included as an appendix in the vehicle procurement documents giving complete geometric information, including gradients, civil design speeds, and track superelevation. 2.4.4 Vertical AlignmentMaximum Grades The maximum grade that a light rail vehicle can ascend is limited by the electrical and mechanical limits of the propulsion system. The maximum grade that an LRV can descend is limited by the braking system. Both climbing and descending are constrained by the limits of adhesion between the wheels and the rails. Tractive effort between wheels and rails is dependent on the amount of vehicle weight on powered axles and, generally speaking, light rail vehicles that have all axles powered can more reliably climb steep grades than cars with some number of non-powered axles. Braking is virtually always available on all wheels, powered or not. However, descending steep grades can sometimes be a greater issue than climbing the same hill since a high percentage of the braking effort is required to slow the vertical descent and hence not available to retard horizontal movement. Generally, grades of unlimited length up to about 6% to 7% are not a problem for any light rail vehicle. Above that the operational impacts should be reviewed, including: The tractive and braking characteristics of the LRV in normal operation. Situations where a disabled LRV (or train of LRVs) is being pushed or towed by another train. The critical situation might not be pushing the disabled vehicle train up the grade, but rather controlling the descent when going down the hill. The possibility of any lubricants on the rail running surface, particularly grease that might have migrated from some nearby curve and unintentionally lubricated the rail running surface.

Grades of up to 10% are possible, and some legacy streetcar lines, using cars with all axles powered, were even steeper. However, wheel-to-rail slippage can occur on any gradient during inclement weather conditions, such as when snow, ice, or wet and/or oily leaves are on the rail.

2-26